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</div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-War_in_North_America-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle War in North America subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-War_in_North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Initial_skirmishes_(1754–1755)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Initial_skirmishes_(1754–1755)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Initial skirmishes (1754–1755)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Initial_skirmishes_(1754–1755)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Braddock_Expedition_(1755)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Braddock_Expedition_(1755)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Braddock Expedition (1755)</span> </div> </a> <ul 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mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle War in Europe (1756–1759) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-War_in_Europe_(1756–1759)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Stately_Quadrille" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stately_Quadrille"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Stately Quadrille</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stately_Quadrille-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fall_of_Menorca" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fall_of_Menorca"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Fall of Menorca</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fall_of_Menorca-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prussian_alliance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prussian_alliance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Prussian alliance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prussian_alliance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_intervention_on_the_continent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_intervention_on_the_continent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>British intervention on the continent</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_intervention_on_the_continent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Change_of_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Change_of_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Change of government</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Change_of_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Naval_"descents"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Naval_"descents""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Naval "descents"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Naval_"descents"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_campaign_(1756–1758)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_campaign_(1756–1758)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Indian campaign (1756–1758)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Indian_campaign_(1756–1758)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Indian campaign (1756–1758) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Indian_campaign_(1756–1758)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Calcutta" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Calcutta"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Calcutta</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Calcutta-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plassey" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plassey"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Plassey</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plassey-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-French_East_India_Company" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_East_India_Company"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>French East India Company</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French_East_India_Company-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Annus_Mirabilis_(1759)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Annus_Mirabilis_(1759)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span><i>Annus Mirabilis</i> (1759)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Annus_Mirabilis_(1759)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle <i>Annus Mirabilis</i> (1759) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Annus_Mirabilis_(1759)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Madras" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Madras"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Madras</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Madras-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-West_Indies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#West_Indies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>West Indies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-West_Indies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Minden" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Minden"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Battle of Minden</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Minden-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Failed_invasion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Failed_invasion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Failed invasion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Failed_invasion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Naval_supremacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Naval_supremacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Naval supremacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Naval_supremacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Elsewhere" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elsewhere"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Elsewhere</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Elsewhere-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conquest_of_Canada_(1758–1760)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquest_of_Canada_(1758–1760)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Conquest of Canada (1758–1760)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Conquest_of_Canada_(1758–1760)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Conquest of Canada (1758–1760) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Conquest_of_Canada_(1758–1760)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Louisbourg" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Louisbourg"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Louisbourg</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Louisbourg-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quebec" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quebec"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Quebec</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quebec-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Montreal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Montreal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Montreal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Montreal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Victory_in_India_(1760–1761)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Victory_in_India_(1760–1761)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Victory in India (1760–1761)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Victory_in_India_(1760–1761)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Victory in India (1760–1761) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Victory_in_India_(1760–1761)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Wandiwash" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wandiwash"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Wandiwash</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wandiwash-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pondicherry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pondicherry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Pondicherry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pondicherry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_in_Europe_(1760–1762)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_in_Europe_(1760–1762)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>War in Europe (1760–1762)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-War_in_Europe_(1760–1762)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle War in Europe (1760–1762) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-War_in_Europe_(1760–1762)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-West_German_campaign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#West_German_campaign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>West German campaign</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-West_German_campaign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_the_Prussian_Alliance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_the_Prussian_Alliance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>End of the Prussian Alliance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_the_Prussian_Alliance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_with_Spain_(1762)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_with_Spain_(1762)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>War with Spain (1762)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-War_with_Spain_(1762)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle War with Spain (1762) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-War_with_Spain_(1762)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Portugal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Portugal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Portugal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Portugal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cuba" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cuba"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Cuba</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cuba-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philippines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philippines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Philippines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philippines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_campaigns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_campaigns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Other campaigns</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_campaigns-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Other campaigns subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Other_campaigns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Senegal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Senegal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Senegal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Senegal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Martinique" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Martinique"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Martinique</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Martinique-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Newfoundland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Newfoundland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>Newfoundland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Newfoundland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peace_treaty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peace_treaty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Peace treaty</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Peace_treaty-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Peace treaty subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Peace_treaty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Negotiations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Negotiations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Negotiations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Negotiations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Terms_of_the_peace_agreement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terms_of_the_peace_agreement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Terms of the peace agreement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terms_of_the_peace_agreement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy_and_aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy_and_aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Legacy and aftermath</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy_and_aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Great Britain in the Seven Years' War</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile vcard plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_Great_Britain" title="Category:Wars involving Great Britain">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="">Wars of Great Britain</th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Great_Britain_(1707%E2%80%931800).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of Great Britain"><img alt="Flag of Great Britain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/150px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/225px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/300px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Other wars</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Quadruple_Alliance" title="War of the Quadruple Alliance">War of the Quadruple Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobite_risings" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacobite risings">Jacobite risings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Mysore_Wars" title="Anglo-Mysore Wars">Anglo-Mysore Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Maratha_War" title="First Anglo-Maratha War">First Anglo-Maratha War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Anglo-Dutch_War" title="Fourth Anglo-Dutch War">Fourth Anglo-Dutch War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_frontier_wars" title="Australian frontier wars">Australian frontier wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hawkesbury_and_Nepean_Wars" title="Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars">Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><b><a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_Wars" title="French and Indian Wars">American Indian Wars</a></b></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_George%27s_War" title="King George's War">King George's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Jenkins%27_Ear" title="War of Jenkins' Ear">War of Jenkins' Ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Father_Le_Loutre%27s_War" title="Father Le Loutre's War">Father Le Loutre's War</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><b><a href="/wiki/Second_Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Second Hundred Years' War">Second Hundred Years' War</a></b></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Austrian_Succession" title="War of the Austrian Succession">War of the Austrian Succession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacobite_rising_of_1745" title="Jacobite rising of 1745">Forty-five Rebellion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnatic_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnatic Wars">Carnatic Wars</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Seven Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-French_War_(1778%E2%80%931783)" title="Anglo-French War (1778–1783)">Bourbon War</a></li></ul> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="French Revolutionary Wars">French Revolutionary Wars</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_First_Coalition" title="War of the First Coalition">War of the First Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1798" title="Irish Rebellion of 1798">Irish Rebellion of 1798</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Second_Coalition" title="War of the Second Coalition">War of the Second Coalition</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Wars_of_Great_Britain" title="Template:Wars of Great Britain"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Wars_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Wars of Great Britain (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Wars_of_Great_Britain" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Wars of Great Britain"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PlainsOfAbraham2007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/PlainsOfAbraham2007.jpg/260px-PlainsOfAbraham2007.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/PlainsOfAbraham2007.jpg/390px-PlainsOfAbraham2007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/PlainsOfAbraham2007.jpg/520px-PlainsOfAbraham2007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2610" data-file-height="1683" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/James_Wolfe" title="James Wolfe">James Wolfe</a>'s victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Quebec_(1759)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Quebec (1759)">Battle of Quebec</a> in 1759</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Great Britain</a> was one of the major participants in the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a>, which in fact lasted nine years, between 1754 and 1763. British involvement in the conflict began in 1754 in what became known as the <a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a>. However the warfare in the European theatre involving countries other than Britain and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a> commenced in 1756 (hence the name "Seven Years' War"). Britain emerged from the war as the world's leading <a href="/wiki/Colonial_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonial power">colonial power</a>, having gained all of <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a> in North America, ending France's role as a colonial power there. Following <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>'s entry in the war in alliance with France in the <a href="/wiki/Pacte_de_Famille" title="Pacte de Famille">third Family Compact</a>, Britain captured the major Spanish ports of <a href="/wiki/Havana" title="Havana">Havana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Cuba" title="Captaincy General of Cuba">Cuba</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manila" title="Manila">Manila</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_the_Philippines" title="Captaincy General of the Philippines">Philippines</a> in 1762, and agreed to return them in exchange for <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">Spanish Florida</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1763)" title="Treaty of Paris (1763)">Treaty of Paris</a> in 1763 formally ended the conflict and Britain established itself as the world's pre-eminent <a href="/wiki/Naval_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Naval power">naval power</a>. </p><p>The war started poorly for Britain, at the hands of France in North America during 1754–1755, and in the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Fort_St_Philip_(1756)" title="Siege of Fort St Philip (1756)">fall of Menorca</a> in 1756. The same year Britain's major ally <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Austria</a> switched sides and aligned itself with France, and Britain was hastily forced to conclude <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Prussian_alliance_(1756)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Prussian alliance (1756)">a new alliance</a> with <a href="/wiki/Frederick_the_Great" title="Frederick the Great">Frederick the Great</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussia</a>. For the next seven years these two nations were ranged against a growing number of enemy powers led by France. After a period of political instability, the rise of <a href="/wiki/Pitt%E2%80%93Newcastle_ministry" title="Pitt–Newcastle ministry">a government</a> headed by the <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pelham-Holles,_1st_Duke_of_Newcastle" title="Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle">Duke of Newcastle</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Pitt,_1st_Earl_of_Chatham" title="William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham">William Pitt the Elder</a> provided Britain with firmer leadership, enabling it to consolidate and achieve its war aims. </p><p>In 1759, Britain enjoyed an <i><a href="#Annus_Mirabilis_(1759)">Annus Mirabilis</a></i>, with success over the French on the continent (Germany), in North America (capturing the capital of <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a>), and in India. In 1761 Britain also came into conflict with Spain. The following year British forces captured Havana and Manila, the western and eastern capitals of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a>, and repulsed <a href="/wiki/Spanish_invasion_of_Portugal_(1762)" title="Spanish invasion of Portugal (1762)">a Spanish invasion of Portugal</a>. By this time the Pitt-Newcastle ministry had collapsed, Britain was short of <a href="/wiki/Credit_(finance)" class="mw-redirect" title="Credit (finance)">credit</a> and the generous peace terms offered by France and its allies were accepted. </p><p>Through the crown, Britain was allied to the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ireland" title="Kingdom of Ireland">Kingdom of Ireland</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Hanover" title="Electorate of Hanover">Electorate of Hanover</a>, both of which effectively fell under British military command throughout the war. It also directed the military strategy of its various colonies around the world including <a href="/wiki/British_America" title="British America">British America</a>. In India, <a href="/wiki/British_possessions" class="mw-redirect" title="British possessions">British possessions</a> were administered by the <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Austrian_Alliance" title="Anglo-Austrian Alliance">Anglo-Austrian Alliance</a> and <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Austrian_Succession" title="War of the Austrian Succession">War of the Austrian Succession</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1stDukeOfNewcastleOld.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/1stDukeOfNewcastleOld.jpg/220px-1stDukeOfNewcastleOld.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/1stDukeOfNewcastleOld.jpg/330px-1stDukeOfNewcastleOld.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/1stDukeOfNewcastleOld.jpg/440px-1stDukeOfNewcastleOld.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2359" data-file-height="2811" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pelham-Holles,_1st_Duke_of_Newcastle" title="Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle">Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle</a> succeeded his <a href="/wiki/Henry_Pelham" title="Henry Pelham">younger brother</a> as <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Great_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Prime Minister of Great Britain">Prime Minister</a> in 1754 and managed domestic affairs for much of the Seven Years' War.