Civil rights | Definition, Types, Activists, History, & Facts

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border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/civil-rights">civil rights</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/topic/civil-rights">Introduction & Top Questions</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref307583"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/civil-rights#ref307583">The American civil rights movement</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref307584"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/civil-rights#ref307584">Civil rights movements across the globe</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li></ul> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/civil-rights/additional-info">References & Edit History</a> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="/facts/civil-rights">Related Topics</a> </div> <div class="tlr-media-slider pb-10 mb-30"> <a class="section-header 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Her contributions to SAGE Publications's <em>Encyclopedia of Governance</em> (2007) formed the basis of her contributions to Britannica.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Rebecca Hamlin</span></div> <div class="font-serif font-12 text-gray-700"> <span class="qa-fact-checked-by">Fact-checked by</span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 font-12" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2024-10-03T00:00:00CDT" >Oct 3, 2024</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/civil-rights/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 ai-ask-button btn border-2 module-spacing btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <div class="js-qf-module qf-module px-40 px-sm-20 py-15 mx-auto module-spacing font-14 bg-gray-50 rounded"> <div class="facts-list mt-10"> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Key People: </dt> <dd><a href="/biography/John-F-Kennedy" topicid="314791">John F. Kennedy</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Martin-Luther-King-Jr" topicid="318311">Martin Luther King, Jr.</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Dwight-D-Eisenhower" topicid="181476">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Lyndon-B-Johnson" topicid="305362">Lyndon B. Johnson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Viola-Desmond" topicid="2081724">Viola Desmond</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Related Topics: </dt> <dd><a href="/topic/rights-of-privacy" topicid="477278">rights of privacy</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/freedom-of-information" topicid="690967">freedom of information</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/freedom-of-expression" topicid="690966">freedom of expression</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/legal-rights" topicid="334887">legal rights</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/freedom-of-religion" topicid="218536">freedom of religion</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> <div class="text-center"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-link p-0" href="/facts/civil-rights"> See all related content </a> </div> </div> </div> </div><script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context": "https://schema.org", "@type": "FAQPage", "mainEntity": [ { "@type" : "Question", "name" : "<div>What are civil rights?<\/div><em><\/em>", "acceptedAnswer" : { "@type" : "Answer", "text" : "Civil rights are an essential component of democracy. They\u2019re guarantees of equal social opportunities and protection under the law, regardless of race, religion, or other characteristics. Examples are the rights to vote, to a fair trial, to government services, and to a public education. In contrast to civil liberties, which are freedoms secured by placing restraints on government, civil rights are secured by positive government action, often in the form of legislation." } } , { "@type" : "Question", "name" : "<div>Where do civil rights come from?<\/div><em><\/em>", "acceptedAnswer" : { "@type" : "Answer", "text" : "Unlike human rights or natural rights, in which people acquire rights inherently\u2014perhaps from nature\u2014civil rights must be given and guaranteed by the power of the state. Therefore, they vary greatly over time, culture, and form of government and tend to follow societal trends that condone or abhor types of discrimination. For example, the civil rights of the LGBTQ community have only recently come to the forefront of political debate in some democracies." } } , { "@type" : "Question", "name" : "<div>What is a civil rights movement?<\/div><em><\/em>", "acceptedAnswer" : { "@type" : "Answer", "text" : "When the enforcement of civil rights is found by many to be inadequate, a civil rights movement may emerge in order to call for equal application of the laws without discrimination." } } , { "@type" : "Question", "name" : "<div>What was the civil rights movement in the U.S.?<\/div><em><\/em>", "acceptedAnswer" : { "@type" : "Answer", "text" : "The marginalization of African Americans spurred the American civil rights movement, beginning in the 1950s and growing throughout the early 1960s. That movement, based mainly in African American churches and colleges of the South, involved marches, boycotts, and civil disobedience, such as sit-ins. Most efforts were local, but the impact was felt at the national level\u2014a model of civil rights organizing that has since spread all over the globe." } } ] } </script> <div class="top-questions qa-accordion d-flex flex-column module-spacing"><div class="font-weight-bold font-14 mb-5"> Top Questions </div><div id="intent-accordion" class="md-intent-accordion"><div class="top-question bg-gray-50 rounded" data-value="1"><h3 class="accordion--question font-14 font-weight-normal cursor-pointer rounded"><div class="pe-none d-flex justify-content-between align-items-center"><div>What are civil rights?