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href="#Simple_to_complex:_a_molecular_perspective"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Simple to complex: a molecular perspective</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Simple_to_complex:_a_molecular_perspective-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Molecular_nanotechnology:_a_long-term_view" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Molecular_nanotechnology:_a_long-term_view"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Molecular nanotechnology: a long-term view</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Molecular_nanotechnology:_a_long-term_view-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Research</span> </div> </a> <button 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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Top-down_approaches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Top-down approaches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Top-down_approaches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Functional_approaches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Functional_approaches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Functional approaches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Functional_approaches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biomimetic_approaches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biomimetic_approaches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Biomimetic approaches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biomimetic_approaches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Speculative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Speculative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Speculative</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Speculative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dimensionality_in_nanomaterials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dimensionality_in_nanomaterials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Dimensionality in nanomaterials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dimensionality_in_nanomaterials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tools_and_techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tools_and_techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Tools and techniques</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Tools_and_techniques-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Tools and techniques subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Tools_and_techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Scanning_microscopes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scanning_microscopes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Scanning microscopes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scanning_microscopes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lithography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lithography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Lithography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lithography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bottom-up" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bottom-up"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Bottom-up</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bottom-up-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Applications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Implications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Implications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Implications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Implications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Implications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Implications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Health_and_environmental_concerns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_and_environmental_concerns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Health and environmental concerns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health_and_environmental_concerns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Regulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header 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</div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Nanotechnology</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 113 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-113" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">113 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotegnologie" title="Nanotegnologie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Nanotegnologie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnologie" title="Nanotechnologie – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Nanotechnologie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88" title="تقانة النانو – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تقانة النانو" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotecnoloch%C3%ADa" title="Nanotecnolochía – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Nanotecnolochía" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoteunolox%C3%ADa" title="Nanoteunoloxía – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Nanoteunoloxía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotexnologiya" title="Nanotexnologiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Nanotexnologiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D8%AA%DA%A9%D9%86%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%DA%98%DB%8C" title="نانوتکنولوژی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="نانوتکنولوژی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF" title="ন্যানোপ্রযুক্তি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ন্যানোপ্রযুক্তি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nano-ki-su%CC%8Dt" title="Nano-ki-su̍t – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Nano-ki-su̍t" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Нанотехнология – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Нанотехнология" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8D%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Нанатэхналогія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Нанатэхналогія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8D%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%91%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%96" title="Нанатэхналёгіі – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Нанатэхналёгіі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Нанотехнология – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Нанотехнология" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnologie" title="Nanotechnologie – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Nanotechnologie" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotehnologija" title="Nanotehnologija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Nanotehnologija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoteknologiezh" title="Nanoteknologiezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Nanoteknologiezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotecnologia" title="Nanotecnologia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Nanotecnologia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnologie" title="Nanotechnologie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Nanotechnologie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnoleg" title="Nanotechnoleg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Nanotechnoleg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoteknologi" title="Nanoteknologi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Nanoteknologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnologie" title="Nanotechnologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Nanotechnologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotehnoloogia" title="Nanotehnoloogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Nanotehnoloogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%87%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Νανοτεχνολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Νανοτεχνολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanutecnulug%C3%ACa" title="Nanutecnulugìa – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Nanutecnulugìa" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Emiliàn e rumagnòl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotecnolog%C3%ADa" title="Nanotecnología – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Nanotecnología" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoteknologio" title="Nanoteknologio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Nanoteknologio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoteknologia" title="Nanoteknologia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Nanoteknologia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%81%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="نانوفناوری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نانوفناوری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Nanotechnology" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnologie" title="Nanotechnologie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Nanotechnologie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanaitheicneola%C3%ADocht" title="Nanaitheicneolaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Nanaitheicneolaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotecnolox%C3%ADa" title="Nanotecnoloxía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Nanotecnoloxía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%82%98%EB%85%B8_%EA%B8%B0%EC%88%A0" title="나노 기술 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="나노 기술" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%86%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%AD%D5%B6%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%B8%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Նանոտեխնոլոգիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Նանոտեխնոլոգիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80" title="नैनोप्रौद्योगिकी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="नैनोप्रौद्योगिकी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotehnologija" title="Nanotehnologija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Nanotehnologija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoteknologio" title="Nanoteknologio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Nanoteknologio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoteknolohia" title="Nanoteknolohia – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Nanoteknolohia" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoteknologi" title="Nanoteknologi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Nanoteknologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96rt%C3%A6kni" title="Örtækni – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Örtækni" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotecnologia" title="Nanotecnologia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Nanotecnologia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%98%D7%9B%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94" title="ננוטכנולוגיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ננוטכנולוגיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanot%C3%A8knologi" title="Nanotèknologi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Nanotèknologi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9E%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8" title="ನ್ಯಾನೋತಂತ್ರಜ್ಞಾನ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ನ್ಯಾನೋತಂತ್ರಜ್ಞಾನ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Nanotechnology" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kapampangan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ნანოტექნოლოგია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ნანოტექნოლოგია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Нанотехнология – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Нанотехнология" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoteknologieth" title="Nanoteknologieth – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Nanoteknologieth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teknolojia_ya_nano" title="Teknolojia ya nano – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Teknolojia ya nano" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoteknoloji" title="Nanoteknoloji – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Nanoteknoloji" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoteknoloj%C3%AE" title="Nanoteknolojî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Nanoteknolojî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Нанотехнология – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Нанотехнология" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnologia" title="Nanotechnologia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Nanotechnologia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotehnolo%C4%A3ija" title="Nanotehnoloģija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Nanotehnoloģija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnologija" title="Nanotechnologija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Nanotechnologija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnologie" title="Nanotechnologie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Nanotechnologie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnol%C3%B3gia" title="Nanotechnológia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Nanotechnológia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Нанотехнологија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Нанотехнологија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nan%C3%B4tekn%C3%B4l%C3%B4jia" title="Nanôteknôlôjia – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Nanôteknôlôjia" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF" title="നാനോസാങ്കേതികവിദ്യ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="നാനോസാങ്കേതികവിദ്യ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="अतिसूक्ष्मतंत्रज्ञान – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अतिसूक्ष्मतंत्रज्ञान" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoteknologi" title="Nanoteknologi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Nanoteknologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoteknologi" title="Nanoteknologi – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Nanoteknologi" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Нанотехнологи – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Нанотехнологи" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%94%E1%80%AC%E1%80%94%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%94%E1%80%8A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%95%E1%80%8A%E1%80%AC" title="နာနိုနည်းပညာ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="နာနိုနည်းပညာ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnologie" title="Nanotechnologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Nanotechnologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80" title="नेनोटेक्नोलोजी – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="नेनोटेक्नोलोजी" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8A%E3%83%8E%E3%83%86%E3%82%AF%E3%83%8E%E3%83%AD%E3%82%B8%E3%83%BC" title="ナノテクノロジー – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ナノテクノロジー" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoteknologi" title="Nanoteknologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Nanoteknologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoteknologi" title="Nanoteknologi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Nanoteknologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotecnologia" title="Nanotecnologia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Nanotecnologia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotexnologiya" title="Nanotexnologiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Nanotexnologiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%9C%E0%A9%80" title="ਨੈਨੋਤਕਨਾਲੋਜੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਨੈਨੋਤਕਨਾਲੋਜੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88%D9%B9%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%DB%8C" title="نینوٹیکنالوجی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="نینوٹیکنالوجی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88_%D8%AA%DA%A9%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%DA%98%D9%8A" title="نانو تکنالوژي – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="نانو تکنالوژي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnologia" title="Nanotechnologia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Nanotechnologia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotecnologia" title="Nanotecnologia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Nanotecnologia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotexnologiya" title="Nanotexnologiya – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Nanotexnologiya" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotehnologie" title="Nanotehnologie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Nanotehnologie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Нанотехнология – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Нанотехнология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoteknologjia" title="Nanoteknologjia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Nanoteknologjia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%90%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%9D_%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B7%82%E0%B6%AB%E0%B6%BA" title="නැනෝ තාක්‍ෂණය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="නැනෝ තාක්‍ෂණය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Nanotechnology" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%88_%D9%BD%D9%8A%DA%AA%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%8A" title="نينو ٽيڪنالاجي – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="نينو ٽيڪنالاجي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnol%C3%B3gia" title="Nanotechnológia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Nanotechnológia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotehnologija" title="Nanotehnologija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Nanotehnologija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiknolajiga_nano" title="Tiknolajiga nano – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Tiknolajiga nano" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DB%95%DA%A9%D9%86%DB%86%D9%84%DB%86%DA%98%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%86" title="تەکنۆلۆژیای نانۆ – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="تەکنۆلۆژیای نانۆ" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Нанотехнологија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Нанотехнологија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotehnologija" title="Nanotehnologija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Nanotehnologija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanot%C3%A9hnologi" title="Nanotéhnologi – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Nanotéhnologi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoteknologia" title="Nanoteknologia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Nanoteknologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoteknik" title="Nanoteknik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Nanoteknik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoteknolohiya" title="Nanoteknolohiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Nanoteknolohiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8B_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="நானோ தொழில்நுட்பம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நானோ தொழில்நுட்பம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8B_%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%A4" title="నానో సాంకేతికత – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="నానో