</figcaption></figure> <p>The last major conflict in Europe, the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Austrian_Succession" title="War of the Austrian Succession">War of the Austrian Succession</a>, had ended in 1748 with the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Aix-la-Chapelle_(1748)" title="Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)">Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle</a> after a bloody war had left large parts of <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central Europe</a> devastated. The peace terms were unpopular with many, however, as they largely retained the <a href="/wiki/Status_quo" title="Status quo">status quo</a>, which led the people of states such as France, Britain and Austria to believe that they had not made sufficient gains for their efforts in the war. By the early 1750s, many saw another major war as imminent, and Austria was preparing its forces for an attempt to retake <a href="/wiki/Silesia" title="Silesia">Silesia</a> from <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a>. </p><p>The British Prime Minister, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pelham-Holles,_1st_Duke_of_Newcastle" title="Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle">Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle</a>, had acceded to the premiership in 1754 after the sudden death of his brother <a href="/wiki/Henry_Pelham" title="Henry Pelham">Henry Pelham</a> and led a government made up largely of <a href="/wiki/Whigs_(British_political_party)" title="Whigs (British political party)">Whigs</a>. Newcastle had thirty years of experience as a <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_State_(Great_Britain)" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretary of State (Great Britain)">Secretary of State</a> and was a leading figure on the diplomatic scene. </p><p>Despite enjoying a comfortable majority in the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_Great_Britain" title="House of Commons of Great Britain">House of Commons</a>, Newcastle was extremely cautious and vulnerable to attacks led by men such as <a href="/wiki/William_Pitt,_1st_Earl_of_Chatham" title="William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham">William Pitt</a>, the leader of the <a href="/wiki/Patriot_Whigs" title="Patriot Whigs">Patriot Whigs</a>. Newcastle fervently believed that peace in Europe was possible so long as the "Old System", a structure of alliances with European powers in which Britain had formed grand coalitions against <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">Bourbon</a> ambitions in Europe, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Austrian_Alliance" title="Anglo-Austrian Alliance">alliance with Austria</a>, prevailed, and he devoted much of his efforts to the continuance of his policy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001124–128_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001124–128-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the major concerns for the British government of the era was colonial expansion. During the 18th century, the British <a href="/wiki/British_America" title="British America">colonies in North America</a> had become more populous and powerful and were agitating to expand westwards into the American interior. The territory that was most prized by the new settlers was the <a href="/wiki/Ohio_Country" title="Ohio Country">Ohio Country</a>, which was also claimed by France. It had economic potential and was considered a strategically-key territory since French control would block British expansion westwards, and French territory would eventually surround the British colonies and pin them against the coast. A number of colonial delegations to London urged the government to take more decisive action in the Ohio dispute. </p><p>In the wars of the time, the British tended to avoid large-scale commitments of troops on Continental Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETill200677_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETill200677-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>They sought to offset the disadvantage of this in Europe by allying themselves with one or more continental powers whose interests were antithetical to those of their enemies, particularly France.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchweizer200615–16_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweizer200615–16-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By subsidising the armies of continental allies, Britain could <a href="/wiki/Golden_Cavalry_of_St_George" title="Golden Cavalry of St George">turn London's enormous financial power to military advantage</a>. </p><p>During the Seven Years' War, the British chose as their principal partner the most brilliant general of the day, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_the_Great" title="Frederick the Great">Frederick the Great</a> of Prussia, which was the rising power in Central Europe, and paid Frederick substantial subsidies for his campaigns.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchweizer2006106_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweizer2006106-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>That was accomplished in the <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_Revolution" title="Diplomatic Revolution">Diplomatic Revolution</a> of 1756 in which Britain ended its long-standing alliance with Austria in favour of Prussia, which left Austria to side with France. In marked contrast to France's strategy, Britain strove to prosecute the war actively in the colonies and took full advantage of its <a href="/wiki/Naval_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Naval power">naval power</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlack199945–78_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlack199945–78-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimms200864–66_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimms200864–66-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVego2003156–157_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVego2003156–157-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The British pursued a dual strategy of <a href="/wiki/Naval_blockade" class="mw-redirect" title="Naval blockade">naval blockade</a> and bombardment of enemy ports, combined with rapid movement of troops by sea.They harassed enemy shipping and attacked enemy colonies and frequently used colonists from nearby British colonies in the effort. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="War_in_North_America">War in North America</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: War in North America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Washington_1772.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Washington_1772.jpg/220px-Washington_1772.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Washington_1772.jpg/330px-Washington_1772.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Washington_1772.jpg/440px-Washington_1772.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2418" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>As an officer of the <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Regiment" title="Virginia Regiment">Virginia Regiment</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> played a major role in Britain's campaign in the early stages of the Seven Years' War.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Initial_skirmishes_(1754–1755)"><span id="Initial_skirmishes_.281754.E2.80.931755.29"></span>Initial skirmishes (1754–1755)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Initial skirmishes (1754–1755)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Ohio_Country" title="Ohio Country">Ohio Country</a> located between Britain's <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a> and France's <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a> saw France and Britain clash. In 1753 the French sent an expedition south from <a href="/wiki/Montreal" title="Montreal">Montreal</a> that began constructing forts in the upper reaches of the <a href="/wiki/Ohio_River" title="Ohio River">Ohio River</a>. In 1754 the <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Virginia" class="mw-redirect" title="Province of Virginia">Province of Virginia</a> sent the <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Regiment" title="Virginia Regiment">Virginia Regiment</a> led by <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> to the area to assist in the construction of a British fort at present-day <a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh" title="Pittsburgh">Pittsburgh</a>, but the larger French force had driven away a smaller British advance party and built <a href="/wiki/Fort_Duquesne" title="Fort Duquesne">Fort Duquesne</a>. Washington and some native allies ambushed a company of French scouts at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jumonville_Glen" title="Battle of Jumonville Glen">Battle of Jumonville Glen</a> in late May 1754. In the skirmish the French envoy <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Coulon_de_Jumonville" title="Joseph Coulon de Jumonville">Joseph Coulon de Jumonville</a> was left dead leading to a <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Diplomatic incident">diplomatic incident</a>.The French responded in force from Fort Duquesne, and in July Washington was forced to surrender at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Necessity" title="Battle of Fort Necessity">Battle of Fort Necessity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson200162–65_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson200162–65-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the conflict between them, the two nations were not yet formally at war. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Braddock_Expedition_(1755)"><span id="Braddock_Expedition_.281755.29"></span>Braddock Expedition (1755)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Braddock Expedition (1755)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Braddock_Expedition" title="Braddock Expedition">Braddock Expedition</a></div> <p>The government in Britain, realising that the existing forces of America were insufficient, drew up a plan to dispatch two battalions of <a href="/wiki/Irish_Army_(1661%E2%80%931801)" title="Irish Army (1661–1801)">Irish</a> regular troops under General <a href="/wiki/Edward_Braddock" title="Edward Braddock">Edward Braddock</a> and intended to massively increase the number of Provincial American forces.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson200167–71_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson200167–71-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A number of expeditions were planned to give the British the upper hand in North America including a plan for <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a> troops to capture <a href="/wiki/Fort_Beaus%C3%A9jour" title="Fort Beauséjour">Fort Beauséjour</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fortress_Louisbourg" class="mw-redirect" title="Fortress Louisbourg">Fortress Louisbourg</a> in <a href="/wiki/Acadia" title="Acadia">Acadia</a>, and others to act against <a href="/wiki/Fort_Niagara" title="Fort Niagara">Fort Niagara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fort_Saint-Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric" title="Fort Saint-Frédéric">Fort Saint-Frédéric</a> from <a href="/wiki/Albany,_New_York" title="Albany, New York">Albany, New York</a>. The largest operation was a plan for Braddock to dislodge the French from the <a href="/wiki/Ohio_Country" title="Ohio Country">Ohio Country</a>. </p><p>In May 1755 Braddock's column blundered into an enemy force composed of French and Native Americans at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Monongahela" title="Battle of the Monongahela">Battle of the Monongahela</a> near Fort Duquesne. After several hours' fighting the British were defeated and forced to retreat, Braddock died a few days later of his wounds. The remainder of his force returned to Philadelphia and took up quarters, intending no further action that year.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson200198–109_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson200198–109-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The French remained in control of the Ohio Country. </p><p>In the maritime theatre, the British were successful in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Beaus%C3%A9jour" title="Battle of Fort Beauséjour">Battle of Fort Beauséjour</a> and in their campaign to remove the French military threat from Acadia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001111–114_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001111–114-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the battle the British began the <a href="/wiki/Great_Expulsion" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Expulsion">Great Expulsion</a> called the <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Fundy_Campaign_(1755)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bay of Fundy Campaign (1755)">Bay of Fundy Campaign (1755)</a> by the British, with the intent of preventing Acadian support of the French supply lines to Louisbourg. The British forcibly relocated 12,000 French-speakers. Two additional expeditions from Albany each failed to reach their objectives, although one, William Johnson's expedition, did establish <a href="/wiki/Fort_William_Henry" title="Fort William Henry">Fort William Henry</a> and held off a French attempt on <a href="/wiki/Fort_Edward_(village),_New_York" title="Fort Edward (village), New York">Fort Edward</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_George" title="Battle of Lake George">Battle of Lake George</a>. </p><p>When news of the Braddock disaster reached Britain it caused a massive public outcry over the government's poor military preparation. The government appointed <a href="/wiki/William_Shirley" title="William Shirley">William Shirley</a> as the new commander-in-chief in North America, and planned an equally ambitious series of operations for the following year.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn200435–36_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn200435–36-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_struggles_in_North_America_(1756–1758)"><span id="Further_struggles_in_North_America_.281756.E2.80.931758.29"></span>Further struggles in North America (1756–1758)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Further struggles in North America (1756–1758)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nouvelle-France_map-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Nouvelle-France_map-en.svg/220px-Nouvelle-France_map-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Nouvelle-France_map-en.svg/330px-Nouvelle-France_map-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Nouvelle-France_map-en.svg/440px-Nouvelle-France_map-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1530" data-file-height="1090" /></a><figcaption>Map showing the possessions in 1750 of Britain (pink and purple), France (blue), and Spain (orange) in North America</figcaption></figure> <p>Britain and France continued to clash, each with increasingly large forces. Even though the inhabitants of the British colonies hugely outnumbered those of <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a>, they were unable to exercise this advantage, partly due to a successful campaign by the French to recruit <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Native American</a> allies who raided the unprotected frontier of the <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a>. The British raised regiments of local <a href="/wiki/Militia" title="Militia">militia</a> and shipped in more regular forces from Britain and Ireland. </p><p>Despite these increased forces Britain continued to fare badly in the battle for control of the Ohio Country and the nearby <a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a>, and none of their campaigns was successful in 1756. After losing the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Oswego_(1756)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Fort Oswego (1756)">Battle of Fort Oswego</a>, not only that fort, but others in the <a href="/wiki/Mohawk_River" title="Mohawk River">Mohawk River</a> valley were abandoned. This was followed in 1757 by the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Fort_William_Henry" title="Siege of Fort William Henry">fall of Fort William Henry</a> and the Indian atrocities that followed. News of this disaster sent a fresh wave of panic around the British colonies, and the entire militia of New England was mobilised overnight. </p><p>In the maritime theatre, a raid was organized on <a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Lunenburg,_Nova_Scotia_(1756)" title="Raid on Lunenburg, Nova Scotia (1756)">Lunenburg, Nova Scotia</a> and several on the <a href="/wiki/Isthmus_of_Chignecto" title="Isthmus of Chignecto">Chignecto</a>. A British <a href="/wiki/Louisbourg_Expedition_(1757)" title="Louisbourg Expedition (1757)">attempt to take Louisbourg in 1757</a> failed due to bad weather and poor planning.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001208–09_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001208–09-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following year, in part because of having expelled many Acadians, the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Louisbourg_(1758)" title="Siege of Louisbourg (1758)">Siege of Louisbourg (1758)</a> succeeded, clearing the way for an advance on <a href="/wiki/Quebec_City" title="Quebec City">Quebec</a>. Immediately after the fall of Louisbourg the <a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_the_Acadians" title="Expulsion of the Acadians">expulsion of the Acadians</a> continued with the removal of Acadians in the <a href="/wiki/St._John_River_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="St. John River Campaign">St. John River Campaign</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Petitcodiac_River_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Petitcodiac River Campaign">Petitcodiac River Campaign</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ile_Saint-Jean_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Ile Saint-Jean Campaign">Ile Saint-Jean Campaign</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_St._Lawrence_Campaign_(1758)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gulf of St. Lawrence Campaign (1758)">Gulf of St. Lawrence Campaign (1758)</a>. </p><p>By this point the war in North America had reached a stalemate, with France broadly holding the territorial advantage. It held possession of the disputed Ohio territory but lacked the strength to launch an attack on the more populous British coastal colonies. </p><p>One of the most significant geopolitical actions of the time was the slow movement towards Imperial unity in North America started by the <a href="/wiki/Albany_Congress" title="Albany Congress">Albany Congress</a>, although a <a href="/wiki/Albany_Plan" title="Albany Plan">Plan of Union</a> proposed by <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> was rejected by delegates. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="War_in_Europe_(1756–1759)"><span id="War_in_Europe_.281756.E2.80.931759.29"></span>War in Europe (1756–1759)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: War in Europe (1756–1759)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stately_Quadrille">Stately Quadrille</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Stately Quadrille"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_Revolution" title="Diplomatic Revolution">Diplomatic Revolution</a></div> <p>Britain had been allied to Austria since 1731, and the co-operation between the two states had peaked during the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Austrian_Succession" title="War of the Austrian Succession">War of the Austrian Succession</a> when <a href="/wiki/Maria_Theresa" title="Maria Theresa">Maria Theresa</a> had been able to retain her throne with British assistance. Since then the relationship had weakened—as Austria was dissatisfied with the terms negotiated by Britain for them at the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Aix-la-Chapelle_(1748)" title="Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)">Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning1975164–166_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning1975164–166-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prussia had captured <a href="/wiki/Silesia" title="Silesia">Silesia</a> from Austria during the war and Austria wanted British help to recover it. Sensing that it would not be forthcoming, the Austrians approached their historical enemy France and made a defensive treaty with her—thereby dissolving the twenty-five-year <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Austrian_Alliance" title="Anglo-Austrian Alliance">Anglo-Austrian Alliance</a>. </p><p>Alarmed by the sudden switch in the <a href="/wiki/European_balance_of_power" title="European balance of power">European balance of power</a> the British made a similar agreement with Prussia at the <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="Westminster Convention">Westminster Convention</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimms2009403–404_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimms2009403–404-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By doing this Newcastle hoped to rebalance the two sides in central Europe—and thereby make a war potentially mutually destructive to all. This he hoped would stop either Austria or Prussia making an attack on the other and would prevent an all-out war in Europe. This would allow Britain and France to continue their colonial skirmishes without formal war being declared in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001125–129_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001125–129-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Frederick the Great had a number of supporters in London, including William Pitt, who welcomed the rapprochement between Britain and Prussia. The <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a>, a long-standing ally of Britain, declared its neutrality in the wake of the Westminster Convention and had no active participation in the coming conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarter19712_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarter19712-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fall_of_Menorca">Fall of Menorca</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Fall of Menorca"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Fort_St_Philip_(1756)" title="Siege of Fort St Philip (1756)">Siege of Fort St Philip (1756)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prise_Port_Mahon_Minorque_20_mai_1756.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Prise_Port_Mahon_Minorque_20_mai_1756.jpg/220px-Prise_Port_Mahon_Minorque_20_mai_1756.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Prise_Port_Mahon_Minorque_20_mai_1756.jpg/330px-Prise_Port_Mahon_Minorque_20_mai_1756.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Prise_Port_Mahon_Minorque_20_mai_1756.jpg/440px-Prise_Port_Mahon_Minorque_20_mai_1756.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1896" data-file-height="1027" /></a><figcaption>French siege and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Fort_St_Philip_(1756)" title="Siege of Fort St Philip (1756)">capture of Fort St. Philip</a> on <a href="/wiki/Menorca" title="Menorca">Menorca</a>, 29 June 1756</figcaption></figure> <p>As war in Europe appeared increasingly inevitable, the Newcastle government sought to take the initiative—and make sure that the strategic island of <a href="/wiki/Menorca" title="Menorca">Menorca</a> (historically called "Minorca" by the British) was secured before it fell into French hands. A relief expedition was dispatched under Admiral <a href="/wiki/John_Byng" title="John Byng">John Byng</a> to save it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning1975232–235_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning1975232–235-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, once he arrived in the Mediterranean Byng found a sizable French fleet and a 15,000-strong army <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Fort_St_Philip_(1756)" title="Siege of Fort St Philip (1756)">besieging the fortress</a>. After fighting an <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Minorca_(1756)" title="Battle of Minorca (1756)">indecisive battle</a> he withdrew to <a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a>, and Menorca subsequently fell.