</div><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></div></h3><div class="accordion--answer hidden p-15 pt-5 font-16 mb-5"><div class="accordion--answer-copy"><p>Civil rights are an essential component of democracy. They’re guarantees of equal social opportunities and protection under the law, regardless of race, religion, or other characteristics. Examples are the rights to vote, to a fair trial, to government services, and to a public education. In contrast to civil liberties, which are freedoms secured by placing restraints on government, civil rights are secured by positive government action, often in the form of legislation.</p></div></div></div><div class="top-question bg-gray-50 rounded" data-value="2"><h3 class="accordion--question font-14 font-weight-normal cursor-pointer rounded"><div class="pe-none d-flex justify-content-between align-items-center"><div>Where do civil rights come from?</div><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></div></h3><div class="accordion--answer hidden p-15 pt-5 font-16 mb-5"><div class="accordion--answer-copy"><p>Unlike human rights or natural rights, in which people acquire rights inherently—perhaps from nature—civil rights must be given and guaranteed by the power of the state. Therefore, they vary greatly over time, culture, and form of government and tend to follow societal trends that condone or abhor types of discrimination. For example, the civil rights of the LGBTQ community have only recently come to the forefront of political debate in some democracies.</p></div></div></div><div class="top-question bg-gray-50 rounded" data-value="3"><h3 class="accordion--question font-14 font-weight-normal cursor-pointer rounded"><div class="pe-none d-flex justify-content-between align-items-center"><div>What is a civil rights movement?</div><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></div></h3><div class="accordion--answer hidden p-15 pt-5 font-16 mb-5"><div class="accordion--answer-copy"><p>When the enforcement of civil rights is found by many to be inadequate, a civil rights movement may emerge in order to call for equal application of the laws without discrimination.</p></div></div></div><div class="top-question bg-gray-50 rounded" data-value="4"><h3 class="accordion--question font-14 font-weight-normal cursor-pointer rounded"><div class="pe-none d-flex justify-content-between align-items-center"><div>What was the civil rights movement in the U.S.?</div><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></div></h3><div class="accordion--answer hidden p-15 pt-5 font-16 mb-5"><div class="accordion--answer-copy"><p>The marginalization of African Americans spurred the American civil rights movement, beginning in the 1950s and growing throughout the early 1960s. That movement, based mainly in African American churches and colleges of the South, involved marches, boycotts, and civil disobedience, such as sit-ins. Most efforts were local, but the impact was felt at the national level—a model of civil rights organizing that has since spread all over the globe.</p></div></div></div><button class="show-more-button js-toggle-top-questions btn btn-unstyled font-14 d-flex pr-10 rounded-sm"><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></button></div></div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref1"><span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph"><strong><span id="ref1285261"></span>civil rights</strong>, guarantees of equal social opportunities and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/equal-protection" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">equal protection</a> under the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/law" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">law</a>, regardless of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/race-human" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">race</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/religion" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">religion</a>, or other personal <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="characteristics" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/characteristics" data-type="EB">characteristics</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Examples of civil rights include the <span id="ref1181509"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/suffrage" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">right to vote</a>, the right to a fair <span id="ref1181512"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/trial-law" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">trial</a>, the right to government services, the right to a <span id="ref1181513"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/public-education" class="md-crosslink ">public education</a>, and the right to use public facilities. Civil rights are an essential component of <span id="ref1181516"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/democracy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">democracy</a>; when individuals are being denied opportunities to participate in political society, they are being denied their civil rights. In contrast to <span id="ref1181517"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/civil-liberty" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">civil liberties</a>, which are freedoms that are secured by placing restraints on government, civil rights are secured by positive government action, often in the form of legislation. Civil rights laws attempt to guarantee full and equal citizenship for people who have traditionally been discriminated against on the basis of some group characteristic. When the enforcement of civil rights is found by many to be inadequate, a civil rights movement may emerge in order to call for equal application of the laws without <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="discrimination" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/discrimination" data-type="MW">discrimination</a>. Members of the movement may also engage in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/identity-politics" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">identity