సాంకేతికత" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%84%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B5" title="นาโนเทคโนโลยี – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="นาโนเทคโนโลยี" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoteknoloji" title="Nanoteknoloji – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Nanoteknoloji" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotehnologi%C3%BDa" title="Nanotehnologiýa – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Nanotehnologiýa" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%97" title="Нанотехнології – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Нанотехнології" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88_%D9%B9%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%DB%8C" title="نینو ٹیکنالوجی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="نینو ٹیکنالوجی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88_%D8%AA%DB%90%D8%AE%D9%86%D9%89%D9%83%D9%89%D8%B3%D9%89" title="نانو تېخنىكىسى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="نانو تېخنىكىسى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoteno%C5%82ozia" title="Nanotenołozia – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Nanotenołozia" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotehnologii" title="Nanotehnologii – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Nanotehnologii" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B4ng_ngh%E1%BB%87_nano" title="Công nghệ nano – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Công nghệ nano" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%AF%AB%E5%BE%AE%E4%B9%8B%E6%8A%80" title="毫微之技 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="毫微之技" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoteknolohiya" title="Nanoteknolohiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Nanoteknolohiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BA%B3%E7%B1%B3%E6%8A%80%E6%9C%AF" title="纳米技术 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="纳米技术" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%98%D7%A2%D7%9B%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%92%D7%99%D7%A2" title="נאנאטעכנאלאגיע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="נאנאטעכנאלאגיע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B4%8D%E7%B1%B3%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80" title="納米科技 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="納米科技" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoteknolociye" title="Nanoteknolociye – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Nanoteknolociye" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanuoteknuoluog%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Nanuoteknuoluogėjė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Nanuoteknuoluogėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BA%B3%E7%B1%B3%E6%8A%80%E6%9C%AF" title="纳米技术 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="纳米技术" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q11468#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> 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class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Quantum_nanoscience&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum nanoscience">Quantum nanoscience</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Technology with features near one nanometer</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the materials science journal, see <a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology_(journal)" title="Nanotechnology (journal)">Nanotechnology (journal)</a>. For other uses of "Nanotech", see <a href="/wiki/Nanotech_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Nanotech (disambiguation)">Nanotech (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fullerene_Nanogears_-_GPN-2000-001535.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Fullerene_Nanogears_-_GPN-2000-001535.jpg/300px-Fullerene_Nanogears_-_GPN-2000-001535.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Fullerene_Nanogears_-_GPN-2000-001535.jpg/450px-Fullerene_Nanogears_-_GPN-2000-001535.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Fullerene_Nanogears_-_GPN-2000-001535.jpg/600px-Fullerene_Nanogears_-_GPN-2000-001535.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2808" data-file-height="1851" /></a><figcaption>Fullerene nanogears</figcaption></figure> <style 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="width:20em"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background-color: #edfdeb">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Nanotechnology" title="Category:Nanotechnology">a series</a> of articles on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background-color: #edfdeb"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nanotechnology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nanotechnology" title="History of nanotechnology">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nanotechnology_organizations" title="List of nanotechnology organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology_in_fiction" title="Nanotechnology in fiction">Popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_nanotechnology" title="Outline of nanotechnology">Outline</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color: #edfdeb"> <a href="/wiki/Impact_of_nanotechnology" title="Impact of nanotechnology">Impact</a> and <a href="/wiki/Applications_of_nanotechnology" title="Applications of nanotechnology">applications</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanomedicine" title="Nanomedicine">Nanomedicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanotoxicology" title="Nanotoxicology">Nanotoxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_nanotechnology" title="Green nanotechnology">Green nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_and_safety_hazards_of_nanomaterials" title="Health and safety hazards of nanomaterials">Hazards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_nanotechnology" title="Regulation of nanotechnology">Regulation</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color: #edfdeb"> <a href="/wiki/Nanomaterials" title="Nanomaterials">Nanomaterials</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fullerene" title="Fullerene">Fullerenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_nanotube" title="Carbon nanotube">Carbon nanotubes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanoparticle" title="Nanoparticle">Nanoparticles</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color: #edfdeb"> <a href="/wiki/Molecular_self-assembly" title="Molecular self-assembly">Molecular self-assembly</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Self-assembled_monolayer" title="Self-assembled