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class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Cuprins</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">mută în bara laterală</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">ascunde</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">Început</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Origini_ale_termenului" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origini_ale_termenului"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Origini ale termenului </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origini_ale_termenului-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epidemiile_de_ciumă_anterioare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epidemiile_de_ciumă_anterioare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Epidemiile de ciumă anterioare </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epidemiile_de_ciumă_anterioare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ciuma_secolului_al_XIV-lea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ciuma_secolului_al_XIV-lea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Ciuma secolului al XIV-lea </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ciuma_secolului_al_XIV-lea-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Ciuma secolului al XIV-lea subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Ciuma_secolului_al_XIV-lea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cauze" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cauze"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Cauze </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cauze-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Teorie_timpurie" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Teorie_timpurie"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Teorie timpurie </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Teorie_timpurie-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Teorie_modernă_predominantă" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Teorie_modernă_predominantă"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.2 Teorie modernă predominantă </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Teorie_modernă_predominantă-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dovezi_ADN" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dovezi_ADN"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.3 Dovezi ADN </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dovezi_ADN-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transmitere" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transmitere"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Transmitere </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transmitere-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Origini_teritoriale" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origini_teritoriale"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Origini teritoriale </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origini_teritoriale-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Focar_european" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Focar_european"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Focar european </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Focar_european-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Focarul_din_Asia_de_Vest_și_Africa_de_Nord" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Focarul_din_Asia_de_Vest_și_Africa_de_Nord"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.3 Focarul din Asia de Vest și Africa de Nord </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Focarul_din_Asia_de_Vest_și_Africa_de_Nord-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Semne_și_simptome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Semne_și_simptome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Semne și simptome </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Semne_și_simptome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ciumă_bubonică" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ciumă_bubonică"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.1 Ciumă bubonică </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ciumă_bubonică-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ciuma_pneumonică" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ciuma_pneumonică"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.2 Ciuma pneumonică </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ciuma_pneumonică-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ciuma_septicemică" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ciuma_septicemică"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.3 Ciuma septicemică </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ciuma_septicemică-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consecințe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consecințe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Consecințe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consecințe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Decese" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decese"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.1 Decese </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decese-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_și_Social" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_și_Social"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.2 Economic și Social </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_și_Social-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Persecuții" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persecuții"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.3 Persecuții </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persecuții-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recurențe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recurențe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Recurențe </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Recurențe-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Recurențe subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Recurențe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-A_doua_pandemie_de_ciumă" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#A_doua_pandemie_de_ciumă"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 A doua pandemie de ciumă </div> </a> <ul id="toc-A_doua_pandemie_de_ciumă-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Focare_majore" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Focare_majore"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 Focare majore </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Focare_majore-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-A_treia_pandemie_de_ciumă" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#A_treia_pandemie_de_ciumă"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 A treia pandemie de ciumă </div> </a> <ul id="toc-A_treia_pandemie_de_ciumă-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vremuri_moderne" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vremuri_moderne"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Vremuri moderne </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vremuri_moderne-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Note" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Note"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Note </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Note-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legături_externe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legături_externe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Legături externe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legături_externe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Cuprins" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Comută cuprinsul" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Comută cuprinsul </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Moartea neagră</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Mergeți la un articol în altă limbă. Disponibil în 122 limbi" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-122" aria-hidden="true" > 122 limbi </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swart_Dood" title="Swart Dood – afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Swart Dood" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwarzer_Tod" title="Schwarzer Tod – germană (Elveția)" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Schwarzer Tod" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="germană (Elveția)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peste_negra" title="Peste negra – aragoneză" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Peste negra" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="aragoneză" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%88%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%AF" title="الموت الأسود – arabă" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الموت الأسود" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="arabă" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%88%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%AF" title="الموت الاسود – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الموت الاسود" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peste_negro" title="Peste negro – asturiană" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Peste negro" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="asturiană" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="articol de calitate"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qara_%C3%B6l%C3%BCm" title="Qara ölüm – azeră" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qara ölüm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="azeră" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D8%A4%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85" title="قارا اؤلوم – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="قارا اؤلوم" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%A0%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0_%D2%AF%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Ҡара үлем – bașkiră" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ҡара үлем" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="bașkiră" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%86%D1%8C" title="Чорная смерць – belarusă" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Чорная смерць" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="belarusă" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%86%D1%8C" title="Чорная сьмерць – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Чорная сьмерць" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%BC%D1%8A%D1%80%D1%82" title="Черната смърт – bulgară" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Черната смърт" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="bulgară" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maut_Hitam" title="Maut Hitam – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Maut Hitam" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Banjar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8B_%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81" title="কালো মৃত্যু – bengaleză" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কালো মৃত্যু" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="bengaleză" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosenn_Zu" title="Bosenn Zu – bretonă" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Bosenn Zu" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="bretonă" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crna_smrt" title="Crna smrt – bosniacă" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Crna smrt" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="bosniacă" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesta_Negra" title="Pesta Negra – catalană" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Pesta Negra" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="catalană" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A1ik-s%E1%B9%B3%CC%84-b%C3%AAng" title="Háik-sṳ̄-bêng – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Háik-sṳ̄-bêng" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%86%DB%8C_%DA%95%DB%95%D8%B4" title="مردنی ڕەش – kurdă centrală" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="مردنی ڕەش" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="kurdă centrală" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cern%C3%A1_smrt" title="Černá smrt – cehă" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Černá smrt" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="cehă" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pla_Du" title="Pla Du – galeză" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Pla Du" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="galeză" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_sorte_d%C3%B8d" title="Den sorte død – daneză" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Den sorte død" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="daneză" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwarzer_Tod" title="Schwarzer Tod – germană" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Schwarzer Tod" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="germană" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mergo_siya" title="Mergo siya – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Mergo siya" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B1%CF%8D%CF%81%CE%B7_%CF%80%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%8E%CE%BB%CE%B7" title="Μαύρη πανώλη – greacă" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μαύρη πανώλη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="greacă" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death – engleză" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Black Death" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="engleză" class="interlanguage-link-target">English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigra_morto" title="Nigra morto – esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Nigra morto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peste_negra" title="Peste negra – spaniolă" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Peste negra" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="spaniolă" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Must_surm" title="Must surm – estonă" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Must surm" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="estonă" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izurri_Beltza" title="Izurri Beltza – bască" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Izurri Beltza" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="bască" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B1%DA%AF_%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%87" title="مرگ سیاه – persană" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مرگ سیاه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="persană" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="articol bun"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musta_surma" title="Musta surma – finlandeză" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Musta surma" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="finlandeză" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Must_surm" title="Must surm – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Must surm" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B3ttin_svarta" title="Sóttin svarta – feroeză" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Sóttin svarta" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="feroeză" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peste_noire" title="Peste noire – franceză" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Peste noire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="franceză" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peste_Nere" title="Peste Nere – friulană" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Peste Nere" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="friulană" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swarte_Dea" title="Swarte Dea – frizonă occidentală" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Swarte Dea" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="frizonă occidentală" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Phl%C3%A1_Mh%C3%B3r" title="An Phlá Mhór – irlandeză" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Phlá Mhór" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="irlandeză" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lap%C3%A8s_nw%C3%A8" title="Lapès nwè – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Lapès nwè" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Am_B%C3%A0s_Dubh" title="Am Bàs Dubh – gaelică scoțiană" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Am Bàs Dubh" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="gaelică scoțiană" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peste_Negra" title="Peste Negra – galiciană" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Peste Negra" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="galiciană" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-got mw-list-item"><a href="https://got.wikipedia.org/wiki/%F0%90%8D%83%F0%90%8D%85%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8D%82%F0%90%8D%84%F0%90%8D%83_%F0%90%8C%B3%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%BF%F0%90%8C%B8%F0%90%8C%BF%F0%90%8D%83" title="𐍃𐍅𐌰𐍂𐍄𐍃 𐌳𐌰𐌿𐌸𐌿𐍃 – gotică" lang="got" hreflang="got" data-title="𐍃𐍅𐌰𐍂𐍄𐍃 𐌳𐌰𐌿𐌸𐌿𐍃" data-language-autonym="𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺" data-language-local-name="gotică" class="interlanguage-link-target">𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death – hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Black Death" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Het-s%C3%AD-phiang" title="Het-sí-phiang – chineză hakka" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Het-sí-phiang" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="chineză hakka" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%97%D7%95%D7%A8" title="המוות השחור – ebraică" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="המוות השחור" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="ebraică" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4" title="काली मौत – hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="काली मौत" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doba_kuge" title="Doba kuge – croată" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Doba kuge" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="croată" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lap%C3%A8s_nwa" title="Lapès nwa – haitiană" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Lapès nwa" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="haitiană" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="articol de calitate"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fekete_hal%C3%A1l" title="Fekete halál – maghiară" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Fekete halál" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="maghiară" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D6%87_%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B0" title="Սև մահ – armeană" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սև մահ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="armeană" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%A5%D6%82_%D5%84%D5%A1%D5%B0" title="Սեւ Մահ – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Սեւ Մահ" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peste_nigre" title="Peste nigre – interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Peste nigre" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wabah_Hitam_(pandemi)" title="Wabah Hitam (pandemi) – indoneziană" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Wabah Hitam (pandemi)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="indoneziană" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigra_pesto" title="Nigra pesto – ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Nigra pesto" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svartidau%C3%B0i" title="Svartidauði – islandeză" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Svartidauði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="islandeză" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="articol de calitate"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peste_nera" title="Peste nera – italiană" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Peste nera" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="italiană" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%BB%92%E6%AD%BB%E7%97%85" title="黒死病 – japoneză" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="黒死病" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="japoneză" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blak_Det" title="Blak Det – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Blak Det" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A8%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%98_%E1%83%AD%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="შავი ჭირი – georgiană" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="შავი ჭირი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="georgiană" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarka_taberkant" title="Tarka taberkant – kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tarka taberkant" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbd mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BC%D1%8B%D0%BD%D1%8D_%D1%84%D3%80%D1%8B%D1%86%D3%80%D1%8D" title="Емынэ фӀыцӀэ – kabardian" lang="kbd" hreflang="kbd" data-title="Емынэ фӀыцӀэ" data-language-autonym="Адыгэбзэ" data-language-local-name="kabardian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгэбзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C9%A9z%C9%A9k%CA%8A_k%C9%A9kp%C9%9Bd%CA%8A%CA%8A" title="Kɩzɩkʊ kɩkpɛdʊʊ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Kɩzɩkʊ kɩkpɛdʊʊ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D0%B0_%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%96" title="Оба індеті – kazahă" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Оба індеті" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="kazahă" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%9D%91%EC%82%AC%EB%B3%91" title="흑사병 – coreeană" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="흑사병" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="coreeană" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirina_re%C5%9F" title="Mirina reş – kurdă" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Mirina reş" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="kurdă" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mors_atra" title="Mors atra – latină" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Mors atra" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="latină" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazinura_negra" title="Hazinura negra – ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Hazinura negra" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zjwarte_Doe%C3%ABd" title="Zjwarte Doeëd – limburgheză" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Zjwarte Doeëd" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="limburgheză" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mort_Foscia" title="Mort Foscia – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Mort Foscia" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juodoji_mirtis" title="Juodoji mirtis – lituaniană" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Juodoji mirtis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="lituaniană" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meln%C4%81_n%C4%81ve" title="Melnā nāve – letonă" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Melnā nāve" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="letonă" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A5" title="ब्ल्याक डेथ – maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="ब्ल्याक डेथ" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fahafatesana_Mainty" title="Fahafatesana Mainty – malgașă" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fahafatesana Mainty" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="malgașă" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%BC%D1%80%D1%82" title="Црна смрт – macedoneană" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Црна смрт" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="macedoneană" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D" title="ബ്ലാക്ക് ഡെത്ത് – malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ബ്ലാക്ക് ഡെത്ത്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%80_%D2%AF%D1%85%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Хар үхэл – mongolă" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хар үхэл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="mongolă" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B3%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%97" title="काळा प्लेग – marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="काळा प्लेग" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maut_Hitam" title="Maut Hitam – malaeză" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Maut Hitam" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="malaeză" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesta_s-sewda" title="Pesta s-sewda – malteză" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Pesta s-sewda" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="malteză" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peste_negra" title="Peste negra – mirandeză" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Peste negra" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="mirandeză" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%B2%E1%80%9E%E1%80%B1%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%82%E1%80%AB" title="မဲသေရောဂါ – birmană" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="မဲသေရောဂါ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="birmană" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiltik_mikistli" title="Tiltik mikistli – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Tiltik mikistli" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nāhuatl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swart_Dood" title="Swart Dood – germana de jos" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Swart Dood" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="germana de jos" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81" title="कालो मृत्यु – nepaleză" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="कालो मृत्यु" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="nepaleză" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%81_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81" title="हाकुगु मृत्यु – newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="हाकुगु मृत्यु" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zwarte_Dood" title="Zwarte Dood – neerlandeză" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Zwarte Dood" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="neerlandeză" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svartedauden" title="Svartedauden – norvegiană nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Svartedauden" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="norvegiană nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svartedauden" title="Svartedauden – norvegiană bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Svartedauden" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="norvegiană bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%83_%D0%BC%C3%A6%D0%BB%C3%A6%D1%82" title="Сау мæлæт – osetă" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Сау мæлæт" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="osetă" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%8C%E0%A8%A4" title="ਕਾਲੀ ਮੌਤ – punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਕਾਲੀ ਮੌਤ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czarna_%C5%9Bmier%C4%87" title="Czarna śmierć – poloneză" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Czarna śmierć" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="poloneză" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1_%D9%85%D8%B1%DA%AB" title="تور مرګ – paștună" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="تور مرګ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="paștună" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peste_Negra" title="Peste Negra – portugheză" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Peste Negra" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="portugheză" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="articol de calitate"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D1%91%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Чёрная смерть – rusă" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Чёрная смерть" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="rusă" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peste_niedda" title="Peste niedda – sardiniană" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Peste niedda" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="sardiniană" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesti_niura" title="Pesti niura – siciliană" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Pesti niura" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="siciliană" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Daith" title="Black Daith – scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Black Daith" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crna_smrt" title="Crna smrt – sârbo-croată" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Crna smrt" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="sârbo-croată" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%85%E0%B7%94_%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%AB%E0%B6%BA" title="කළු මරණය – singhaleză" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="කළු මරණය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="singhaleză" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Black Death" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cierna_smr%C5%A5" title="Čierna smrť – slovacă" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Čierna smrť" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="slovacă" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Crna_smrt" title="Črna smrt – slovenă" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Črna smrt" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="slovenă" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-smn mw-list-item"><a href="https://smn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Capis_sorme" title="Čapis sorme – sami inari" lang="smn" hreflang="smn" data-title="Čapis