politics</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Unlike other rights concepts, such as <span id="ref1181549"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-rights" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">human rights</a> or <span id="ref1181550"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/natural-rights" class="md-crosslink ">natural rights</a>, in which people acquire rights inherently, perhaps from God or nature, civil rights must be given and guaranteed by the power of the state. Therefore, they vary greatly over time, <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="culture" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/culture" data-type="MW">culture</a>, and form of government and tend to follow societal trends that <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="condone" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/condone" data-type="MW">condone</a> or <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="abhor" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/abhor" data-type="MW">abhor</a> particular types of discrimination. For example, the civil rights of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/lesbianism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">lesbian</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/gay-rights-movement" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">gay</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/bisexuality-human-behavior" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">bisexual</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/transgender" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">transgender</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/queer-sexual-politics" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">queer</a> (<span id="ref1285262"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/lesbian-gay-bisexual-transgender-and-queer-community" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">LGBTQ</a>) <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="community" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/community" data-type="MW">community</a> have only recently come to the forefront of political debate in some Western <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="democracies" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/democracies" data-type="MW">democracies</a>.</p><a class="link-module shadow-sm d-block qa-quiz-module" href="/quiz/pop-quiz-17-things-to-know-about-the-american-civil-rights-movement" data-link-module-iframe-link=""> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/46/7546-050-1DB8A70E/Martin-Luther-King-Jr-civil-rights-supporters-August-1963.jpg" alt="Martin Luther King, Jr. (center), with other civil rights supporters lock arms on as they lead the way along Constitution Avenue during the March on Washington, Washington, D.C., on August 28, 1963." class="rounded-sm mr-15" width="70" /> <div class="line-clamp clamp-5"> <div class="module-title bg-green">Britannica Quiz</div> <div class="font-weight-semi-bold mt-5">Pop Quiz: 17 Things to Know About the American Civil Rights Movement</div> </div> </a><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span></section> <span class="marker h2"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref307583"> <h2 class="h1">The <span id="ref1181551"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/American-civil-rights-movement" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">American civil rights movement</a></h2> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies multiple medialist slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100" data-type="other"><div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex"><div class="rw-track d-flex align-items-center"><div class="position-relative rw-slide col-100 px-20 "><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="271883" data-asm-type="video"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="video" video-id="231037"><a data-id="231037" class="gtm-assembly-link d-flex justify-content-center" style="--aspect-ratio: 16/9" href="/video/did-you-know-Loving-versus-Virginia/-271883"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/37/231037-138-28B0A3D8/did-you-know-Loving-versus-Virginia.jpg?w=800&h=450&c=crop" alt="How Loving v. Virginia legalized interracial marriage in the U.S." loading="lazy"><script type="application/json"> { "sources": [ { "file" : "//content.jwplatform.com/manifests/YrASZa1b.m3u8" } ], "image": "https://cdn.britannica.com/37/231037-138-28B0A3D8/did-you-know-Loving-versus-Virginia.jpg" ,"tracks": [ { "file" : "//assets-jpcust.jwpsrv.com/tracks/XrifGAJJ.vtt", "label": "English" } ] ,"adfile": "//content.jwplatform.com/manifests/OvZH7mF6.m3u8" } </script><div class="btn btn-xl btn-white btn-circle position-absolute shadow" style="top: 50%; transform: translateY(-50%)"><em class="material-icons" data-icon="play_arrow"></em></div><div class="position-absolute top-10 left-10 assembly-slide-tag rounded-lg">1 of 2</div></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><span class="md-assembly-title font-weight-bold mr-5 d-inline font-sans-serif md-video-caption" video-control="231037">How <em>Loving</em> v. <em>Virginia</em> legalized interracial marriage in the U.S.