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger2006264–266_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger2006264–266-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>Formal war was finally declared in May 1756, almost exactly two years after the two countries had first clashed in Ohio. </p><p>Byng was recalled to Britain and <a href="/wiki/Court-martial" title="Court-martial">court-martialled</a>. There was violent public outrage about the loss of Menorca, mostly directed against Newcastle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning1975236_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning1975236-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He tried to deflect the blame by emphasising the alleged cowardice of Byng. After being tried by his peers, the admiral was eventually executed by firing squad for "not doing his utmost".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger2006266–267_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger2006266–267-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By that time Newcastle and his government had fallen. It was replaced by a <a href="/wiki/Pitt%E2%80%93Devonshire_ministry" title="Pitt–Devonshire ministry">weaker administration</a> headed by the <a href="/wiki/William_Cavendish,_4th_Duke_of_Devonshire" title="William Cavendish, 4th Duke of Devonshire">Duke of Devonshire</a> and dominated by <a href="/wiki/William_Pitt_the_Elder" class="mw-redirect" title="William Pitt the Elder">William Pitt the Elder</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prussian_alliance">Prussian alliance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Prussian alliance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Prussian_alliance_(1756)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Prussian alliance (1756)">Anglo-Prussian alliance (1756)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Friedrich_Zweite_Alt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Friedrich_Zweite_Alt.jpg/220px-Friedrich_Zweite_Alt.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Friedrich_Zweite_Alt.jpg/330px-Friedrich_Zweite_Alt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Friedrich_Zweite_Alt.jpg/440px-Friedrich_Zweite_Alt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1048" data-file-height="1321" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Frederick_the_Great" title="Frederick the Great">Frederick the Great</a> remained Britain's <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Prussian_alliance_(1756)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Prussian alliance (1756)">only major ally</a> throughout much of the War.</figcaption></figure> <p>The major war in continental Europe that the British had hoped to avoid exploded in August 1756 when <a href="/wiki/Frederick_the_Great" title="Frederick the Great">Frederick the Great</a> attacked and overran the Austrian ally <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Saxony" title="Electorate of Saxony">Saxony</a>. Having occupied it he then launched a similarly bold invasion of <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a>. In both cases the Prussians caught their Austrian enemies by surprise, and had used this advantage to full effect, capturing major objectives before Austrian troops had been fully <a href="/wiki/Mobilised" class="mw-redirect" title="Mobilised">mobilised</a>. Having <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Prague" title="Siege of Prague">besieged Prague</a>, an Austrian counter-attack and a defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kol%C3%ADn" title="Battle of Kolín">Battle of Kolín</a> forced the Prussians back.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001176–177_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001176–177-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Britain found itself bound by the Westminster Convention and entered the war on the Prussian side. Newcastle was deeply reluctant to do this, but he saw that a Prussian collapse would be disastrous to British and Hanoverian interests. The <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Prussian_alliance_(1756)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Prussian alliance (1756)">Anglo-Prussian Alliance</a> was established, which saw large amounts of subsidy given to Prussia. Some supporters of <a href="/wiki/George_II_of_Great_Britain" title="George II of Great Britain">George II</a> were strong advocates of support for Prussia, as they saw it would be impossible to defend his realm of <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Hanover" title="Electorate of Hanover">Hanover</a> if they were to be defeated. Despite his initial dislike of Frederick,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning1975242_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning1975242-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the King later moved towards this viewpoint. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_intervention_on_the_continent">British intervention on the continent</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: British intervention on the continent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Hanover_(1757)" title="Invasion of Hanover (1757)">Invasion of Hanover (1757)</a></div> <p>Within a short time Prussia was being attacked on four fronts, by Austria from the south, France from the west, <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a> from the east, and <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Liberty" title="Age of Liberty">Sweden</a> from the north. Frederick fought defensive actions trying to blunt the invaders, losing thousands of men and precious resources in the process. He began to send more urgent appeals to London for material help on the continent. </p><p>When the war with France had commenced, Britain had initially brought Hessian and Hanoverian troops to defend Britain from a feared <a href="/wiki/Invasion_scare" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion scare">invasion scare</a>. When the threat of this receded, the German soldiers were sent to defend Hanover along with a small contingent of British troops under <a href="/wiki/Prince_William,_Duke_of_Cumberland" title="Prince William, Duke of Cumberland">Duke of Cumberland</a>, the King's second son. The arrival of British troops on the continent was considered a rarity, as the country preferred to make war by using its <a href="/wiki/Naval_forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Naval forces">naval forces</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004256_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004256-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As with the Prussians, Cumberland's army was initially overwhelmed by the sheer scale of the French attacks. Following the disastrous <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hastenbeck" title="Battle of Hastenbeck">Battle of Hastenbeck</a> Cumberland was forced to sign the <a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Klosterzeven" title="Convention of Klosterzeven">Convention of Klosterzeven</a> by which Hanover would withdraw from the war—and large chunks of its territory would be occupied by the French for the duration of the conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001211–222_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001211–222-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prussia was extremely alarmed by this development and lobbied hard for it to be reversed. In London too, there was shock at such a capitulation and Pitt recalled Cumberland to London where he was publicly rebuked by his father, the King, and forced to relinquish his commission.The terms of Klosterzeven were revoked, Hanover re-entered the war—and a new commander was selected to command the Allied Anglo-German forces. <a href="/wiki/Duke_Ferdinand_of_Brunswick-Wolfenb%C3%BCttel" title="Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel">Ferdinand of Brunswick</a> was a brother-in-law of Frederick the Great, and had developed a reputation as a competent officer. He set about trying to rally the German troops under his command, by emphasising the extent of the atrocities committed by the French troops who had occupied Hanover,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004259–260_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004259–260-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and launched a counter-offensive in late 1757 driving the French back across the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a>. </p><p>Despite several British attempts to persuade them, the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a> refused to join their former allies in the war and remained neutral. Pitt at one point even feared that the Dutch would enter the war against Britain, in response to repeated violations of Dutch neutrality by the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004240_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004240-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>Similarly the British were wary of <a href="/wiki/Denmark-Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Denmark-Norway">Denmark</a> joining the war against them, but Copenhagen followed a policy of strict neutrality. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Change_of_government">Change of government</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Change of government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pitt%E2%80%93Newcastle_ministry" title="Pitt–Newcastle ministry">Pitt–Newcastle ministry</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Pitt,_1st_Earl_of_Chatham_by_William_Hoare.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/William_Pitt%2C_1st_Earl_of_Chatham_by_William_Hoare.jpg/220px-William_Pitt%2C_1st_Earl_of_Chatham_by_William_Hoare.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/William_Pitt%2C_1st_Earl_of_Chatham_by_William_Hoare.jpg/330px-William_Pitt%2C_1st_Earl_of_Chatham_by_William_Hoare.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/William_Pitt%2C_1st_Earl_of_Chatham_by_William_Hoare.jpg/440px-William_Pitt%2C_1st_Earl_of_Chatham_by_William_Hoare.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="3051" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/William_Pitt,_1st_Earl_of_Chatham" title="William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham">William Pitt the Elder</a> was the leader of the <a href="/wiki/Patriot_Whigs" title="Patriot Whigs">Patriot Whigs</a> and oversaw British strategy from 1757.</figcaption></figure> <p>In London the Pitt-dominated administration had fallen after just six months because of a lack of support in parliament. A period of political stalemate followed, with no real direction to the British war effort. It became apparent that the only way a serious war administration could be put together was by an alliance of leading figures. In 1757 a partnership was formed between the Duke of Newcastle and William Pitt—despite their years of enmity. Newcastle became the head of the administration as Prime Minister, with control of public finances, while Pitt became Secretary of State and <i>de facto</i> war minister with control of much of British military strategy. Other leading figures such as <a href="/wiki/Henry_Fox,_1st_Baron_Holland" title="Henry Fox, 1st Baron Holland">Henry Fox</a> (<a href="/wiki/Paymaster_of_the_Forces" title="Paymaster of the Forces">Paymaster of the Forces</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/John_Russell,_4th_Duke_of_Bedford" title="John Russell, 4th Duke of Bedford">Duke of Bedford</a> were also given positions in the administration. </p><p>The new government's strategic thinking was sharply divided. Pitt had been a long-term advocate of Britain playing as small a role on the European continent while concentrating their resources and naval power to strike against vulnerable French colonies. Newcastle remained an old-school continentalist, who believed that the war would be decided in Europe, and was convinced that a strong British presence there was essential. He was supported in this view by George II. </p><p>A compromise was eventually established in which Britain would keep troops on the European continent under the command of the Duke of Brunswick, while Pitt was given authority to launch several colonial expeditions. He sent forces to attack French settlements in West Africa and the <a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indies</a>, operations which were tactically successful and brought financial benefits. In Britain a popular surge of <a href="/wiki/Patriotism" title="Patriotism">patriotism</a> and support for the government resulted. Pitt formed a <a href="/wiki/Triumvirate" title="Triumvirate">triumvirate</a> to direct operations with <a href="/wiki/George_Anson,_1st_Baron_Anson" title="George Anson, 1st Baron Anson">George Anson</a> in command of the navy and <a href="/wiki/John_Ligonier" class="mw-redirect" title="John Ligonier">John Ligonier</a> in charge of the army. A <a href="/wiki/Militia_(Great_Britain)" title="Militia (Great Britain)">Militia</a> Act was passed in 1757 to create a sizable force to defend Britain, which would free up regular troops for operations overseas. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Naval_"descents""><span id="Naval_.22descents.22"></span>Naval "descents"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Naval "descents""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Major-General_James_Wolfe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Major-General_James_Wolfe.jpg/220px-Major-General_James_Wolfe.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Major-General_James_Wolfe.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="282" data-file-height="331" /></a><figcaption>As a colonel <a href="/wiki/James_Wolfe" title="James Wolfe">James Wolfe</a> participated in the 1757 <a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Rochefort" title="Raid on Rochefort">Raid on Rochefort</a>. He soon rose to be a general, taking part in the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Louisbourg_(1758)" title="Siege of Louisbourg (1758)">seizure of Louisbourg</a> and leading the British troops <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Quebec_(1759)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Quebec (1759)">who captured Quebec</a> in 1759.</figcaption></figure> <p>The British had received several requests from their German allies to try to relieve the pressure on them by launching diversionary operations against the French. Pitt had long been an advocate of amphibious strikes or "descents" against the French coastline in which a small British force would land, capture a settlement, destroy its <a href="/wiki/Fortification" title="Fortification">fortifications</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ammunition" title="Ammunition">munitions</a> supplies and then withdraw. This would compel the French to withdraw troops from the Northern front to guard the coast. </p><p>After an urgent request from Brunswick, Pitt was able to put his plan into action, and in September 1757 <a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Rochefort" title="Raid on Rochefort">a British raid</a> was launched against <a href="/wiki/Rochefort,_Charente-Maritime" title="Rochefort, Charente-Maritime">Rochefort</a> in western France. For various reasons it was not a success, but Pitt was determined to press ahead with similar raids.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger2006268_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger2006268-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another British expedition was organised under <a href="/wiki/George_Germain,_1st_Viscount_Sackville" title="George Germain, 1st Viscount Sackville">Lord Sackville</a>. <a href="/wiki/Raid_on_St_Malo" title="Raid on St Malo">A landing</a> in <a href="/wiki/Saint-Malo" title="Saint-Malo">Saint-Malo</a> was partially successful, but was cut short by the sudden appearance of French troops—and the force withdrew to Britain. Pitt organised a third major descent, under the command of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Bligh" title="Thomas Bligh">Thomas Bligh</a>. His <a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Cherbourg" title="Raid on Cherbourg">raid on Cherbourg</a> in August 1758 proved to be the most successful of the descents, as he burnt ships and munitions and destroyed the fortifications of the town. However, an attempt in September to do the same at Saint-Malo ended with the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Saint_Cast" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Saint Cast">Battle of Saint Cast</a> and the British withdrawing with heavy casualties. This proved to be the last of the major landings attempted on the French coast—though the British later took control of the <a href="/wiki/Belle_%C3%8Ele" title="Belle Île">Belle Île</a> off the coast of <a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a> which was used as a base for marshalling troops and supplies. The raids were not financially successful and were described by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Fox,_1st_Baron_Holland" title="Henry Fox, 1st Baron Holland">Henry Fox</a> as being "like breaking windows with <a href="/wiki/Guinea_(British_coin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Guinea (British coin)">guineas</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimms2009446_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimms2009446-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From then on the British concentrated their efforts in Europe on Germany. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Indian_campaign_(1756–1758)"><span id="Indian_campaign_.281756.E2.80.931758.29"></span>Indian campaign (1756–1758)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Indian campaign (1756–1758)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Carnatic_Wars#Third_Carnatic_War_(1756–1763)" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnatic Wars">Carnatic Wars § Third Carnatic War (1756–1763)</a></div> <p>Britain and France both had significant colonial possessions in India and had been battling for supremacy for a number of years. The British were represented by the <a href="/wiki/British_East_India_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="British East India Company">British East India Company</a> (EIC) who were permitted to raise troops. The collapse of the long-standing <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a> brought the clash between the two states to a head, as each tried to gain sufficient power and territory to dominate the other. The 1754 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Pondicherry" title="Treaty of Pondicherry">Treaty of Pondicherry</a> which ended the <a href="/wiki/Second_Carnatic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Carnatic War">Second Carnatic War</a> had brought a temporary truce to India, but it was soon under threat.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeay1994282–295_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeay1994282–295-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A number of smaller Indian <a href="/wiki/Princely_state" title="Princely state">Princely states</a> aligned with either Britain or France. One of the most assertive of these Princes was the pro-French <a href="/wiki/Nawab_of_Bengal" class="mw-redirect" title="Nawab of Bengal">Nawab of Bengal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siraj_ud-Daulah" class="mw-redirect" title="Siraj ud-Daulah">Siraj ud-Daulah</a>, who resented the British presence in <a href="/wiki/Calcutta" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcutta">Calcutta</a>. In 1756 he had succeeded his grandfather <a href="/wiki/Alivardi_Khan" title="Alivardi Khan">Alivardi Khan</a> who had been a staunch British ally. By contrast he regarded the British East India Company as an encroaching threat. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Calcutta">Calcutta</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Calcutta"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Calcutta" title="Siege of Calcutta">Siege of Calcutta</a></div> <p>On 20 June 1756 the Nawab's troops stormed <a href="/wiki/Fort_William,_India" title="Fort William, India">Fort William</a> capturing the city. A number of the British civilians and <a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoners of war">prisoners of war</a> were locked in the small guard room in what became known as the <a href="/wiki/Black_Hole_of_Calcutta" title="Black Hole of Calcutta">Black Hole of Calcutta</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004170–171_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004170–171-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the death of many of them, the atrocity became a popular rallying call for revenge. A force from <a href="/wiki/Madras" class="mw-redirect" title="Madras">Madras</a> under the command of Lieutenant Colonel <a href="/wiki/Robert_Clive" title="Robert Clive">Robert Clive</a> arrived and liberated the city, driving out the Nawab's troops. The <a href="/wiki/Third_Carnatic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Carnatic War">Third Carnatic War</a> that followed saw Britain ranged against the Nawab and France. Clive consolidated his position in Calcutta, and made contact with one of the Nawab's chief advisors <a href="/wiki/Mir_Jafar" title="Mir Jafar">Mir Jafar</a> attempting to persuade him and other leading Bengalis to overthrow the Nawab. After the British ambushed a column of the Nawab's troops which was approaching Calcutta on 2 February 1757, the two sides agreed the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Alinagar" title="Treaty of Alinagar">Treaty of Alinagar</a> which brought a temporary truce to Bengal. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plassey">Plassey</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Plassey"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plassey" title="Battle of Plassey">Battle of Plassey</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clive.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Clive.jpg/220px-Clive.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Clive.jpg/330px-Clive.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Clive.jpg/440px-Clive.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1870" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Robert_Clive" title="Robert Clive">Robert Clive</a>, meeting with <a href="/wiki/Mir_Jafar" title="Mir Jafar">Mir Jafar</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plassey" title="Battle of Plassey">Battle of Plassey</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Francis_Hayman" title="Francis Hayman">Francis Hayman</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Despite the agreement at Alinagar, neither side was content with the status quo. The British felt that if they did not assert their position, the French would become the dominant power in Bengal. Siraj ud-Daulah was fearful of being forced to accept British suzerainty. His position was weakened by his unpopularity with his own subjects, and the threat of other military enemies to the west. He began to take steps to drive the British out of Bengal entirely. </p><p>On 23 June 1757 the Nawab led a force of 50,000 into the field. Ranged against them was a much smaller Anglo-Indian force under the command of Robert Clive. The Nawab was weakened by the betrayal of Mir Jafar who had concluded a secret pact with the British before the battle – and refused to move his troops to support the Nawab. Faced with the superior firepower and discipline of the British troops, the Nawab's army was routed. After the battle Siraj ud-Daulah was overthrown and executed by his own officers, and Mir Jafar succeeded him as Nawab. He then concluded a peace treaty with the British. </p><p>Mir Jafar himself subsequently clashed with the British for much the same reasons as Siraj ud-Daulah had. He conspired with the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a> to try to oust the British from Bengal and in 1759 invited them to send troops to aid him. The defeat of the Dutch at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chinsurah" title="Battle of Chinsurah">Battle of Chinsurah</a> resulted in Britain moving to have Jafar replaced with his son-in-law, who was considered more favourable to the EIC. One of the most important long-term effects of the battle was that the British received the <a href="/wiki/Diwan_(title)" class="mw-redirect" title="Diwan (title)">diwan</a> – the right to collect taxes in Bengal which was granted in 1765.