sorme" data-language-autonym="Anarâškielâ" data-language-local-name="sami inari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Anarâškielâ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vdekja_e_Zez%C3%AB" title="Vdekja e Zezë – albaneză" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Vdekja e Zezë" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="albaneză" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%BC%D1%80%D1%82" title="Црна смрт – sârbă" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Црна смрт" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="sârbă" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="articol recomandat"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digerd%C3%B6den" title="Digerdöden – suedeză" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Digerdöden" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="suedeză" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cz%C5%8Frn%C5%8F_%C5%9Bmier%C4%87" title="Czŏrnŏ śmierć – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Czŏrnŏ śmierć" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%81" title="கறுப்புச் சாவு – tamilă" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கறுப்புச் சாவு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="tamilă" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AC%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%B0" title="กาฬมรณะ – thailandeză" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="กาฬมรณะ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="thailandeză" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salot_na_Itim" title="Salot na Itim – tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Salot na Itim" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kara_%C3%96l%C3%BCm" title="Kara Ölüm – turcă" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kara Ölüm" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="turcă" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Чорна смерть – ucraineană" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Чорна смерть" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="ucraineană" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%81_%D9%85%D9%88%D8%AA" title="سیاہ موت – urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="سیاہ موت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qora_o%CA%BBlim" title="Qora oʻlim – uzbecă" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Qora oʻlim" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="uzbecă" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A1i_Ch%E1%BA%BFt_%C4%90en" title="Cái Chết Đen – vietnameză" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Cái Chết Đen" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="vietnameză" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesse_des_djins" title="Pesse des djins – valonă" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Pesse des djins" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="valonă" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itom_nga_Kamatayon" title="Itom nga Kamatayon – waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Itom nga Kamatayon" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%BB%91%E6%AD%BB%E7%97%85" title="黑死病 – chineză wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="黑死病" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="chineză wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A9%E1%83%90_%E1%83%AD%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="უჩა ჭირი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="უჩა ჭირი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%BB%91%E6%AD%BB%E7%97%85" title="黑死病 – chineză" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="黑死病" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="chineză" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hek-s%C3%BA-p%C4%93ng" title="Hek-sú-pēng – chineză min nan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hek-sú-pēng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="chineză min nan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%BB%91%E6%AD%BB%E7%97%85" title="黑死病 – cantoneză" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="黑死病" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="cantoneză" 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22em; text-align: left; font-size: 88%; line-height: 1.5em; border-collapse:collapse"> <tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="" style="text-align:center; font-size: 125%; font-weight: bold; background:#E1E1E1"><big>Moartea neagră</big></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="" style="text-align:center; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <a href="/wiki/Fi%C8%99ier:1346-1353_spread_of_the_Black_Death_in_Europe_map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/1346-1353_spread_of_the_Black_Death_in_Europe_map.svg/400px-1346-1353_spread_of_the_Black_Death_in_Europe_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="349" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/1346-1353_spread_of_the_Black_Death_in_Europe_map.svg/600px-1346-1353_spread_of_the_Black_Death_in_Europe_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/1346-1353_spread_of_the_Black_Death_in_Europe_map.svg/800px-1346-1353_spread_of_the_Black_Death_in_Europe_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="992" data-file-height="866" /></a> Răspândirea Morții negre în <a href="/wiki/Europa" title="Europa">Europa</a> și <a href="/wiki/Orientul_Apropiat" title="Orientul Apropiat">Orientul Apropiat</a> (1346–1353)</td></tr><tr><th style="padding:2px">Boală</th><td class="" style="padding:2px">Pestă bubonică</td></tr><tr><th style="padding:2px">Loc</th><td class="" style="padding:2px">Eurasia, Africa de Nord</td></tr><tr><th style="padding:2px">Dată</th><td class="" style="padding:2px">1346–1353</td></tr><tr><th style="padding:2px">Decese</th><td class="" style="padding:2px">75.000.000 – 200.000.000 (estimare)</td></tr> </tbody></table> Moartea Neagră sau Ciuma Neagră a fost o pandemie de <a href="/wiki/Cium%C4%83_bubonic%C4%83" class="mw-redirect" title="Ciumă bubonică">ciumă bubonică</a> care a apărut în Afro-Eurasia în perioada 1346-1353. Este <a href="/wiki/Pandemie" title="Pandemie">pandemia</a> care a înregistrat cele mai multe decese din istoria omenirii, ducând la <a href="/wiki/Moarte" title="Moarte">moartea</a> a 75-200 de milioane <a href="#cite_note-lead_numbers-1">[1]</a> de oameni în <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a> și <a href="/wiki/Africa_de_Nord" class="mw-redirect" title="Africa de Nord">Africa de Nord</a>,<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> atingând vârful în <a href="/wiki/Europa" title="Europa">Europa</a> între 1347 și 1351. Ciuma bubonică este cauzată de bacteria <a href="/wiki/Yersinia_pestis" title="Yersinia pestis">Yersinia pestis</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaenschBianucciSignoliRajerison2010-3">[3]</a> care putea cauza de asemenea ciuma septicemică sau ciuma pneumonică.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Moartea Neagră a fost cea de-<a href="/w/index.php?title=A_doua_pandemie_de_cium%C4%83&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="A doua pandemie de ciumă — pagină inexistentă">a doua pandemie de ciumă</a>.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Ciuma a creat răsturnări religioase, sociale și economice, cu efecte profunde asupra cursului istoriei europene. Originile teritoriale ale Morții Negre sunt contestate. Pandemia are originea în <a href="/wiki/Asia_Central%C4%83" title="Asia Centrală">Asia Centrală</a> sau <a href="/wiki/Asia_de_Est" title="Asia de Est">Asia de Est</a>,<a href="#cite_note-lead_origin-6">[6]</a> însă prima sa apariție definitivă a fost în <a href="/wiki/Crimeea" title="Crimeea">Crimeea</a>, în 1347. De acolo, a fost cel mai probabil purtată de puricii care trăiesc pe șobolanii negri, care au călătorit pe navele comerciale genoveze, s-a răspândit în Bazinul mediteranean, a ajuns în Africa, Asia de Vest și restul Europei prin <a href="/wiki/Constantinopol" title="Constantinopol">Constantinopol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sicilia" title="Sicilia">Sicilia</a> și <a href="/wiki/Peninsula_Italic%C4%83" title="Peninsula Italică">Peninsula Italică</a>. Dovezile actuale indică faptul că odată ce a ajuns pe uscat, Moartea Neagră a fost răspândită în mare parte de <a href="/wiki/Pulex_irritans" title="Pulex irritans">puricii umani</a> – care provoacă ciumă pneumonică – și contactul de la persoană la persoană prin aerosoli, explicând astfel răspândirea foarte rapidă a epidemiei, care a fost mai rapidă decât s-ar fi așteptat dacă vectorul primar ar fi fost puricii șobolanilor care provoacă ciumă bubonică.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnowden201949–53-7">[7]</a> Moartea Neagră a fost cel de-al doilea dezastru care a afectat Europa în <a href="/wiki/Evul_Mediu" title="Evul Mediu">Evul Mediu</a> târziu (primul fiind <a href="/wiki/Marea_Foamete_din_1315%E2%80%931317" title="Marea Foamete din 1315–1317">Marea Foamete din 1315–1317</a>)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAberth20109–13-8">[8]</a> și se estimează că a ucis între 30% și 60% din populația Europei.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAustin_Alchon200321-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> În total, ciuma poate că a redus populația lumii de la aproximativ 475 de milioane la 350-375 de milioane în secolul al XIV-lea.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Au existat alte focare pe tot parcursul Evului Mediu târziu și, împreună cu alți factori care au contribuit <a href="#cite_note-12">[a]</a>, a fost nevoie până în 1500 pentru ca populația europeană să recâștige nivelul din 1300.<a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a> Focarele de ciumă au reapărut în diferite locuri din întreaga lume până la începutul secolului al XIX-lea. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origini_ale_termenului">Origini ale termenului</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&veaction=edit&section=1" title="Modifică secțiunea: Origini ale termenului" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">modificare</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section's source code: Origini ale termenului">modificare sursă</a>]</div> Contemporanii au descris boala în latină drept febris pestilentialis, infirmitas pestifera, morbus pestiferus, morbus pestilentialis, mortalistas pestis sau pur și simplu pestilentia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECosmacini20056-14">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Treccani-15">[14]</a> Autorii contemporani cu boala au folosit de asemenea termenii „mare pestă” <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennettHollister2006326-16">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[16]</a> și „mare pestilență”.<a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a> Pesta pandemică din 1347 nu a fost denumită în mod specific „neagră” în secolele XIV sau XV în nici o limbă europeană, deși expresia „moarte neagră” fusese aplicată din când în când bolilor fatale.<a href="#cite_note-:1-19">[18]</a> Termenul „moartea neagră” este atestat pentru prima dată în limba engleză (Black death) în 1755, tradus din daneză: den sorte død, lit. „moartea neagră”.<a href="#cite_note-:1-19">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a> Această expresie ca nume propriu pentru pandemie fusese popularizată de cronicarii suedezi și danezi în secolele XV și începutul secolului al XVI-lea, iar în secolele al XVI-lea și al XVII-lea a fost transferată în alte limbi sub formă de <a href="/wiki/Calc_(lingvistic%C4%83)" title="Calc (lingvistică)">calc</a>: islandeză: svarti dauði, germană: der schwarze Tod și franceză: la mort noire.<a href="#cite_note-:2-21">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a> Expresia „moarte neagră” – descriind <a href="/wiki/Thanatos" title="Thanatos">Moartea</a> ca fiind neagră – este foarte veche. <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a> a folosit-o în <a href="/wiki/Odiseea" title="Odiseea">Odiseea</a> pentru a o descrie pe monstruoasa <a href="/wiki/Scila" title="Scila">Scila</a>, cu gurile ei „pline de moarte neagră”.<a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-21">[20]</a> <a href="/wiki/Seneca_cel_T%C3%A2n%C4%83r" class="mw-redirect" title="Seneca cel Tânăr">Seneca cel Tânăr</a> ar fi putut fi primul care a descris o epidemie drept „moarte neagră” (latină: mors atra), dar numai cu referire la letalitatea acută și prognosticul întunecat al bolii.<a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-21">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-19">[18]</a> Medicul francez din sec. XII-XII Gilles de Corbeil folosise deja atra mors pentru a se referi la o „febră pestilențială” (febris pestilentialis) în lucrarea sa „Despre semnele și simptomele bolilor” (De signis et symptomatibus aegritudium).<a href="#cite_note-:2-21">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a> Expresia latină mors nigra, „moarte neagră”, a fost folosită în 1350 de Simon de Covino (sau Couvin), un astronom belgian, în poezia sa De judicio Solis in convivio Saturni, care atribuie ciuma unei <a href="/wiki/Marea_conjunc%C8%9Bie" title="Marea conjuncție">conjuncții astrologice</a> a lui Jupiter și Saturn.<a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a> Utilizarea expresiei sale nu este legată fără echivoc de pandemia de ciumă din 1347 și pare să se refere la rezultatul fatal al bolii.<a href="#cite_note-:1-19">[18]</a> Cardinalul istoric Francis Aidan Gasquet a scris despre Marea Pestă în 1893 <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGasquet1893-27">[26]</a> și a spus că a fost „o formă a ciumei orientale obișnuite sau bubonice”.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristakosOleaSerreYu2005110–14-28">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[b]</a> În 1908, Gasquet a susținut că utilizarea numelui atra mors pentru epidemia din secolul al XIV-lea a apărut pentru prima dată într-o carte din 1631 a istoricului danez Johannes Isacius Pontanus: „În mod obișnuit și din efectele sale, ei au numit-o moartea neagră” (Vulgo & ab effectu atram mortem vocitabant).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGasquet19087-30">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Epidemiile_de_ciumă_anterioare">Epidemiile de ciumă anterioare</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&veaction=edit&section=2" title="Modifică secțiunea: Epidemiile de ciumă anterioare" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">modificare</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section's source code: Epidemiile de ciumă anterioare">modificare sursă</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fi%C8%99ier:Yersinia_pestis_fluorescent.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Yersinia_pestis_fluorescent.jpeg/220px-Yersinia_pestis_fluorescent.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Yersinia_pestis_fluorescent.jpeg/330px-Yersinia_pestis_fluorescent.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Yersinia_pestis_fluorescent.jpeg/440px-Yersinia_pestis_fluorescent.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2294" data-file-height="2268" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Yersinia_pestis" title="Yersinia pestis">Yersinia pestis</a> (mărire 200 de ori), bacteria care provoacă ciuma.<a href="#cite_note-32">[30]</a></figcaption></figure> <div role="note" class="dezambiguizare rellink boilerplate seealso">Articol principal: <a href="/wiki/Pest%C4%83" title="Pestă">Pestă</a>.</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r16505893">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .rellink{display:flex}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .rellink{display:flex}}</style> Cercetări recente au sugerat că primii oameni infectați de ciumă din Europa și Asia au aparținut Neoliticului târziu-Epoca bronzului timpuriu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrades_ValtueñaMittnikKeyHaak2017-33">[31]</a> Cercetările din 2018 au găsit dovezi ale <a href="/wiki/Yersinia_pestis" title="Yersinia pestis">Yersinia pestis</a> într-un mormânt suedez antic, care ar fi putut fi asociat cu „declinul neolitic” în jurul anului 3000 î.Hr., când populațiile europene au scăzut semnificativ.<a href="#cite_note-34">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERascovanSjögrenKristiansenNielsen2018-35">[33]</a> Este posibil ca această Y. pestis să fi fost diferită de tipurile mai moderne, prima ciumă bubonică transmisibilă de la purici cunoscută fiind din Epoca bronzului, rămășițe de lângă Samara.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpyrouTukhbatovaWangValtueña2018-36">[34]</a> Simptomele ciumei bubonice sunt atestate mai întâi într-un fragment a lui <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rufus_din_Efes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rufus din Efes — pagină inexistentă">Rufus din Efes</a> păstrat de <a href="/w/index.php?title=Oribasius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oribasius — pagină inexistentă">Oribasius</a>; aceste autorități medicale antice sugerează că ciumă bubonică a apărut în Imperiul Roman înaintea domniei lui <a href="/wiki/Traian" title="Traian">Traian</a>, șase secole înainte de a ajunge la <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pelusium&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pelusium — pagină inexistentă">Pelusium</a> în timpul domniei lui <a href="/wiki/Iustinian_I_(cel_Mare)" class="mw-redirect" title="Iustinian I (cel Mare)">Iustinian I</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen201431ff-37">[35]</a> În 2013, cercetătorii au confirmat speculațiile anterioare conform cărora cauza <a href="/wiki/Ciuma_lui_Iustinian" title="Ciuma lui Iustinian">Ciumei lui Iustinian</a> (541-542, cu recurențe până la 750) a fost Y. pestis.<a href="#cite_note-38">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[37]</a> Aceasta este cunoscută sub numele de Prima pandemie de ciumă. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ciuma_secolului_al_XIV-lea">Ciuma secolului al XIV-lea</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&veaction=edit&section=3" title="Modifică secțiunea: Ciuma secolului al XIV-lea" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">modificare</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section's source code: Ciuma secolului al XIV-lea">modificare sursă</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cauze">Cauze</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&veaction=edit&section=4" title="Modifică secțiunea: Cauze" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">modificare</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section's source code: Cauze">modificare sursă</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Teorie_timpurie">Teorie timpurie</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&veaction=edit&section=5" title="Modifică secțiunea: Teorie timpurie" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">modificare</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section's source code: Teorie timpurie">modificare sursă</a>]</div> Cea mai autoritară relatare contemporană se găsește într-un raport al facultății de medicină din Paris către regele <a href="/wiki/Filip_al_VI-lea_al_Fran%C8%9Bei" title="Filip al VI-lea al Franței">Filip al VI-lea al Franței</a>. S-a dat vina pe ceruri, sub forma unei conjuncții a trei planete în 1345 care a provocat o „mare pestilență în aer” (teoria miasmei).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorrox1994159-40">[38]</a> Savanții religioși musulmani au învățat că pandemia este un „martiriu și milă” de la Dumnezeu, asigurând locul credinciosului în paradis. Pentru necredincioși, a fost o pedeapsă.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelly2005-41">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Teorie_modernă_predominantă">Teorie modernă predominantă</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&veaction=edit&section=6" title="Modifică secțiunea: Teorie modernă predominantă" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">modificare</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section's source code: Teorie modernă predominantă">modificare sursă</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r13393782/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{text-align:left;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption-center{text-align:center;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{text-align:center}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:402px;max-width:402px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:216px;max-width:216px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/Fi%C8%99ier:Xenopsylla_chepsis_(oriental_rat_flea).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Xenopsylla_chepsis_%28oriental_rat_flea%29.jpg/214px-Xenopsylla_chepsis_%28oriental_rat_flea%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="214" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Xenopsylla_chepsis_%28oriental_rat_flea%29.jpg/321px-Xenopsylla_chepsis_%28oriental_rat_flea%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Xenopsylla_chepsis_%28oriental_rat_flea%29.jpg/428px-Xenopsylla_chepsis_%28oriental_rat_flea%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="574" data-file-height="381" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Puricele Xenopsylla cheopis plin cu sânge. Această specie de purici este vectorul principal pentru transmiterea <a href="/wiki/Yersinia_pestis" title="Yersinia pestis">Yersinia pestis</a>, organismul responsabil de răspândirea ciumei bubonice în majoritatea epidemiilor de ciumă. Atât puricii masculi, cât și femelele se hrănesc cu sânge și pot transmite infecția.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/Fi%C8%99ier:Flea_infected_with_yersinia_pestis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flea_infected_with_yersinia_pestis.jpg/180px-Flea_infected_with_yersinia_pestis.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Flea_infected_with_yersinia_pestis.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="189" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Xenopsylla cheopis infectat cu bacteria <a href="/wiki/Yersinia_pestis" title="Yersinia pestis">Yersinia pestis</a> care apare ca o masă întunecată în intestin. Intestinul este blocat de un <a href="/wiki/Biofilm" title="Biofilm">biofilm</a> Y. pestis; când puricii se hrănesc cu o gazdă neinfectată, Y. pestis este regurgitat în rană, producând infectarea.</div></div></div></div></div> Din cauza schimbărilor climatice din Asia, rozătoarele au început să fugă din pajiștile uscate în zonele mai populate, răspândind boala.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETignorAdelmanBrownElman2014407-42">[40]</a> Boala ciumei, cauzată de bacteria <a href="/wiki/Yersinia_pestis" title="Yersinia pestis">Yersinia pestis</a>, este enzootică (frecvent prezentă) la populațiile de purici transportate de rozătoare, inclusiv marmote, în diferite zone, inclusiv Asia Centrală, Kurdistan, Asia de Vest, India de Nord, Uganda și vestul Statelor Unite.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZiegler199825-43">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[42]</a> Y. pestis a fost descoperită de <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexandre_Yersin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alexandre Yersin — pagină inexistentă">Alexandre Yersin</a>, elev al lui <a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a>, în timpul unei epidemii de ciumă bubonică din Hong Kong în 1894; Yersin a dovedit că acest bacil era prezent la rozătoare și a sugerat că șobolanul este principalul vehicul de transmisie.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrizabalaga2010-45">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[44]</a> Mecanismul prin care se transmite de obicei Y. pestis a fost stabilit în 1898 de <a href="/w/index.php?title=Paul-Louis_Simond&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paul-Louis Simond — pagină inexistentă">Paul-Louis Simond</a> și s-a constatat că implică ciupiturile de purici al căror intestin mediu a fost obstrucționat prin reproducerea lui Y. pestis la câteva zile după ce s-a hrănit cu o gazdă infectată. Acest blocaj înfometează puricii, îi conduce la un comportament agresiv de hrănire și încearcă să elimine blocajul prin regurgitare, rezultând mii de bacterii de ciumă care sunt aruncate în locul de hrănire, infectând gazda. Mecanismul ciumei bubonice a fost, de asemenea, dependent de două populații de rozătoare: una rezistentă la boală, care acționează ca gazde, menținând boala endemică, și a doua lipsită de rezistență. Când a doua populație moare, puricii trec la alte gazde, inclusiv la oameni, creând astfel o epidemie umană.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristakosOleaSerreYu2005110–14-28">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dovezi_ADN">Dovezi ADN</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&veaction=edit&section=7" title="Modifică secțiunea: Dovezi ADN" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">modificare</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section's source code: Dovezi ADN">modificare sursă</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fi%C8%99ier:Bubonic_plague_victims-mass_grave_in_Martigues,_France_1720-1721.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Bubonic_plague_victims-mass_grave_in_Martigues%2C_France_1720-1721.jpg/220px-Bubonic_plague_victims-mass_grave_in_Martigues%2C_France_1720-1721.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Bubonic_plague_victims-mass_grave_in_Martigues%2C_France_1720-1721.jpg/330px-Bubonic_plague_victims-mass_grave_in_Martigues%2C_France_1720-1721.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Bubonic_plague_victims-mass_grave_in_Martigues%2C_France_1720-1721.jpg/440px-Bubonic_plague_victims-mass_grave_in_Martigues%2C_France_1720-1721.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="447" /></a><figcaption>Scheletele dintr-un mormânt comun din 1720-1721 în Martigues, lângă <a href="/wiki/Marsilia" title="Marsilia">Marsilia</a>, în sudul Franței, au oferit dovezi moleculare ale tulpinii orientale a Yersinia pestis, organismul responsabil de ciuma bubonică. A doua pandemie de ciumă bubonică a fost activă în Europa din 1347, începutul Morții negre până în 1750.</figcaption></figure> Confirmarea definitivă a rolului lui Y. pestis a avut loc în 2010 cu o publicare în PLOS Pathogens de Haensch și colab.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaenschBianucciSignoliRajerison2010-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[c]</a> Au evaluat prezența <a href="/wiki/ADN" title="ADN">ADN</a>/<a href="/wiki/ARN" class="mw-redirect" title="ARN">ARN</a> cu tehnici de reacție în lanț a polimerazei pentru Y. pestis din orificiile dentare ale scheletelor umane din fosele comune din nordul, centrul și sudul Europei care au fost asociate arheologic cu Moartea meagră și cu revenirile ulterioare. Autorii au concluzionat că această nouă cercetare, împreună cu analizele anterioare din sudul Franței și Germaniei, „pun capăt dezbaterii despre cauza Morții negre și demonstrează fără echivoc că Y. pestis a fost agentul cauzal al epidemiei de ciumă care a devastat Europa în timpul Evului Mediu”.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaenschBianucciSignoliRajerison2010-3">[3]</a> În 2011, aceste rezultate au fost confirmate în continuare cu dovezi genetice derivate de la victimele Morții negre în locul de înmormântare din East Smithfield din Anglia. Schuenemann și colab. au concluzionat în 2011 „că Moartea Neagră în Europa medievală a fost cauzată de o variantă a lui Y. pestis care ar putea să nu mai existe”.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuenemannBosDeWitteSchmedes2011-50">[47]</a> Mai târziu în 2011, Bos și colab. au raportat <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosSchuenemannGoldingBurbano-51">[48]</a> în <a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a> primul proiect de genom al lui Y. pestis de la victimele ciumei din același cimitir din East Smithfield și au indicat că tulpina care a cauzat Moartea Neagră este ancestrală pentru majoritatea tulpinilor moderne de Y. pestis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosSchuenemannGoldingBurbano-51">[48]</a> Din acest moment, alte lucrări genomice au confirmat în continuare amplasarea filogenetică a tulpinii Y. pestis responsabile de Moartea Neagră atât ca strămoș <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpyrouKellerTukhbatovaScheib2019-52">[49]</a> al epidemiilor de ciumă ulterioare, inclusiv a treia pandemie de ciumă, cât și ca descendent <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagnerKlunkHarbeckDevault2014-53">[50]</a> al tulpinii responsabile de <a href="/wiki/Ciuma_lui_Iustinian" title="Ciuma lui Iustinian">Ciuma lui Iustinian</a>. În plus, au fost recuperate genomii ciumei din anii preistorici semnificativ.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERasmussenAllentoftNielsenOrlando2015-54">[51]</a> ADN-ul preluat din 25 de schelete din Londra secolului al XIV-lea a arătat că ciuma este o tulpină de Y. pestis aproape identică cu cea care a lovit Madagascarul în 2013.<a href="#cite_note-guardian-55">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transmitere">Transmitere</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&veaction=edit&section=8" title="Modifică secțiunea: Transmitere" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">modificare</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section's source code: Transmitere">modificare sursă</a>]</div> Importanța <a href="/wiki/Igien%C4%83" title="Igienă">igienei</a> a fost recunoscută abia în secolul al XIX-lea odată cu dezvoltarea teoriei germinale a bolii; până atunci străzile erau de obicei murdare, cu animale vii de tot felul în jur și paraziți umani abundând, facilitând răspândirea bolilor transmisibile.<a href="#cite_note-57">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Origini_teritoriale">Origini teritoriale</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&veaction=edit&section=9" title="Modifică secțiunea: Origini teritoriale" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">modificare</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section's source code: Origini teritoriale">modificare sursă</a>]</div> Potrivit unei echipe de geneticieni medicali conduși de Mark Achtman care a analizat variația genetică a bacteriei, Yersinia pestis „a evoluat în sau în apropierea Chinei”,<a href="#cite_note-58">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorelliSongMazzoniEppinger2010-59">[56]</a> de unde s-a răspândit în întreaga lume în multiple epidemii. Cercetările ulterioare efectuate de o echipă condusă de Galina Eroșenko plasează originile mai precis în munții <a href="/wiki/Tian-%C8%98an" title="Tian-Șan">Tian Șan</a>, la granița dintre <a href="/wiki/K%C3%A2rg%C3%A2zstan" title="Kârgâzstan">Kârgâzstan</a> și <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>.