</span><span>On June 12, 1967, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down a Virginia law banning interracial marriage. </span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div><a class="font-14 mt-10 d-inline-block" href="/topic/civil-rights/images-videos">See all videos for this article</a></figcaption></figure></div><div class="position-relative rw-slide col-100 px-20 "><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="308800" data-asm-type="video"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="video" video-id="256637"><a data-id="256637" class="gtm-assembly-link d-flex justify-content-center" style="--aspect-ratio: 16/9" href="/video/The-Civil-Rights-Act-of-1964/-308800"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/37/256637-138-567EF06D/The-Civil-Rights-Act-of-1964.jpg?w=800&h=450&c=crop" alt="Each section of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, explained" loading="lazy"><script type="application/json"> { "sources": [ { "file" : "//content.jwplatform.com/manifests/k5Nh1WHx.m3u8" } ], "image": "https://cdn.britannica.com/37/256637-138-567EF06D/The-Civil-Rights-Act-of-1964.jpg" ,"tracks": [ { "file" : "//assets-jpcust.jwpsrv.com/tracks/t5SBtxgV.vtt", "label": "English" } ] ,"adfile": "//content.jwplatform.com/manifests/HIdpRB3F.m3u8" } </script><div class="btn btn-xl btn-white btn-circle position-absolute shadow" style="top: 50%; transform: translateY(-50%)"><em class="material-icons" data-icon="play_arrow"></em></div><div class="position-absolute top-10 left-10 assembly-slide-tag rounded-lg">2 of 2</div></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><span class="md-assembly-title font-weight-bold mr-5 d-inline font-sans-serif md-video-caption" video-control="256637">Each section of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, explained</span><span>Decades later, the Civil Rights Act is still a critical piece of American legislation.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div><a class="font-14 mt-10 d-inline-block" href="/topic/civil-rights/images-videos">See all videos for this article</a></figcaption></figure></div></div></div><button disabled="true" class="prev-button js-prev-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-lg btn-blue-dark m-20"><span class="material-icons" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></span></button><button disabled="true" class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-lg btn-blue-dark m-20"><span class="material-icons" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span></button></div><p class="topic-paragraph">Civil rights politics in the <span id="ref1181552"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-United-States" class="md-crosslink ">United States</a> has its roots in the movement to end discrimination against <span id="ref1181553"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/African-American" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">African Americans</a>. Though slavery was abolished and former slaves were officially granted political rights after the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Civil-War" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Civil War</a>, in most Southern states African Americans continued to be systematically <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="disenfranchised" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/disenfranchised" data-type="MW">disenfranchised</a> and excluded from public life, leading them to become perpetual second-class citizens. By the 1950s the marginalization of African Americans, often taking an extremely violent form, had spurred a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-movement" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">social movement</a> of epic proportions. The <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/American-civil-rights-movement" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">American civil rights movement</a>, based mainly in African American churches and colleges of the South, involved marches, <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="boycotts" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/boycotts" data-type="MW">boycotts</a>, and extensive efforts of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/civil-disobedience" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">civil disobedience</a>, such as <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/sit-in" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">sit-ins</a>, as well as voter education and voting drives. Most of these efforts were local in scope, but the impact was felt at the national level—a model of civil rights organizing that has since spread all over the globe.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> </section> <span class="marker h3"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref307584"> <h2 class="h1">Civil rights movements across the globe</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In the 1960s the <span id="ref1181555"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Roman-Catholicism" class="md-crosslink ">Roman Catholic</a>-led civil rights movement in <span id="ref1181554"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Northern-Ireland" class="md-crosslink ">Northern Ireland</a> was inspired by events in the United States. Its initial focus was fighting discriminatory <span id="ref1301169"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/gerrymandering" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">gerrymandering</a> that had been securing elections for Protestant unionists. Later, <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="internment" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/internment" data-type="EB">internment</a> of Catholic activists by the British government sparked both a civil disobedience campaign and the more radical strategies of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Irish-Republican-Army" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Irish Republican Army</a> (IRA), resulting in the violent sectarian conflict that became known as <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/The-Troubles-Northern-Ireland-history" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">the Troubles</a> (1968–98).</p><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="90400" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/30/95330-050-8C762FE8/Nelson-Mandela-country-time-election-history-citizens-1994.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/119317/90400"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/30/95330-050-8C762FE8/Nelson-Mandela-country-time-election-history-citizens-1994.