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004388_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004388-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French_East_India_Company">French East India Company</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: French East India Company"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The French presence in India was led by the <a href="/wiki/French_East_India_Company" title="French East India Company">French East India Company</a> operating out of its base at <a href="/wiki/Pondicherry" title="Pondicherry">Pondicherry</a>. Its forces were under the command of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Fran%C3%A7ois_Dupleix" title="Joseph François Dupleix">Joseph François Dupleix</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Arthur,_comte_de_Lally" title="Thomas Arthur, comte de Lally">Lally</a>, a Jacobite. The veteran Dupleix had been in India a long time, and had established a key rapport with France's Indian allies. Lally was more newly arrived, and was seeking a swift victory over the British—and was less concerned about diplomatic sensibilities. </p><p>Following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chandalore" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Chandalore">Battle of Chandalore</a> when Clive attacked a French trading post the French were driven completely out of Bengal. In spite of this they still had a major presence in central India, and hoped to regain the power they had lost to the British in southern India during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Carnatic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Carnatic War">Second Carnatic War</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Annus_Mirabilis_(1759)"><span id="Annus_Mirabilis_.281759.29"></span><i>Annus Mirabilis</i> (1759)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Annus Mirabilis (1759)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <b><i>Annus Mirabilis</i> of 1759</b> (<a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> 'wonderful year') was a string of notable British victories over their French-led opponents during that year. Apart from a few isolated victories, the war had not gone well for Britain since 1754. In all theatres except India and North America (where Pitt's strategy had led to important gains in 1758) they were on the retreat. British agents received information about a planned French invasion which would knock Britain out of the war completely. While France starved their colonial forces of troops and supplies to concentrate them on the goal of total strategic supremacy in Europe, the British government continued its policy of shipping their own troops to fight for total victory in the colonies—leaving Britain to be guarded by the large <a href="/wiki/Militia_(Great_Britain)" title="Militia (Great Britain)">militia</a> that had existed since 1757. The British had entered 1759 anxious about a <a href="/wiki/Planned_French_Invasion_of_Britain_(1759)" class="mw-redirect" title="Planned French Invasion of Britain (1759)">French invasion</a>, but by the end of the year, they were victorious in all theatres against France. </p><p>The succession of victories led <a href="/wiki/Horace_Walpole" title="Horace Walpole">Horace Walpole</a> to remark, "Our bells are worn threadbare with ringing for victories".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001298_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001298-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several of the triumphs assumed an <a href="/wiki/Cultural_icon" title="Cultural icon">iconic</a> place in the mindset of the British public, reinforced by representations in art and music, such as the popular song <i><a href="/wiki/Heart_of_Oak" title="Heart of Oak">Heart of Oak</a></i> and the later painting <i><a href="/wiki/The_Death_of_General_Wolfe" title="The Death of General Wolfe">The Death of General Wolfe</a></i>. Frank McLynn identified 1759 as the year which prefigured the rise of the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> in eclipsing France as the dominant <a href="/wiki/Global_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Global power">global superpower</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn20041–5_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn20041–5-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>Much of the credit for the <i>annus mirabilis</i> was given to William Pitt the Elder, the minister who directed military strategy as part of his duties as <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_the_Southern_Department" title="Secretary of State for the Southern Department">Secretary of State for the Southern Department</a>, rather than to the Prime Minister, the Duke of Newcastle. Recent historians, however, have portrayed the British Cabinet as a more <a href="/wiki/Collective" title="Collective">collective</a> leadership than had previously been thought.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiddleton1985_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiddleton1985-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Three years later, Great Britain saw a similarly successful year. The Anglo-German army again turned back a French advance on Hanover at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wilhelmsthal" title="Battle of Wilhelmsthal">Wilhelmsthal</a>, the army helped <a href="/wiki/Spanish_invasion_of_Portugal_(1762)" title="Spanish invasion of Portugal (1762)">repulse a Franco-Spanish invasion of Portugal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Martinique_(1762)" title="Invasion of Martinique (1762)">captured Martinique</a> from France, and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Havana_(1762)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Havana (1762)">captured Havana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_(1762)" title="Battle of Manila (1762)">Manila</a> from Spain. This led some to describe 1762 as a "Second <i>Annus Mirabilis</i>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2014344_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2014344-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Madras">Madras</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Madras"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Madras" title="Siege of Madras">Siege of Madras</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Condore" title="Battle of Condore">Battle of Condore</a></div> <p>Following Clive's victory at Plassey and the subjugation of Bengal, Britain had not directed large resources to the Indian theatre. The French meanwhile had despatched a large force from Europe to seize the initiative on the subcontinent. The clear goal of this force was to capture <a href="/wiki/Madras" class="mw-redirect" title="Madras">Madras</a>, which had previously <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Madras" title="Battle of Madras">fallen to the French</a> in 1746. In December 1758 a French force of 8,000 under the <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Arthur,_comte_de_Lally" title="Thomas Arthur, comte de Lally">Comte de Lally</a> descended on Madras, bottling up the 4,000 British defenders in <a href="/wiki/Fort_St._George,_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort St. George, India">Fort St George</a>. After a hard-fought three-month siege the French were finally forced to abandon their attempt to take the city by the arrival of a British naval force carrying 600 reinforcements on 16 February 1759.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004183_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004183-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lally withdrew his troops, but it was not the end of French ambitions in southern India. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="West_Indies">West Indies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: West Indies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Guadeloupe_(1759)" title="Invasion of Guadeloupe (1759)">Invasion of Guadeloupe (1759)</a></div> <p>One of Pitt's favoured strategies was a British expedition to attack the <a href="/wiki/French_West_Indies" title="French West Indies">French West Indies</a>, where their richest sugar-producing colonies were situated. A British naval force of 9,000 sailed from Portsmouth in November 1758 under the command of <a href="/wiki/Peregrine_Hopson" title="Peregrine Hopson">Peregrine Hopson</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004104–105_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004104–105-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using <a href="/wiki/Barbados" title="Barbados">Barbados</a> as a staging point, <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Martinique_(1759)" title="Invasion of Martinique (1759)">they attacked first</a> at <a href="/wiki/Martinique" title="Martinique">Martinique</a>. After failing to make enough headway, and losing troops rapidly to disease, they were forced to abandon the attempt and move to the secondary target of the British expedition, <a href="/wiki/Guadeloupe" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a>. Facing a race against time before the hurricane season hit in July, a landing was forced and the town of <a href="/wiki/Basse-Terre" title="Basse-Terre">Basse-Terre</a> was shelled.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004105–115_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004105–115-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They looked in severe danger when a large French fleet unexpectedly arrived under <a href="/wiki/Maximin_de_Bompart" title="Maximin de Bompart">Bompart</a>, but on 1 May the island's defenders finally surrendered and Bompart was unable to prevent the loss of Guadeloupe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001314–315_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001314–315-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Orders arrived from London concerning an assault on <a href="/wiki/Saint_Lucia" title="Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a> but the commanders decided that such an attempt was unwise given the circumstances. Instead they moved to protect <a href="/wiki/Antigua" title="Antigua">Antigua</a> from any possible attack by Bompart, before the bulk of the force sailed for home in late July.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004116_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004116-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battle_of_Minden">Battle of Minden</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Battle of Minden"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Minden" title="Battle of Minden">Battle of Minden</a></div> <p>Since early 1758, the British had contributed an increasingly large number of troops to serve in Germany. Pitt had reversed his previous hostility to British intervention on the continent, as he realised that the theatre could be used to tie down numerous French troops and resources which might otherwise be sent to fight in the colonies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDull2005122–123_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDull2005122–123-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Brunswick's army had enjoyed enormous success since winter 1757, crossing the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a> several times, winning the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Krefeld" title="Battle of Krefeld">Battle of Krefeld</a> and capturing <a href="/wiki/Bremen" title="Bremen">Bremen</a> without a shot being fired. In recognition of his services Parliament voted him £2,000 a year for life. By April 1759 Brunswick had an army of around 72,000 facing two French armies with a combined strength of 100,000. The French had occupied <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt" title="Frankfurt">Frankfurt</a> and were using it as their base for operations, which Brunswick now attempted to assault. On 13 April Brunswick lost the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bergen_(1759)" title="Battle of Bergen (1759)">Battle of Bergen</a> to a superior French force and was forced to retreat.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004264–267_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004264–267-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Minden_Plan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Minden_Plan.jpg/220px-Minden_Plan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="348" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Minden_Plan.jpg/330px-Minden_Plan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Minden_Plan.jpg/440px-Minden_Plan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="702" data-file-height="1110" /></a><figcaption>Battle plan of Minden</figcaption></figure> <p>The French pursued Brunswick slowly, capturing the strategic town of <a href="/wiki/Minden" title="Minden">Minden</a> which could potentially be used to stage an invasion of Hanover. Brunswick was pressured into action by this threat; the French command was also eager to end the campaign with a swift victory to free up troops which would allow them to take part in the proposed invasion of Britain. On the night of 31 July, both commanders simultaneously decided to attack the other outside Minden. The French forces reacted hesitantly when faced with Germans in front of them as dawn broke, allowing the Allies to seize the initiative and counter-attack. However, one column of British troops advanced too quickly and soon found itself attacked on all sides by a mixture of cavalry, artillery and infantry which vastly outnumbered them. The British managed to hold them off, sustaining casualties of a third. When they were reinforced with other troops, the Allies broke through the French lines and forced them to retreat. The British cavalry under <a href="/wiki/George_Germain,_1st_Viscount_Sackville" title="George Germain, 1st Viscount Sackville">Sackville</a> were ordered to advance, but he refused—apparently in indignation at his treatment by Brunswick, though this was at the time popularly attributed to cowardice on his part. In the confusion, the French were allowed to escape the battlefield and avoid total disaster. Despite widespread praise for the conduct of the British troops, their commander Sackville received condemnation for his alleged cowardice and was forced to return home in disgrace. He was replaced by the <a href="/wiki/John_Manners,_Marquess_of_Granby" title="John Manners, Marquess of Granby">Marquess of Granby</a>. The victory proved crucial, as Frederick had lost to the Russians at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kunersdorf" title="Battle of Kunersdorf">Kunersdorf</a>. Had Brunswick been defeated at Minden, Hanover would almost certainly have been invaded and the total defeat of Prussia would have been imminent. In the wake of the victory the Allies advanced, pushing the French backwards and relieving the pressure on the Prussians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004279–281_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004279–281-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Failed_invasion">Failed invasion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Failed invasion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Planned_French_invasion_of_Britain_(1759)" title="Planned French invasion of Britain (1759)">Planned French invasion of Britain (1759)</a></div> <p>The central plank of France's war against Britain in 1759 was a plan to invade Britain, authored by the French chief minister <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Fran%C3%A7ois,_duc_de_Choiseul" class="mw-redirect" title="Étienne François, duc de Choiseul">Duc de Choiseul</a>. It was subject to several changes, but the core was that more than 50,000 French troops would cross the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">English Channel</a> from <a href="/wiki/Le_Havre" title="Le Havre">Le Havre</a> in flat-bottomed boats and land at <a href="/wiki/Portsmouth" title="Portsmouth">Portsmouth</a> on the British coast. Aided by a <a href="/wiki/Jacobitism" title="Jacobitism">Jacobite</a> rebellion – they would then advance on London and force a peace agreement on the British, extracting various concessions and knocking them out of the war. The British became aware through their agents of the scheme and drew up a plan to mobilise their forces in case of the invasion. In an effort to set back the invasion, a British <a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Le_Havre" title="Raid on Le Havre">raid was launched against Le Havre</a> which destroyed numerous flat-boats and supplies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004238_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004238-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In spite of this, the plans continued to progress and by autumn the French were poised to launch their invasion. Following naval defeats at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lagos" title="Battle of Lagos">Battle of Lagos</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Quiberon_Bay" title="Battle of Quiberon Bay">Battle of Quiberon Bay</a>, and with news of the Allied victory at Minden, the French began to have second thoughts about their plan, and in late autumn cancelled it. The French did not have the clear sea they hoped for the crossing, nor could they now spare the number of troops on the continent. A number of flaws in the plan had also become apparent, including the fact that claims of the number of Jacobite supporters were now considered wildly optimistic.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The campaign was considered a last throw of the dice for the Jacobites to have any realistic hope of reclaiming the British throne. After the campaign the French soon abandoned the Stuarts entirely, withdrawing their support, and forcing them to take up a new home in Rome. Many of the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Highlands" title="Scottish Highlands">Highland</a> communities that had strongly supported the Jacobites in 1715 and 1745 now had regiments serving in the British army, where they played a key role in Britain's success that year. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Naval_supremacy">Naval supremacy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Naval supremacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Quiberon_Bay" title="Battle of Quiberon Bay">Battle of Quiberon Bay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lagos" title="Battle of Lagos">Battle of Lagos</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Quibcardinaux2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Quibcardinaux2.jpg/220px-Quibcardinaux2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Quibcardinaux2.jpg/330px-Quibcardinaux2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Quibcardinaux2.jpg/440px-Quibcardinaux2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="791" /></a><figcaption>The French naval defeat at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Quiberon_Bay" title="Battle of Quiberon Bay">Quiberon Bay</a> in 1759, near <a href="/wiki/Saint-Nazaire" title="Saint-Nazaire">Saint-Nazaire</a> in <a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a>, proved a devastating setback to the <a href="/wiki/Planned_French_invasion_of_Britain_(1759)" title="Planned French invasion of Britain (1759)">planned invasion</a>, and was one of the major reasons behind its ultimate cancellation.</figcaption></figure> <p>By 1759, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> had expanded to 71,000 personnel and 275 ships in commission, with another 82 under ordinance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004233_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004233-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the war the British had instituted a new system of <a href="/wiki/Blockade" title="Blockade">blockade</a>, by which they penned in the main French fleets at anchor in <a href="/wiki/Brest,_France" title="Brest, France">Brest</a> and <a href="/wiki/Toulon" title="Toulon">Toulon</a>. The British were able to keep an almost constant force poised outside French harbours. The French inability to counter this had led to a collapse in morale among French seamen and the wider population.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004236–237_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004236–237-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The French government had devised a plan that would allow them to launch their invasion. It required a junction of the two French fleets in the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">English Channel</a>, where they would be able to cover a major invasion. However, in August 1759 the French Mediterranean Fleet under Admiral <a href="/wiki/La_Clue" class="mw-redirect" title="La Clue">La Clue</a> left harbour and was destroyed at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lagos" title="Battle of Lagos">Battle of Lagos</a> near Portugal. This left only the Channel Fleet at Brest under <a href="/wiki/Hubert_de_Brienne" title="Hubert de Brienne">Conflans</a>. When he tried to break free of the British blockade in November, he was run down and attacked by the British under <a href="/wiki/Admiral_Hawke" class="mw-redirect" title="Admiral Hawke">Admiral Hawke</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Quiberon_Bay" title="Battle of Quiberon Bay">Battle of Quiberon Bay</a>. This victory left the British in almost total command of the seas, compounded by the effective use of naval forces in the West Indies, Canada and India. A small French force under Thurot did <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carrickfergus_(1760)" title="Battle of Carrickfergus (1760)">manage to land on the Irish coast</a>, and menace <a href="/wiki/Belfast" title="Belfast">Belfast</a> before being forced to withdraw and being destroyed by a Royal Navy squadron in the Irish Sea.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongmate1993180–181_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongmate1993180–181-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Elsewhere">Elsewhere</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Elsewhere"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The year was rounded out by the news of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Plains_of_Abraham" title="Battle of the Plains of Abraham">Wolfe's victory</a> at <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a>, resulting in the capture of the capital of New France (see below). However while 1759 was acclaimed as Britain's 'Annus Mirabilis', for the Prussians the year had been as disastrous as it had been successful for the British. Prussia's armies had suffered a string of defeats and suffered large numbers of casualties. At times Prussia veered close to total collapse, notably after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kunersdorf" title="Battle of Kunersdorf">Battle of Kunersdorf</a>, was now heavily dependent on continued British financial assistance and only survived due to the <a href="/wiki/Miracle_of_the_House_of_Brandenburg" title="Miracle of the House of Brandenburg">Miracle of the House of Brandenburg</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimms2009463–464_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimms2009463–464-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conquest_of_Canada_(1758–1760)"><span id="Conquest_of_Canada_.281758.E2.80.931760.29"></span>Conquest of Canada (1758–1760)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Conquest of Canada (1758–1760)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_New_France_(1758%E2%80%931760)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conquest of New France (1758–1760)">Conquest of New France (1758–1760)</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Louisbourg">Louisbourg</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Louisbourg"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Louisbourg_(1758)" title="Siege of Louisbourg (1758)">Siege of Louisbourg (1758)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_View_of_Louisburg_in_North_America,_taken_near_the_Light_House_when_that_City_was_besieged_in_1758_(Yale).tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/A_View_of_Louisburg_in_North_America%2C_taken_near_the_Light_House_when_that_City_was_besieged_in_1758_%28Yale%29.tif/lossy-page1-220px-A_View_of_Louisburg_in_North_America%2C_taken_near_the_Light_House_when_that_City_was_besieged_in_1758_%28Yale%29.