<a href="#cite_note-60">[57]</a> Mormintele <a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">nestoriene</a> datând din 1338–1339 lângă Issyk-Kul în Kârgâzstan au inscripții referitoare la ciumă, ceea ce i-a determinat pe unii istorici și epidemiologi să creadă că marchează izbucnirea epidemiei. Alții favorizează originea din China.<a href="#cite_note-61">[58]</a> Conform acestei teorii, boala ar fi putut călători de-a lungul <a href="/wiki/Drumul_M%C4%83t%C4%83sii" class="mw-redirect" title="Drumul Mătăsii">Drumului Mătăsii</a> alături de armatele și comercianții mongoli, sau ar fi putut ajunge prin nave.<a href="#cite_note-telegraph_china-62">[59]</a> Epidemiile au ucis aproximativ 25 de milioane în toată Asia în cei cincisprezece ani înainte ca Moartea Neagră să ajungă la Constantinopol în 1347.<a href="#cite_note-63">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[61]</a> Cu toate acestea, cercetările privind <a href="/wiki/Sultanatul_din_Delhi" title="Sultanatul din Delhi">Sultanatul din Delhi</a> și <a href="/wiki/Dinastia_Yuan" title="Dinastia Yuan">dinastia Yuan</a> nu prezintă nici o dovadă a unei epidemii grave în India din secolul al XIV-lea și nici o dovadă specifică a ciumei în China din secolul al XIV-lea, sugerând că Moartea Neagră poate nu a ajuns în aceste regiuni.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESussman2011-65">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-telegraph_china-62">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenedictow200448-49-66">[63]</a> Ole Benedictow susține că, din moment ce primele rapoarte clare despre Moartea Neagră provin de la <a href="/wiki/Feodosia" title="Feodosia">Kaffa</a>, Moartea Neagră are cel mai probabil originea în focarul de ciumă din apropiere, pe malul nord-vestic al <a href="/wiki/Marea_Caspic%C4%83" title="Marea Caspică">Mării Caspice</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenedictow200450-51-67">[64]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fi%C8%99ier:Blackdeath2.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Blackdeath2.gif/220px-Blackdeath2.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Blackdeath2.gif/330px-Blackdeath2.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Blackdeath2.gif/440px-Blackdeath2.gif 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="422" /></a><figcaption>Istoria răspândirii bolii. Rețineți că unele zone din Europa au fost parțial cruțate. De exemplu, la <a href="/wiki/Milano" title="Milano">Milano</a>, guvernul autoritar Visconti a impus un control puternic asupra bunurilor și oamenilor, ceea ce a dus la limitarea pierderilor la aproximativ 15% din populație,<a href="#cite_note-68">[65]</a> așa cum s-a întâmplat și în <a href="/wiki/Polonia" title="Polonia">Polonia</a> datorită măsurilor întreprinse de <a href="/wiki/Cazimir_al_III-lea_al_Poloniei" title="Cazimir al III-lea al Poloniei">Cazimir al III-lea</a>, care a blocat granițele țării.<a href="#cite_note-69">[66]</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Focar_european">Focar european</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&veaction=edit&section=10" title="Modifică secțiunea: Focar european" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">modificare</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section's source code: Focar european">modificare sursă</a>]</div> Ciuma a fost introdusă pentru prima dată în Europa prin intermediul comercianților genovezi din orașul lor port <a href="/wiki/Feodosia" title="Feodosia">Kaffa</a> din Crimeea în 1347. În timpul asediului prelungit al orașului, în 1345–1346 armata <a href="/wiki/Hoarda_de_Aur" title="Hoarda de Aur">Hoardei de Aur</a> mongole a lui Jani Beg, ale cărei trupe tătare în principal sufereau de boală, a catapultat cadavre infectate peste zidurile orașului Kaffa pentru a infecta locuitorii,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelis2002-70">[67]</a> deși este mai probabil ca șobolanii infectați să fi trecut peste liniile de asediu răspândind epidemia locuitorilor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarrasGreub2014-71">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[69]</a> Pe măsură ce boala a luat amploare, comercianții genovezi au fugit peste <a href="/wiki/Marea_Neagr%C4%83" title="Marea Neagră">Marea Neagră</a> spre <a href="/wiki/Constantinopol" title="Constantinopol">Constantinopol</a>, unde boala a sosit pentru prima dată în Europa în vara anului 1347.<a href="#cite_note-:5-73">[70]</a> Epidemia l-a ucis pe fiul în vârstă de 13 ani al împăratului bizantin <a href="/wiki/Ioan_al_VI-lea_Cantacuzino" title="Ioan al VI-lea Cantacuzino">Ioan al VI-lea Cantacuzino</a>, care a scris o descriere a bolii după modelul relatării lui <a href="/wiki/Tucidide" title="Tucidide">Tucidide</a> în Ciuma Atenei din secolul al V-lea î.Hr. și notând răspândirea Morții Negre cu navele între orașele maritime.<a href="#cite_note-:5-73">[70]</a> Istoricul bizantin <a href="/wiki/Nichifor_Gregoras" title="Nichifor Gregoras">Nichifor Gregoras</a> a descris, de asemenea, în scrierile către Demetrios Kydones numărul crescut de morți, inutilitatea medicamentelor și panica cetățenilor.<a href="#cite_note-:5-73">[70]</a> Primul focar din Constantinopol a durat un an, dar boala a reapărut de zece ori înainte de anul 1400.<a href="#cite_note-:5-73">[70]</a> Purtată de douăsprezece galere genoveze, ciuma a ajuns cu vaporul în Sicilia în octombrie 1347;<a href="#cite_note-74">[71]</a> boala s-a răspândit rapid pe toată insula. Galere din Kaffa au ajuns la Genova și <a href="/wiki/Vene%C8%9Bia" title="Veneția">Veneția</a> în ianuarie 1348, dar focarul din <a href="/wiki/Pisa" title="Pisa">Pisa</a> câteva săptămâni mai târziu a fost punctul de intrare în nordul Italiei. Spre sfârșitul lunii ianuarie, una dintre galerele expulzate din Italia a ajuns la <a href="/wiki/Marsilia" title="Marsilia">Marsilia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fran%C8%9Ba" title="Franța">Franța</a>.<a href="#cite_note-75">[72]</a> Din Italia, boala s-a răspândit în nord-vestul Europei, lovind Franța, Spania (care a fost lovită din cauza căldurii - epidemia s-a dezlănțuit în primele săptămâni ale lunii iulie),<a href="#cite_note-76">[73]</a> Portugalia și Anglia până în iunie 1348, apoi s-au răspândit spre est și nord prin Germania, Scoția și Scandinavia din 1348 până în 1350. A fost introdusă în Norvegia în 1349 când o navă a aterizat la Askøy, apoi s-a răspândit în Bjørgvin (modernul Bergen) și Islanda.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKarlsson2000111-77">[74]</a> În cele din urmă, s-a răspândit în nord-vestul Rusiei în 1351. Ciuma a fost oarecum mai neobișnuită în anumite părți ale Europei care aveau cu comerț mai puțin dezvoltat cu vecinii lor, inclusiv mare parte din Țara bascilor, părți izolate din Belgia și Țările de Jos și sate alpine izolate pe tot continentul.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZuchora-Walske2013-78">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWelfordBoddak2010-79">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[77]</a> Potrivit unor epidemiologi, perioadele de vreme nefavorabilă au decimat populațiile de rozătoare infectate cu ciumă și au forțat puricii lor la gazde alternative,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamiaKausrudHeesterbeekAgeyev2011-81">[78]</a> provocând focare de ciumă care au atins apogeul în verile fierbinți ale Mediteranei,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohn2008-82">[79]</a> precum și în lunile de toamnă reci din statele baltice din sud.<a href="#cite_note-83">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[d]</a> Printre mulți alți vinovați ai contagiozității ciumei, malnutriția, a contribuit, de asemenea, la o astfel de pierdere imensă a populației europene, deoarece a slăbit sistemul imunitar.<a href="#cite_note-Baten-87">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Focarul_din_Asia_de_Vest_și_Africa_de_Nord">Focarul din Asia de Vest și Africa de Nord</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&veaction=edit&section=11" title="Modifică secțiunea: Focarul din Asia de Vest și Africa de Nord" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">modificare</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section's source code: Focarul din Asia de Vest și Africa de Nord">modificare sursă</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fi%C8%99ier:Black_death_XV.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Black_death_XV.jpg/220px-Black_death_XV.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Black_death_XV.jpg/330px-Black_death_XV.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Black_death_XV.jpg/440px-Black_death_XV.jpg 2x" data-file-width="625" data-file-height="493" /></a><figcaption>Ciuma neagră într-o miniatură din secolul al XV-lea</figcaption></figure> Boala a lovit diferite regiuni din Orientul Mijlociu și Africa de Nord în timpul pandemiei, ducând la depopularea gravă și la schimbarea permanentă a structurilor economice și sociale.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2018-88">[84]</a> Pe măsură ce rozătoarele infectate au infectat rozătoare noi, boala s-a răspândit în toată regiunea, intrând și din sudul Rusiei. Până în toamna anului 1347, ciuma ajunsese la <a href="/wiki/Alexandria,_Egipt" title="Alexandria, Egipt">Alexandria</a> în Egipt, transmisă pe mare de la Constantinopol, potrivit unui martor contemporan, dintr-o singură navă comercială care transporta sclavi.<a href="#cite_note-:6-89">[85]</a> Până la sfârșitul verii 1348 a ajuns la <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>, capitala Sultanatului mameluc, centru cultural al lumii islamice și cel mai mare oraș din Bazinul mediteranean; copilul sultan An-Nasir Hasan a fugit și mai mult de o treime din cei 600.000 de rezidenți au murit.<a href="#cite_note-:7-90">[86]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nil" title="Nil">Nilul</a> a fost sufocat cu cadavre in ciuda faptului că la Cairo era un spital medieval, la sfârșitul secolului al XIII-lea.<a href="#cite_note-:7-90">[86]</a> Istoricul al-Maqrizi a descris munca abundentă pentru săpătorii de morminte și practicanții riturilor funerare, iar ciuma a reapărut de mai mult de cincizeci de ori în următorul secol și jumătate.<a href="#cite_note-:7-90">[86]</a> În timpul anului 1347, boala a călătorit spre est spre <a href="/wiki/Gaza" title="Gaza">Gaza</a> până în aprilie; până în iulie ajunsese la <a href="/wiki/Damasc" title="Damasc">Damasc</a>, iar în octombrie izbucnise ciuma la <a href="/wiki/Alep" title="Alep">Alep</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:6-89">[85]</a> În acel an, pe teritoriul de astăzi al Libanului, Siriei, Israelului și Palestinei, orașele Ashkelon, Acre, Ierusalim, Sidon și Homs au fost toate infectate. În 1348–1349, boala a ajuns la <a href="/wiki/Antiohia" title="Antiohia">Antiohia</a>. Locuitorii orașului au fugit spre nord, dar majoritatea au murit în timpul călătoriei.<a href="#cite_note-91">[87]</a> În decurs de doi ani, ciuma s-a răspândit în toată lumea islamică, din Arabia în Africa de Nord.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelly2005-41">[39]</a> Pandemia s-a răspândit spre vest de Alexandria de-a lungul coastei africane, în timp ce în aprilie 1348 <a href="/wiki/Tunis" title="Tunis">Tunisul</a> a fost infectat de o navă din Sicilia. Tunis a fost apoi atacată de o armată din Maroc; această armată s-a împrăștiat în 1348 și a adus boala cu ei în Maroc, a cărei epidemie ar fi putut fi însămânțată și din orașul islamic Almería din al-Andalus.<a href="#cite_note-:6-89">[85]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a> a fost infectată în 1348 de pelerinii care practicau <a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">Hajj</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:6-89">[85]</a> În 1351 sau 1352, sultanul rasulid din <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>, al-Mujahid Ali, a fost eliberat din captivitatea mamelucilor din Egipt și a purtat ciuma cu el la întoarcerea acasă.<a href="#cite_note-:6-89">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Semne_și_simptome">Semne și simptome</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&veaction=edit&section=12" title="Modifică secțiunea: Semne și simptome" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">modificare</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section's source code: Semne și simptome">modificare sursă</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fi%C8%99ier:Acral_gangrene_due_to_plague.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Acral_gangrene_due_to_plague.jpg/220px-Acral_gangrene_due_to_plague.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Acral_gangrene_due_to_plague.jpg/330px-Acral_gangrene_due_to_plague.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Acral_gangrene_due_to_plague.jpg/440px-Acral_gangrene_due_to_plague.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3231" data-file-height="2144" /></a><figcaption>O mână care arată modul în care <a href="/wiki/Cangren%C4%83" title="Cangrenă">cangrena</a> acrală a degetelor din cauza ciumei bubonice face ca pielea și carnea să moară și să devină negre</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fi%C8%99ier:Plague_bubo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Plague_bubo.jpg/220px-Plague_bubo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Plague_bubo.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="278" data-file-height="184" /></a><figcaption>Un bubon inghinal pe coapsa superioară a unei persoane infectate cu ciumă bubonică. Ganglionii limfatici (buboane) se umflau adesea în regiunea gâtului, axilei și regiunea inghinală.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ciumă_bubonică">Ciumă bubonică</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&veaction=edit&section=13" title="Modifică secțiunea: Ciumă bubonică" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">modificare</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section's source code: Ciumă bubonică">modificare sursă</a>]</div> Simptomele bolii includ febră de 38-41 °C, dureri de cap, dureri articulare, greață și vărsături și senzație de stare generală de rău. Dacă nu este tratată, 80% dintre cele care au contractat ciuma bubonică mor în decurs de opt zile.<a href="#cite_note-93">[89]</a> Relatările contemporane ale pandemiei sunt variate și adesea imprecise. Cel mai frecvent simptom remarcat a fost apariția buboanelor (sau gavocciolos) în zona inghinală, a gâtului și a axilelor, care răsuflau puroi și sângerau când erau deschise.<a href="#cite_note-Byrne2004pp21-9-94">[90]</a> Descrierea lui <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Boccaccio" title="Giovanni Boccaccio">Giovanni Boccaccio</a>: <blockquote style="color:var(--color-base, #606060); text-align: left; font-size:95%"><div style="font-style:italic">„La bărbați și femei deopotrivă, s-a trădat mai întâi prin apariția anumitor tumori în zona inghinală sau a axilelor, unele crescând la fel de mari ca un măr obișnuit, altele ca un ou ... Din cele două părți ale corpului menționate, acest gavocciolo mortal curând a început să se propage și să se răspândească în toate direcțiile; după care forma bolii a început să se schimbe, pete negre sau livide făcându-și apariția în multe cazuri pe braț sau coapsă sau în alte părți, acum puține și mari, peste un minut numeroase. Așa cum gavocciolo a fost și încă este un semn infailibil al apropierii morții, așa au fost și aceste pete pe cine s-au arătat.<a href="#cite_note-95">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[e]</a>”</div></blockquote> Aceasta era urmată de febră acută și vărsături cu sânge. Majoritatea victimelor au murit la două până la șapte zile după infecția inițială. Pete și erupții asemănătoare pistruilor,<a href="#cite_note-99">[94]</a> care ar fi putut fi cauzate de mușcăturile de purici, au fost identificate ca un alt semn potențial de ciumă. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ciuma_pneumonică">Ciuma pneumonică</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&veaction=edit&section=14" title="Modifică secțiunea: Ciuma pneumonică" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">modificare</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section's source code: Ciuma pneumonică">modificare sursă</a>]</div> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lodewijk_Heyligen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lodewijk Heyligen — pagină inexistentă">Lodewijk Heyligen</a>, al cărui maestru, cardinalul Colonna, a murit de ciumă în 1348, a remarcat o formă distinctă a bolii, ciuma pneumonică, care a infectat plămânii și a dus la probleme respiratorii.<a href="#cite_note-Byrne2004pp21-9-94">[90]</a> Simptomele includ febră, tuse și spută cu sânge. Pe măsură ce boala progresează, sputa devine abundentă și de <a href="/wiki/Ro%C8%99u" title="Roșu">roșu</a> aprins. Ciuma pneumonică are o rată a mortalității de 90-95%.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEByrne20048-100">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ciuma_septicemică">Ciuma septicemică</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&veaction=edit&section=15" title="Modifică secțiunea: Ciuma septicemică" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">modificare</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section's source code: Ciuma septicemică">modificare sursă</a>]</div> Ciuma septicemică este cea mai puțin frecventă dintre cele trei forme, cu o rată a mortalității de aproape 100%. Simptomele sunt febră mare și pete purpurii pe piele (purpuriu din cauza coagulării intravasculare diseminate).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEByrne20048-100">[95]</a> În cazurile de ciumă pneumonică și în special septicemică, progresul bolii este atât de rapid încât deseori nu ar exista timp pentru dezvoltarea ganglionilor limfatici măriți.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEByrne20048-100">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consecințe">Consecințe</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&veaction=edit&section=16" title="Modifică secțiunea: Consecințe" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">modificare</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section's source code: Consecințe">modificare sursă</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Decese">Decese</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&veaction=edit&section=17" title="Modifică secțiunea: Decese" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">modificare</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section's source code: Decese">modificare sursă</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fi%C8%99ier:Nuremberg_chronicles_f_264r_(imago_mortis).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Nuremberg_chronicles_f_264r_%28imago_mortis%29.jpg/290px-Nuremberg_chronicles_f_264r_%28imago_mortis%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Nuremberg_chronicles_f_264r_%28imago_mortis%29.jpg/435px-Nuremberg_chronicles_f_264r_%28imago_mortis%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Nuremberg_chronicles_f_264r_%28imago_mortis%29.jpg/580px-Nuremberg_chronicles_f_264r_%28imago_mortis%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="886" data-file-height="764" /></a><figcaption>„Dansul morții”, ilustrație din Cronica de la Nürnberg (1493)</figcaption></figure> Nu există cifre exacte pentru numărul morților; rata a variat foarte mult în funcție de localitate. În centrele urbane, cu cât populația era mai mare înainte de focar, cu atât durata perioadei de mortalitate anormală este mai mare.<a href="#cite_note-101">[96]</a> Conform unor surse a ucis între 75 și 200 de milioane de oameni în Eurasia.<a href="#cite_note-ABC/Reuters-102">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-Black_Death's_Gene_Code_Cracked-103">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-Health._De-coding_the_Black_Death-104">[99]</a> Rata mortalității Morții Negre din secolul al XIV-lea a fost cu mult mai mare decât cele mai grave focare din secolul al XX-lea de ciumă Y. pestis, care au avut loc în India și au ucis până la 3% din populația anumitor orașe.<a href="#cite_note-Cohn_2010-105">[100]</a> Numărul copleșitor de cadavre produse de Moartea Neagră a provocat necesitatea unor locuri de înmormântare în masă în Europa, uneori incluzând până la câteva sute sau câteva mii de schelete.<a href="#cite_note-:3-106">[101]</a> Siturile de înmormântare în masă care au fost excavate au permis arheologilor să continue să interpreteze și să definească implicațiile biologice, sociologice, istorice și antropologice ale Mortii Negre.<a href="#cite_note-:3-106">[101]</a> Potrivit istoricului medieval Philip Daileader, este probabil ca în patru ani, 45-50% din populația europeană să fi murit de ciumă.<a href="#cite_note-Daileader-107">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[f]</a> Istoricul norvegian Ole Benedictow sugerează că s-ar fi putut ajunge la 60% din populația europeană.<a href="#cite_note-Benedictow-109">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[g]</a> În 1348, boala s-a răspândit atât de rapid încât, înainte ca orice medic sau autoritate guvernamentală să aibă timp să se gândească la originile sale, aproximativ o treime din populația europeană a pierit deja. În orașele aglomerate, nu era neobișnuit să moară până la 50% din populație.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristakosOleaSerreYu2005110–14-28">[27]</a> Jumătate din populația Parisului de 100.000 de oameni, a murit. În Italia, populația <a href="/wiki/Floren%C8%9Ba" title="Florența">Florenței</a> a fost redusă de la 110.000-120.000 de locuitori în 1338 la 50.000 în 1351. Cel puțin 60% din populația din <a href="/wiki/Hamburg" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a> și <a href="/wiki/Bremen" title="Bremen">Bremen</a> a pierit <a href="#cite_note-111">[104]</a> și un procent similar de londonezi e posibil să fi murit din cauza bolii,<a href="#cite_note-guardian-55">[52]</a> cu un număr de aproximativ 62.000 de morți între 1346 și 1353.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETignorAdelmanBrownElman2014407-42">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[h]</a> Înregistrările fiscale ale Florenței sugerează că 80% din populația orașului a murit în decurs de patru luni în 1348.<a href="#cite_note-Cohn_2010-105">[100]</a> Înainte de 1350, existau aproximativ 170.000 de așezări în Germania și acestea au fost reduse cu aproape 40.000 până în 1450.<a href="#cite_note-114">[106]</a> Boala a ocolit unele zone, cele mai izolate zone fiind mai puțin vulnerabile la contaminare. Ciuma a apărut în <a href="/wiki/Douai" title="Douai">Douai</a> în <a href="/wiki/Flandra" title="Flandra">Flandra</a> abia la începutul secolului al XV-lea, iar impactul a fost mai puțin sever asupra populațiilor din Hainaut, Finlanda, nordul Germaniei și zone din Polonia.<a href="#cite_note-Cohn_2010-105">[100]</a> Călugării, călugărițele și preoții au fost deosebit de afectați, deoarece au avut grijă de victimele Morții Negre.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennettHollister2006329-115">[107]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fi%C8%99ier:Burying_Plague_Victims_of_Tournai.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Burying_Plague_Victims_of_Tournai.jpg/260px-Burying_Plague_Victims_of_Tournai.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Burying_Plague_Victims_of_Tournai.jpg/390px-Burying_Plague_Victims_of_Tournai.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Burying_Plague_Victims_of_Tournai.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="418" /></a><figcaption>Cetățenii din Tournai îngropă victimele ciumei. Detaliu al unei miniaturi din „Cronicile lui Gilles Li Muisis” (1272–1352). Biblioteca regală a Belgiei</figcaption></figure> Medicul Raimundo Chalmel de Vinario din papalitatea Avignon a observat scăderea ratei mortalității a focarelor succesive de ciumă în 1347–48, 1362, 1371 și 1382 în tratatul său din 1382 „Despre epidemii” (De epidemica).<a href="#cite_note-:4-116">[108]</a> În primul focar, două treimi din populație au contractat boala și majoritatea pacienților au murit; în următorul, jumătate din populație s-a îmbolnăvit, dar doar unii au murit; la al treilea, o zecime au fost afectați și mulți au supraviețuit, în timp ce la a patra apariție, doar una din douăzeci de persoane a fost bolnavă și majoritatea au supraviețuit.<a href="#cite_note-:4-116">[108]</a> Până în anii 1380 în Europa, a afectat în principal copiii.<a href="#cite_note-Cohn_2010-105">[100]</a> Chalmel de Vinario a recunoscut că sângerarea a fost ineficientă (deși a continuat să prescrie sângerări pentru membrii Curiei Romane) și a susținut că toate cazurile adevărate de ciumă erau cauzate de factori astrologici și erau incurabile; el însuși nu a reușit niciodată să vindece.<a href="#cite_note-:4-116">[108]</a> Cea mai acceptată estimare pentru Orientul Mijlociu, inclusiv Irak, Iran și Siria, pentru această perioadă, este un număr de morți de aproximativ o treime din populație.<a href="#cite_note-117">[109]</a> Moartea Neagră a ucis aproximativ 40% din populația Egiptului.<a href="#cite_note-118">[110]</a> În Cairo, cu o populație de până la 600.000 și posibil cel mai mare oraș la vest de China, între o treime și 40% dintre locuitori au murit în decurs de opt luni.<a href="#cite_note-:7-90">[86]</a> Cronicarul italian Agnolo di Tura și-a înregistrat experiența de la Siena, unde a ajuns ciuma în mai 1348: <blockquote style="color:var(--color-base, #606060); text-align: left; font-size:95%"><div style="font-style:italic">„Tatăl abandonează copilul, soția soțul, un frate pe altul; căci această boală părea să lovească respirația și vederea. Și așa au murit. Și nu s-a găsit nimeni care să îngroape morții pentru bani sau prietenie. Membrii unei gospodării și-au adus morții la un șanț cât au putut, fără preot, fără birouri divine ... au fost săpate gropi mari și îngrămădite adânc cu mulțimea morților. Și au murit cu sutele atât ziua, cât și noaptea ... Și imediat ce s-au umplut șanțurile au fost săpate mai multe ... Și eu, Agnolo di Tura ... mi-am îngropat cei cinci copii cu propriile mâini. Și au fost, de asemenea, cei care au fost atât de puțin acoperiți de pământ încât câinii i-au târât afară și au devorat multe trupuri în tot orașul. Nu a fost nimeni care să plângă pentru vreo moarte, fiecare își aștepta propria moarte. Și atât de mulți au murit încât toți au crezut că este sfârșitul lumii.<a href="#cite_note-119">[111]</a>”</div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Economic_și_Social">Economic și Social</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&veaction=edit&section=18" title="Modifică secțiunea: Economic și Social" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">modificare</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section's source code: Economic și Social">modificare sursă</a>]</div> Odată cu scăderea atât de masivă a populației, salariile au crescut ca răspuns la lipsa forței de muncă.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScheidel2017292–93,_304-120">[112]</a> Pe de altă parte, în sfertul de secol de după Moartea Neagră din Anglia, este clar că mulți muncitori, artizani și meseriași, cei care trăiau doar din salarii, au suferit o reducere a veniturilor reale din cauza inflației violente.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMunro2004352-121">[113]</a> Proprietarii de terenuri au fost împinși să înlocuiască chiriile monetare cu serviciile de muncă în efortul de a păstra lucrătorii.<a href="#cite_note-122">[114]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fi%C8%99ier:The_Triumph_of_Death_by_Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/The_Triumph_of_Death_by_Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder.jpg/290px-The_Triumph_of_Death_by_Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/The_Triumph_of_Death_by_Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder.jpg/435px-The_Triumph_of_Death_by_Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/The_Triumph_of_Death_by_Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder.jpg/580px-The_Triumph_of_Death_by_Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2126" data-file-height="1517" /></a><figcaption>Triumful morții de <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Bruegel_cel_B%C4%83tr%C3%A2n" title="Pieter Bruegel cel Bătrân">Pieter Bruegel</a> reflectă revolta socială și teroarea care a urmat ciumei.</figcaption></figure> O teorie care a fost avansată este că devastarea din <a href="/wiki/Floren%C8%9Ba" title="Florența">Florența</a> cauzată de Moartea Neagră, care a lovit Europa între 1348 și 1350, a dus la o schimbare a viziunii lumii de către oamenii din Italia secolului al XIV-lea și a dus la <a href="/wiki/Rena%C8%99tere" class="mw-redirect" title="Renaștere">Renaștere</a>. Italia a fost deosebit de grav afectată de pandemie și s-a speculat că familiaritatea rezultată cu moartea i-a determinat pe gânditori să mediteze mai mult la viața lor pe Pământ, decât la <a href="/wiki/Spiritualitate" title="Spiritualitate">spiritualitate</a> și la <a href="/wiki/Via%C8%9Ba_de_apoi" title="Viața de apoi">viața de apoi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETuchman1978-123">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[i]</a> S-a susținut, de asemenea, că Moartea Neagră a determinat un nou val de evlavie, manifestat prin sponsorizarea operelor de artă religioase.<a href="#cite_note-126">[117]</a> Totuși, acest lucru nu explică pe deplin de ce Renașterea a avut loc în mod specific în Italia în secolul al XIV-lea. Moartea Neagră a fost o pandemie care a afectat întreaga Europă în modurile descrise, nu numai Italia. Înainte de apariția Morții Negre, funcționarea Europei era condusă de Biserica Catolică, iar continentul era considerat o societate feudalistă, compusă din <a href="/wiki/Feud%C4%83" title="Feudă">feude</a> și orașe-state.<a href="#cite_note-:0-127">[118]</a> Pandemia a restructurat complet atât religia, cât și forțele politice; supraviețuitorii au început să apeleze la alte forme de spiritualitate și dinamica puterii feudelor și orașelor-state s-a prăbușit.<a href="#cite_note-:0-127">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[119]</a> Populația din Cairo, parțial din cauza numeroaselor epidemii de ciumă, era la începutul secolului al XVIII-lea jumătate din ceea ce era în 1347.<a href="#cite_note-:7-90">[86]</a> Populațiile unor orașe italiene, în special Florența, nu și-au recăpătat dimensiunile dinaintea secolului al XIV-lea până în secolul al XIX-lea.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENauert2006106-129">[120]</a> Declinul demografic cauzat de pandemie a avut consecințe economice: prețurile alimentelor au scăzut, iar valorile terenurilor au scăzut cu 30-40% în majoritatea regiunilor Europei între 1350 și 1400.<a href="#cite_note-130">[121]</a> Supraviețuitorii pandemiei au constatat nu numai că hrana era mai ieftină dar mulți dintre ei au moștenit proprietăți de la rudele decedate, iar acest lucru a destabilizat probabil <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalismul</a>.