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/30/95330-050-8C762FE8/Nelson-Mandela-country-time-election-history-citizens-1994.jpg?w=300" alt="Nelson Mandela: 1994 election" data-width="1600" data-height="1129" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/30/95330-050-8C762FE8/Nelson-Mandela-country-time-election-history-citizens-1994.jpg" data-href="/media/1/119317/90400">Nelson Mandela: 1994 election</a><span>Nelson Mandela voting in South Africa's historic 1994 election, the first time in the country's history that all citizens, regardless of race or ethnicity, were allowed to vote.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">A high-profile civil rights movement led to the end of the <span id="ref1181556"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-South-Africa" class="md-crosslink ">South African</a> system of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/racial-segregation" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">racial segregation</a> known as <span id="ref1181557"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/apartheid" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">apartheid</a>. The resistance movement began in the 1940s and intensified in the 1950s and ’60s, when civil rights as a concept was sweeping the globe, but it was forced underground as most of its leaders were imprisoned, and it did not regain strength until the 1980s. International pressure combined with internal upheaval led to the eventual lifting of the ban on the <span id="ref1181563"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/African-National-Congress" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">African National Congress</a>, the major Black party in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">South Africa</a>, and the release from prison of <span id="ref1181562"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nelson-Mandela" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Nelson Mandela</a> in 1990. Mandela later became the first Black president of South Africa, in 1994.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="156774" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/96/149596-050-AEA38EDB/Statue-Bhimrao-Ramji-Ambedkar.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/119317/156774"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/96/149596-050-AEA38EDB/Statue-Bhimrao-Ramji-Ambedkar.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/96/149596-050-AEA38EDB/Statue-Bhimrao-Ramji-Ambedkar.jpg?w=300" alt="Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar: statue" data-width="543" data-height="800" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/96/149596-050-AEA38EDB/Statue-Bhimrao-Ramji-Ambedkar.jpg" data-href="/media/1/119317/156774">Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar: statue</a><span>Statue of Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">A more recent movement that has striking parallels to both the American civil rights movement and the South African struggle against <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="apartheid" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/apartheid" data-type="MW">apartheid</a> is the civil disobedience and political activism of the <span id="ref1181558"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dalit" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Dalits</a> in <span id="ref1181559"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-India" class="md-crosslink ">India</a>. The Dalits—formerly known as "untouchables" and now officially designated <span id="ref1181560"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dalit" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Scheduled Castes</a>—constitute some one-sixth of the Indian population. However, for centuries they were forced to live as second-class citizens, and many were not even considered to be a part of India’s <em>varna</em> system of social <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="hierarchy" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hierarchy" data-type="MW">hierarchy</a>. Dalit activism, including the efforts of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Bhimrao-Ramji-Ambedkar" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar</a>, led to great victories, including the election of <span id="ref1181561"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Kocheril-Raman-Narayanan" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kocheril Raman Narayanan</a> to the presidency. The fact that the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/president-of-India" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">president of India</a> is elected by parliament, whose members come principally from the upper castes, underlines how much the mentality has changed.</p><div class="module-spacing"> <DIV class="marketing-INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION marketing-content" data-marketing-id="INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION"><style> .student-promo-banner-wrapper { container-type: inline-size; margin-bottom: 15px; } @container (min-width: 475px) { .student-promo-banner { flex-direction: row; } .student-promo-banner-img-wrapper { margin-bottom: 0; margin-right: 10px; justify-content: flex-start; } .student-promo-banner-text-wrapper { text-align: left; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 10px; } .student-promo-banner-button-wrapper { margin-right: 0; } }</style> <div class="student-promo-banner-wrapper"> <div class="student-promo-banner d-flex flex-column align-items-center bg-blue rounded p-20"> <div class="student-promo-banner-img-wrapper mb-20 mr-0 d-flex justify-content-center"> <img class="rounded" style="max-width: 100px; min-width: 80px" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/marketing/BlueThistle.webp" /> </div> <div class="student-promo-banner-text-wrapper ml-0 mb-10 text-center text-white"> <div class="h2 mb-10">Get Unlimited Access</div> <div class="h4 font-weight-semi-bold">Try Britannica Premium for free and discover more.