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/A_View_of_Louisburg_in_North_America%2C_taken_near_the_Light_House_when_that_City_was_besieged_in_1758_%28Yale%29.tif/lossy-page1-330px-A_View_of_Louisburg_in_North_America%2C_taken_near_the_Light_House_when_that_City_was_besieged_in_1758_%28Yale%29.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/A_View_of_Louisburg_in_North_America%2C_taken_near_the_Light_House_when_that_City_was_besieged_in_1758_%28Yale%29.tif/lossy-page1-440px-A_View_of_Louisburg_in_North_America%2C_taken_near_the_Light_House_when_that_City_was_besieged_in_1758_%28Yale%29.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1901" /></a><figcaption>View of <a href="/wiki/Fortress_of_Louisbourg" title="Fortress of Louisbourg">Louisbourg</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a> when the city was besieged by British forces in 1758</figcaption></figure> <p>Following the failure of the British to take <a href="/wiki/Louisbourg" title="Louisbourg">Louisbourg</a> in 1757, a second attempt was planned in 1758 and command given to General <a href="/wiki/Jeffery_Amherst,_1st_Baron_Amherst" title="Jeffery Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst">Jeffery Amherst</a>. Although Louisbourg did not control entry to the <a href="/wiki/Saint_Lawrence_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Lawrence River">Saint Lawrence River</a>, it could not simply be bypassed, and the British decided it must be taken before they could proceed further. After a 44-day siege, the city finally capitulated.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the figures who benefited most from the campaign was a young British brigadier, <a href="/wiki/James_Wolfe" title="James Wolfe">James Wolfe</a>, who so impressed Pitt that he was promoted and given command of future expeditions in Canada. Despite their victory at Louisbourg, the British decided to wait for the spring before heading further up the St Lawrence. In the meantime the river was extensively charted by a naval officer, <a href="/wiki/James_Cook" title="James Cook">James Cook</a>, later to become famous as an explorer. Despatches carrying news of the victory sparked euphoria in Britain, and were celebrated by numerous bonfires.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001377_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001377-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quebec">Quebec</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Quebec"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Plains_of_Abraham" title="Battle of the Plains of Abraham">Battle of the Plains of Abraham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sainte-Foy" title="Battle of Sainte-Foy">Battle of Sainte-Foy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Quebec_(1760)" title="Siege of Quebec (1760)">Siege of Quebec (1760)</a></div> <p>The key to British strategy in North America involved taking <a href="/wiki/Quebec_City" title="Quebec City">Quebec City</a>—the capital and largest city of <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a>. This was to be achieved by the deployment of a massive force up the <a href="/wiki/Saint_Lawrence_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Lawrence River">Saint Lawrence River</a>. Simultaneously an Anglo-American force would march from New York to capture <a href="/wiki/Fort_Ticonderoga" title="Fort Ticonderoga">Fort Carillon</a> and possibly <a href="/wiki/Fort_Niagara" title="Fort Niagara">Fort Niagara</a> as well. While many, particularly Pitt and the American inhabitants, hoped that Canada could be annexed, others saw it as a bargaining chip to offset potential British losses in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimms2009475–476_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimms2009475–476-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the time the French realised the scale of the British intentions in Canada, it was too late to send assistance to Quebec. The French government hoped that <a href="/wiki/Louis-Joseph_de_Montcalm" title="Louis-Joseph de Montcalm">Louis-Joseph de Montcalm</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a>'s military commander, would be able to resist for the next year, after which they would send troops to his aid.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn200450–53_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn200450–53-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NSRW_Siege_of_Quebec.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/NSRW_Siege_of_Quebec.png/220px-NSRW_Siege_of_Quebec.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/NSRW_Siege_of_Quebec.png/330px-NSRW_Siege_of_Quebec.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/NSRW_Siege_of_Quebec.png/440px-NSRW_Siege_of_Quebec.png 2x" data-file-width="1514" data-file-height="1002" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Quebec City area showing disposition of French and British forces. The <a href="/wiki/Plains_of_Abraham" title="Plains of Abraham">Plains of Abraham</a> (not labelled) are located at left, to the west of <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Wolfe arrived outside Quebec on 28 June.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001344_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001344-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For much of the rest of the summer, he probed the defences of the city, trying to find a way through. Montcalm constantly frustrated him, shifting his own troops about in response. The cat-and-mouse game between the two generals reached a climax towards the end of the summer. If Wolfe could not capture the city he would likely be forced to withdraw in the face of the hostile Canadian winter. An attempt to land on the <a href="/wiki/Montmorency_Falls" title="Montmorency Falls">Montmorency</a> was beaten back at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Beauport" title="Battle of Beauport">Battle of Beauport</a>, and almost proved disastrous.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004219–220_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004219–220-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wolfe now searched for another place to land and make his attack. On 12 September the British learned of a convenient landing spot, and Wolfe moved his army there at night. The following day the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Plains_of_Abraham" title="Battle of the Plains of Abraham">Battle of the Plains of Abraham</a> took place. It proved to be a decisive British victory, though one in which both Wolfe and Montcalm were killed. The British then took over the city. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Capitulation_Montreal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Capitulation_Montreal.jpg/220px-Capitulation_Montreal.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Capitulation_Montreal.jpg/330px-Capitulation_Montreal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Capitulation_Montreal.jpg/440px-Capitulation_Montreal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1656" data-file-height="1060" /></a><figcaption>Surrender of the French Army in <a href="/wiki/Montreal" title="Montreal">Montreal</a> in 1760</figcaption></figure> <p>The British were further cheered by the news that Amherst had taken <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ticonderoga_(1759)" title="Battle of Ticonderoga (1759)">Fort Carillon</a> (after which it was renamed Fort Ticonderoga, as it is known today) and a second expedition had captured <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Niagara" title="Battle of Fort Niagara">Fort Niagara</a>. The French and their native allies were now under increasing pressure, compounded by guerrilla activities spearheaded by Britain's <a href="/wiki/Mohawk_people" title="Mohawk people">Mohawk</a> allies and <a href="/wiki/Rogers%27_Rangers" title="Rogers' Rangers">Rogers' Rangers</a>. Despite the celebrated victory at Quebec, the campaign was not over—the French still had significant forces at large in North America swelled by refugees from the surrounding countryside. The following spring the French regrouped and launched an attempt to retake Quebec. The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sainte-Foy" title="Battle of Sainte-Foy">Battle of Sainte-Foy</a> took place on 28 April 1760 and proved even bloodier than the previous battle. Though the French prevailed, the British were able to retreat into Quebec. The subsequent <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Quebec_(1760)" title="Siege of Quebec (1760)">siege of Quebec</a> lasted from 29 April until 15 May when British ships arrived to relieve the city which compelled the de Lévis to break off the siege and retreat.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001391–396_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001391–396-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Montreal">Montreal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Montreal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Montreal_campaign" title="Montreal campaign">Montreal campaign</a></div> <p>The arrival of British ships and reinforcements ended the French offensive and forced them to retreat in the direction of <a href="/wiki/Montreal" title="Montreal">Montreal</a>. The British pursued, capturing parts of the city on 1 September 1760 after encountering only light resistance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001398–399_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001398–399-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The last French army under <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Gaston_de_L%C3%A9vis" title="François Gaston de Lévis">Lévis</a> was finally forced to surrender on 6 September 1760 when a second British army under Amherst arrived from the south following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Thousand_Islands" title="Battle of the Thousand Islands">Battle of the Thousand Islands</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001400–409_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001400–409-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and an attempt at French reinforcement was stopped in the naval <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Restigouche" title="Battle of Restigouche">Battle of Restigouche</a>. </p><p>The British had responded to the French challenge in North America by striking at the heart of New France. Though it had been a long and costly series of campaigns, it proved to be one of the most successful of Pitt's policies. While a modest French presence remained in <a href="/wiki/Illinois_Country" title="Illinois Country">Illinois</a> and <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_France)" title="Louisiana (New France)">Louisiana</a> the fighting served to end any significant French military threats in North America for good. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Victory_in_India_(1760–1761)"><span id="Victory_in_India_.281760.E2.80.931761.29"></span>Victory in India (1760–1761)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Victory in India (1760–1761)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Following the British victory at Madras, their forces took the offensive. A force under <a href="/wiki/Francis_Forde_(East_India_Company_officer)" title="Francis Forde (East India Company officer)">Francis Forde</a> <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Masulipatam" title="Siege of Masulipatam">captured the port of Masulipatam</a>. Although he still had significant forces in India, the French commander Lally had expected greater support from his own navy, but he was constantly frustrated by the cautious <a href="/wiki/Anne_Antoine,_Comte_d%27Ach%C3%A9" title="Anne Antoine, Comte d'Aché">Aché</a>. Fresh British reinforcements arrived, tilting the balance in their favour. The failure of the French navy to secure command of the Indian Ocean opened their own territory to capture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECorbett1907121–126_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECorbett1907121–126-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wandiwash">Wandiwash</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Wandiwash"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wandiwash" title="Battle of Wandiwash">Battle of Wandiwash</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pondicherry">Pondicherry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Pondicherry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Pondicherry_(1760)" title="Siege of Pondicherry (1760)">Siege of Pondicherry (1760)</a></div> <p>Pondicherry's capture proved to be a decisive moment in the long-term battle for control in India. After this point, <a href="/wiki/French_India" title="French India">French India</a> was confined to a handful of trading posts stretched along the coast, while the East India Company moved into the interior, extending its conquests to create the wide-reaching territories of <a href="/wiki/British_India" class="mw-redirect" title="British India">British India</a>, and by <a href="/wiki/Subsidiary_alliances" class="mw-redirect" title="Subsidiary alliances">subsidiary alliances</a> setting up the even wider <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Indian Empire</a>. By the end of 1761, the French were fearful that the British forces in India were preparing to strike at the island of <a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a>, and made no effort to reverse their losses in India.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDull2005172–173_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDull2005172–173-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="War_in_Europe_(1760–1762)"><span id="War_in_Europe_.281760.E2.80.931762.29"></span>War in Europe (1760–1762)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: War in Europe (1760–1762)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JohnStuartBute.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/JohnStuartBute.jpg/220px-JohnStuartBute.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/JohnStuartBute.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="274" data-file-height="274" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart,_3rd_Earl_of_Bute" title="John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute">Lord Bute</a>'s rise to power between 1760 and 1762 dramatically influenced the emphasis of Britain's war effort. Like the new king, Bute favoured an end to British involvement on the continent.</figcaption></figure> <p>1760 marked a major milestone in British strategy, caused by the death of <a href="/wiki/George_II_of_Great_Britain" title="George II of Great Britain">George II</a>. His grandson <a href="/wiki/George_III" title="George III">George III</a> was much less committed to a British role in Germany which he saw as unnecessary. He also disliked Newcastle and Pitt, describing them as "knave" and a "snake in the grass",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHibbert199327_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHibbert199327-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and elevated his former tutor <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart,_3rd_Earl_of_Bute" title="John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute">Earl of Bute</a> into a senior role in the cabinet. The dovish Bute soon clashed with Pitt over various aspects of British policy. Bute did give his assent to Pitt's plan for a British expedition to <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Belle_%C3%8Ele" title="Capture of Belle Île">capture the island of Belle Île</a> in 1761. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="West_German_campaign">West German campaign</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: West German campaign"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After his victory at Minden <a href="/wiki/Duke_Ferdinand_of_Brunswick-Wolfenb%C3%BCttel" title="Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel">the Duke of Brunswick</a> continued to lead the Anglo-German army which received increasing resources and reinforcements from Britain. Brunswick was now facing several large French armies under the overall command of <a href="/wiki/Victor-Fran%C3%A7ois,_2nd_duc_de_Broglie" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor-François, 2nd duc de Broglie">Victor-François, 2nd duc de Broglie</a> which tried to envelop the west German frontier. The French still hoped to offset their losses to the British in other parts of the globe by capturing <a href="/wiki/Hanover" title="Hanover">Hanover</a>—which could be used as a bargaining chip in any peace negotiations. The French continued to invest large numbers of troops—which were badly needed elsewhere. In 1761 Brunswick won another major victory over Broglie at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Villinghausen" title="Battle of Villinghausen">Battle of Villinghausen</a>. </p><p>The French made a final attempt to invade Hanover in 1762 which was defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wilhelmsthal" title="Battle of Wilhelmsthal">Battle of Wilhelmsthal</a>. Brunswick then went on the attack, driving the French southwards and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Cassel_(1762)" title="Siege of Cassel (1762)">capturing Cassel</a> before the war was halted by an <a href="/wiki/Armistice" title="Armistice">armistice</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001496_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001496-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="End_of_the_Prussian_Alliance">End of the Prussian Alliance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: End of the Prussian Alliance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bute began to champion the idea that Britain should disentangle itself from the German war, and suggested to <a href="/wiki/Frederick_the_Great" title="Frederick the Great">Frederick the Great</a> that he might make peace with Austria by giving them back <a href="/wiki/Silesia" title="Silesia">Silesia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001495_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001495-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Frederick rejected the proposal, although Prussian fortunes were at a low ebb by 1761 following defeats on several fronts. Debates began in London about cancelling all British subsidies to Frederick entirely. By early 1762—despite the success of Brunswick's army in Western Europe—Russian troops were poised to capture Berlin and a partition of Prussia was actively planned. <a href="/wiki/Miracle_of_the_House_of_Brandenburg" title="Miracle of the House of Brandenburg">Frederick was spared</a> by the sudden death of Empress <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_of_Russia" title="Elizabeth of Russia">Elizabeth of Russia</a>, who was succeeded by the pro-Prussian <a href="/wiki/Peter_III_of_Russia" title="Peter III of Russia">Peter III</a>. He was an ardent admirer of Frederick and immediately switched Russia from an enemy of Prussia to an ally—withdrawing the threat from Berlin and sending his troops against the Austrians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001492–494_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001492–494-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This dramatically shifted the <a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">balance of power</a> in Europe—suddenly handing Frederick the initiative. He recaptured southern Silesia and forced Austria to the negotiating table.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchieder2000132,_135,_144,_155_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchieder2000132,_135,_144,_155-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="War_with_Spain_(1762)"><span id="War_with_Spain_.281762.29"></span>War with Spain (1762)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: War with Spain (1762)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1762%E2%80%931763)" title="Anglo-Spanish War (1762–1763)">Anglo-Spanish War (1762–1763)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ricardo_Wall.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Ricardo_Wall.jpg/220px-Ricardo_Wall.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Ricardo_Wall.jpg/330px-Ricardo_Wall.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Ricardo_Wall.jpg/440px-Ricardo_Wall.jpg 2x" data-file-width="591" data-file-height="703" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ricardo_Wall" title="Ricardo Wall">Ricardo Wall</a> managed to keep Spain out of the war, but lost power when <a href="/wiki/Charles_III_of_Spain" title="Charles III of Spain">Charles III</a> became king.</figcaption></figure> <p>Through careful diplomacy and the influence of a pro-British Spanish prime minister <a href="/wiki/Ricardo_Wall" title="Ricardo Wall">Ricardo Wall</a>, Spain had remained neutral through most of the war. However, with the accession of <a href="/wiki/Charles_III_of_Spain" title="Charles III of Spain">Charles III</a> to the throne, Spanish foreign policy began to change. Charles was alarmed by the British conquest of the French Empire in North America, and feared his own empire would be Pitt's next target. He concluded the <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Family_Compact" class="mw-redirect" title="Bourbon Family Compact">Bourbon Family Compact</a> with France, offering them practical support.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndersonCayton2005124–125_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersonCayton2005124–125-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With evidence of growing Franco-Spanish co-operation, Pitt suggested it was only a matter of time before Spain entered the war. The prospect of war with Spain shattered the cabinet unity which had existed up to that point. Pitt strongly advocated a pre-emptive strike which would allow them to capture the annual <a href="/wiki/Manila_galleon" title="Manila galleon">plate fleet</a>, denying Spain of its vital resources of wealth which were shipped in. The rest of the cabinet refused, and Pitt resigned.