<a href="#cite_note-131">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaddockKiesling2002-132">[123]</a> Cuvântul „<a href="/wiki/Carantin%C4%83" title="Carantină">carantină</a>” își are rădăcinile în această perioadă, deși conceptul de a izola oamenii pentru a preveni răspândirea bolilor este mai vechi. În orașul-stat Ragusa (<a href="/wiki/Dubrovnik" title="Dubrovnik">Dubrovnikul</a> de astăzi, Croația), s-a implementat în 1377 o perioadă de izolare de treizeci de zile pentru noii sosiți în oraș din zonele afectate de ciumă. Perioada de izolare a fost extinsă ulterior la patruzeci de zile și i s-a dat numele de „quarantino” din cuvântul italian pentru „patruzeci”.<a href="#cite_note-Sehdev-133">[124]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Persecuții">Persecuții</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&veaction=edit&section=19" title="Modifică secțiunea: Persecuții" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">modificare</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section's source code: Persecuții">modificare sursă</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fi%C8%99ier:Doutielt1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Doutielt1.jpg/220px-Doutielt1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Doutielt1.jpg/330px-Doutielt1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Doutielt1.jpg/440px-Doutielt1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1473" data-file-height="1001" /></a><figcaption>Evrei arși pe rug în 1349. Miniatură din manuscrisul din secolul al XIV-lea Antiquitates Flandriae</figcaption></figure> Fervoarea religioasă reînnoită și fanatismul au înflorit în urma Morții Negre. Unii europeni au vizat „diferite grupuri, cum ar fi evrei, străini, cerșetori, pelerini”, leproși,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENirenberg1998-134">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore1987-135">[126]</a> și romi, acuzându-i de criză. <a href="/wiki/Lepr%C4%83" title="Lepră">Leproșii</a> și alții cu boli de piele, cum ar fi <a href="/wiki/Acnee" title="Acnee">acneea</a> sau <a href="/wiki/Psoriazis" title="Psoriazis">psoriazisul</a>, au fost uciși în toată Europa. Deoarece vindecătorii și guvernele din secolul al XIV-lea nu au putut explica sau opri boala, europenii s-au orientat către forțe <a href="/wiki/Astrologie" title="Astrologie">astrologice</a>, cutremure și otrăvirea fântânilor de către evrei ca posibile motive pentru focare.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennettHollister2006326-16">[15]</a> Mulți credeau că epidemia este o pedeapsă de la Dumnezeu pentru păcatele lor și poate fi ușurată câștigând iertarea lui Dumnezeu.<a href="#cite_note-136">[127]</a> Au existat multe atacuri împotriva comunităților evreiești.<a href="#cite_note-JewishEncyclopedia-137">[128]</a> În masacrul de la Strasbourg din februarie 1349 au fost uciși aproximativ 2.000 de evrei.<a href="#cite_note-JewishEncyclopedia-137">[128]</a> În august 1349, comunitățile evreiești din <a href="/wiki/Mainz" title="Mainz">Mainz</a> și <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6ln" title="Köln">Köln</a> au fost anihilate. Până în 1351, 60 de comunități evreiești majore și 150 mai mici au fost distruse.<a href="#cite_note-138">[129]</a> În această perioadă, mulți evrei s-au mutat în Polonia, unde au avut parte de o primire călduroasă de la regele <a href="/wiki/Cazimir_al_II-lea_al_Poloniei" title="Cazimir al II-lea al Poloniei">Cazimir cel Mare</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGottfried201074-139">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Recurențe">Recurențe</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&veaction=edit&section=20" title="Modifică secțiunea: Recurențe" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">modificare</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section's source code: Recurențe">modificare sursă</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fi%C8%99ier:Great_plague_of_london-1665.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Great_plague_of_london-1665.jpg/220px-Great_plague_of_london-1665.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="306" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Great_plague_of_london-1665.jpg/330px-Great_plague_of_london-1665.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Great_plague_of_london-1665.jpg 2x" data-file-width="380" data-file-height="529" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Marea_Cium%C4%83_din_Londra" title="Marea Ciumă din Londra">Marea Ciumă din Londra</a> din 1665 a ucis până la 100.000 de persoane.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fi%C8%99ier:Paul_F%C3%BCrst,_Der_Doctor_Schnabel_von_Rom_(coloured_version).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Paul_F%C3%BCrst%2C_Der_Doctor_Schnabel_von_Rom_%28coloured_version%29.png/220px-Paul_F%C3%BCrst%2C_Der_Doctor_Schnabel_von_Rom_%28coloured_version%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Paul_F%C3%BCrst%2C_Der_Doctor_Schnabel_von_Rom_%28coloured_version%29.png/330px-Paul_F%C3%BCrst%2C_Der_Doctor_Schnabel_von_Rom_%28coloured_version%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Paul_F%C3%BCrst%2C_Der_Doctor_Schnabel_von_Rom_%28coloured_version%29.png/440px-Paul_F%C3%BCrst%2C_Der_Doctor_Schnabel_von_Rom_%28coloured_version%29.png 2x" data-file-width="570" data-file-height="798" /></a><figcaption>Un medic de ciumă și îmbrăcămintea sa tipică în timpul focarului din secolul al XVII-lea.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="A_doua_pandemie_de_ciumă">A doua pandemie de ciumă</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&veaction=edit&section=21" title="Modifică secțiunea: A doua pandemie de ciumă" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">modificare</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section's source code: A doua pandemie de ciumă">modificare sursă</a>]</div> Ciuma a revenit în repetate rânduri bântuind Europa și Marea Mediterană de-a lungul secolelor XIV-XVII.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorter200925-140">[131]</a> Potrivit lui Jean-Noël Biraben, ciuma a fost prezentă undeva în Europa în fiecare an între 1346 și 1671.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHays199858-141">[132]</a> (Rețineți că unii cercetători au avertismente cu privire la utilizarea necritică a datelor Biraben.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoosenCurtis2018-142">[133]</a>) A doua pandemie a fost deosebit de răspândită în următorii ani: 1360–63; 1374; 1400; 1438–39; 1456–57; 1464-66; 1481–85; 1500-03; 1518–31; 1544–48; 1563–66; 1573–88; 1596–99; 1602–11; 1623–40; 1644–54; și 1664-67. Focarele ulterioare, deși severe, au marcat retragerea din cea mai mare parte a Europei (secolul al XVIII-lea) și nordul Africii (secolul al XIX-lea).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHays200546-143">[134]</a> Istoricul George Sussman a susținut că ciuma a avut loc în Africa de Est abia în anii 1900.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESussman2011-65">[62]</a> Totuși, alte surse sugerează că a doua pandemie a ajuns într-adevăr în Africa sub-sahariană.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2018-88">[84]</a> Potrivit istoricului englez Geoffrey Parker, „numai Franța a pierdut aproape un milion de oameni în urma epidemiei de ciumă din 1628–31”.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker20017-144">[135]</a> În prima jumătate a secolului al XVII-lea, o ciumă a provocat aproximativ 1,7 milioane de victime în Italia.<a href="#cite_note-145">[136]</a> Peste 1,25 milioane de decese au rezultat din incidența extremă a ciumei în Spania secolului al XVII-lea.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPayne1973Chapter_15:_The_Seventeenth-Century_Decline-146">[137]</a> Marea Ciumă din 1738 a fost o pandemie de ciumă care a durat din 1738 până în 1740 și a afectat zone din națiunile moderne din <a href="/wiki/Rom%C3%A2nia" title="România">România</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ungaria" title="Ungaria">Ungaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ucraina" title="Ucraina">Ucraina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Croa%C8%9Bia" title="Croația">Croația</a> și <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EB-147">[138]</a> Moartea Neagră a devastat o mare parte din <a href="/wiki/Lumea_musulman%C4%83" title="Lumea musulmană">lumea islamică</a>.<a href="#cite_note-148">[139]</a> Ciuma a fost prezentă în cel puțin un loc din lumea islamică practic în fiecare an între 1500 și 1850.<a href="#cite_note-149">[140]</a> Orașele din Africa de Nord au fost de asemenea lovite de ciumă în mod repetat. <a href="/wiki/Alger" title="Alger">Alger</a> a pierdut 30.000–50.000 de locuitori în 1620–21 și din nou în 1654–57, 1665, 1691 și 1740–42.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavis2004-150">[141]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a> a suferit peste cincizeci de epidemii de ciumă în decurs de 150 de ani de la prima apariție a ciumei, cu izbucnirea finală a celei de-a doua pandemii acolo în anii 1840.<a href="#cite_note-:7-90">[86]</a> Ciuma a rămas un eveniment major în societatea otomană până în al doilea sfert al secolului al XIX-lea. Între 1701 și 1750, au fost înregistrate 37 de epidemii mai mari și mai mici la Constantinopol, iar alte 31 între 1751 și 1800.<a href="#cite_note-151">[142]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bagdad" title="Bagdad">Bagdad</a> a suferit grav din ciumei și uneori două treimi din populația sa a avut a fost nimicită.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIssawi198899-152">[143]</a> Una dintre ultimele epidemii care a lovit Balcanii în timpul celei de-a doua pandemii a fost <a href="/wiki/Ciuma_lui_Caragea" title="Ciuma lui Caragea">ciuma lui Caragea</a> din 1813–14. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Focare_majore">Focare majore</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&veaction=edit&section=22" title="Modifică secțiunea: Focare majore" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">modificare</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section's source code: Focare majore">modificare sursă</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Ani</th> <th>Loc</th> <th>Decese estimate</th> <th>Referințe </th></tr> <tr> <td>1347–51</td> <td>Europa, Asia, Orientul mijlociu</td> <td>75.000.000–200.000.000</td> <td>Moartea Neagră<a href="#cite_note-153">[144]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1360–63</td> <td>Anglia</td> <td>700–800,000</td> <td>Moartea Neagră din Anglia </td></tr> <tr> <td>1471</td> <td>Anglia</td> <td>300–400.000</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGottfried1983131-154">[145]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1479–80</td> <td>Anglia</td> <td>400–500.000</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGottfried1983131-154">[145]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1576–77</td> <td>Veneția</td> <td>50.000</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBray200471-155">[146]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1596–99</td> <td>Castilia</td> <td>500.000</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBray200472-156">[147]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1628–31</td> <td>Franța</td> <td>1.000.000</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker20017-144">[135]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1629–31</td> <td>Italia</td> <td>1.000.000</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Hays-157">[148]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1633–44 </td> <td>China (dinastia Ming) </td> <td>200.000+ </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-158">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[150]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1647–52</td> <td>sudul Spaniei</td> <td>500.000</td> <td>Marea ciumă din Sevilia </td></tr> <tr> <td>1654–55</td> <td>Rusia</td> <td>700.000</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-The_Present_State_of_Russia-160">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-elib.shpl.ru-161">[152]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1656–58</td> <td>Neapole</td> <td>1.250.000</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Emerging-162">[153]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1665–66</td> <td>Londra</td> <td>70–100.000</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Marea_Cium%C4%83_din_Londra" title="Marea Ciumă din Londra">Marea Ciumă din Londra</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1679–80</td> <td>Austria</td> <td>76.000</td> <td>Marea ciumă din Viena </td></tr> <tr> <td>1689–90</td> <td>Bagdad</td> <td>150.000</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIssawi198899-152">[143]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1704–10</td> <td>Polonia</td> <td>75.000</td> <td>Marele focar de ciumă al Războiului Nordului </td></tr> <tr> <td>1709–13</td> <td>Baltic</td> <td>300–400,000</td> <td>Marele focar de ciumă al Războiului Nordului </td></tr> <tr> <td>Anii 1720</td> <td>Marsilia</td> <td>100.000</td> <td>Marea ciumă din Marsilia </td></tr> <tr> <td>Anii 1770</td> <td>Moscova</td> <td>75.000</td> <td>Ciuma rusă din 1770–72 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1772–1773</td> <td>Imperiul persan</td> <td>2.000.000</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Iran-163">[154]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1791</td> <td>Egipt</td> <td>300.000</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikhail201443-164">[155]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1812–19</td> <td>Imperiul otoman</td> <td>300.000<a href="#cite_note-165">[156]</a></td> <td>Pandemia de ciumă otomană </td></tr> <tr> <td>1813–14</td> <td>România</td> <td>60.000<a href="#cite_note-166">[157]</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ciuma_lui_Caragea" title="Ciuma lui Caragea">Ciuma lui Caragea</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="A_treia_pandemie_de_ciumă">A treia pandemie de ciumă</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&veaction=edit&section=23" title="Modifică secțiunea: A treia pandemie de ciumă" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">modificare</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section's source code: A treia pandemie de ciumă">modificare sursă</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fi%C8%99ier:Man_being_injected_by_doctor,_during_the_outbreak_of_bubonic_Wellcome_V0029287.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Man_being_injected_by_doctor%2C_during_the_outbreak_of_bubonic_Wellcome_V0029287.jpg/280px-Man_being_injected_by_doctor%2C_during_the_outbreak_of_bubonic_Wellcome_V0029287.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Man_being_injected_by_doctor%2C_during_the_outbreak_of_bubonic_Wellcome_V0029287.jpg/420px-Man_being_injected_by_doctor%2C_during_the_outbreak_of_bubonic_Wellcome_V0029287.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Man_being_injected_by_doctor%2C_during_the_outbreak_of_bubonic_Wellcome_V0029287.jpg/560px-Man_being_injected_by_doctor%2C_during_the_outbreak_of_bubonic_Wellcome_V0029287.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3306" data-file-height="2180" /></a><figcaption>Pacient cu ciumă injectat de un medic în 1897 în <a href="/wiki/Karachi" title="Karachi">Karachi</a>.</figcaption></figure> A treia pandemie de ciumă (1855–1859) a început în <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a>, China în 1855 în timpul celui de-al cincilea an al împăratului Xianfeng din <a href="/wiki/Dinastia_Qing" title="Dinastia Qing">dinastia Qing</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Cohn-167">[158]</a> răspândindu-se pe toate continentele locuite și ucigând 10 milioane de oameni doar în India.<a href="#cite_note-168">[159]</a> Investigația agentului patogen care a provocat ciuma secolului al XIX-lea a fost începută de echipe de oameni de știință care au vizitat Hong Kong în 1894, printre care se număra și bacteriologul franco-elvețian Alexandre Yersin, după care a fost numit agentul patogen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristakosOleaSerreYu2005110–14-28">[27]</a> Douăsprezece focare de ciumă în <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> între 1900 și 1925 au dus la peste 1.000 de decese, în principal la <a href="/wiki/Sydney" title="Sydney">Sydney</a>. Acest lucru a condus la înființarea unui departament de sănătate publică acolo care a întreprins unele cercetări de vârf privind transmiterea ciumei de la puricii de șobolan la oameni prin bacilul Yersinia pestis.<a href="#cite_note-169">[160]</a> Prima epidemie de ciumă din America de Nord a fost ciuma de la San Francisco din anii 1900–1904, urmată de un alt focar în anii 1907–1908.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChase2004-170">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEchenberg2007-171">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKraut1995-172">[163]</a> Conform <a href="/wiki/Organiza%C8%9Bia_Mondial%C4%83_a_S%C4%83n%C4%83t%C4%83%C8%9Bii" title="Organizația Mondială a Sănătății">Organizației Mondiale a Sănătății</a>, pandemia a fost considerată activă până în 1960, când numărul victimelor la nivel mondial a scăzut la 200 pe an.<a href="#cite_note-173">[164]</a> Decesele de ciumă au continuat la un nivel inferior în fiecare an de atunci. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vremuri_moderne">Vremuri moderne</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&veaction=edit&section=24" title="Modifică secțiunea: Vremuri moderne" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">modificare</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section's source code: Vremuri moderne">modificare sursă</a>]</div> Metodele moderne de tratament includ <a href="/wiki/Insecticid" title="Insecticid">insecticide</a>, utilizarea <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibioticelor</a> și vaccinul împotriva ciumei. Există o temere că bacteria ciumei ar putea dezvolta rezistență la medicamente și ar putea deveni din nou o amenințare majoră pentru sănătate. Un caz de bacterie rezistentă la medicamente a fost găsit în <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> în 1995.<a href="#cite_note-174">[165]</a> Un nou focar în Madagascar a fost raportat în noiembrie 2014.<a href="#cite_note-175">[166]</a> În octombrie 2017, cel mai mortal focar de ciumă din vremurile moderne a lovit Madagascarul, ucigând 170 de oameni și infectând mii.<a href="#cite_note-176">[167]</a> O estimare a ratei mortalității cazului pentru ciuma bubonică modernă, după introducerea antibioticelor, este de 11%, deși poate fi mai mare în regiunile subdezvoltate.<a href="#cite_note-177">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Note">Note</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&veaction=edit&section=25" title="Modifică secțiunea: Note" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">modificare</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section's source code: Note">modificare sursă</a>]</div> <div class="references-small" style="list-style-type: lower-alpha;"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> precum scăderea temperaturilor după sfârșitul perioadei medievale calde </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> He was able to adopt the epidemiology of the bubonic plague for the Black Death for the second edition in 1908, implicating rats and fleas in the process, and his interpretation was widely accepted for other ancient and medieval epidemics, such as the Plague of Justinian that was prevalent in the Eastern Roman Empire from 541 to 700 CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristakosOleaSerreYu2005110–14-28">[27]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> In 1998, Drancourt et al. reported the detection of Y. pestis DNA in human dental pulp from a medieval grave.<a href="#cite_note-47">[45]</a> Another team led by Tom Gilbert cast doubt on this identification<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilbertCuccuiWhiteLynnerup2004-48">[46]</a> and the techniques employed, stating that this method "does not allow us to confirm the identification of Y. pestis as the aetiological agent of the Black Death and subsequent plagues. In addition, the utility of the published tooth-based ancient DNA technique used to diagnose fatal bacteraemias in historical epidemics still awaits independent corroboration". </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> However, other researchers do not think that plague ever became endemic in Europe or its rat population. The disease repeatedly wiped out the rodent carriers, so that the fleas died out until a new outbreak from Central Asia repeated the process. The outbreaks have been shown to occur roughly 15 years after a warmer and wetter period in areas where plague is endemic in other species, such as gerbils.<a href="#cite_note-84">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmid2015-85">[82]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> The only medical detail that is questionable in Boccaccio's description is that the gavocciolo was an "infallible token of approaching death", as, if the bubo discharges, recovery is possible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZiegler199818–19-97">[93]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> According to medieval historian Philip Daileader,<blockquote style="color:var(--color-base, #606060); text-align: left; font-size:95%"><div style="font-style:italic">„ The trend of recent research is pointing to a figure more like 45–50% of the European population dying during a four-year period. There is a fair amount of geographic variation. In Mediterranean Europe, areas such as Italy, the south of France and Spain, where plague ran for about four years consecutively, it was probably closer to 75–80% of the population. In Germany and England ... it was probably closer to 20%.<a href="#cite_note-Daileader-107">[102]</a>”</div></blockquote> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> Norwegian historian Ole Benedictow suggests: <blockquote style="color:var(--color-base, #606060); text-align: left; font-size:95%"><div style="font-style:italic">„ Detailed study of the mortality data available points to two conspicuous features in relation to the mortality caused by the Black Death: namely the extreme level of mortality caused by the Black Death, and the remarkable similarity or consistency of the level of mortality, from Spain in southern Europe to England in north-western Europe. The data is sufficiently widespread and numerous to make it likely that the Black Death swept away around 60% of Europe's population. The generally assumed population of Europe at the time is about 80 million, implying that around 50 million people died in the Black Death.<a href="#cite_note-Benedictow-109">[103]</a>”</div></blockquote> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> While contemporary accounts report mass burial pits being created in response to the large number of dead, recent scientific investigations of a burial pit in Central London found well-preserved individuals to be buried in isolated, evenly spaced graves, suggesting at least some pre-planning and Christian burials at this time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDickPringleSloaneCarver2015-112">[105]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> The Black Death caused greater upheaval to Florence's social and political structure than later epidemics. Despite a significant number of deaths among members of the ruling classes, the government of Florence continued to function during this period. Formal meetings of elected representatives were suspended during the height of the epidemic due to the chaotic conditions in the city, but a small group of officials was appointed to conduct the affairs of the city, which ensured continuity of government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHattyHatty199989-124">[116]</a> </li> </ol></div></div><div class="references-small" style="list-style-type: decimal;"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-lead_numbers-1"><a href="#cite_ref-lead_numbers_1-0">^</a> Surse pentru decese <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFGouldPyle1896">Gould & Pyle 1896</a>, p. 617.</li> <li><cite class="citation news">ABC/Reuters (<time datetime="2008-01-29">29 ianuarie 2008</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161220120404/http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2008/01/29/2149185.htm">„Black death 'discriminated' between victims (ABC News in Science)”</a>. 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Accesat în <time datetime="2019-04-28">28 aprilie 2019</time>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Historical+Estimates+of+World+Population&rft.pub=Census.gov&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.census.gov%2Fdata%2Ftables%2Ftime-series%2Fdemo%2Finternational-programs%2Fhistorical-est-worldpop.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Galens, July; Knight, Judson (<time datetime="2001">2001</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191216115220/http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/whic/ReferenceDetailsPage/ReferenceDetailsWindow?displayGroupName=Reference&prodId=WHIC&action=e&windowstate=normal&catId=&documentId=GALE%7CCX3426200028&mode=view&userGroupName=holl83564&jsid=33d6ba6bd380219c2073e86fda0b07d0">„The Late Middle Ages”</a>. Middle Ages Reference Library. Gale. 1. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/whic/ReferenceDetailsPage/ReferenceDetailsWindow?displayGroupName=Reference&prodId=WHIC&action=e&windowstate=normal&catId=&documentId=GALE%7CCX3426200028&mode=view&userGroupName=holl83564&jsid=33d6ba6bd380219c2073e86fda0b07d0">original</a> la <time datetime="2019-12-16">16 decembrie 2019</time>. Accesat în <time datetime="2020-05-15">15 mai 2020</time>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Middle+Ages+Reference+Library&rft.atitle=The+Late+Middle+Ages&rft.volume=1&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Galens&rft.aufirst=July&rft.au=Knight%2C+Judson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fic.galegroup.com%2Fic%2Fwhic%2FReferenceDetailsPage%2FReferenceDetailsWindow%3FdisplayGroupName%3DReference%26prodId%3DWHIC%26action%3De%26windowstate%3Dnormal%26catId%3D%26documentId%3DGALE%257CCX3426200028%26mode%3Dview%26userGroupName%3Dholl83564%26jsid%3D33d6ba6bd380219c2073e86fda0b07d0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECosmacini20056-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECosmacini20056_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCosmacini2005">Cosmacini 2005</a>, pp. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-Treccani-15"><a href="#cite_ref-Treccani_15-0">^</a> <cite class="citation"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/vocabolario/peste/">„pèste in Vocabolario - Treccani”</a>, Treccani.it/vocabolario/peste/</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Treccani.it%2Fvocabolario%2Fpeste%2F&rft.atitle=p%C3%A8ste+in+Vocabolario+-+Treccani&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fvocabolario%2Fpeste%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennettHollister2006326-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBennettHollister2006326_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBennettHollister2006326_16-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBennettHollister2006">Bennett & Hollister 2006</a>, p. 326. </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> John of Fordun's Scotichronicon ("there was a great pestilence and mortality of men") <cite class="citation book">Horrox, Rosemary (<time datetime="1994">1994</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160504113002/https://books.google.com/books?id=1O_PX2wVD0sC&pg=PA84">Black Death</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/978-0-7190-3498-5" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/978-0-7190-3498-5">978-0-7190-3498-5</a>. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1O_PX2wVD0sC&pg=PA84">original</a> la <time datetime="2016-05-04">4 mai 2016</time>. Accesat în <time datetime="2015-11-03">3 noiembrie 2015</time>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Death&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-3498-5&rft.aulast=Horrox&rft.aufirst=Rosemary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1O_PX2wVD0sC%26pg%3DPA84&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Horrox, Rosemary (<time datetime="1994">1994</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160504113002/https://books.google.com/books?id=1O_PX2wVD0sC&pg=PA84">Black Death</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/978-0-7190-3498-5" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/978-0-7190-3498-5">978-0-7190-3498-5</a>. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1O_PX2wVD0sC&pg=PA84">original</a> la <time datetime="2016-05-04">4 mai 2016</time>. Accesat în <time datetime="2015-11-03">3 noiembrie 2015</time>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Death&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-3498-5&rft.aulast=Horrox&rft.aufirst=Rosemary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1O_PX2wVD0sC%26pg%3DPA84&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_19-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_19-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_19-3">d</a> <cite class="citation"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/280254">„Black Death, n.”</a>, Oxford English Dictionary Online (în engleză) (ed. 3rd), Oxford University Press, <time datetime="2011">2011</time>, accesat în <time datetime="2020-04-11">11 aprilie 2020</time></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary+Online&rft.atitle=Black+Death%2C+n.&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fview%2FEntry%2F280254&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Pontoppidan, Erich (<time datetime="1755">1755</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/naturalhistoryNc2Pont/page/n57">The Natural History of Norway: …</a>. London: A. Linde. p. 24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Natural+History+of+Norway%3A+%E2%80%A6&rft.place=London&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=A.+Linde&rft.date=1755&rft.aulast=Pontoppidan&rft.aufirst=Erich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FnaturalhistoryNc2Pont%2Fpage%2Fn57&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> From p. 24: "Norway, indeed, cannot be said to be entirely exempt from pestilential distempers, for the Black-death, known all over Europe by its terrible ravages, from the years 1348 to 50, was felt here as in other parts, and to the great diminution of the number of the inhabitants." </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_21-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_21-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_21-3">d</a> <cite class="citation journal">d'Irsay, Stephen (<time datetime="1926">1926</time>). „Notes to the Origin of the Expression: ≪ Atra Mors ≫”. Isis. 8 (2): 328–32. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F358397">10.1086/358397</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0021-1753">0021-1753</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=Notes+to+the+Origin+of+the+Expression%3A+%E2%89%AA+Atra+Mors+%E2%89%AB&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=328-32&rft.date=1926&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F358397&rft.issn=0021-1753&rft.aulast=d%27Irsay&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> The German physician Justus Hecker (1795–1850) cited the phrase in Icelandic (Svarti Dauði), Danish (den sorte Dod), etc. See: J. F. C. Hecker, Der schwarze Tod im vierzehnten Jahrhundert [The Black Death in the Fourteenth Century] (Berlin, (Germany): Friedr. Aug. Herbig, 1832), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_LhoqAAAAYAAJ/page/n38">p. 3.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160429081540/https://books.google.com/books?id=LhoqAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA3">Arhivat</a> în <time datetime="2016-04-29">29 aprilie 2016</time>, la <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Homer, Odyssey, XII, 92. </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Seneca, Oedipus, 164–70. </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <cite class="citation book">de Corbeil, Gilles (<time datetime="1907">1907</time>) [1200]. Valentin, Rose, ed. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/egidiicorbolien02rosegoog">Egidii Corboliensis Viaticus: De signis et symptomatibus aegritudium</a>. Bibliotheca scriptorum medii aevi Teubneriana (în latină). Harvard University: In aedibus B.G. Teubneri.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egidii+Corboliensis+Viaticus%3A+De+signis+et+symptomatibus+aegritudium&rft.place=Harvard+University&rft.pub=In+aedibus+B.G.+Teubneri&rft.date=1907&rft.aulast=de+Corbeil&rft.aufirst=Gilles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fegidiicorbolien02rosegoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> On page 22 of the manuscript in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b9078277z/f25.image">Gallica</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161006064435/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b9078277z/f25.image">Arhivat</a> în <time datetime="2016-10-06">6 octombrie 2016</time>, la <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>., Simon mentions the phrase "mors nigra" (Black Death): "Cum rex finisset oracula judiciorum / Mors nigra surrexit, et gentes reddidit illi;" (When the king ended the oracles of judgment / Black Death arose, and the nations surrendered to him;). <ul><li>A more legible copy of the poem appears in: Emile Littré (1841) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/bec_0373-6237_1841_num_2_1_451584?_Prescripts_Search_tabs1=standard&">"Opuscule relatif à la peste de 1348, composé par un contemporain"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140722010105/http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/bec_0373-6237_1841_num_2_1_451584?_Prescripts_Search_tabs1=standard&">Arhivat</a> în <time datetime="2014-07-22">22 iulie 2014</time>, la <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. (Work concerning the plague of 1348, composed by a contemporary), Bibliothèque de l'école des chartes, 2 (2) : 201–43; see especially p. 228.</li> <li>See also: Joseph Patrick Byrne, The Black Death (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yw3HmjRvVQMC&pg=PA1">p. 1.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160426053818/https://books.google.com/books?id=yw3HmjRvVQMC&pg=PA1">Arhivat</a> în <time datetime="2016-04-26">26 aprilie 2016</time>, la <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGasquet1893-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGasquet1893_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGasquet1893">Gasquet 1893</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristakosOleaSerreYu2005110–14-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristakosOleaSerreYu2005110–14_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristakosOleaSerreYu2005110–14_28-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristakosOleaSerreYu2005110–14_28-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristakosOleaSerreYu2005110–14_28-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristakosOleaSerreYu2005110–14_28-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFChristakosOleaSerreYu2005">Christakos et al. 2005</a>, pp. 110–14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGasquet19087-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGasquet19087_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGasquet1908">Gasquet 1908</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> Johan Isaksson Pontanus, Rerum Danicarum Historia ... (Amsterdam (Netherlands): Johann Jansson, 1631), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HaExAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA476">p. 476.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160504221100/https://books.google.com/books?id=HaExAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA476">Arhivat</a> în <time datetime="2016-05-04">4 mai 2016</time>, la <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080516012329/http://www.avma.org/public_health/biosecurity/plague_bgnd.asp">„Plague Backgrounder”</a>. Avma.org. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.avma.org/public_health/biosecurity/plague_bgnd.asp">original</a> la <time datetime="2008-05-16">16 mai 2008</time>. Accesat în <time datetime="2008-11-03">3 noiembrie 2008</time>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Plague+Backgrounder&rft.pub=Avma.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.avma.org%2Fpublic_health%2Fbiosecurity%2Fplague_bgnd.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrades_ValtueñaMittnikKeyHaak2017-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndrades_ValtueñaMittnikKeyHaak2017_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAndrades_ValtueñaMittnikKeyHaak2017">Andrades Valtueña et al. 2017</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Zhang, Sarah, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2018/12/4900-year-old-case-plague-sweden/577315/">An Ancient Case of the Plague Could Rewrite History</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191113183612/https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2018/12/4900-year-old-case-plague-sweden/577315/">Arhivat</a> în <time datetime="2019-11-13">13 noiembrie 2019</time>, la <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.", The Atlantic, December 6, 2018 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERascovanSjögrenKristiansenNielsen2018-35"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERascovanSjögrenKristiansenNielsen2018_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRascovanSjögrenKristiansenNielsen2018">Rascovan et al. 2018</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpyrouTukhbatovaWangValtueña2018-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpyrouTukhbatovaWangValtueña2018_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSpyrouTukhbatovaWangValtueña2018">Spyrou et al. 2018</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen201431ff-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen201431ff_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGreen2014">Green 2014</a>, pp. 31ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190727034311/https://phys.org/news/2013-05-modern-lab-ages-plague-dna.html">„Modern lab reaches across the ages to resolve plague DNA debate”</a>. phys.org. <time datetime="2013-05-20">20 mai 2013</time>. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://phys.org/news/2013-05-modern-lab-ages-plague-dna.html">original</a> la <time datetime="2019-07-27">27 iulie 2019</time>. Accesat în <time datetime="2020-03-22">22 martie 2020</time>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Modern+lab+reaches+across+the+ages+to+resolve+plague+DNA+debate&rft.pub=phys.org&rft.date=2013-05-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphys.org%2Fnews%2F2013-05-modern-lab-ages-plague-dna.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Maria Cheng (<time datetime="2014-01-28">28 ianuarie 2014</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150323062353/http://news.nationalpost.com/2014/01/28/plague-dna-found-in-ancient-teeth-shows-medieval-black-death-1500-year-pandemic-caused-by-same-disease/">„Plague DNA found in ancient teeth shows medieval Black Death, 1,500-year pandemic caused by same disease”</a>. National Post. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.nationalpost.com/2014/01/28/plague-dna-found-in-ancient-teeth-shows-medieval-black-death-1500-year-pandemic-caused-by-same-disease/">original</a> la <time datetime="2015-03-23">23 martie 2015</time>. 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The Guardian. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/mar/29/black-death-not-spread-rat-fleas-london-plague">original</a> la <time datetime="2014-03-30">30 martie 2014</time>. Accesat în <time datetime="2014-03-29">29 martie 2014</time>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Black+death+was+not+spread+by+rat+fleas%2C+say+researchers&rft.date=2014-03-29&rft.aulast=Thorpe&rft.aufirst=Vanessa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fscience%2F2014%2Fmar%2F29%2Fblack-death-not-spread-rat-fleas-london-plague&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <cite class="citation news">Morgan, James (<time datetime="2014-03-30">30 martie 2014</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171225001808/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-26770334">„Black Death skeletons unearthed by Crossrail project”</a>. BBC News (în engleză). Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-26770334">original</a> la <time datetime="2017-12-25">25 decembrie 2017</time>. Accesat în <time datetime="2017-08-20">20 august 2017</time>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Black+Death+skeletons+unearthed+by+Crossrail+project&rft.date=2014-03-30&rft.aulast=Morgan&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fscience-environment-26770334&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <cite class="citation journal"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/pastj/gtz060">„Erratum to: The Path to Pistoia: Urban Hygiene Before the Black Death”</a>. Past & Present. <time datetime="2019-11-14">14 noiembrie 2019</time>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpastj%2Fgtz060">10.1093/pastj/gtz060</a> <img alt="Accesibil gratuit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0031-2746">0031-2746</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Past+%26+Present&rft.atitle=Erratum+to%3A+The+Path+to+Pistoia%3A+Urban+Hygiene+Before+the+Black+Death&rft.date=2019-11-14&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fpastj%2Fgtz060&rft.issn=0031-2746&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%2Fpastj%2Fgtz060&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <cite class="citation news">Wade, Nicholas (<time datetime="2010-10-31">31 octombrie 2010</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101104083917/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/01/health/01plague.html">„Europe's Plagues Came From China, Study Finds”</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/01/health/01plague.html">original</a> la <time datetime="2010-11-04">4 noiembrie 2010</time>. Accesat în <time datetime="2020-03-25">25 martie 2020</time>. <q>The great waves of plague that twice devastated Europe and changed the course of history had their origins in China, a team of medical geneticists reported Sunday, as did a third plague outbreak that struck less harmfully in the 19th century. ... In the issue of Nature Genetics published online Sunday, they conclude that all three of the great waves of plague originated from China, where the root of their tree is situated. ... The likely origin of the plague in China has nothing to do with its people or crowded cities, Dr. Achtman said. The bacterium has no interest in people, whom it slaughters by accident. Its natural hosts are various species of rodent such as marmots and voles, which are found throughout China.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Europe%27s+Plagues+Came+From+China%2C+Study+Finds&rft.date=2010-10-31&rft.aulast=Wade&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2010%2F11%2F01%2Fhealth%2F01plague.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorelliSongMazzoniEppinger2010-59"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorelliSongMazzoniEppinger2010_59-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMorelliSongMazzoniEppinger2010">Morelli et al. 2010</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Galina Eroshenko et al. 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The Daily Telegraph. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/8102278/Black-Death-may-have-originated-in-China.html">original</a> la <time datetime="2017-10-18">18 octombrie 2017</time>. Accesat în <time datetime="2018-04-02">2 aprilie 2018</time>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Telegraph&rft.atitle=Black+Death+may+have+originated+in+China&rft.date=2010-11-01&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=Malcolm&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworldnews%2Fasia%2Fchina%2F8102278%2FBlack-Death-may-have-originated-in-China.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Kohn, George C. (<time datetime="2008">2008</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190331195953/https://books.google.com/books?id=tzRwRmb09rgC&pg=PA31">Encyclopedia of plague and pestilence: from ancient times to the present</a>. Infobase Publishing. p. 31. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/978-0-8160-6935-4" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/978-0-8160-6935-4">978-0-8160-6935-4</a>. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tzRwRmb09rgC&pg=PA31">original</a> la <time datetime="2019-03-31">31 martie 2019</time>. Accesat în <time datetime="2015-10-16">16 octombrie 2015</time>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+plague+and+pestilence%3A+from+ancient+times+to+the+present&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-6935-4&rft.aulast=Kohn&rft.aufirst=George+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtzRwRmb09rgC%26pg%3DPA31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHecker1859">Hecker 1859</a>, p. 21. cited by Ziegler, p. 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESussman2011-65">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESussman2011_65-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESussman2011_65-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSussman2011">Sussman 2011</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenedictow200448-49-66"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenedictow200448-49_66-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBenedictow2004">Benedictow 2004</a>, p. 48-49. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenedictow200450-51-67"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenedictow200450-51_67-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBenedictow2004">Benedictow 2004</a>, p. 50-51. </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Naphy, William; Andrew Spicer. La peste in Europa. Il Mulino. pp. 29–30. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/978-88-15-10967-5" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/978-88-15-10967-5">978-88-15-10967-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/68598883">68598883</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+peste+in+Europa&rft.pages=29-30&rft.pub=Il+Mulino&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F68598883&rft.isbn=978-88-15-10967-5&rft.aulast=Naphy&rft.aufirst=William&rft.au=Andrew+Spicer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537">. </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Zuchora-Walske, Christine. Poland. Countries of the World. ABDO. p. 53. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/978-1-61783-634-3" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/978-1-61783-634-3">978-1-61783-634-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poland.+Countries+of+the+World&rft.pages=53&rft.pub=ABDO&rft.isbn=978-1-61783-634-3&rft.aulast=Zuchora-Walske&rft.aufirst=Christine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelis2002-70"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelis2002_70-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWheelis2002">Wheelis 2002</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarrasGreub2014-71"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarrasGreub2014_71-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBarrasGreub2014">Barras & Greub 2014</a>. "In the Middle Ages, a famous although controversial example is offered by the siege of Caffa (now Feodossia in Ukraine/Crimea), a Genovese outpost on the Black Sea coast, by the Mongols. In 1346, the attacking army experienced an epidemic of bubonic plague. The Italian chronicler Gabriele de’ Mussi, in his Istoria de Morbo sive Mortalitate quae fuit Anno Domini 1348, describes quite plausibly how plague was transmitted by the Mongols by throwing diseased cadavers with catapults into the besieged city, and how ships transporting Genovese soldiers, fleas and rats fleeing from there brought it to the Mediterranean ports. Given the highly complex epidemiology of plague, this interpretation of the Black Death (which might have killed >25 million people in the following years throughout Europe) as stemming from a specific and localized origin of the Black Death remains controversial. Similarly, it remains doubtful whether the effect of throwing infected cadavers could have been the sole cause of the outburst of an epidemic in the besieged city." </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Byrne, Joseph Patrick (<time datetime="2012">2012</time>). „Caffa (Kaffa, Fyodosia), Ukraine”. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5KtDfvlSrDAC">Encyclopedia of the Black Death</a> (în engleză). Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. p. 65. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/978-1-59884-253-1" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/978-1-59884-253-1">978-1-59884-253-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Caffa+%28Kaffa%2C+Fyodosia%29%2C+Ukraine&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Black+Death&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+California&rft.pages=65&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-59884-253-1&rft.aulast=Byrne&rft.aufirst=Joseph+Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5KtDfvlSrDAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-73">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_73-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_73-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_73-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_73-3">d</a> <cite class="citation book">Byrne, Joseph Patrick. (<time datetime="2012">2012</time>). „Constantinople/Istanbul”. Encyclopedia of the Black Death. Santa Barbara, California.: ABC-CLIO. p. 87. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/978-1-59884-254-8" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/978-1-59884-254-8">978-1-59884-254-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/769344478">769344478</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Constantinople%2FIstanbul&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Black+Death&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+California.&rft.pages=87&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F769344478&rft.isbn=978-1-59884-254-8&rft.au=Byrne%2C+Joseph+Patrick.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> Michael of Piazza (Platiensis) Bibliotheca scriptorum qui res in Sicilia gestas retulere Vol 1, p. 562, cited in Ziegler, 1998, p. 40. </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> De Smet, Vol II, Breve Chronicon, p. 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191119072556/https://www.historytoday.com/archive/black-death-greatest-catastrophe-ever">„The Black Death: The Greatest Catastrophe Ever”</a>. English. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historytoday.com/archive/black-death-greatest-catastrophe-ever">original</a> la <time datetime="2019-11-19">19 noiembrie 2019</time>. Accesat în <time datetime="2019-11-18">18 noiembrie 2019</time>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=English&rft.atitle=The+Black+Death%3A+The+Greatest+Catastrophe+Ever&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.historytoday.com%2Farchive%2Fblack-death-greatest-catastrophe-ever&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKarlsson2000111-77"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKarlsson2000111_77-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKarlsson2000">Karlsson 2000</a>, p. 111. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZuchora-Walske2013-78"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZuchora-Walske2013_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZuchora-Walske2013">Zuchora-Walske 2013</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWelfordBoddak2010-79"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWelfordBoddak2010_79-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWelfordBoddak2010">Welford & Boddak 2010</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> Curtis DR, Roosen J. The sex-selective impact of the Black Death and recurring plagues in the Southern Netherlands, 1349–1450. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2017;164:246-259. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.23266 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESamiaKausrudHeesterbeekAgeyev2011-81"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamiaKausrudHeesterbeekAgeyev2011_81-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSamiaKausrudHeesterbeekAgeyev2011">Samia et al. 2011</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECohn2008-82"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohn2008_82-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCohn2008">Cohn 2008</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=JcdONPwL2wC&oi=fnd&pg=PA7&dq(2004)+Städtesystem+und+Urbanisierung+im+Ostseeraum+in+der+frühen+Neuzeit:+Wirtschaft,+Baukultur+und+historische+Informationssysteme:+Beiträge+des+wissenschaftlichen+Kolloquiums+in+Wismar+vom+4.+und+5.+September+2003+(LIT,+Munster,+Germany).+German&ots=LZxtzWCMOs&sig=LoUQxk7KqmBkeqOgfZpC4tmByRE#v=onepage&q&f=false">Stefan Kroll</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Leg%C4%83turi_externe" title="Wikipedia:Legături externe">nefuncțională</a>], Kersten Krüger (2004). LIT Verlag Berlin. <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/3-8258-8778-2" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/3-8258-8778-2">ISBN: 3-8258-8778-2</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <cite class="citation magazine">Baggaley, Kate (<time datetime="2015-02-24">24 februarie 2015</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150224160907/https://www.sciencenews.org/article/bubonic-plague-was-serial-visitor-european-middle-ages">„Bubonic plague was a serial visitor in European Middle Ages”</a>. Science News. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencenews.org/article/bubonic-plague-was-serial-visitor-european-middle-ages">original</a> la <time datetime="2015-02-24">24 februarie 2015</time>. Accesat în <time datetime="2015-02-24">24 februarie 2015</time>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bubonic+plague+was+a+serial+visitor+in+European+Middle+Ages&rft.date=2015-02-24&rft.aulast=Baggaley&rft.aufirst=Kate&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencenews.org%2Farticle%2Fbubonic-plague-was-serial-visitor-european-middle-ages&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmid2015-85"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmid2015_85-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchmid2015">Schmid 2015</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Baten-87"><a href="#cite_ref-Baten_87-0">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Baten, Joerg; Koepke, Nikola (<time datetime="2005">2005</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/ereh/issue.">„The Biological Standard of Living in Europe during the Last Two Millennia”</a>. European Review of Economic History. 9 (1): 61–95. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1361491604001388">10.1017/S1361491604001388</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Handle_System&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Handle System — pagină inexistentă">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//hdl.handle.net/10419%2F47594">10419/47594</a> <img alt="Accesibil gratuit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /> – via EBSCO.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Review+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=The+Biological+Standard+of+Living+in+Europe+during+the+Last+Two+Millennia&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=61-95&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10419%2F47594&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1361491604001388&rft.aulast=Baten&rft.aufirst=Joerg&rft.au=Koepke%2C+Nikola&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fereh%2Fissue.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2018-88">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2018_88-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2018_88-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGreen2018">Green 2018</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-89">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_89-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_89-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_89-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_89-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_89-4">e</a> <cite class="citation book">Byrne, Joseph Patrick (<time datetime="2012">2012</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5KtDfvlSrDAC">Encyclopedia of the Black Death</a> (în engleză). Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. p. 51. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/978-1-59884-253-1" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/978-1-59884-253-1">978-1-59884-253-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Black+Death&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+California&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-59884-253-1&rft.aulast=Byrne&rft.aufirst=Joseph+Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5KtDfvlSrDAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-90">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:7_90-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_90-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_90-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_90-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_90-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_90-5">f</a> <cite class="citation book">Byrne, Joseph Patrick. (<time datetime="2012">2012</time>). „Cairo, Egypt”. Encyclopedia of the Black Death. 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English. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thegreatcourses.com/courses/an-economic-history-of-the-world-since-1400.html">original</a> la <time datetime="2018-07-25">25 iulie 2018</time>. Accesat în <time datetime="2018-05-23">23 mai 2018</time>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=English&rft.atitle=An+Economic+History+of+the+World+since+1400&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thegreatcourses.com%2Fcourses%2Fan-economic-history-of-the-world-since-1400.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Sadek, Noha (<time datetime="2006">2006</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P-pGDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT956">„Rasulids”</a>. În Meri, Josef. Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia – Volume II: L–Z (în engleză). Routledge. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/978-1-351-66813-2" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/978-1-351-66813-2">978-1-351-66813-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rasulids&rft.btitle=Medieval+Islamic+Civilization%3A+An+Encyclopedia+%E2%80%93+Volume+II%3A+L%E2%80%93Z&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-351-66813-2&rft.aulast=Sadek&rft.aufirst=Noha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DP-pGDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT956&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> R. 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Human Biology. 77 (3): 291–303. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fhub.2005.0051">10.1353/hub.2005.0051</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16392633">16392633</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Biology&rft.atitle=Duration+assessment+of+urban+mortality+for+the+14th+century+Black+Death+epidemic&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=291-303&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fhub.2005.0051&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16392633&rft.au=Olea+Ricardo+A.&rft.au=Christakos+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ABC/Reuters-102"><a href="#cite_ref-ABC/Reuters_102-0">^</a> <cite class="citation news">ABC/Reuters (<time datetime="2008-01-29">29 ianuarie 2008</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161220120404/http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2008/01/29/2149185.htm">„Black death 'discriminated' between victims (ABC News in Science)”</a>. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2008/01/29/2149185.htm">original</a> la <time datetime="2016-12-20">20 decembrie 2016</time>. Accesat în <time datetime="2008-11-03">3 noiembrie 2008</time>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Black+death+%27discriminated%27+between+victims+%28ABC+News+in+Science%29&rft.date=2008-01-29&rft.au=ABC%2FReuters&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.abc.net.au%2Fscience%2Farticles%2F2008%2F01%2F29%2F2149185.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Black_Death's_Gene_Code_Cracked-103"><a href="#cite_ref-Black_Death's_Gene_Code_Cracked_103-0">^</a> <cite class="citation news"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150426160438/http://archive.wired.com/medtech/health/news/2001/10/47288">„Black Death's Gene Code Cracked”</a>. Wired. <time datetime="2001-10-03">3 octombrie 2001</time>. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.wired.com/medtech/health/news/2001/10/47288">original</a> la <time datetime="2015-04-26">26 aprilie 2015</time>. Accesat în <time datetime="2015-02-12">12 februarie 2015</time>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wired&rft.atitle=Black+Death%27s+Gene+Code+Cracked&rft.date=2001-10-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.wired.com%2Fmedtech%2Fhealth%2Fnews%2F2001%2F10%2F47288&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Health._De-coding_the_Black_Death-104"><a href="#cite_ref-Health._De-coding_the_Black_Death_104-0">^</a> <cite class="citation news"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170707042715/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/1576875.stm">„Health. De-coding the Black Death”</a>. BBC. <time datetime="2001-10-03">3 octombrie 2001</time>. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/1576875.stm">original</a> la <time datetime="2017-07-07">7 iulie 2017</time>. Accesat în <time datetime="2008-11-03">3 noiembrie 2008</time>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Health.+De-coding+the+Black+Death&rft.date=2001-10-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fhealth%2F1576875.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cohn_2010-105">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cohn_2010_105-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohn_2010_105-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohn_2010_105-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohn_2010_105-3">d</a> <cite class="citation book">Cohn, Samuel K. (<time datetime="2010">2010</time>). „Black Death, social and economic impact of the”. În Bjork, Robert E. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662624.001.0001/acref-9780198662624-e-0907">The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198662624.001.0001">10.1093/acref/9780198662624.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/978-0-19-866262-4" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/978-0-19-866262-4">978-0-19-866262-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Black+Death%2C+social+and+economic+impact+of+the&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+the+Middle+Ages&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198662624.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-866262-4&rft.aulast=Cohn&rft.aufirst=Samuel+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198662624.001.0001%2Facref-9780198662624-e-0907&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-106">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_106-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_106-1">b</a> <cite class="citation journal">Antoine, Daniel (<time datetime="2008">2008</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0025727300072112/type/journal_article">„5 The Archaeology of "Plague"”</a>. Medical History (în engleză). 52 (S27): 101–114. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025727300072112">10.1017/S0025727300072112</a> <img alt="Accesibil gratuit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0025-7273">0025-7273</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medical+History&rft.atitle=5+The+Archaeology+of+%22Plague%22&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=S27&rft.pages=101-114&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025727300072112&rft.issn=0025-7273&rft.aulast=Antoine&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fproduct%2Fidentifier%2FS0025727300072112%2Ftype%2Fjournal_article&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Daileader-107">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Daileader_107-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Daileader_107-1">b</a> Philip Daileader, The Late Middle Ages, audio/video course produced by The Teaching Company, (2007) <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/978-1-59803-345-8" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/978-1-59803-345-8">ISBN: 978-1-59803-345-8</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Benedictow-109">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Benedictow_109-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Benedictow_109-1">b</a> Ole J. Benedictow, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historytoday.com/ole-j-benedictow/black-death-greatest-catastrophe-ever">"The Black Death: The Greatest Catastrophe Ever"</a>, History Today Volume 55 Issue 3 March 2005 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161103234057/http://www.historytoday.com/ole-j-benedictow/black-death-greatest-catastrophe-ever">Arhivat</a> în <time datetime="2016-11-03">3 noiembrie 2016</time>, la <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.). Cf. Benedictow, The Black Death 1346–1353: The Complete History, Boydell Press (2012), pp. 380ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Snell, Melissa (<time datetime="2006">2006</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090310140601/http://historymedren.about.com/od/theblackdeath/a/greatmortality_2.htm">„The Great Mortality”</a>. Historymedren.about.com. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://historymedren.about.com/od/theblackdeath/a/greatmortality_2.htm">original</a> la <time datetime="2009-03-10">10 martie 2009</time>. Accesat în <time datetime="2009-04-19">19 aprilie 2009</time>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Great+Mortality&rft.pub=Historymedren.about.com&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Snell&rft.aufirst=Melissa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistorymedren.about.com%2Fod%2Ftheblackdeath%2Fa%2Fgreatmortality_2.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDickPringleSloaneCarver2015-112"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDickPringleSloaneCarver2015_112-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDickPringleSloaneCarver2015">Dick et al. 2015</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Richard Wunderli (<time datetime="1992">1992</time>). Peasant Fires: The Drummer of Niklashausen. Indiana University Press. p. 52. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/978-0-253-36725-9" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/978-0-253-36725-9">978-0-253-36725-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peasant+Fires%3A+The+Drummer+of+Niklashausen&rft.pages=52&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-253-36725-9&rft.au=Richard+Wunderli&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennettHollister2006329-115"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBennettHollister2006329_115-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBennettHollister2006">Bennett & Hollister 2006</a>, p. 329. </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-116">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_116-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_116-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_116-2">c</a> <cite class="citation book">Byrne, Joseph Patrick (<time datetime="2012">2012</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5KtDfvlSrDAC&pg=PA354">„Vinario, Raimundo Chalmel de (Magister Raimundus; Chalmelli; Chalin; d. after 1382)”</a>. Encyclopedia of the Black Death (în engleză). Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. p. 354. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/978-1-59884-253-1" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/978-1-59884-253-1">978-1-59884-253-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Vinario%2C+Raimundo+Chalmel+de+%28Magister+Raimundus%3B+Chalmelli%3B+Chalin%3B+d.+after+1382%29&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Black+Death&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+California&rft.pages=354&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-59884-253-1&rft.aulast=Byrne&rft.aufirst=Joseph+Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5KtDfvlSrDAC%26pg%3DPA354&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Kathryn Jean Lopez (<time datetime="2005-09-14">14 septembrie 2005</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120216075334/http://old.nationalreview.com/interrogatory/kelly200509140843.asp">„Q&A with John Kelly on The Great Mortality on National Review Online”</a>. 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Accesat în <time datetime="2021-01-16">16 ianuarie 2021</time>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Scientist&rft.atitle=The+Bright+Side+of+the+Black+Death&rft.date=2017-02-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanscientist.org%2Farticle%2Fthe-bright-side-of-the-black-death&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGottfried1983131-154">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGottfried1983131_154-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGottfried1983131_154-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGottfried1983">Gottfried 1983</a>, p. 131. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBray200471-155"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBray200471_155-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBray2004">Bray 2004</a>, p. 71. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBray200472-156"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBray200472_156-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBray2004">Bray 2004</a>, p. 72. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hays-157"><a href="#cite_ref-Hays_157-0">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Hays, J. 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University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/978-0-520-22154-3" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/978-0-520-22154-3">978-0-520-22154-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Confusions+of+Pleasure%3A+Commerce+and+Culture+in+Ming+China&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1999-09&rft.isbn=978-0-520-22154-3&rft.aulast=Brook&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYuMcHWWbXqMC%26pg%3DPA163%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Ch’iu, Chung-lin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ihp.sinica.edu.tw/~bihp/75/75.2/chiu.htm">„The Epidemics in Ming Beijing and the Responses from the Empire's Public Health System”</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Epidemics+in+Ming+Beijing+and+the+Responses+from+the+Empire%E2%80%99s+Public+Health+System&rft.aulast=Ch%E2%80%99iu&rft.aufirst=Chung-lin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ihp.sinica.edu.tw%2F~bihp%2F75%2F75.2%2Fchiu.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Present_State_of_Russia-160"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Present_State_of_Russia_160-0">^</a> Collins S. 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Emerging Infectious Diseases (în engleză). 18 (1): 186–188. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3201%2Feid1801.110597">10.3201/eid1801.110597</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3310102">3310102</a> <img alt="Accesibil gratuit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22260781">22260781</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Emerging+Infectious+Diseases&rft.atitle=Plague+Epidemic+in+the+Kingdom+of+Naples%2C+1656%E2%80%931658&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=186-188&rft.date=2012&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3310102&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22260781&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3201%2Feid1801.110597&rft.aulast=Scasciamacchia&rft.aufirst=Silvia&rft.au=Serrecchia%2C+Luigina&rft.au=Giangrossi%2C+Luigi&rft.au=Garofolo%2C+Giuliano&rft.au=Balestrucci%2C+Antonio&rft.au=Sammartino%2C+Gilberto&rft.au=Fasanella%2C+Antonio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwwwnc.cdc.gov%2Feid%2Farticle%2F18%2F1%2F11-0597_article&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Iran-163"><a href="#cite_ref-Iran_163-0">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Hashemi Shahraki, A.; Carniel, E.; Mostafavi, E. 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Epidemiology and Health. 38: e2016033. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4178%2Fepih.e2016033">10.4178/epih.e2016033</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5037359">5037359</a> <img alt="Accesibil gratuit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27457063">27457063</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Epidemiology+and+Health&rft.atitle=Plague+in+Iran%3A+its+history+and+current+status&rft.volume=38&rft.pages=e2016033&rft.date=2016&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5037359&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27457063&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4178%2Fepih.e2016033&rft.aulast=Hashemi+Shahraki&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Carniel%2C+E.&rft.au=Mostafavi%2C+E.&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5037359&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikhail201443-164"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMikhail201443_164-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMikhail2014">Mikhail 2014</a>, p. 43. </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Chase-Levenson, Alex (<time datetime="2020">2020</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zHzUDwAAQBAJ&q=1812++ottoman+plague&pg=PA31">The Yellow Flag: Quarantine and the British Mediterranean World, 1780–1860</a> (în engleză). 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A Hodder Arnold. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackdeathtransf00samu/page/336">336</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/0-340-70646-5" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/0-340-70646-5">0-340-70646-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+Death+Transformed%3A+Disease+and+Culture+in+Early+Renaissance+Europe&rft.pages=336&rft.pub=A+Hodder+Arnold&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-340-70646-5&rft.aulast=Cohn&rft.aufirst=Samuel+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fblackdeathtransf00samu%2Fpage%2F336&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/321/5890/773">Infectious Diseases: Plague Through History</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080817135739/http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/321/5890/773">Arhivat</a> în <time datetime="2008-08-17">17 august 2008</time>, la <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>., sciencemag.org </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sydney.edu.au/medicine/museum/mwmuseum/index.php/Bubonic_Plague_comes_to_Sydney_in_1900">Bubonic Plague comes to Sydney in 1900</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120210023117/http://sydney.edu.au/medicine/museum/mwmuseum/index.php/Bubonic_Plague_comes_to_Sydney_in_1900">Arhivat</a> în <time datetime="2012-02-10">10 februarie 2012</time>, la <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>., University of Sydney, Sydney Medical School </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChase2004-170"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChase2004_170-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChase2004">Chase 2004</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEchenberg2007-171"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEchenberg2007_171-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEchenberg2007">Echenberg 2007</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKraut1995-172"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKraut1995_172-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKraut1995">Kraut 1995</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Frater, Jamie (<time datetime="2009">2009</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3_65UNS3sbAC&pg=PA175">The Ultimate Book of Top Ten Lists: A Mind-Boggling Collection of Fun, Fascinating and Bizarre Facts on Movies, Music, Sports, Crime, Ce</a>. 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World Health Organisation. <time datetime="2014-11-21">21 noiembrie 2014</time>. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/csr/don/21-november-2014-plague/en/">original</a> la <time datetime="2019-05-02">2 mai 2019</time>. Accesat în <time datetime="2014-11-26">26 noiembrie 2014</time>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Plague+%E2%80%93+Madagascar&rft.pub=World+Health+Organisation&rft.date=2014-11-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fcsr%2Fdon%2F21-november-2014-plague%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <cite class="citation news">Wexler, Alexandra; Antoy, Amir (<time datetime="2017-11-16">16 noiembrie 2017</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171117010725/https://www.wsj.com/articles/madagascar-wrestles-with-worst-outbreak-of-plague-in-half-a-century-1510788541">„Madagascar Wrestles With Worst Outbreak of Plague in Half a Century”</a>. Wall Street Journal (în engleză). <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0099-9660">0099-9660</a>. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/madagascar-wrestles-with-worst-outbreak-of-plague-in-half-a-century-1510788541">original</a> la <time datetime="2017-11-17">17 noiembrie 2017</time>. Accesat în <time datetime="2017-11-17">17 noiembrie 2017</time>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=Madagascar+Wrestles+With+Worst+Outbreak+of+Plague+in+Half+a+Century&rft.date=2017-11-16&rft.issn=0099-9660&rft.aulast=Wexler&rft.aufirst=Alexandra&rft.au=Antoy%2C+Amir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fmadagascar-wrestles-with-worst-outbreak-of-plague-in-half-a-century-1510788541&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Centers for Disease Control (CDC) (<time datetime="2015-09-24">24 septembrie 2015</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190330171757/https://www.cdc.gov/plague/faq/index.html">„FAQ: Plague”</a>. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/plague/faq/index.html">original</a> la <time datetime="2019-03-30">30 martie 2019</time>. Accesat în <time datetime="2017-04-24">24 aprilie 2017</time>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=FAQ%3A+Plague&rft.date=2015-09-24&rft.au=Centers+for+Disease+Control+%28CDC%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fplague%2Ffaq%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> </li> </ol></div></div>Bibliografie <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r12727094">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{list-style-type:none;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>dl>dd{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-100{font-size:100%}</style><div class="refbegin columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><cite class="citation book">Aberth, John (<time datetime="2010">2010</time>) [2000]. From the Brink of the Apocalypse: Confronting Famine, War, Plague and Death in the Later Middle Ages (ed. second). Routledge. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/9781134724802" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/9781134724802">9781134724802</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+the+Brink+of+the+Apocalypse%3A+Confronting+Famine%2C+War%2C+Plague+and+Death+in+the+Later+Middle+Ages&rft.edition=second&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781134724802&rft.aulast=Aberth&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation journal">Andrades Valtueña, Aida; Mittnik, Alissa; Key, Felix M.; Haak, Wolfgang; Allmäe, Raili; Belinskij, Andrej; Daubaras, Mantas; Feldman, Michal; Jankauskas, Rimantas; Janković, Ivor; Massy, Ken (<time datetime="2017">2017</time>). „The Stone Age Plague and Its Persistence in Eurasia”. Current Biology. 27 (23): 3683–3691.e8. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2017.10.025">10.1016/j.cub.2017.10.025</a> <img alt="Accesibil gratuit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29174893">29174893</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Biology&rft.atitle=The+Stone+Age+Plague+and+Its+Persistence+in+Eurasia&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=23&rft.pages=3683-3691.e8&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cub.2017.10.025&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29174893&rft.aulast=Andrades+Valtue%C3%B1a&rft.aufirst=Aida&rft.au=Mittnik%2C+Alissa&rft.au=Key%2C+Felix+M.&rft.au=Haak%2C+Wolfgang&rft.au=Allm%C3%A4e%2C+Raili&rft.au=Belinskij%2C+Andrej&rft.au=Daubaras%2C+Mantas&rft.au=Feldman%2C+Michal&rft.au=Jankauskas%2C+Rimantas&rft.au=Jankovi%C4%87%2C+Ivor&rft.au=Massy%2C+Ken&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Arrizabalaga, Jon (<time datetime="2010">2010</time>). „Plague and epidemics”. În Bjork, Robert E. The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages (în engleză). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198662624.001.0001">10.1093/acref/9780198662624.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/978-0-19-866262-4" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/978-0-19-866262-4">978-0-19-866262-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Plague+and+epidemics&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+the+Middle+Ages&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198662624.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-866262-4&rft.aulast=Arrizabalaga&rft.aufirst=Jon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Austin Alchon, Suzanne (<time datetime="2003">2003</time>). A pest in the land: new world epidemics in a global perspective. University of New Mexico Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/978-0-8263-2871-7" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/978-0-8263-2871-7">978-0-8263-2871-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+pest+in+the+land%3A+new+world+epidemics+in+a+global+perspective&rft.pub=University+of+New+Mexico+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8263-2871-7&rft.aulast=Austin+Alchon&rft.aufirst=Suzanne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation journal">Barras, Vincent; Greub, Gilbert (<time datetime="2014">2014</time>). „History of biological warfare and bioterrorism”. Clinical Microbiology and Infection. 20 (6): 498. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1469-0691.12706">10.1111/1469-0691.12706</a> <img alt="Accesibil gratuit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24894605">24894605</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Microbiology+and+Infection&rft.atitle=History+of+biological+warfare+and+bioterrorism&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=498&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1469-0691.12706&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24894605&rft.aulast=Barras&rft.aufirst=Vincent&rft.au=Greub%2C+Gilbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Benedictow, Ole Jørgen (<time datetime="2004">2004</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZtjwPOB7aMkC">Black Death 1346–1353: The Complete History</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/978-1-84383-214-0" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/978-1-84383-214-0">978-1-84383-214-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Death+1346%E2%80%931353%3A+The+Complete+History&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-84383-214-0&rft.aulast=Benedictow&rft.aufirst=Ole+J%C3%B8rgen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZtjwPOB7aMkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Bennett, J. M.; Hollister, C. W. (<time datetime="2006">2006</time>). Medieval Europe: A Short History. New York: McGraw-Hill. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/9780072955156" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/9780072955156">9780072955156</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Europe%3A+A+Short+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780072955156&rft.aulast=Bennett&rft.aufirst=J.+M.&rft.au=Hollister%2C+C.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation journal">Bos, KI; Schuenemann, VJ; Golding, GB; Burbano, HA; Waglechner, N; Coombes, BK; McPhee, JB; DeWitte, SN; Meyer, M; Schmedes, S; Wood, J; Earn, DJ; Herring, DA; Bauer, P; Poinar, HN; Krause, J (<time datetime="2011-10-12">12 octombrie 2011</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3690193">„A draft genome of Yersinia pestis from victims of the Black Death”</a>. Nature. 478 (7370): 506–10. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011Natur.478..506B">2011Natur.478..506B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature10549">10.1038/nature10549</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3690193">3690193</a> <img alt="Accesibil gratuit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21993626">21993626</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=A+draft+genome+of+Yersinia+pestis+from+victims+of+the+Black+Death&rft.volume=478&rft.issue=7370&rft.pages=506-10&rft.date=2011-10-12&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3690193&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21993626&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature10549&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011Natur.478..506B&rft.aulast=Bos&rft.aufirst=KI&rft.au=Schuenemann%2C+VJ&rft.au=Golding%2C+GB&rft.au=Burbano%2C+HA&rft.au=Waglechner%2C+N&rft.au=Coombes%2C+BK&rft.au=McPhee%2C+JB&rft.au=DeWitte%2C+SN&rft.au=Meyer%2C+M&rft.au=Schmedes%2C+S&rft.au=Wood%2C+J&rft.au=Earn%2C+DJ&rft.au=Herring%2C+DA&rft.au=Bauer%2C+P&rft.au=Poinar%2C+HN&rft.au=Krause%2C+J&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3690193&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation journal">Bramanti, Barbara; Stenseth, Nils Chr; Walløe, Lars; Lei, Xu (<time datetime="2016">2016</time>). „Plague: A Disease Which Changed the Path of Human Civilization”. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. 918: 1–26. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-024-0890-4_1">10.1007/978-94-024-0890-4_1</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/978-94-024-0888-1" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/978-94-024-0888-1">978-94-024-0888-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0065-2598">0065-2598</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27722858">27722858</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Advances+in+Experimental+Medicine+and+Biology&rft.atitle=Plague%3A+A+Disease+Which+Changed+the+Path+of+Human+Civilization&rft.volume=918&rft.pages=1-26&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-024-0890-4_1&rft.issn=0065-2598&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27722858&rft.isbn=978-94-024-0888-1&rft.aulast=Bramanti&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rft.au=Stenseth%2C+Nils+Chr&rft.au=Wall%C3%B8e%2C+Lars&rft.au=Lei%2C+Xu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Brotton, Jerry (<time datetime="2006">2006</time>). The Renaissance: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/0-19-280163-5" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/0-19-280163-5">0-19-280163-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Renaissance%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-19-280163-5&rft.aulast=Brotton&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation book">200, J. P. (<time datetime="2004">2004</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yw3HmjRvVQMC">The Black Death</a>. London: Greenwood Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/978-0-313-32492-5" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/978-0-313-32492-5">978-0-313-32492-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+Death&rft.pub=London%3A+Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-313-32492-5&rft.aulast=200&rft.aufirst=J.+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dyw3HmjRvVQMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Chase, Marilyn (<time datetime="2004">2004</time>). The Barbary Plague: The Black Death in Victorian San Francisco. Random House Digital. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/978-0-375-75708-2" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/978-0-375-75708-2">978-0-375-75708-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Barbary+Plague%3A+The+Black+Death+in+Victorian+San+Francisco&rft.pub=Random+House+Digital&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-375-75708-2&rft.aulast=Chase&rft.aufirst=Marilyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation journal">Cohn, Samuel K. (<time datetime="2008">2008</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2630035">„Epidemiology of the Black Death and Successive Waves of Plague”</a>. Medical History. 52 (27): 74–100. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025727300072100">10.1017/S0025727300072100</a> <img alt="Accesibil gratuit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2630035">2630035</a> <img alt="Accesibil gratuit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18575083">18575083</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medical+History&rft.atitle=Epidemiology+of+the+Black+Death+and+Successive+Waves+of+Plague&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=27&rft.pages=74-100&rft.date=2008&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2630035&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18575083&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025727300072100&rft.aulast=Cohn&rft.aufirst=Samuel+K.&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2630035&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Cohn, Samuel K. (<time datetime="2010">2010</time>). „Black Death, social and economic impact of the”. În Bjork, Robert E. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662624.001.0001/acref-9780198662624-e-0907">The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198662624.001.0001">10.1093/acref/9780198662624.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/978-0-19-866262-4" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/978-0-19-866262-4">978-0-19-866262-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Black+Death%2C+social+and+economic+impact+of+the&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+the+Middle+Ages&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198662624.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-866262-4&rft.aulast=Cohn&rft.aufirst=Samuel+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198662624.001.0001%2Facref-9780198662624-e-0907&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Christakos, George; Olea, Ricardo A.; Serre, Marc L.; Yu, Hwa-Lung; Wang, Lin-Lin (<time datetime="2005">2005</time>). Interdisciplinary Public Health Reasoning and Epidemic Modelling: the Case of Black Death. Springer. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/978-3-540-25794-3" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/978-3-540-25794-3">978-3-540-25794-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Interdisciplinary+Public+Health+Reasoning+and+Epidemic+Modelling%3A+the+Case+of+Black+Death&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-3-540-25794-3&rft.aulast=Christakos&rft.aufirst=George&rft.au=Olea%2C+Ricardo+A.&rft.au=Serre%2C+Marc+L.&rft.au=Yu%2C+Hwa-Lung&rft.au=Wang%2C+Lin-Lin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Davis, Robert (<time datetime="2004">2004</time>). Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800. Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/1-4039-4551-9" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/1-4039-4551-9">1-4039-4551-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christian+Slaves%2C+Muslim+Masters%3A+White+Slavery+in+the+Mediterranean%2C+the+Barbary+Coast+and+Italy%2C+1500%E2%80%931800&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1-4039-4551-9&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation journal">Dean, Katharine R.; Krauer, Fabienne; Walløe, Lars; Lingjærde, Ole Christian; Bramanti, Barbara; Stenseth, Nils Chr; Schmid, Boris V. 