</div> </div> <div class="student-promo-banner-button-wrapper d-flex justify-content-center align-items-center ml-auto mr-auto"> <a class="btn btn-m btn-orange" href="https://premium.britannica.com/premium-membership/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=inline-cta&utm_campaign=black-friday-2024">Subscribe</a> </div> </div> </div> </DIV></div><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In addition to these international movements, many groups in the United States have been inspired by the successes of the American civil rights movement to fight for government protections, with varying degrees of success. Most notably, <span id="ref1181564"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/women" class="md-crosslink ">women</a>, having gained the right to vote in 1920 via <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nineteenth-Amendment" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">constitutional amendment</a>, also have made many gains in the area of employment rights. The <span id="ref1301168"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/womens-movement" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">women’s rights movement</a> has thus far been stopped short of passage of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Equal-Rights-Amendment" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Equal Rights Amendment</a>, which would have <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="codified" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/codified" data-type="EB">codified</a> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/equality-human-rights" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">equal rights</a> for women in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Constitution-of-the-United-States-of-America" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">U.S. Constitution</a>. Since its failure to be ratified in 1982, women have seen many gains in court decisions that ruled against <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/sexism" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">sex discrimination</a> and have seen the passing of legislation such as the <span id="ref1181565"></span>Civil Rights Act of 1991, which established a commission designed to investigate the persistence of the “glass ceiling” that has prevented women from advancing to top management positions in the workplace.</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD9 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">A number of other groups were the focus of civil rights movements since the 1960s. In 1968 the U.S. Congress passed the <span id="ref1181566"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/American-Indian" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Indian</a> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Civil-Rights-Act-United-States-1964" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Civil Rights Act</a>. Latinos and Asian Americans fought for increased civil rights based on a history of discrimination over race, religion, language, and immigrant status. There were some successes in the form of provisions for bilingual education and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/affirmative-action" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">affirmative action</a> programs.</p><span class="marker MOD9 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD10 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">More recently, <span id="ref1181567"></span>Arab Americans and the LGBTQ community took centre stage in the struggle to achieve equal protection and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/equal-opportunity" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">equal opportunity</a> in American society. After the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/September-11-attacks" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001</a>, Arab Americans suffered from heightened levels of discrimination and hate crimes and had to conform to government policies that restricted their liberties, as codified in the controversial <span id="ref1181570"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/USA-PATRIOT-Act" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">USA PATRIOT Act</a> of 2001.</p><span class="marker MOD10 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD11 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies multiple medialist slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100" data-type="other"><div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex"><div class="rw-track d-flex align-items-center"><div class="position-relative rw-slide col-100 px-20 "><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="280841" data-asm-type="video"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="video" video-id="244050"><a data-id="244050" class="gtm-assembly-link d-flex justify-content-center" style="--aspect-ratio: 16/9" href="/video/history-of-same-sex-marriage-United-States/-280841"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/50/244050-138-1F698035/history-of-same-sex-marriage-United-States.jpg?w=800&h=450&c=crop" alt="What is the history of same-sex marriage?" loading="lazy"><script type="application/json"> { "sources": [ { "file" : "//content.jwplatform.com/manifests/TcrW7M8n.m3u8" } ], "image": "https://cdn.britannica.com/50/244050-138-1F698035/history-of-same-sex-marriage-United-States.jpg" ,"tracks": [ { "file" : "//assets-jpcust.jwpsrv.com/tracks/Qiw01LJA", "label": "English" } ] ,"adfile": "//content.jwplatform.com/manifests/sxAu46AK.m3u8" } </script><div class="btn btn-xl btn-white btn-circle position-absolute shadow" style="top: 50%; transform: translateY(-50%)"><em class="material-icons" data-icon="play_arrow"></em></div><div class="position-absolute top-10 left-10 assembly-slide-tag rounded-lg">1 of 2</div></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><span class="md-assembly-title font-weight-bold mr-5 d-inline font-sans-serif md-video-caption" video-control="244050">What is the history of same-sex marriage?