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning1975280–282_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning1975280–282-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In spite of this war with Spain swiftly became unavoidable, and on 4 January 1762 Britain duly declared war on Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001487–490_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001487–490-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Almost immediately, British ships under Admiral <a href="/wiki/Charles_Saunders_(Royal_Navy_officer)" title="Charles Saunders (Royal Navy officer)">Charles Saunders</a> moved to blockade <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A1diz" title="Cádiz">Cádiz</a>, the main port for silver from <a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Portugal">Portugal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Portugal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spanish_invasion_of_Portugal_(1762)" title="Spanish invasion of Portugal (1762)">Spanish invasion of Portugal (1762)</a></div> <p>The most pressing issue in the war with Spain was a threatened invasion of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Portugal</a>. Portugal, although a historic British ally, had remained neutral through most of the conflict. By early 1762 they were drawn into the war with the <a href="/wiki/First_Cevallos_expedition" title="First Cevallos expedition">First Cevallos expedition</a> and became a likely target of Spain. Portugal's long border with Spain was considered vulnerable and easy to overrun, rather than the more complex efforts that a siege of the British fortress of <a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a> would require. Spanish forces began massing on the Portuguese border, ready to strike. Britain moved swiftly to support their Portuguese allies, shipping in supplies and officers to help co-ordinate the defence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001497–498_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001497–498-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The original Spanish plan was to take <a href="/wiki/Almeida,_Portugal" title="Almeida, Portugal">Almeida</a> and then to advance towards the <a href="/wiki/Alentejo" title="Alentejo">Alentejo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lisbon" title="Lisbon">Lisbon</a>, but they switched their target to <a href="/wiki/Porto" title="Porto">Porto</a> as it would strike more directly at British commerce. Under the direction of the <a href="/wiki/Marquis_of_Sarria" class="mw-redirect" title="Marquis of Sarria">Marquis of Sarria</a> Spanish troops crossed from <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Spain)" title="Galicia (Spain)">Galicia</a> into northern Portugal capturing several towns. However, the thrust against Porto stalled in difficult terrain and due to the flooding of the <a href="/wiki/River_Esla" class="mw-redirect" title="River Esla">River Esla</a>. British troops began arriving that summer with 6,000 coming from <a href="/wiki/Belle_%C3%8Ele" title="Belle Île">Belle Île</a> under <a href="/wiki/John_Campbell,_4th_Earl_of_Loudoun" title="John Campbell, 4th Earl of Loudoun">Lord Loudoun</a> and a further 2,000 from Ireland. Spain invested and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Almeida_(1762)" title="Siege of Almeida (1762)">captured the border fortress of</a> Almeida. A British-Portuguese counter-attack led by <a href="/wiki/John_Burgoyne" title="John Burgoyne">John Burgoyne</a> captured the Spanish town <a href="/wiki/Valencia_de_Alc%C3%A1ntara" title="Valencia de Alcántara">Valencia de Alcántara</a>. French forces began to arrive to support the Spaniards, but like their allies they began to suffer high levels of attrition through disease and desertion. In November with problems with their lines of supply and communication the Bourbon allies withdrew and sued for peace. Despite the large numbers of forces involved, there had been no major battles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001497–498_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001497–498-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cuba">Cuba</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Cuba"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Havana" title="Siege of Havana">Siege of Havana</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dominic_Serres_the_Elder_-_The_Capture_of_Havana,_1762,_Storming_of_Morro_Castle,_30_July.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Dominic_Serres_the_Elder_-_The_Capture_of_Havana%2C_1762%2C_Storming_of_Morro_Castle%2C_30_July.jpg/220px-Dominic_Serres_the_Elder_-_The_Capture_of_Havana%2C_1762%2C_Storming_of_Morro_Castle%2C_30_July.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Dominic_Serres_the_Elder_-_The_Capture_of_Havana%2C_1762%2C_Storming_of_Morro_Castle%2C_30_July.jpg/330px-Dominic_Serres_the_Elder_-_The_Capture_of_Havana%2C_1762%2C_Storming_of_Morro_Castle%2C_30_July.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Dominic_Serres_the_Elder_-_The_Capture_of_Havana%2C_1762%2C_Storming_of_Morro_Castle%2C_30_July.jpg/440px-Dominic_Serres_the_Elder_-_The_Capture_of_Havana%2C_1762%2C_Storming_of_Morro_Castle%2C_30_July.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="916" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Castillo_de_los_Tres_Reyes_Magos_del_Morro" class="mw-redirect" title="Castillo de los Tres Reyes Magos del Morro">El Morro fortress</a> in Havana, stormed by the British in July 1762</figcaption></figure> <p>In June 1762 British forces from the West Indies landed on the island of <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> and laid siege to <a href="/wiki/Havana" title="Havana">Havana</a>. Although they arrived at the height of the fever season, and previous expeditions against tropical Spanish fortresses failed due, in no small part, to tropical disease, the British government was optimistic of victory—if the troops could catch the Spanish off-guard before they had time to respond. The British commander <a href="/wiki/George_Keppel,_3rd_Earl_of_Albemarle" title="George Keppel, 3rd Earl of Albemarle">Albemarle</a> ordered a tunnel to be dug by his sappers so a <a href="/wiki/Land_mine" title="Land mine">mine</a> could be planted under the walls of the city's fortress. British troops began to fall from disease at an alarming rate, but they were boosted by the arrival of 4,000 reinforcements from <a href="/wiki/British_America" title="British America">America</a>. On 30 July Albemarle ordered the mine to be detonated, and his troops stormed the fortress.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001498–501_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001498–501-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LindsayCambridge.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/LindsayCambridge.jpg/220px-LindsayCambridge.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/LindsayCambridge.jpg/330px-LindsayCambridge.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/LindsayCambridge.jpg/440px-LindsayCambridge.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="952" /></a><figcaption>The bombardment of Havana</figcaption></figure> <p>With Havana now in their hands, the British lay poised to strike at other targets in the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Main" title="Spanish Main">Spanish Main</a> should the war continue for another year. However, the British had suffered heavy casualties, around 1,800 deaths and more than 4,000 casualties during the siege—almost entirely from disease, and for the moment could not further advance on the rest of Cuba and set about consolidating their hold on the countryside around Havana. During the year of British occupation, commerce in Havana boomed, as the port was opened up to trade with the British Empire rather than the restricted monopoly with <a href="/wiki/Cadiz" class="mw-redirect" title="Cadiz">Cadiz</a> that had existed before.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001501–402_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001501–402-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1762, the British imported more than 10,000 African slaves from the <a href="/wiki/British_West_Indies" title="British West Indies">British West Indies</a> to Havana, using the city as an <a href="/wiki/Entrep%C3%B4t" title="Entrepôt">entrepôt</a> to supply their Caribbean and <a href="/wiki/Southern_Colonies" title="Southern Colonies">lower North American colonies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philippines">Philippines</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Philippines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_(1762)" title="Battle of Manila (1762)">Battle of Manila (1762)</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_occupation_of_Manila" title="British occupation of Manila">British occupation of Manila</a></div> <p>Almost as soon as war had been declared with Spain, orders had been despatched for a British force at <a href="/wiki/Madras" class="mw-redirect" title="Madras">Madras</a> to proceed to the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> and invade <a href="/wiki/Manila" title="Manila">Manila</a>. A combined force of 10,700 men under <a href="/wiki/William_Draper_(British_Army_officer)" title="William Draper (British Army officer)">William Draper</a> set off from India in late July, arriving in <a href="/wiki/Manila_Bay" title="Manila Bay">Manila Bay</a> in September 1762. They had to move swiftly before the <a href="/wiki/Monsoon_season" class="mw-redirect" title="Monsoon season">monsoon season</a> hit.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger2006286–287_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger2006286–287-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 6 October the British stormed the city, capturing it. A large amount of plunder was taken from the city after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_(1762)" title="Battle of Manila (1762)">Battle of Manila</a>. </p><p>Spanish forces regrouped under <a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_de_Anda_y_Salazar" title="Simón de Anda y Salazar">Simón de Anda y Salazar</a>, who had escaped from Manila during the siege. Rebellions fomented by the British were sabotaged by Spanish agents and crushed by Spanish forces. Just like in Cuba with Havana, the British were prevented from extending their authority beyond Manila and the nearby port of Cavite, making their occupations limited and tenuous, not likely to last. All agreements made between the British commander and Archbishop <a href="/wiki/Manuel_Rojo_del_R%C3%ADo_y_Vieyra" title="Manuel Rojo del Río y Vieyra">Manuel Rojo del Río y Vieyra</a> were dismissed as illegal. Eventually the British forces started to suffer troop desertions and dissensions within the command. </p><p>Because news of the city's capture didn't reach Europe until after the Treaty of Paris, no provision was made regarding its status. During the siege, the Spanish lieutenant governor had agreed to a four million payment in silver dollars to the British known as the Manila Ransom in exchange for sparing the city but the full amount was never paid when word of what had happened in the Philippines reached Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimms2009555_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimms2009555-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Spanish government demanded compensation for crimes committed against the residents of Manila during the occupation and the controversy over the ransom demanded by the British and the compensation demanded by the Spanish lasted many years. The twenty month occupation of Manila ended in 1764. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_campaigns">Other campaigns</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Other campaigns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Senegal">Senegal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Senegal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/British_capture_of_Senegal" title="British capture of Senegal">British capture of Senegal</a></div> <p>One of the earliest schemes Pitt had for colonial expeditions was in West Africa where France had several lucrative but strategically unimportant bases. He was fighting against a great deal of scepticism in the British government, which saw Europe as the main venue of warfare and all other theatres as costly distractions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn20049_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn20049-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As an initial test of his strategy Pitt gained support for a British expedition proposed by a New York merchant <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cumming" title="Thomas Cumming">Thomas Cumming</a> to take the French trading station at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Louis,_Senegal" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Louis, Senegal">Fort Louis</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Senegal_River" title="Senegal River">Senegal River</a> which they did with relative ease, carrying back a large amount of plunder to Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001306_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001306-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subsequent expeditions also took out French posts at <a href="/wiki/Gor%C3%A9e" title="Gorée">Gorée</a> and on the <a href="/wiki/River_Gambia" class="mw-redirect" title="River Gambia">River Gambia</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Martinique">Martinique</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Martinique"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Martinique_(1762)" title="Invasion of Martinique (1762)">Invasion of Martinique (1762)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bombardement_de_la_citadelle_de_la_Martinique,_janvier_1762.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Bombardement_de_la_citadelle_de_la_Martinique%2C_janvier_1762.jpg/220px-Bombardement_de_la_citadelle_de_la_Martinique%2C_janvier_1762.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Bombardement_de_la_citadelle_de_la_Martinique%2C_janvier_1762.jpg/330px-Bombardement_de_la_citadelle_de_la_Martinique%2C_janvier_1762.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Bombardement_de_la_citadelle_de_la_Martinique%2C_janvier_1762.jpg/440px-Bombardement_de_la_citadelle_de_la_Martinique%2C_janvier_1762.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1194" data-file-height="741" /></a><figcaption>British attack on <a href="/wiki/Martinique" title="Martinique">Martinique</a> in January 1762</figcaption></figure> <p>Despite taking <a href="/wiki/Guadeloupe" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a> in 1759, the British <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Martinique_(1759)" title="Invasion of Martinique (1759)">attempt to occupy</a> <a href="/wiki/Martinique" title="Martinique">Martinique</a> that year had ended in failure.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004100–121_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004100–121-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1761 a fresh scheme to attack the <a href="/wiki/French_West_Indies" title="French West Indies">French West Indies</a> was drawn up and Martinique was <a href="/wiki/British_expedition_against_Martinique_(1762)" class="mw-redirect" title="British expedition against Martinique (1762)">successfully taken by a British force</a> in February 1762. This was followed up by the capture of the islands of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Lucia" title="Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grenada" title="Grenada">Grenada</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saint_Vincent_(Antilles)" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Vincent (Antilles)">Saint Vincent</a>. In each case many of the local planters and merchants welcomed the invasion, as it ended Britain's naval blockade and restored their access to international trade.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001490_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001490-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Newfoundland">Newfoundland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Newfoundland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Signal_Hill" title="Battle of Signal Hill">Battle of Signal Hill</a></div> <p>In a final attempt to try to gain some advantage against the British, the French managed to slip an expedition through the British blockade and head towards <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_Colony" title="Newfoundland Colony">Newfoundland</a>, considered valuable because of its large <a href="/wiki/Fishery" title="Fishery">fishery</a>. The small British garrison was swiftly overwhelmed and the French believed they could use Newfoundland as a bargaining counter to extract the return of several of their own territories. General Amherst responded by despatching a force of men from New York under his younger brother <a href="/wiki/William_Amherst_(British_Army_officer)" title="William Amherst (British Army officer)">William Amherst</a> to recapture the island. They managed to defeat a French force at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Signal_Hill" title="Battle of Signal Hill">Battle of Signal Hill</a> on 15 September 1762, forcing the total capitulation of the French expedition three days later.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001483–484,_498_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001483–484,_498-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Peace_treaty">Peace treaty</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Peace treaty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1763)" title="Treaty of Paris (1763)">Treaty of Paris (1763)</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Negotiations">Negotiations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Negotiations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SevenYearsWar.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/SevenYearsWar.png/220px-SevenYearsWar.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/SevenYearsWar.png/330px-SevenYearsWar.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/SevenYearsWar.png/440px-SevenYearsWar.png 2x" data-file-width="1357" data-file-height="628" /></a><figcaption>The participants of the Seven Years' War by 1762 <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#4D6DF3; color:black;"> </span> Great Britain, Prussia, Portugal, with allies</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#22B14C; color:black;"> </span> France, Spain, Austria, Russia, Sweden with allies</div> </figcaption></figure> <p>By 1763, the British government had an extreme shortage of money, though not as severe as that facing the French government. The collapse of the alliance with the Prussians ended that costly involvement, and by late 1762 the war around the world was winding towards a close. In Britain the new <a href="/wiki/Bute_ministry" title="Bute ministry">Bute ministry</a> had taken full control of government, following the departure of Newcastle in March 1762 after a power struggle. The government agreed to an armistice and began fresh negotiations with the French in Paris directed by the <a href="/wiki/John_Russell,_4th_Duke_of_Bedford" title="John Russell, 4th Duke of Bedford">Duke of Bedford</a>. </p><p>In Britain, the negotiations that proceeded to the peace agreement proved hugely controversial. Strong opposition, led principally by Newcastle and Pitt, was raised against the terms which were perceived to be exceedingly lenient towards France and Spain. A mob went so far as to attack a carriage carrying George III in protest at the alleged betrayal. Nonetheless, Bute felt the war needed to be brought to an end, and the terms on offer were reasonable. </p><p>Britain held a dominant position at the negotiations, as they had during the last seven years seized <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guadeloupe" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martinique" title="Martinique">Martinique</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dominica" title="Dominica">Dominica</a>, Pondicherry, <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Belle_%C3%8Ele" title="Belle Île">Belle Île</a> from the French and <a href="/wiki/Havana" title="Havana">Havana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manila" title="Manila">Manila</a> from the Spanish. Only one British territory, <a href="/wiki/Menorca" title="Menorca">Menorca</a>, was in enemy hands. Despite suffering a year of defeats, Spain was prepared to fight on—something which their French allies were opposed to. Bute proposed a suggestion that France cede her remaining North American territory of <a href="/wiki/French_Louisiana" title="French Louisiana">Louisiana</a> to Spain to compensate Madrid for its losses during the war. This formula was acceptable to the Spanish government, and allowed Britain and France to negotiate with more legroom. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Terms_of_the_peace_agreement">Terms of the peace agreement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Terms of the peace agreement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Piazza_at_Havana_RMG_BHC0418.tiff" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/The_Piazza_at_Havana_RMG_BHC0418.tiff/lossy-page1-220px-The_Piazza_at_Havana_RMG_BHC0418.tiff.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/The_Piazza_at_Havana_RMG_BHC0418.tiff/lossy-page1-330px-The_Piazza_at_Havana_RMG_BHC0418.tiff.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/The_Piazza_at_Havana_RMG_BHC0418.tiff/lossy-page1-440px-The_Piazza_at_Havana_RMG_BHC0418.tiff.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4549" data-file-height="3120" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/The_Piazza_at_Havana" title="The Piazza at Havana">The Piazza at Havana</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Dominic_Serres" title="Dominic Serres">Dominic Serres</a>. British troops occupied <a href="/wiki/Havana" title="Havana">Havana</a> until 1763 before it was returned to Spain in exchange for <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">Florida</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Having severed their connection with the Prussians the previous year, the British negotiated a separate peace to the Prussians—dealing with their two principal adversaries France and Spain. Britain received formal control of New France, while handing back Martinique and Guadeloupe. The British were handed all of mainland North America east of the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a>. The British also returned Havana and Manila to Spain in exchange for <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a>. </p><p>In the wake of Britain's territorial expansion Sir <a href="/wiki/George_Macartney,_1st_Earl_Macartney" title="George Macartney, 1st Earl Macartney">George Macartney</a> observed that Britain now controlled "<a href="/wiki/The_empire_on_which_the_sun_never_sets" title="The empire on which the sun never sets">a vast Empire, on which the sun never sets</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimms2009502_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimms2009502-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite France's losses, Choiseul was satisfied not to have been forced to hand over more territory in the Caribbean and was delighted that he had been able to maintain a French presence in Newfoundland (<a href="/wiki/Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon" title="Saint Pierre and Miquelon">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a>), guaranteeing continued access to the valuable <a href="/wiki/Fishery" title="Fishery">fishery</a> there. A separate peace agreement between Austria and Prussia was concluded at the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Hubertusburg" title="Treaty of Hubertusburg">Treaty of Hubertusburg</a> on 15 February returning Central Europe to the <a href="/wiki/Status_quo_ante_bellum" title="Status quo ante bellum">status quo ante bellum</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy_and_aftermath">Legacy and aftermath</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Legacy and aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wolfe_statue.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Wolfe_statue.jpg/220px-Wolfe_statue.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Wolfe_statue.jpg/330px-Wolfe_statue.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Wolfe_statue.jpg/440px-Wolfe_statue.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Statue of <a href="/wiki/James_Wolfe" title="James Wolfe">Wolfe</a> in <a href="/wiki/Greenwich_Park" title="Greenwich Park">Greenwich Park</a>, east London, overlooking his burial site in <a href="/wiki/St_Alfege_Church,_Greenwich" title="St Alfege Church, Greenwich">St Alfege Church</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The number of casualties suffered by British forces were comparatively light, compared to the more than a million fatalities that occurred worldwide. </p><p>France and Spain both considered the treaty that ended the war as being closer to a temporary armistice rather than a genuine final settlement, and William Pitt described it as an "armed truce". Britain had customarily massively reduced the size of its armed forces during peace time, but during the 1760s a large military establishment was maintained—intended as a deterrent against France and Spain. The Bourbon powers both sent agents to examine Britain's defenses believing that a successful invasion of Britain was an essential part of any war of revenge.