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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (în engleză). 115 (6): 1304–09. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1715640115">10.1073/pnas.1715640115</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424">0027-8424</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5819418">5819418</a> <img alt="Accesibil gratuit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29339508">29339508</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Human+ectoparasites+and+the+spread+of+plague+in+Europe+during+the+Second+Pandemic&rft.volume=115&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1304-09&rft.date=2018&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5819418&rft.issn=0027-8424&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29339508&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1715640115&rft.aulast=Dean&rft.aufirst=Katharine+R.&rft.au=Krauer%2C+Fabienne&rft.au=Wall%C3%B8e%2C+Lars&rft.au=Lingj%C3%A6rde%2C+Ole+Christian&rft.au=Bramanti%2C+Barbara&rft.au=Stenseth%2C+Nils+Chr&rft.au=Schmid%2C+Boris+V.&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5819418&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation journal">Deleo, Frank R.; Hinnebusch, B Joseph (<time datetime="2005">2005</time>). „A plague upon the phagocytes”. Nature Medicine. 11 (9): 927–928. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnm0905-927">10.1038/nm0905-927</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16145573">16145573</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Medicine&rft.atitle=A+plague+upon+the+phagocytes&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=927-928&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnm0905-927&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16145573&rft.aulast=Deleo&rft.aufirst=Frank+R.&rft.au=Hinnebusch%2C+B+Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation journal">Dick, HC; Pringle, JK; Sloane, B; Carver, J; Wisneiwski, KD; Haffenden, A; Porter, S; Roberts, D; Cassidy, NJ (<time datetime="2015">2015</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180718223908/http://eprints.keele.ac.uk/500/1/pringle_may_15.pdf">„Detection and characterisation of Black Death burials by multi-proxy geophysical methods”</a> (PDF). Journal of Archaeological Science. 59: 132–41. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jas.2015.04.010">10.1016/j.jas.2015.04.010</a>. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eprints.keele.ac.uk/500/1/pringle_may_15.pdf">original</a> (PDF) la <time datetime="2018-07-18">18 iulie 2018</time>. 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Microbiology. 150 (2): 341–54. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1099%2Fmic.0.26594-0">10.1099/mic.0.26594-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14766912">14766912</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Microbiology&rft.atitle=Absence+of+Yersinia+pestis-specific+DNA+in+human+teeth+from+five+European+excavations+of+putative+plague+victims&rft.volume=150&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=341-54&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1099%2Fmic.0.26594-0&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14766912&rft.aulast=Gilbert&rft.aufirst=MTP&rft.au=Cuccui%2C+J&rft.au=White%2C+W&rft.au=Lynnerup%2C+N&rft.au=RW+Titball&rft.au=A+Cooper&rft.au=MB+Prentice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation journal">Green, Monica H. (<time datetime="2014">2014</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160408203736/http://scholarworks.wmich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?filename=2&article=1000&context=medieval_globe&type=additional">„Taking "Pandemic" Seriously: Making the Black Death Global”</a>. The Medieval Globe. 1: 27–61. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scholarworks.wmich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?filename=2&article=1000&context=medieval_globe&type=additional">original</a> la <time datetime="2016-04-08">8 aprilie 2016</time>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Medieval+Globe&rft.atitle=Taking+%22Pandemic%22+Seriously%3A+Making+the+Black+Death+Global&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=27-61&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Monica+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscholarworks.wmich.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Ffilename%3D2%26article%3D1000%26context%3Dmedieval_globe%26type%3Dadditional&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation journal">Green, Monica H. (<time datetime="2018">2018</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.openedition.org/afriques/2125">„Putting Africa on the Black Death map: Narratives from genetics and history”</a>. Afriques (9). <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4000%2Fafriques.2125">10.4000/afriques.2125</a> <img alt="Accesibil gratuit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Afriques&rft.atitle=Putting+Africa+on+the+Black+Death+map%3A+Narratives+from+genetics+and+history&rft.issue=9&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4000%2Fafriques.2125&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Monica+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.openedition.org%2Fafriques%2F2125&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Gottfried, Robert S. (<time datetime="2010">2010</time>) [1983]. Black Death. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/978-1-4391-1846-7" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/978-1-4391-1846-7">978-1-4391-1846-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Death&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4391-1846-7&rft.aulast=Gottfried&rft.aufirst=Robert+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Gould, George Milbry; Pyle, Walter Lytle (<time datetime="1896">1896</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030216154359/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer-new2?id=GouAnom.sgm&images=images%2Fmodeng&data=%2Ftexts%2Fenglish%2Fmodeng%2Fparsed&tag=public&part=18&division=div1">„Historic Epidemics”</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer-new2?id=GouAnom.sgm&images=images%2Fmodeng&data=%2Ftexts%2Fenglish%2Fmodeng%2Fparsed&tag=public&part=18&division=div1">Anomalies and Curiosities of Medicine</a>. Blacksleet River. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/978-1-4499-7722-1" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/978-1-4499-7722-1">978-1-4499-7722-1</a>. Arhivat din original în <time datetime="2003-02-16">16 februarie 2003</time>. Accesat în <time datetime="2020-05-03">3 mai 2020</time>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Historic+Epidemics&rft.btitle=Anomalies+and+Curiosities+of+Medicine&rft.pub=Blacksleet+River&rft.date=1896&rft.isbn=978-1-4499-7722-1&rft.aulast=Gould&rft.aufirst=George+Milbry&rft.au=Pyle%2C+Walter+Lytle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fetext.lib.virginia.edu%2Fetcbin%2Ftoccer-new2%3Fid%3DGouAnom.sgm%26images%3Dimages%2Fmodeng%26data%3D%2Ftexts%2Fenglish%2Fmodeng%2Fparsed%26tag%3Dpublic%26part%3D18%26division%3Ddiv1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> Mentenanță CS1: URL impropriu (<a href="/wiki/Categorie:Mentenan%C8%9B%C4%83_CS1:_URL_impropriu" title="Categorie:Mentenanță CS1: URL impropriu">link</a>) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation journal">Haddock, David D.; Kiesling, Lynne (<time datetime="2002">2002</time>). „The Black Death and Property Rights”. The Journal of Legal Studies. 31 (S2): 545–587. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F345566">10.1086/345566</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Legal+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Black+Death+and+Property+Rights&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=S2&rft.pages=545-587&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F345566&rft.aulast=Haddock&rft.aufirst=David+D.&rft.au=Kiesling%2C+Lynne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation journal">Haensch, Stephanie; Bianucci, Raffaella; Signoli, Michel; Rajerison, M; Schultz, M; Kacki, Sacha; Vermunt, M; Weston, DA; Hurst, D; Achtman, M; Carniel, E; Bramanti, B (<time datetime="2010">2010</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2951374">„Distinct Clones of Yersinia pestis Caused the Black Death”</a>. PLOS Pathogens. 6 (10): e1001134. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.ppat.1001134">10.1371/journal.ppat.1001134</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2951374">2951374</a> <img alt="Accesibil gratuit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20949072">20949072</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Pathogens&rft.atitle=Distinct+Clones+of+Yersinia+pestis+Caused+the+Black+Death&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=e1001134&rft.date=2010&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2951374&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20949072&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.ppat.1001134&rft.aulast=Haensch&rft.aufirst=Stephanie&rft.au=Bianucci%2C+Raffaella&rft.au=Signoli%2C+Michel&rft.au=Rajerison%2C+M&rft.au=Schultz%2C+M&rft.au=Kacki%2C+Sacha&rft.au=Vermunt%2C+M&rft.au=Weston%2C+DA&rft.au=Hurst%2C+D&rft.au=Achtman%2C+M&rft.au=Carniel%2C+E&rft.au=Bramanti%2C+B&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2951374&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Hatty, Suzanne E.; Hatty, James (<time datetime="1999">1999</time>). Disordered Body: Epidemic Disease and Cultural Transformation. State University of New York Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/978-0791443651" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/978-0791443651">978-0791443651</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Disordered+Body%3A+Epidemic+Disease+and+Cultural+Transformation&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0791443651&rft.aulast=Hatty&rft.aufirst=Suzanne+E.&rft.au=Hatty%2C+James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Hays, J. N. (<time datetime="1998">1998</time>). The burdens of disease: epidemics and human response in western history. Rutgers University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/0-8135-2528-4" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/0-8135-2528-4">0-8135-2528-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+burdens+of+disease%3A+epidemics+and+human+response+in+western+history&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-8135-2528-4&rft.aulast=Hays&rft.aufirst=J.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Hays, J. N. (<time datetime="2005">2005</time>). Epidemics and pandemics: their impacts on human history. ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/1-85109-658-2" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/1-85109-658-2">1-85109-658-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epidemics+and+pandemics%3A+their+impacts+on+human+history&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1-85109-658-2&rft.aulast=Hays&rft.aufirst=J.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Hecker, J. F. C. (<time datetime="1859">1859</time>). B. G. Babington (trans), ed. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/epidemicsofmiddl00heck">Epidemics of the Middle Ages</a>. 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Manchester: Manchester University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/978-0-7190-3498-5" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/978-0-7190-3498-5">978-0-7190-3498-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+Death&rft.place=Manchester&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-3498-5&rft.aulast=Horrox&rft.aufirst=Rosemary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Issawi, Charles Philip (<time datetime="1988">1988</time>). The Fertile Crescent, 1800–1914: a documentary economic history. 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Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/978-0-8018-5096-7" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/978-0-8018-5096-7">978-0-8018-5096-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Silent+travelers%3A+germs%2C+genes%2C+and+the+%22immigrant+menace%22&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-5096-7&rft.aulast=Kraut&rft.aufirst=Alan+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Moore, R. I. (<time datetime="1987">1987</time>). The Formation of a Persecuting Society. Oxford. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/0-631-17145-2" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/0-631-17145-2">0-631-17145-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Formation+of+a+Persecuting+Society&rft.place=Oxford&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-631-17145-2&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=R.+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation journal">Morelli, Giovanna; Song, Yajun; Mazzoni, Camila J.; Eppinger, Mark; Roumagnac, Philippe; Wagner, David M.; Feldkamp, Mirjam; Kusecek, Barica; Vogler, Amy J.; Li, Yanjun; Cui, Yujun; Thomson, Nicholas R.; Jombart, Thibaut; Leblois, Raphael; Lichtner, Peter; Rahalison, Lila; Petersen, Jeannine M.; Balloux, Francois; Keim, Paul; Wirth, Thierry; Ravel, Jacques; Yang, Ruifu; Carniel, Elisabeth; Achtman, Mark (<time datetime="2010">2010</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2999892">„Yersinia pestis genome sequencing identifies patterns of global phylogenetic diversity”</a>. Nature Genetics. 42 (12): 1140–43. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fng.705">10.1038/ng.705</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2999892">2999892</a> <img alt="Accesibil gratuit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21037571">21037571</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Genetics&rft.atitle=Yersinia+pestis+genome+sequencing+identifies+patterns+of+global+phylogenetic+diversity.&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=1140-43&rft.date=2010&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2999892&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21037571&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fng.705&rft.aulast=Morelli&rft.aufirst=Giovanna&rft.au=Song%2C+Yajun&rft.au=Mazzoni%2C+Camila+J.&rft.au=Eppinger%2C+Mark&rft.au=Roumagnac%2C+Philippe&rft.au=Wagner%2C+David+M.&rft.au=Feldkamp%2C+Mirjam&rft.au=Kusecek%2C+Barica&rft.au=Vogler%2C+Amy+J.&rft.au=Li%2C+Yanjun&rft.au=Cui%2C+Yujun&rft.au=Thomson%2C+Nicholas+R.&rft.au=Jombart%2C+Thibaut&rft.au=Leblois%2C+Raphael&rft.au=Lichtner%2C+Peter&rft.au=Rahalison%2C+Lila&rft.au=Petersen%2C+Jeannine+M.&rft.au=Balloux%2C+Francois&rft.au=Keim%2C+Paul&rft.au=Wirth%2C+Thierry&rft.au=Ravel%2C+Jacques&rft.au=Yang%2C+Ruifu&rft.au=Carniel%2C+Elisabeth&rft.au=Achtman%2C+Mark&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2999892&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFMunro2004" class="citation">Munro, John (<time datetime="2004">2004</time>), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/15748/1/MPRA_paper_15748.pdf">„Before and After the Black Death: Money, Prices, and Wages in Fourteenth-Century England”</a> (PDF), New Approaches to the History of Late Medieval and Early Modern Europe, The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters, pp. 335–364</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Before+and+After+the+Black+Death%3A+Money%2C+Prices%2C+and+Wages+in+Fourteenth-Century+England&rft.btitle=New+Approaches+to+the+History+of+Late+Medieval+and+Early+Modern+Europe&rft.pages=335-364&rft.pub=The+Royal+Danish+Academy+of+Sciences+and+Letters&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Munro&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de%2F15748%2F1%2FMPRA_paper_15748.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> <a href="/wiki/Acces_deschis" title="open access publication - free to read"><img alt="open access publication - free to read" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/8px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/12px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/16px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Nauert, Charles G. (<time datetime="2006">2006</time>). The A to Z of the Renaissance. Scarecrow Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/978-1461718963" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/978-1461718963">978-1461718963</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+A+to+Z+of+the+Renaissance&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1461718963&rft.aulast=Nauert&rft.aufirst=Charles+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Netzley, Patricia D. (<time datetime="1998">1998</time>). Life During the Renaissance. San Diego: Lucent Books, Inc. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/9781560063759" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/9781560063759">9781560063759</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+During+the+Renaissance&rft.place=San+Diego&rft.pub=Lucent+Books%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9781560063759&rft.aulast=Netzley&rft.aufirst=Patricia+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Nirenberg, David (<time datetime="1998">1998</time>). Communities of Violence. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/0-691-05889-X" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/0-691-05889-X">0-691-05889-X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Communities+of+Violence&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-691-05889-X&rft.aulast=Nirenberg&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Parker, Geoffrey (<time datetime="2001">2001</time>). Europe in crisis, 1598–1648. Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/0-631-22028-3" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/0-631-22028-3">0-631-22028-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Europe+in+crisis%2C+1598%E2%80%931648&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-631-22028-3&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Payne, Stanley G. (<time datetime="1973">1973</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/payne15.htm">A History of Spain and Portugal, Volume 1</a>. 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Amberley Publishing. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/978-1-84868-087-6" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/978-1-84868-087-6">978-1-84868-087-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Plague&rft.pub=Amberley+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-84868-087-6&rft.aulast=Porter&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation journal">Rascovan, Nicolás; Sjögren, Karl-Göran; Kristiansen, Kristian; Nielsen, Rasmus; Willerslev, Eske; Desnues, Christelle; Rasmussen, Simon (<time datetime="2018">2018</time>). „Emergence and Spread of Basal Lineages of Yersinia pestis during the Neolithic Decline”. Cell. 176 (1–2): 295–305.e10. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cell.2018.11.005">10.1016/j.cell.2018.11.005</a> <img alt="Accesibil gratuit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1097-4172">1097-4172</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30528431">30528431</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cell&rft.atitle=Emergence+and+Spread+of+Basal+Lineages+of+Yersinia+pestis+during+the+Neolithic+Decline&rft.volume=176&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=295-305.e10&rft.date=2018&rft.issn=1097-4172&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30528431&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cell.2018.11.005&rft.aulast=Rascovan&rft.aufirst=Nicol%C3%A1s&rft.au=Sj%C3%B6gren%2C+Karl-G%C3%B6ran&rft.au=Kristiansen%2C+Kristian&rft.au=Nielsen%2C+Rasmus&rft.au=Willerslev%2C+Eske&rft.au=Desnues%2C+Christelle&rft.au=Rasmussen%2C+Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation journal">Rasmussen, Simon; Allentoft, ME; Nielsen, K; Orlando, L; Sikora, M; Sjögren, KG; Pedersen, AG; Schubert, M; Van Dam, A; Kapel, CM; Nielsen, HB; Brunak, S; Avetisyan, P; Epimakhov, A; Khalyapin, MV; Gnuni, A; Kriiska, A; Lasak, I; Metspalu, M; Moiseyev, V; Gromov, A; Pokutta, D; Saag, L; Varul, L; Yepiskoposyan, L; Sicheritz-Pontén, T; Foley, RA; Lahr, MM; Nielsen, R; Kristiansen, K; Willerslev, E (<time datetime="2015">2015</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4644222">„Early Divergent Strains of Yersinia pestis in Eurasia 5,000 Years Ago”</a>. Cell. 163 (3): 571–82. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cell.2015.10.009">10.1016/j.cell.2015.10.009</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4644222">4644222</a> <img alt="Accesibil gratuit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26496604">26496604</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cell&rft.atitle=Early+Divergent+Strains+of+Yersinia+pestis+in+Eurasia+5%2C000+Years+Ago&rft.volume=163&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=571-82&rft.date=2015&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4644222&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26496604&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cell.2015.10.009&rft.aulast=Rasmussen&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft.au=Allentoft%2C+ME&rft.au=Nielsen%2C+K&rft.au=Orlando%2C+L&rft.au=Sikora%2C+M&rft.au=Sj%C3%B6gren%2C+KG&rft.au=Pedersen%2C+AG&rft.au=Schubert%2C+M&rft.au=Van+Dam%2C+A&rft.au=Kapel%2C+CM&rft.au=Nielsen%2C+HB&rft.au=Brunak%2C+S&rft.au=Avetisyan%2C+P&rft.au=Epimakhov%2C+A&rft.au=Khalyapin%2C+MV&rft.au=Gnuni%2C+A&rft.au=Kriiska%2C+A&rft.au=Lasak%2C+I&rft.au=Metspalu%2C+M&rft.au=Moiseyev%2C+V&rft.au=Gromov%2C+A&rft.au=Pokutta%2C+D&rft.au=Saag%2C+L&rft.au=Varul%2C+L&rft.au=Yepiskoposyan%2C+L&rft.au=Sicheritz-Pont%C3%A9n%2C+T&rft.au=Foley%2C+RA&rft.au=Lahr%2C+MM&rft.au=Nielsen%2C+R&rft.au=Kristiansen%2C+K&rft.au=Willerslev%2C+E&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4644222&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation journal">Roosen, Joris; Curtis, Daniel R. (<time datetime="2018">2018</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190616232609/https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/24/1/17-0477_article">„Dangers of Noncritical Use of Historical Plague Data”</a>. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 24 (1): 103–10. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3201%2Feid2401.170477">10.3201/eid2401.170477</a> <img alt="Accesibil gratuit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/24/1/17-0477_article">original</a> la <time datetime="2019-06-16">16 iunie 2019</time>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Emerging+Infectious+Diseases&rft.atitle=Dangers+of+Noncritical+Use+of+Historical+Plague+Data&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=103-10&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3201%2Feid2401.170477&rft.aulast=Roosen&rft.aufirst=Joris&rft.au=Curtis%2C+Daniel+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwwwnc.cdc.gov%2Feid%2Farticle%2F24%2F1%2F17-0477_article&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation journal">Samia, N. I.; Kausrud, K. L.; Heesterbeek, H.; Ageyev, V.; Begon, M.; Chan, K.-S.; Stenseth, N. C. 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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 108 (35): 14527–14532. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011PNAS..10814527S">2011PNAS..10814527S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1015946108">10.1073/pnas.1015946108</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3167548">3167548</a> <img alt="Accesibil gratuit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21856946">21856946</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Dynamics+of+the+plague%E2%80%93wildlife%E2%80%93human+system+in+Central+Asia+are+controlled+by+two+epidemiological+thresholds&rft.volume=108&rft.issue=35&rft.pages=14527-14532&rft.date=2011&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3167548&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21856946&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1015946108&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011PNAS..10814527S&rft.aulast=Samia&rft.aufirst=N.+I.&rft.au=Kausrud%2C+K.+L.&rft.au=Heesterbeek%2C+H.&rft.au=Ageyev%2C+V.&rft.au=Begon%2C+M.&rft.au=Chan%2C+K.-S.&rft.au=Stenseth%2C+N.+C.&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3167548&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Scheidel, Walter (<time datetime="2017">2017</time>). The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/978-0691165028" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/978-0691165028">978-0691165028</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Leveler%3A+Violence+and+the+History+of+Inequality+from+the+Stone+Age+to+the+Twenty-First+Century&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0691165028&rft.aulast=Scheidel&rft.aufirst=Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation journal">Schmid, Boris V. (<time datetime="2015">2015</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4364181">„Climate-driven introduction of the Black Death and successive plague reintroductions into Europe”</a>. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 112 (10): 3020–25. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015PNAS..112.3020S">2015PNAS..112.3020S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1412887112">10.1073/pnas.1412887112</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4364181">4364181</a> <img alt="Accesibil gratuit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25713390">25713390</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proc+Natl+Acad+Sci+USA&rft.atitle=Climate-driven+introduction+of+the+Black+Death+and+successive+plague+reintroductions+into+Europe&rft.volume=112&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=3020-25&rft.date=2015&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4364181&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25713390&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1412887112&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015PNAS..112.3020S&rft.aulast=Schmid&rft.aufirst=Boris+V.&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4364181&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation journal">Schuenemann, VJ; Bos, K; DeWitte, S; Schmedes, S; Jamieson, J; Mittnik, A; Forrest, S; Coombes, BK; Wood, JW; Earn, DJD; White, W; Krause, J; Poinar, H (<time datetime="2011">2011</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3179067">„Targeted enrichment of ancient pathogens yielding the pPCP1 plasmid of Yersinia pestis from victims of the Black Death”</a>. PNAS. 108 (38): E746–E752. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011PNAS..108E.746S">2011PNAS..108E.746S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1105107108">10.1073/pnas.1105107108</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3179067">3179067</a> <img alt="Accesibil gratuit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21876176">21876176</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PNAS&rft.atitle=Targeted+enrichment+of+ancient+pathogens+yielding+the+pPCP1+plasmid+of+Yersinia+pestis+from+victims+of+the+Black+Death&rft.volume=108&rft.issue=38&rft.pages=E746-E752&rft.date=2011&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3179067&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21876176&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1105107108&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011PNAS..108E.746S&rft.aulast=Schuenemann&rft.aufirst=VJ&rft.au=Bos%2C+K&rft.au=DeWitte%2C+S&rft.au=Schmedes%2C+S&rft.au=Jamieson%2C+J&rft.au=Mittnik%2C+A&rft.au=Forrest%2C+S&rft.au=Coombes%2C+BK&rft.au=Wood%2C+JW&rft.au=Earn%2C+DJD&rft.au=White%2C+W&rft.au=Krause%2C+J&rft.au=Poinar%2C+H&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3179067&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Sloane, Barney (<time datetime="2011">2011</time>). 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Nature Communications. 9 (1): 2234. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018NatCo...9.2234S">2018NatCo...9.2234S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-018-04550-9">10.1038/s41467-018-04550-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/2041-1723">2041-1723</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&rft.atitle=Analysis+of+3800-year-old+Yersinia+pestis+genomes+suggests+Bronze+Age+origin+for+bubonic+plague&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=2234&rft.date=2018&rft.issn=2041-1723&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41467-018-04550-9&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018NatCo...9.2234S&rft.aulast=Spyrou&rft.aufirst=Maria+A.&rft.au=Tukhbatova%2C+Rezeda+I.&rft.au=Wang%2C+Chuan-Chao&rft.au=Valtue%C3%B1a%2C+Aida+Andrades&rft.au=Lankapalli%2C+Aditya+K.&rft.au=Kondrashin%2C+Vitaly+V.&rft.au=Tsybin%2C+Victor+A.&rft.au=Khokhlov%2C+Aleksandr&rft.au=K%C3%BChnert%2C+Denise&rft.au=Herbig%2C+Alexander&rft.au=Bos%2C+Kirsten+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation journal">Spyrou, Maria A; Keller, Marcel; Tukhbatova, R. I.; Scheib, = CL; EA Nelson; A Andrades Valtueña; GU Neumann; D Walker; A Alterauge A; N Carty; C Cessford; H Fetz; M Gourvennec; R Hartle; M Henderson; K von Heyking; SA Inskip; S Kacki; FM Key; EL Knox; C Later; P Maheshwari-Aplin; J Peters; JE Robb; J Schreiber; T Kivisild; D Castex; S Lösch; M Harbeck M; A Herbig; KI Bos; J Krause (<time datetime="2019">2019</time>). „Phylogeography of the second plague pandemic revealed through analysis of historical Yersinia pestis genomes”. Nature Communications. 10 (4470): 4470. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019NatCo..10.4470S">2019NatCo..10.4470S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-019-12154-0">10.1038/s41467-019-12154-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31578321">31578321</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&rft.atitle=Phylogeography+of+the+second+plague+pandemic+revealed+through+analysis+of+historical+Yersinia+pestis+genomes&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=4470&rft.pages=4470&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31578321&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41467-019-12154-0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019NatCo..10.4470S&rft.aulast=Spyrou&rft.aufirst=Maria+A&rft.au=Keller%2C+Marcel&rft.au=Tukhbatova%2C+R.+I.&rft.au=Scheib%2C+%3D+CL&rft.au=EA+Nelson&rft.au=A+Andrades+Valtue%C3%B1a&rft.au=GU+Neumann&rft.au=D+Walker&rft.au=A+Alterauge+A&rft.au=N+Carty&rft.au=C+Cessford&rft.au=H+Fetz&rft.au=M+Gourvennec&rft.au=R+Hartle&rft.au=M+Henderson&rft.au=K+von+Heyking&rft.au=SA+Inskip&rft.au=S+Kacki&rft.au=FM+Key&rft.au=EL+Knox&rft.au=C+Later&rft.au=P+Maheshwari-Aplin&rft.au=J+Peters&rft.au=JE+Robb&rft.au=J+Schreiber&rft.au=T+Kivisild&rft.au=D+Castex&rft.au=S+L%C3%B6sch&rft.au=M+Harbeck+M&rft.au=A+Herbig&rft.au=KI+Bos&rft.au=J+Krause&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation journal">Sussman, George (<time datetime="2011">2011</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120520175700/http://contagions.wordpress.com/2011/11/26/did-india-and-china-escape-the-black-death/">„Was the black death in India and China?”