</span><span>The definition of marriage as a legal and social concept has a long and complex history.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div><a class="font-14 mt-10 d-inline-block" href="/topic/civil-rights/images-videos">See all videos for this article</a></figcaption></figure></div><div class="position-relative rw-slide col-100 px-20 "><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="231458" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/13/172013-050-11C3DA5C/US-Supreme-Court-demonstrators-favour-marriage-rally-June-26.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/119317/231458"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/13/172013-050-11C3DA5C/US-Supreme-Court-demonstrators-favour-marriage-rally-June-26.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/13/172013-050-11C3DA5C/US-Supreme-Court-demonstrators-favour-marriage-rally-June-26.jpg?w=300" alt="same-sex marriage: U.S. demonstration" data-width="1600" data-height="1054" loading="eager"></picture><div class="position-absolute top-10 left-10 assembly-slide-tag rounded-lg">2 of 2</div><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/13/172013-050-11C3DA5C/US-Supreme-Court-demonstrators-favour-marriage-rally-June-26.jpg" data-href="/media/1/119317/231458">same-sex marriage: U.S. demonstration</a><span>Demonstrators in favour of same-sex marriage protesting in front of the U.S. Supreme Court building, Washington, D.C., 2013.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div></div><button disabled="true" class="prev-button js-prev-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-lg btn-blue-dark m-20"><span class="material-icons" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></span></button><button disabled="true" class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-lg btn-blue-dark m-20"><span class="material-icons" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span></button></div><p class="topic-paragraph">The <span id="ref1301167"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/gay-rights-movement" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">gay rights movement</a> made some major gains in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Some states allowed <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/same-sex-marriage" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">same-sex marriage</a>, and others granted benefits to same-sex civil partnerships, but at the beginning of the 21st century the majority of the U.S. population opposed same-sex marriage. Moreover, some social <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="conservatives" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/conservatives" data-type="MW">conservatives</a> in the U.S. demanded a <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="constitutional" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/constitutional" data-type="MW">constitutional</a> <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="amendment" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/amendment" data-type="MW">amendment</a> banning same-sex marriage. By 2010, however, about half of the U.S. population supported legalization of same-sex marriage, and, in June 2015 in its decision on the <span id="ref1273193"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Obergefell-v-Hodges" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true"><em>Obergefell</em> v. <em>Hodges</em></a> case, the Supreme Court ruled that state bans on same-sex marriage and on recognizing same-sex marriages duly performed in other jurisdictions were unconstitutional under the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/due-process" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">due process</a> and equal protection clauses of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Fourteenth-Amendment" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Fourteenth Amendment</a>, thereby legalizing same-sex marriage in all 50 states.</p><div class="one-good-fact-module"> </div><span class="marker MOD11 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD12 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Almost all countries actively deny civil rights to some minority groups. Because civil rights are enforced by countries, it is difficult to establish an international standard for civil rights protection, despite the efforts of international governance bodies such as the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/United-Nations" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">United Nations</a>. The <span id="ref1181569"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Universal-Declaration-of-Human-Rights" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a>, which was adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1948, includes civil rights language but is not binding on member states. Civil rights tend to increase as governments feel pressure, either from national movements or other countries, to <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="enact" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/enact" data-type="EB">enact</a> change.</p><span class="marker MOD12 mod-inline"></span> <span class="md-signature"><a href="/contributor/Rebecca-Hamlin/9345809">Rebecca Hamlin</a></span> <span class="md-signature"><a href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</a></span> </section><span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article></div> </div></div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":1,"pagesTotal":1,"pageId":119317,"pageLength":1223,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.130.14"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.130.14' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"B","adLeg":"B","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"LARGE","gisted":false,"pageNumber":1,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":false} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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Civil rights | Definition, Types, Activists, History, & Facts | Britannica