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongmate1993183–185_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongmate1993183–185-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The British victory in the war sowed some of the seeds of Britain's later conflict in the <a href="/wiki/American_War_of_Independence" class="mw-redirect" title="American War of Independence">American War of Independence</a>. American colonists had been delighted by the huge swathes of North America that had now been brought under formal British control, but many were angered by the <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_1763" class="mw-redirect" title="Proclamation of 1763">Proclamation of 1763</a>, which was an attempt to protect <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Native American</a> territory—and prevent European settlement. Similarly the issue of <a href="/wiki/Quartering_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Quartering Act">quartering</a> the British regular troops became a thorny issue, with colonists objecting to their billeting in private homes. Events such as these contributed to a drift apart between the British government and many of its subjects in the <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a>. </p><p>The war had also brought to an end the "Old System" of alliances in Europe,<sup id="cite_ref-os_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-os-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the years after the war, under the direction of <a href="/wiki/John_Montagu,_4th_Earl_of_Sandwich" title="John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich">Lord Sandwich</a>, the British did try to re-establish this system but European states such as Austria and the Dutch Republic now saw Britain as a potentially greater threat than France and did not join them, while the Prussians were angered by what they considered a British betrayal in 1762. Consequently, when the American War of Independence turned into a global war between 1778 and 1783, Britain found itself opposed by a strong coalition of European powers, and lacking any substantial ally. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/France_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War" title="France in the Seven Years' War">France in the Seven Years' War</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist 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p. 183.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004104–105-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004104–105_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcLynn2004">McLynn 2004</a>, pp. 104–105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004105–115-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004105–115_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcLynn2004">McLynn 2004</a>, pp. 105–115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001314–315-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001314–315_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderson2001">Anderson 2001</a>, pp. 314–315.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004116-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004116_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcLynn2004">McLynn 2004</a>, p. 116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDull2005122–123-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDull2005122–123_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDull2005">Dull 2005</a>, pp. 122–123.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004264–267-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004264–267_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcLynn2004">McLynn 2004</a>, pp. 264–267.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004279–281-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004279–281_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcLynn2004">McLynn 2004</a>, pp. 279–281.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004238-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004238_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcLynn2004">McLynn 2004</a>, p. 238.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004233-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004233_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcLynn2004">McLynn 2004</a>, p. 233.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004236–237-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004236–237_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcLynn2004">McLynn 2004</a>, pp. 236–237.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELongmate1993180–181-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongmate1993180–181_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLongmate1993">Longmate 1993</a>, pp. 180–181.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimms2009463–464-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimms2009463–464_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSimms2009">Simms 2009</a>, pp. 463–464.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">West pp. 250–54</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001377-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001377_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderson2001">Anderson 2001</a>, p. 377.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimms2009475–476-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimms2009475–476_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSimms2009">Simms 2009</a>, pp. 475–476.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn200450–53-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn200450–53_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcLynn2004">McLynn 2004</a>, pp. 50–53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001344-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001344_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderson2001">Anderson 2001</a>, p. 344.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004219–220-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004219–220_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcLynn2004">McLynn 2004</a>, pp. 219–220.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001391–396-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001391–396_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderson2001">Anderson 2001</a>, pp. 391–396.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001398–399-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001398–399_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderson2001">Anderson 2001</a>, pp. 398–399.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001400–409-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001400–409_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderson2001">Anderson 2001</a>, pp. 400–409.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECorbett1907121–126-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECorbett1907121–126_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCorbett1907">Corbett 1907</a>, pp. 121–126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDull2005172–173-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDull2005172–173_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDull2005">Dull 2005</a>, pp. 172–173.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHibbert199327-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHibbert199327_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHibbert1993">Hibbert 1993</a>, p. 27.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFHibbert1993 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001496-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001496_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderson2001">Anderson 2001</a>, p. 496.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001495-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001495_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderson2001">Anderson 2001</a>, p. 495.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001492–494-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001492–494_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderson2001">Anderson 2001</a>, pp. 492–494.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchieder2000132,_135,_144,_155-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchieder2000132,_135,_144,_155_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchieder2000">Schieder 2000</a>, pp. 132, 135, 144, 155.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersonCayton2005124–125-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndersonCayton2005124–125_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAndersonCayton2005">Anderson & Cayton 2005</a>, pp. 124–125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning1975280–282-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning1975280–282_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowning1975">Browning 1975</a>, pp. 280–282.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001487–490-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001487–490_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderson2001">Anderson 2001</a>, pp. 487–490.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001497–498-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001497–498_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001497–498_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderson2001">Anderson 2001</a>, pp. 497–498.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001498–501-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001498–501_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderson2001">Anderson 2001</a>, pp. 498–501.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001501–402-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001501–402_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderson2001">Anderson 2001</a>, pp. 501–402.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rogozinsky, Jan. <i>A Brief History of the Caribbean</i>. Plume. 1999.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger2006286–287-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger2006286–287_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRodger2006">Rodger 2006</a>, pp. 286–287.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimms2009555-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimms2009555_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSimms2009">Simms 2009</a>, p. 555.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn20049-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn20049_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcLynn2004">McLynn 2004</a>, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001306-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001306_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderson2001">Anderson 2001</a>, p. 306.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004100–121-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2004100–121_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcLynn2004">McLynn 2004</a>, pp. 100–121.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001490-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001490_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderson2001">Anderson 2001</a>, p. 490.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001483–484,_498-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2001483–484,_498_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderson2001">Anderson 2001</a>, pp. 483–484, 498.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimms2009502-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimms2009502_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSimms2009">Simms 2009</a>, p. 502.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELongmate1993183–185-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongmate1993183–185_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLongmate1993">Longmate 1993</a>, pp. 183–185.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-os-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-os_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">I.e., a structure of alliances with European powers, in which Britain had formed grand coalitions against <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">Bourbon</a> ambitions in Europe</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAnderson2001" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, Fred (2001). <i>Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766</i>. London: Faber and Faber. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780571205653" title="Special:BookSources/9780571205653"><bdi>9780571205653</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crucible+of+War%3A+The+Seven+Years%27+War+and+the+Fate+of+Empire+in+British+North+America%2C+1754%E2%80%931766&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Faber+and+Faber&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780571205653&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Fred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Britain+in+the+Seven+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndersonCayton2005" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, Fred; Cayton, Andrew (2005). <i>The Dominion of War: Empire and Liberty in North America 1500–2000</i>. New York: Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780143036517" title="Special:BookSources/9780143036517"><bdi>9780143036517</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dominion+of+War%3A+Empire+and+Liberty+in+North+America+1500%E2%80%932000&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780143036517&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Fred&rft.au=Cayton%2C+Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Britain+in+the+Seven+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson2006" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, Fred (2006). <i>The War that Made America: a Short History of the French and Indian War</i>. New York: Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780143038047" title="Special:BookSources/9780143038047"><bdi>9780143038047</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+War+that+Made+America%3A+a+Short+History+of+the+French+and+Indian+War&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780143038047&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Fred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Britain+in+the+Seven+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlack2008" class="citation book cs1">Black, Jeremy (2008). <i>Pitt the Elder</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521391160" title="Special:BookSources/9780521391160"><bdi>9780521391160</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pitt+the+Elder&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780521391160&rft.aulast=Black&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Britain+in+the+Seven+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrowning1975" class="citation book cs1">Browning, Reed (1975). <i>The Duke of Newcastle</i>. Yale: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300017465" title="Special:BookSources/9780300017465"><bdi>9780300017465</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Duke+of+Newcastle&rft.place=Yale&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=9780300017465&rft.aulast=Browning&rft.aufirst=Reed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Britain+in+the+Seven+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1978" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Peter Douglas (1978). <i>William Pitt, Earl of Chatham: The Great Commoner George</i>. London: Allen & Unwin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780049421455" title="Special:BookSources/9780049421455"><bdi>9780049421455</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=William+Pitt%2C+Earl+of+Chatham%3A+The+Great+Commoner+George&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Allen+%26+Unwin&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=9780049421455&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Peter+Douglas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Britain+in+the+Seven+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarter1971" class="citation book cs1">Carter, Alice Clare (1971). <i>The Dutch Republic in Europe in the Seven Years' War</i>. London: MacMillan. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1376114791">1376114791</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dutch+Republic+in+Europe+in+the+Seven+Years%27+War&rft.place=London&rft.pub=MacMillan&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1376114791&rft.aulast=Carter&rft.aufirst=Alice+Clare&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Britain+in+the+Seven+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCorbett1907" class="citation book cs1">Corbett, Julian Stafford (1907). <i>England in the Seven Years' War: a study in combined strategy</i>. Vol. 2. London: Longmans Green and Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=England+in+the+Seven+Years%27+War%3A+a+study+in+combined+strategy&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Longmans+Green+and+Co.&rft.date=1907&rft.aulast=Corbett&rft.aufirst=Julian+Stafford&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Britain+in+the+Seven+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDull2005" class="citation book cs1">Dull, Jonathan R. (2005). <i>The French Navy and the Seven Years' War</i>. Lincoln: University of Nebraska. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780803217317" title="Special:BookSources/9780803217317"><bdi>9780803217317</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+Navy+and+the+Seven+Years%27+War&rft.place=Lincoln&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780803217317&rft.aulast=Dull&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Britain+in+the+Seven+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHibbert1999" class="citation book cs1">Hibbert, Christopher (1999). <i>George III: A Personal History</i>. London: Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0140257373" title="Special:BookSources/0140257373"><bdi>0140257373</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=George+III%3A+A+Personal+History&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0140257373&rft.aulast=Hibbert&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Britain+in+the+Seven+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHough2013" class="citation book cs1">Hough, Richard (2013). <i>Captain James Cook: a biography</i>. London: Hodder & Stoughton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781444719246" title="Special:BookSources/9781444719246"><bdi>9781444719246</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Captain+James+Cook%3A+a+biography&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Hodder+%26+Stoughton&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781444719246&rft.aulast=Hough&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Britain+in+the+Seven+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeay1994" class="citation book cs1">Keay, John (1994). <i>The honourable company : a history of the English East India Company</i>. New York: Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0025611690" title="Special:BookSources/0025611690"><bdi>0025611690</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+honourable+company+%3A+a+history+of+the+English+East+India+Company&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0025611690&rft.aulast=Keay&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Britain+in+the+Seven+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelch1974" class="citation book cs1">Kelch, Ray (1974). <i>Newcastle: A Duke Without Money</i>. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/917896506">917896506</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Newcastle%3A+A+Duke+Without+Money&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge+and+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F917896506&rft.aulast=Kelch&rft.aufirst=Ray&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Britain+in+the+Seven+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLongmate1993" class="citation book cs1">Longmate, Norman (1993). <i>Island Fortress: The Defence of Great Britain, 1603–1945</i>. London: Grafton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0586208461" title="Special:BookSources/0586208461"><bdi>0586208461</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Island+Fortress%3A+The+Defence+of+Great+Britain%2C+1603%E2%80%931945&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Grafton&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0586208461&rft.aulast=Longmate&rft.aufirst=Norman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Britain+in+the+Seven+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLynn2004" class="citation book cs1">McLynn, Frank (2004). <i>1759: The Year Britain Became Master of the World</i>. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0871138816" title="Special:BookSources/0871138816"><bdi>0871138816</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=1759%3A+The+Year+Britain+Became+Master+of+the+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Atlantic+Monthly+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0871138816&rft.aulast=McLynn&rft.aufirst=Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Britain+in+the+Seven+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiddleton1985" class="citation book cs1">Middleton, Richard (1985). <i>The Bells of Victory: The Pitt-Newcastle Ministry and the Conduct of the Seven Years' War, 1757–1762</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521265460" title="Special:BookSources/0521265460"><bdi>0521265460</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bells+of+Victory%3A+The+Pitt-Newcastle+Ministry+and+the+Conduct+of+the+Seven+Years%27+War%2C+1757%E2%80%931762&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0521265460&rft.aulast=Middleton&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Britain+in+the+Seven+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Toole2015" class="citation book cs1">O'Toole, Fintan (2015). <i>White Savage: William Johnson and the Invention of America</i>. London: Faber and Faber. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780571319411" title="Special:BookSources/9780571319411"><bdi>9780571319411</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=White+Savage%3A+William+Johnson+and+the+Invention+of+America&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Faber+and+Faber&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780571319411&rft.aulast=O%27Toole&rft.aufirst=Fintan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Britain+in+the+Seven+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodger2006" class="citation book cs1">Rodger, NAM (2006). <i>Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain, 1649–1815</i>. London: Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0141026901" title="Special:BookSources/0141026901"><bdi>0141026901</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Command+of+the+Ocean%3A+A+Naval+History+of+Britain%2C+1649%E2%80%931815&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0141026901&rft.aulast=Rodger&rft.aufirst=NAM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Britain+in+the+Seven+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodger1993" class="citation book cs1">Rodger, NAM (1993). <i>The Insatiable Earl: A Life of John Montagu, Fourth Earl of Sandwich</i>. London: Harper Collins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0002157845" title="Special:BookSources/0002157845"><bdi>0002157845</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Insatiable+Earl%3A+A+Life+of+John+Montagu%2C+Fourth+Earl+of+Sandwich&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Harper+Collins&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0002157845&rft.aulast=Rodger&rft.aufirst=NAM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Britain+in+the+Seven+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchieder2000" class="citation book cs1">Schieder, Theodor (2000). <i>Frederick the Great</i>. London: Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0582017696" title="Special:BookSources/0582017696"><bdi>0582017696</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Frederick+the+Great&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0582017696&rft.aulast=Schieder&rft.aufirst=Theodor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Britain+in+the+Seven+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimms2009" class="citation book cs1">Simms, Brendan (2009). <i>Three Victories and a Defeat: The Rise and Fall of the First British Empire</i>. New York: Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0140289844" title="Special:BookSources/0140289844"><bdi>0140289844</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Three+Victories+and+a+Defeat%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+First+British+Empire&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=0140289844&rft.aulast=Simms&rft.aufirst=Brendan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Britain+in+the+Seven+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTill2006" class="citation book cs1">Till, Geoffrey (2006). <i>Development of British Naval Thinking: Essays in Memory of Bryan Ranft</i>. Abingdon: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-714-65320-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-714-65320-4"><bdi>978-0-714-65320-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Development+of+British+Naval+Thinking%3A+Essays+in+Memory+of+Bryan+Ranft&rft.place=Abingdon&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-714-65320-4&rft.aulast=Till&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Britain+in+the+Seven+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchweizer1989" class="citation book cs1">Schweizer, Karl W. (1989). <i>England, Prussia, and the Seven Years War: Studies in Alliance Policies and Diplomacy</i>. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88946-465-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88946-465-0"><bdi>978-0-88946-465-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=England%2C+Prussia%2C+and+the+Seven+Years+War%3A+Studies+in+Alliance+Policies+and+Diplomacy&rft.place=Lewiston%2C+NY&rft.pub=Edwin+Mellen+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-88946-465-0&rft.aulast=Schweizer&rft.aufirst=Karl+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Britain+in+the+Seven+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlack1999" class="citation book cs1">Black, Jeremy (1999). <i>Britain As A Military Power, 1688–1815</i>. London: UCL Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85728-772-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85728-772-1"><bdi>978-1-85728-772-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britain+As+A+Military+Power%2C+1688%E2%80%931815&rft.place=London&rft.pub=UCL+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-85728-772-1&rft.aulast=Black&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Britain+in+the+Seven+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVego2003" class="citation book cs1">Vego, Milan N. (2003). <i>Naval Strategy and Operations in Narrow Seas</i>. London: Frank Cass. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7146-5389-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7146-5389-1"><bdi>978-0-7146-5389-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Naval+Strategy+and+Operations+in+Narrow+Seas&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Frank+Cass&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7146-5389-1&rft.aulast=Vego&rft.aufirst=Milan+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Britain+in+the+Seven+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson2014" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, Ben (2014). <i>Empire of the deep : the rise and fall of the British Navy</i>. London: Phoenix. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780753829202" title="Special:BookSources/9780753829202"><bdi>9780753829202</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire+of+the+deep+%3A+the+rise+and+fall+of+the+British+Navy&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Phoenix&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780753829202&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Ben&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Britain+in+the+Seven+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox 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aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=&#124;link=_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Template:Kingdom of Great Britain"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Template talk:Kingdom of Great Britain"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Kingdom of Great Britain"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=&#124;link=_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Kingdom of Great Britain</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Constitutional development <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707" title="Acts of Union 1707">Union of 1707</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1800" title="Acts of Union 1800">Union of 1801</a></li></ul></li> <li>External wars <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Seven Years'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Jenkins%27_Ear" title="War of Jenkins' Ear">Jenkins Ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Massacre" title="Boston Massacre">Boston Massacre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-French_War_(1778%E2%80%931783)" title="Anglo-French War (1778–1783)">Anglo-French War (1778–1783)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Anglo-Dutch_War" title="Fourth Anglo-Dutch War">Anglo-Dutch (1780–1784)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="French Revolutionary Wars">French Revolutionary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early-18th-century_Whig_plots" title="Early-18th-century Whig plots">Whig plots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobitism" title="Jacobitism">Jacobitism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacobite_risings" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacobite risings">Jacobite risings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1796%E2%80%931797" title="Panic of 1796–1797">Panic of 1796–1797</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Agricultural_Revolution" title="British Agricultural Revolution">Agricultural Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Agricultural_Revolution" title="Scottish Agricultural Revolution">Scotland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_Revolution" title="Financial Revolution">Financial Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Floral_Badge_of_Great_Britain.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Floral Badge of Great Britain"><img alt="Floral Badge of Great Britain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Floral_Badge_of_Great_Britain.svg/120px-Floral_Badge_of_Great_Britain.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Floral_Badge_of_Great_Britain.svg/180px-Floral_Badge_of_Great_Britain.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Floral_Badge_of_Great_Britain.svg/240px-Floral_Badge_of_Great_Britain.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="355" /></a><figcaption>Floral Badge of Great Britain</figcaption></figure></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Royal houses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Stuart" title="House of Stuart">Stuart</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anne,_Queen_of_Great_Britain" title="Anne, Queen of Great Britain">Anne</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Hanover" title="House of Hanover">Hanover</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_I_of_Great_Britain" title="George I of Great Britain">George I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_II_of_Great_Britain" title="George II of Great Britain">George II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_III" title="George III">George III</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Great_Britain" title="Parliament of Great Britain">Parliament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_Great_Britain" title="House of Commons of Great Britain">House of Commons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_parliaments_of_Great_Britain" title="List of parliaments of Great Britain">List of parliaments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain">Acts of Parliament:</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1707" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1707">1707</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1708" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1708">1708</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1709" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1709">1709</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1710" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1710">1710</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1711" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1711">1711</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1712" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1712">1712</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1713" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1713">1713</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1714" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1714">1714</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1715" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1715">1715</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1716" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1716">1716</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1717" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1717">1717</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1718" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1718">1718</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1719" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1719">1719</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1720" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1720">1720</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1721" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1721">1721</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1722" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1722">1722</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1723" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1723">1723</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1724" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1724">1724</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1725" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1725">1725</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1726" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1726">1726</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1727" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1727">1727</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1728" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1728">1728</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1729" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1729">1729</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1730" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1730">1730</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1731" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1731">1731</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1732" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1732">1732</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1733" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1733">1733</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1734" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1734">1734</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1735" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1735">1735</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1736" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1736">1736</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1737" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1737">1737</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1738" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1738">1738</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1739" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1739">1739</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1740" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1740">1740</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1741" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1741">1741</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1742" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1742">1742</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1743" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1743">1743</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1744" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1744">1744</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1745" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1745">1745</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1746" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1746">1746</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1747" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1747">1747</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1748" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1748">1748</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1749" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1749">1749</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1750" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1750">1750</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1751" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1751">1751</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1753" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1753">1753</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1754" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1754">1754</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1755" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1755">1755</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1756" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1756">1756</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1757" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1757">1757</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1758" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1758">1758</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1759" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1759">1759</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1760" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1760">1760</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1761" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1761">1761</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1762" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1762">1762</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1763" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1763">1763</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1764" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1764">1764</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1765" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1765">1765</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1766" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1766">1766</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1767" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1767">1767</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1768" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1768">1768</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1769" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1769">1769</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1770" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1770">1770</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1771" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1771">1771</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1772" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1772">1772</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1773" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1773">1773</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1774" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1774">1774</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1775" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1775">1775</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1776" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1776">1776</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1777" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1777">1777</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1778" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1778">1778</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1779" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1779">1779</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1780" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1780">1780</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1781" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1781">1781</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1782" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1782">1782</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1783" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1783">1783</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1784" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1784">1784</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1785" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1785">1785</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1786" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1786">1786</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1787" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1787">1787</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1788" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1788">1788</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1789" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1789">1789</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1790" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1790">1790</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1791" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1791">1791</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1792" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1792">1792</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1793" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1793">1793</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1794" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1794">1794</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1795" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1795">1795</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1796" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1796">1796</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1797" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1797">1797</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1798" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1798">1798</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1799" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1799">1799</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_Great_Britain_from_1800" title="List of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1800">1800</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Great_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Elections in Great Britain">Elections:</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1708_British_general_election" title="1708 British general election">1708</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1710_British_general_election" title="1710 British general election">1710</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1713_British_general_election" title="1713 British general election">1713</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1715_British_general_election" title="1715 British general election">1715</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1722_British_general_election" title="1722 British general election">1722</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1727_British_general_election" title="1727 British general election">1727</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1734_British_general_election" title="1734 British general election">1734</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1741_British_general_election" title="1741 British general election">1741</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1747_British_general_election" title="1747 British general election">1747</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1754_British_general_election" title="1754 British general election">1754</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1761_British_general_election" title="1761 British general election">1761</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1768_British_general_election" title="1768 British general election">1768</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1774_British_general_election" title="1774 British general election">1774</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1780_British_general_election" title="1780 British general election">1780</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1784_British_general_election" title="1784 British general election">1784</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1790_British_general_election" title="1790 British general election">1790</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1796_British_general_election" title="1796 British general election">1796</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_monarchs" title="List of British monarchs">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peerage_of_Great_Britain" title="Peerage of Great Britain">Peers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privy_Council_(United_Kingdom)" title="Privy Council (United Kingdom)">Privy Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of prime ministers of the United Kingdom">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whigs_(British_political_party)" title="Whigs (British political party)">Whigs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tories_(British_political_party)" title="Tories (British political party)">Tories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whig_Junto" title="Whig Junto">Whig Junto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriot_Whigs" title="Patriot Whigs">Patriot Whigs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kit-Cat_Club" title="Kit-Cat Club">Kit-Cat Club</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geography</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even 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href="/wiki/List_of_18th-century_British_periodicals" title="List of 18th-century British periodicals">Periodicals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_literature_in_English" title="Romantic literature in English">Romantic literature in English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Scotland" title="Romanticism in Scotland">Romanticism in Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_literature_in_the_eighteenth_century" title="Scottish literature in the eighteenth century">Scottish 18th-century literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Stockings_Society" title="Blue Stockings Society">Blue Stockings Society</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British 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