</a>. 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New York, London: W.W Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/978-0-393-92208-0" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/978-0-393-92208-0">978-0-393-92208-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Worlds+Together%2C+Worlds+Apart%2C+Volume+1%3A+Beginnings+to+the+15th+Century&rft.place=New+York%2C+London&rft.pub=W.W+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-393-92208-0&rft.aulast=Tignor&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Adelman%2C+Jeremy&rft.au=Brown%2C+Peter&rft.au=Elman%2C+Benjamin&rft.au=Liu%2C+Xinru&rft.au=Pittman%2C+Holly&rft.au=Shaw%2C+Brent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Tuchman, Barbara (<time datetime="1978">1978</time>). A Distant Mirror. Knopf. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/0-394-40026-7" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/0-394-40026-7">0-394-40026-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Distant+Mirror&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-394-40026-7&rft.aulast=Tuchman&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation journal">Wagner, David M; Klunk, J.; Harbeck, M.; Devault, A.; N. Waglechner; J. W. Sahl; J. Enk; D. N. Birdsell; M. Kuch; C. Lumibao; D. Poinar; T. Pearson; M. Fourment; B. Golding; J. M. Riehm; D. J. D. Earn; S. DeWitte; J.-M. Rouillard; G. Grupe; I. Wiechmann; J. B. Bliska; P. S. Keim; H. C. Scholz; E. C. Holmes; H. Poinar (<time datetime="2014">2014</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelancet.com/journals/laninf/article/PIIS1473-3099(13)70323-2/">„Yersinia pestis and the Plague of Justinian 541–543 AD: a genomic analysis”</a>. The Lancet Infectious Diseases. 14 (4): 319–26. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1473-3099%2813%2970323-2">10.1016/S1473-3099(13)70323-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24480148">24480148</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Lancet+Infectious+Diseases&rft.atitle=Yersinia+pestis+and+the+Plague+of+Justinian+541%E2%80%93543+AD%3A+a+genomic+analysis&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=319-26&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS1473-3099%2813%2970323-2&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24480148&rft.aulast=Wagner&rft.aufirst=David+M&rft.au=Klunk%2C+J.&rft.au=Harbeck%2C+M.&rft.au=Devault%2C+A.&rft.au=N.+Waglechner&rft.au=J.+W.+Sahl&rft.au=J.+Enk&rft.au=D.+N.+Birdsell&rft.au=M.+Kuch&rft.au=C.+Lumibao&rft.au=D.+Poinar&rft.au=T.+Pearson&rft.au=M.+Fourment&rft.au=B.+Golding&rft.au=J.+M.+Riehm&rft.au=D.+J.+D.+Earn&rft.au=S.+DeWitte&rft.au=J.-M.+Rouillard&rft.au=G.+Grupe&rft.au=I.+Wiechmann&rft.au=J.+B.+Bliska&rft.au=P.+S.+Keim&rft.au=H.+C.+Scholz&rft.au=E.+C.+Holmes&rft.au=H.+Poinar&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thelancet.com%2Fjournals%2Flaninf%2Farticle%2FPIIS1473-3099%2813%2970323-2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation journal">Walløe, Lars (<time datetime="2008">2008</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2632865">„Medieval and Modern Bubonic Plague: some clinical continuities”</a>. Medical History. 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(<time datetime="2010">2010</time>). „Revisiting the Medieval Black Death of 1347–1351: Spatiotemporal Dynamics Suggestive of an Alternate Causation”. Geography Compass (în engleză). 4 (6): 561–75. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-8198.2010.00335.x">10.1111/j.1749-8198.2010.00335.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geography+Compass&rft.atitle=Revisiting+the+Medieval+Black+Death+of+1347%E2%80%931351%3A+Spatiotemporal+Dynamics+Suggestive+of+an+Alternate+Causation&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=561-75&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1749-8198.2010.00335.x&rft.aulast=Welford&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft.au=Bossak%2C+Brian+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation journal">Wheelis, Mark (<time datetime="2002">2002</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2732530">„Biological Warfare at the 1346 Siege of Caffa”</a>. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 8 (9): 971–75. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3201%2Feid0809.010536">10.3201/eid0809.010536</a> <img alt="Accesibil gratuit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2732530">2732530</a> <img alt="Accesibil gratuit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12194776">12194776</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Emerging+Infectious+Diseases&rft.atitle=Biological+Warfare+at+the+1346+Siege+of+Caffa&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=971-75&rft.date=2002&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2732530&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12194776&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3201%2Feid0809.010536&rft.aulast=Wheelis&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2732530&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Ziegler, Philip (<time datetime="1998">1998</time>). The Black Death. Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/978-0-14-027524-7" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/978-0-14-027524-7">978-0-14-027524-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+Death&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-14-027524-7&rft.aulast=Ziegler&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"> 1st editions 1969.</li> <li><cite class="citation book">Zuchora-Walske, Christine (<time datetime="2013">2013</time>). Poland. North Mankato: ABDO Publishing. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/978-1-61783-634-3" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/978-1-61783-634-3">978-1-61783-634-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poland&rft.place=North+Mankato&rft.pub=ABDO+Publishing&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-61783-634-3&rft.aulast=Zuchora-Walske&rft.aufirst=Christine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AMoartea+neagr%C4%83" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legături_externe">Legături externe</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&veaction=edit&section=26" title="Modifică secțiunea: Legături externe" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">modificare</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Moartea_neagr%C4%83&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section's source code: Legături externe">modificare sursă</a>]</div> <div class="noprint" style="clear:right;border:solid #aaa 1px;margin:0 0 1em 1em;font-size:90%;background:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle, #f8f9f9);color:color:var(--color-base, #000);width:230px;padding:2px;spacing:2px;text-align:center;float:right"><div style="float:left;vertical-align:middle"><figure class="mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Fi%C8%99ier:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Commons"><img alt="Commons" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a><figcaption>Commons</figcaption></figure></div><div style="margin-left:35px;line-height:normal;vertical-align:middle"><a href="/wiki/Wikimedia_Commons" title="Wikimedia Commons">Wikimedia Commons</a> conține materiale multimedia legate de <a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Black_Death?uselang=ro">moartea neagră</a></div></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00bcqt8">Black Death la BBC (ascultă acum)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/middle_ages/black_01.shtml">Black Death</a> la <a href="/wiki/BBC" class="mw-redirect" title="BBC">BBC</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.allabouthistory.org/history-of-black-death.htm">History of Black Death</a></li></ul> <table class="navbox" cellspacing="0" style=""> <tbody><tr> <td style="padding:2px;"> <table cellspacing="0" class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse" style="width:100%;background:transparent;color:inherit;;"> <tbody><tr> <th style=";" colspan="2" class="navbox-title"><div style="float:left; width:6em;text-align:left;"><div class="noprint plainlinks" style="padding:0; font-size:xx-small; color:var(--color-base, #000); white-space:nowrap; ;"><a href="/wiki/Format:Istoria_Europei" title="Format:Istoria Europei">v</a> • <a href="/w/index.php?title=Discu%C8%9Bie_Format:Istoria_Europei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Discuție Format:Istoria Europei — pagină inexistentă">d</a> • <a class="external text" href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Format:Istoria_Europei&action=edit">m</a></div></div><big><a href="/wiki/Istoria_Europei" title="Istoria Europei">Istoria Europei</a></big> </th></tr> <tr style="height:2px;"> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="navbox-group" style=";;">Preistorie </td> <td style="text-align:left;border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;width:100%;padding:0px;;;" class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <a href="/wiki/Europa_paleolitic%C4%83" title="Europa paleolitică">Europa paleolitică</a> • <a href="/w/index.php?title=Europa_neolitic%C4%83&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Europa neolitică — pagină inexistentă">Europa neolitică</a> • <a href="/w/index.php?title=Epoca_bronzului_european%C4%83&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Epoca bronzului europeană — pagină inexistentă">Epoca bronzului europeană</a> • <a href="/w/index.php?title=Epoca_fierului_european%C4%83&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Epoca fierului europeană — pagină inexistentă">Epoca fierului europeană</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="navbox-group" style=";;">Antichitate </td> <td style="text-align:left;border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;width:100%;padding:0px;;;" class="navbox-list navbox-even"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <a href="/wiki/Grecia_antic%C4%83" class="mw-redirect" title="Grecia antică">Grecia antică</a> • <a href="/wiki/Roma_antic%C4%83" class="mw-redirect" title="Roma antică">Roma antică</a> • <a href="/wiki/Grecia_elenistic%C4%83" title="Grecia elenistică">Perioada elenistică</a> • <a href="/wiki/Antichitatea_t%C3%A2rzie" title="Antichitatea târzie">Antichitatea târzie</a> • <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cre%C8%99tinism_timpuriu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Creștinism timpuriu — pagină inexistentă">Creștinism timpuriu</a> • <a href="/wiki/Declinul_%C8%99i_c%C4%83derea_Imperiului_Roman_de_Apus" title="Declinul și căderea Imperiului Roman de Apus">Căderea Imperiului Roman de Apus</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="navbox-group" style=";;"><a href="/wiki/Evul_Mediu" title="Evul Mediu">Evul Mediu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:left;border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;width:100%;padding:0px;;;" class="navbox-list navbox-odd"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <a href="/wiki/Evul_Mediu_timpuriu" class="mw-redirect" title="Evul Mediu timpuriu">Evul Mediu timpuriu</a> • <a href="/wiki/Migra%C8%9Bia_popoarelor" title="Migrația popoarelor">Migrația popoarelor</a> • <a href="/wiki/Imperiul_Bizantin" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperiul Bizantin">Imperiul Bizantin</a> • <a href="/wiki/Statele_Papale" title="Statele Papale">Statele Papale</a> • <a href="/wiki/Republicile_maritime" title="Republicile maritime">Republicile maritime</a> • <a href="/wiki/Epoca_vikingilor" title="Epoca vikingilor">Epoca vikingilor</a> • <a href="/wiki/Rusia_Kievean%C4%83" title="Rusia Kieveană">Rusia Kieveană</a> • <a href="/wiki/Sf%C3%A2ntul_Imperiu_Roman" title="Sfântul Imperiu Roman">Sfântul Imperiu Roman</a> • <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a> • <a href="/wiki/Cruciade" class="mw-redirect" title="Cruciade">Cruciade</a> • <a href="/wiki/Marea_invazie_mongol%C4%83" title="Marea invazie mongolă">Marea invazie mongolă</a> • <a href="/wiki/%C8%9Aaratul_S%C3%A2rb" title="Țaratul Sârb">Țaratul Sârb</a> • <a href="/wiki/Moartea_Neagr%C4%83" class="mw-redirect" title="Moartea Neagră">Moartea Neagră</a> • <a href="/wiki/R%C4%83zboiul_de_100_de_Ani" title="Războiul de 100 de Ani">Războiul de 100 de Ani</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="navbox-group" style=";;">Începutul erei moderne </td> <td style="text-align:left;border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;width:100%;padding:0px;;;" class="navbox-list navbox-even"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <a href="/wiki/Rena%C8%99tere" class="mw-redirect" title="Renaștere">Renaștere</a> • <a href="/wiki/Perioada_marilor_descoperiri" title="Perioada marilor descoperiri">Perioada marilor descoperiri</a> • <a href="/wiki/Reforma_Protestant%C4%83" title="Reforma Protestantă">Reforma Protestantă</a> • <a href="/wiki/Baroc" title="Baroc">Baroc</a> • <a href="/wiki/Marele_Ducat_de_Toscana" title="Marele Ducat de Toscana">Marele Ducat de Toscana</a> • <a href="/wiki/R%C4%83zboiul_de_Treizeci_de_Ani" title="Războiul de Treizeci de Ani">Războiul de Treizeci de Ani</a> • <a href="/wiki/Imperiul_Otoman" title="Imperiul Otoman">Imperiul Otoman</a> • <a href="/wiki/Imperiul_colonial_portughez" title="Imperiul colonial portughez">Imperiul portughez</a> • <a href="/wiki/Imperiul_Spaniol" title="Imperiul Spaniol">Imperiul spaniol</a> • <a href="/wiki/Imperiul_Britanic" title="Imperiul Britanic">Imperiul britanic</a> • <a href="/wiki/Monarhia_Habsburgic%C4%83" title="Monarhia Habsburgică">Monarhia habsburgică</a> • <a href="/wiki/Imperiul_Rus" title="Imperiul Rus">Imperiul rus</a> • <a href="/wiki/Iluminism" title="Iluminism">Iluminism</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="navbox-group" style=";;">Modernitate </td> <td style="text-align:left;border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;width:100%;padding:0px;;;" class="navbox-list navbox-odd"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <a href="/wiki/Revolu%C8%9Bia_industrial%C4%83" title="Revoluția industrială">Revoluția industrială</a> • <a href="/wiki/Revolu%C8%9Bia_francez%C4%83" class="mw-redirect" title="Revoluția franceză">Revoluția franceză</a> • <a href="/wiki/R%C4%83zboaiele_Napoleoniene" title="Războaiele Napoleoniene">Războaiele napoleoniene</a> • <a href="/wiki/Revolu%C8%9Bia_de_la_1848" title="Revoluția de la 1848">Revoluțiile de la 1848</a> • <a href="/wiki/Primul_R%C4%83zboi_Mondial" title="Primul Război Mondial">Primul Război Mondial</a> • <a href="/wiki/Revolu%C8%9Bia_Rus%C4%83_din_1917" title="Revoluția Rusă din 1917">Revoluția rusă</a> • <a href="/wiki/Perioada_interbelic%C4%83" title="Perioada interbelică">Perioada interbelică</a> • <a href="/wiki/Al_Doilea_R%C4%83zboi_Mondial" title="Al Doilea Război Mondial">Al Doilea Război Mondial</a> • <a href="/wiki/R%C4%83zboiul_Rece" title="Războiul Rece">Războiul rece</a> • <a href="/wiki/Integrare_european%C4%83" title="Integrare europeană">Integrare europeană</a> • <a href="/wiki/Pandemia_de_coronaviroz%C4%83_(COVID-19)_%C3%AEn_Europa" title="Pandemia de coronaviroză (COVID-19) în Europa">Pandemia de COVID-19</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="navbox-group" style=";;">Vezi și </td> <td style="text-align:left;border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;width:100%;padding:0px;;;" class="navbox-list navbox-odd"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <a href="/wiki/Arta_Europei" title="Arta Europei">Arta Europei</a> • <a href="/wiki/Istoria_cre%C8%99tinismului" title="Istoria creștinismului">Istoria creștinismului</a> • <a href="/wiki/Istoria_Uniunii_Europene" title="Istoria Uniunii Europene">Istoria Uniunii Europene</a></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r16513826">.mw-parser-output .navbox{margin:0 auto 0}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow[style],html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output 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medicinei</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cronologia_medicinii_%C8%99i_a_tehnologiei_medicale&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cronologia medicinii și a tehnologiei medicale — pagină inexistentă">Cronologia medicinii și a tehnologiei medicale</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Istorii ale științelor de bază</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istoria_anatomiei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Istoria anatomiei — pagină inexistentă">Anatomie</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istoria_biochimiei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Istoria biochimiei — pagină inexistentă">Biochimie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istoria_biologiei" title="Istoria biologiei">Biologie</a></li> <li><a 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diagnosticului medical — pagină inexistentă">Diagnostic medical</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istoria_microbiologiei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Istoria microbiologiei — pagină inexistentă">Microbiologie</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istoria_biologiei_moleculare&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Istoria biologiei moleculare — pagină inexistentă">Biologie moleculara</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istoria_neuro%C8%99tiin%C8%9Bei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Istoria neuroștiinței — pagină inexistentă">Neuroștiințe</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istoria_nutri%C8%9Biei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Istoria nutriției — pagină inexistentă">Nutriție</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istoria_patologiei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Istoria patologiei — pagină inexistentă">Patologie</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istoria_farmacologiei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Istoria farmacologiei — pagină inexistentă">Farmacologie</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istoria_fiziologiei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Istoria fiziologiei — pagină inexistentă">Fiziologie</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istoria_virologiei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Istoria virologiei — pagină inexistentă">Virusologie</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istoria_social%C4%83_a_virusurilor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Istoria socială a virusurilor — pagină inexistentă">Virusuri</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/Fi%C8%99ier:Gersdorff_-_Sch%C3%A4delwunde.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tratamentul unei leziuni craniene"><img alt="Tratamentul unei leziuni craniene" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Gersdorff_-_Sch%C3%A4delwunde.jpg/60px-Gersdorff_-_Sch%C3%A4delwunde.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" 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href="/w/index.php?title=Istoria_anesteziei_generale&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Istoria anesteziei generale — pagină inexistentă">Generală</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istoria_anesteziei_neuraxiale&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Istoria anesteziei neuraxiale — pagină inexistentă">Neuraxial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istoria_cancerului&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Istoria cancerului — pagină inexistentă">Cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istoria_cardiologiei_invazive_%C8%99i_interven%C8%9Bionale&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Istoria cardiologiei invazive și intervenționale — pagină inexistentă">Cardiologie (invazivă și intervențională)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istoria_dermatologiei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Istoria dermatologiei — pagină inexistentă">Dermatologie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicin%C4%83_de_urgen%C8%9B%C4%83#Istorie" title="Medicină de urgență">Medicină de urgență</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istoria_resuscit%C4%83rii_cardio-pulmonare&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Istoria resuscitării cardio-pulmonare — pagină inexistentă">CPR</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istoria_endocrinologiei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Istoria endocrinologiei — pagină inexistentă">Endocrinologie</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istoria_neurologiei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Istoria neurologiei — pagină inexistentă">Neurologie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istoria_psihiatriei" title="Istoria psihiatriei">Psihiatrie</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cronologia_psihiatriei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cronologia psihiatriei — pagină inexistentă">Cronologie</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istoria_institu%C8%9Biilor_psihiatrice&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Istoria instituțiilor psihiatrice — pagină inexistentă">Instituții psihiatrice</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istoria_psihosurgiei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Istoria psihosurgiei — pagină inexistentă">Psihochirurgia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istoria_chirurgiei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Istoria chirurgiei — pagină inexistentă">Intervenție chirurgicală</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istoria_traumelor_%C8%99i_ortopediei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Istoria traumelor și ortopediei — pagină inexistentă">Traumă și ortopedie</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medicina în societățile antice</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicin%C4%83_preistoric%C4%83&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Medicină preistorică — pagină inexistentă">Preistorie</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicina_babilonian%C4%83&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Medicina babiloniană — pagină inexistentă">Babilon</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicina_bizantin%C4%83&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Medicina bizantină — pagină inexistentă">Imperiul Bizantin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicina_egiptean%C4%83_veche&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Medicina egipteană veche — pagină inexistentă">Egiptul antic</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Papirusuri_medicale_egiptean&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Papirusuri medicale egiptean — pagină inexistentă">Papirusuri medicale egiptean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicina_greac%C4%83_veche&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Medicina greacă veche — pagină inexistentă">Grecia antică</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicina_iranian%C4%83_veche" title="Medicina iraniană veche">Iranul antic</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicina_din_Roma_antic%C4%83&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Medicina din Roma antică — pagină inexistentă">Roma antică</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicin%C4%83_%C3%AEn_lumea_islamic%C4%83_medieval%C4%83" title="Medicină în lumea islamică medievală">Islamul medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicina_medieval%C4%83_din_Europa_de_Vest&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Medicina medievală din Europa de Vest — pagină inexistentă">Europa occidentală medievală</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Istoria metodelor din medicină</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istoria_antibioticelor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Istoria antibioticelor — pagină inexistentă">Antibiotice</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cronologia_antibioticelor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cronologia antibioticelor — pagină inexistentă">Cronologia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Transfuzia_de_s%C3%A2nge&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Transfuzia de sânge — pagină inexistentă">Transfuzie de sange</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teoria_st%C4%83rilor_de_spirit&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Teoria stărilor de spirit — pagină inexistentă">Teoria stărilor de spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istoria_neuroimagistiei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Istoria neuroimagistiei — pagină inexistentă">Neuroimagistice</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istoria_radioterapiei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Istoria radioterapiei — pagină inexistentă">Terapie cu radiații</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istoria_intub%C4%83rii_traheale&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Istoria intubării traheale — pagină inexistentă">Intubație traheală</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istoria_vaccinurilor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Istoria vaccinurilor — pagină inexistentă">Vaccinurile</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cronologia_vaccinurilor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cronologia vaccinurilor — pagină inexistentă">Cronologia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istoria_%C3%AEngrijirii_ranilor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Istoria îngrijirii ranilor — pagină inexistentă">Îngrijirea rănilor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dezastre și plăgi</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lista_epidemiilor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lista epidemiilor — pagină inexistentă">Lista epidemiilor</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istoria_malariei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Istoria malariei — pagină inexistentă">Malaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandemie" title="Pandemie">Pandemie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pest%C4%83" title="Pestă">Pestă</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istoria_poliomielitei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Istoria poliomielitei — pagină inexistentă">Poliomielită</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istoria_variolei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Istoria variolei — pagină inexistentă">Variolă</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istoria_sifilisului&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Istoria sifilisului — pagină inexistentă">Sifilis</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Istoria_tuberculozei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Istoria tuberculozei — pagină inexistentă">Tuberculoză</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cronologie a pandemiilor</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prima_pandemie_de_cium%C4%83&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prima pandemie de ciumă — pagină inexistentă">Prima pandemie de ciumă</a> (541–767) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ciuma_lui_Iustinian" title="Ciuma lui Iustinian">Ciuma lui Iustinian</a> (541–549)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=A_doua_pandemie_de_cium%C4%83&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="A doua pandemie de ciumă — pagină inexistentă">A doua pandemie de ciumă</a> (1346-1840) <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Moartea neagră</a> (1346–1353)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marea_Cium%C4%83_din_Londra" title="Marea Ciumă din Londra">Marea Ciumă din Londra</a> (1665–1666)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandemia_de_holer%C4%83_din_1899-1923" title="Pandemia de holeră din 1899-1923">Pandemia de holeră din 1899-1923</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gripa_Spaniol%C4%83" class="mw-redirect" title="Gripa Spaniolă">Gripa Spaniolă</a> (1918-1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gripa_tip_A(H1N1)" title="Gripa tip A(H1N1)">Pandemia de gripă tip A(H1N1)</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandemia_de_COVID-19" title="Pandemia de COVID-19">Pandemia de COVID-19</a> (2019-)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fi%C8%99ier:Symbol_category_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Categorie"><img alt="Categorie" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/24px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/32px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" 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morții</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Categorie:Evul_Mediu" title="Categorie:Evul Mediu">Evul Mediu</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Categorie:Istoria_Asiei" title="Categorie:Istoria Asiei">Istoria Asiei</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Categorie:Istoria_Europei" title="Categorie:Istoria Europei">Istoria Europei</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Categorie:Istoria_Orientului_Mijlociu" title="Categorie:Istoria Orientului Mijlociu">Istoria Orientului Mijlociu</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Categorii ascunse: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Categorie:Articole_cu_surse_%C3%AEn_limba_englez%C4%83_(en)" title="Categorie:Articole cu surse în limba engleză (en)">Articole cu surse în limba engleză (en)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Categorie:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Categorie:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Categorie:Articole_cu_surse_%C3%AEn_limba_latin%C4%83_(la)" title="Categorie:Articole cu surse în limba latină (la)">Articole cu surse în limba latină (la)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Categorie:Pagini_cu_leg%C4%83turi_externe_nefunc%C8%9Bionale" title="Categorie:Pagini cu legături externe nefuncționale">Pagini cu legături externe nefuncționale</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Categorie:Pagini_cu_note_flexibile_de_dimensiune_diferit%C4%83" title="Categorie:Pagini cu note flexibile de dimensiune diferită">Pagini cu note flexibile de dimensiune diferită</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Categorie:Mentenan%C8%9B%C4%83_CS1:_URL_impropriu" title="Categorie:Mentenanță CS1: URL impropriu">Mentenanță CS1: URL impropriu</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> Ultima editare a paginii a fost efectuată la 24 noiembrie 2024, ora 21:21.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Acest text este disponibil sub licența <a rel="nofollow" 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