monolayer">Self-assembled monolayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supramolecular_assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Supramolecular assembly">Supramolecular assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_nanotechnology" title="DNA nanotechnology">DNA nanotechnology</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color: #edfdeb"> <a href="/wiki/Nanoelectronics" title="Nanoelectronics">Nanoelectronics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_scale_electronics" title="Molecular scale electronics">Molecular scale electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_logic_gate" title="Molecular logic gate">Molecular logic gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanolithography" title="Nanolithography">Nanolithography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moore%27s_law" title="Moore's law">Moore's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device_fabrication" title="Semiconductor device fabrication">Semiconductor device fabrication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_semiconductor_scale_examples" title="List of semiconductor scale examples">Semiconductor scale examples</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color: #edfdeb"> <a href="/wiki/Nanometrology" title="Nanometrology">Nanometrology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_force_microscopy" title="Atomic force microscopy">Atomic force microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scanning_tunneling_microscope" title="Scanning tunneling microscope">Scanning tunneling microscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_microscope" title="Electron microscope">Electron microscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super-resolution_microscopy" title="Super-resolution microscopy">Super-resolution microscopy</a></li> 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abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nanotechnology" title="Template:Nanotechnology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nanotechnology" title="Template talk:Nanotechnology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nanotechnology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nanotechnology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Nanotechnology</b> is the manipulation of matter with at least one dimension sized from 1 to 100 <a href="/wiki/Nanometers" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanometers">nanometers</a> (nm). At this scale, commonly known as the <b>nanoscale</b>, <a href="/wiki/Surface_area" title="Surface area">surface area</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanical" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum mechanical">quantum mechanical</a> effects become important in describing properties of matter. This definition of nanotechnology includes all types of research and technologies that deal with these special properties. It is common to see the plural form "nanotechnologies" as well as "nanoscale technologies" to refer to research and applications whose common trait is scale.<sup id="cite_ref-Engines1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Engines1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An earlier understanding of nanotechnology referred to the particular technological goal of precisely manipulating atoms and molecules for fabricating macroscale products, now referred to as <a href="/wiki/Molecular_nanotechnology" title="Molecular nanotechnology">molecular nanotechnology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nanotsystems_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nanotsystems-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nanotechnology defined by scale includes fields of science such as <a href="/wiki/Surface_science" title="Surface science">surface science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">organic chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiconductor physics">semiconductor physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Energy_storage" title="Energy storage">energy storage</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Microfabrication" title="Microfabrication">microfabrication</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Molecular_engineering" title="Molecular engineering">molecular engineering</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The associated research and applications range from extensions of conventional <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">device physics</a> to <a href="/wiki/Molecular_self-assembly" title="Molecular self-assembly">molecular self-assembly</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from developing <a href="/wiki/Nanomaterial" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanomaterial">new materials</a> with dimensions on the nanoscale to <a href="/wiki/Molecular_nanotechnology" title="Molecular nanotechnology">direct control of matter on the atomic scale</a>. </p><p>Nanotechnology may be able to create new materials and devices with diverse <a href="/wiki/List_of_nanotechnology_applications" class="mw-redirect" title="List of nanotechnology applications">applications</a>, such as in <a href="/wiki/Nanomedicine" title="Nanomedicine">nanomedicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nanoelectronics" title="Nanoelectronics">nanoelectronics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biomaterial" title="Biomaterial">biomaterials</a> energy production, and consumer products. However, nanotechnology raises issues, including concerns about the <a href="/wiki/Nanotoxicology" title="Nanotoxicology">toxicity</a> and environmental impact of nanomaterials,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and their potential effects on global economics, as well as various <a href="/wiki/Grey_goo" class="mw-redirect" title="Grey goo">doomsday scenarios</a>. These concerns have led to a debate among advocacy groups and governments on whether special <a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_nanotechnology" title="Regulation of nanotechnology">regulation of nanotechnology</a> is warranted. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_nanotechnology" title="History of nanotechnology">History of nanotechnology</a></div> <p>The concepts that seeded nanotechnology were first discussed in 1959 by physicist <a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a> in his talk <i><a href="/wiki/There%27s_Plenty_of_Room_at_the_Bottom" title="There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom">There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom</a></i>, in which he described the possibility of synthesis via direct manipulation of atoms. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Comparison_of_nanomaterials_sizes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Comparison_of_nanomaterials_sizes.jpg/400px-Comparison_of_nanomaterials_sizes.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="369" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Comparison_of_nanomaterials_sizes.jpg/600px-Comparison_of_nanomaterials_sizes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Comparison_of_nanomaterials_sizes.jpg/800px-Comparison_of_nanomaterials_sizes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7824" data-file-height="7216" /></a><figcaption>Comparison of nanomaterials sizes</figcaption></figure> <p>The term "nano-technology" was first used by <a href="/wiki/Norio_Taniguchi" title="Norio Taniguchi">Norio Taniguchi</a> in 1974, though it was not widely known. Inspired by Feynman's concepts, <a href="/wiki/K._Eric_Drexler" title="K. Eric Drexler">K. Eric Drexler</a> used the term "nanotechnology" in his 1986 book <i><a href="/wiki/Engines_of_creation" class="mw-redirect" title="Engines of creation">Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology</a></i>, which proposed the idea of a nanoscale "assembler" that would be able to build a copy of itself and of other items of arbitrary complexity with atom-level control. Also in 1986, Drexler co-founded <a href="/wiki/The_Foresight_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="The Foresight Institute">The Foresight Institute</a> to increase public awareness and understanding of nanotechnology concepts and implications. </p><p>The emergence of nanotechnology as a field in the 1980s occurred through the convergence of Drexler's theoretical and public work, which developed and popularized a conceptual framework, and high-visibility experimental advances that drew additional attention to the prospects. In the 1980s, two breakthroughs sparked the growth of nanotechnology. First, the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Scanning_tunneling_microscope" title="Scanning tunneling microscope">scanning tunneling microscope</a> in 1981 enabled visualization of individual atoms and bonds, and was successfully used to manipulate individual atoms in 1989. The microscope's developers <a href="/wiki/Gerd_Binnig" title="Gerd Binnig">Gerd Binnig</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Rohrer" title="Heinrich Rohrer">Heinrich Rohrer</a> at <a href="/wiki/IBM_Zurich_Research_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM Zurich Research Laboratory">IBM Zurich Research Laboratory</a> received a <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> in 1986.<sup id="cite_ref-Binnig_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Binnig-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Binnig, <a href="/wiki/Calvin_F._Quate" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvin F. Quate">Quate</a> and Gerber also invented the analogous <a href="/wiki/Atomic_force_microscope" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic force microscope">atomic force microscope</a> that year. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:C60_Molecule.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/C60_Molecule.svg/180px-C60_Molecule.svg.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/C60_Molecule.svg/270px-C60_Molecule.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/C60_Molecule.svg/360px-C60_Molecule.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="576" data-file-height="566" /></a><figcaption>Buckminsterfullerene C<sub>60</sub>, also known as the <a href="/wiki/Buckyball" class="mw-redirect" title="Buckyball">buckyball</a>, is a representative member of the <a href="/wiki/Allotropes_of_carbon" title="Allotropes of carbon">carbon structures</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Fullerene" title="Fullerene">fullerenes</a>. Members of the fullerene family are a major subject of research falling under the nanotechnology umbrella.</figcaption></figure> <p>Second, <a href="/wiki/Fullerenes" class="mw-redirect" title="Fullerenes">fullerenes</a> (buckyballs) were discovered in 1985 by <a href="/wiki/Harry_Kroto" title="Harry Kroto">Harry Kroto</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Smalley" title="Richard Smalley">Richard Smalley</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Curl" title="Robert Curl">Robert Curl</a>, who together won the 1996 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> C<sub>60</sub> was not initially described as nanotechnology; the term was used regarding subsequent work with related <a href="/wiki/Carbon_nanotube" title="Carbon nanotube">carbon nanotubes</a> (sometimes called <a href="/wiki/Graphene" title="Graphene">graphene</a> tubes or Bucky tubes) which suggested potential applications for nanoscale electronics and devices. The discovery of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_nanotubes" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon nanotubes">carbon nanotubes</a> is largely attributed to <a href="/wiki/Sumio_Iijima" title="Sumio Iijima">Sumio Iijima</a> of <a href="/wiki/NEC" title="NEC">NEC</a> in 1991,<sup id="cite_ref-carbon_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carbon-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for which Iijima won the inaugural 2008 <a href="/wiki/Kavli_Prize" title="Kavli Prize">Kavli Prize</a> in Nanoscience. </p><p>In the early 2000s, the field garnered increased scientific, political, and commercial attention that led to both controversy and progress. Controversies emerged regarding the definitions and potential implications of nanotechnologies, exemplified by the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a>'s report on nanotechnology.<sup id="cite_ref-royalsociety_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-royalsociety-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Challenges were raised regarding the feasibility of applications envisioned by advocates of molecular nanotechnology, which culminated in a public debate between Drexler and Smalley in 2001 and 2003.<sup id="cite_ref-counterpoint_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-counterpoint-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meanwhile, commercial products based on advancements in nanoscale technologies began emerging. These products were limited to bulk applications of <a href="/wiki/Nanomaterials" title="Nanomaterials">nanomaterials</a> and did not involve atomic control of matter. Some examples include the <a href="/wiki/Silver_Nano" title="Silver Nano">Silver Nano</a> platform for using <a href="/wiki/Silver_nanoparticles" class="mw-redirect" title="Silver nanoparticles">silver nanoparticles</a> as an antibacterial agent, <a href="/wiki/Nanoparticle" title="Nanoparticle">nanoparticle</a>-based sunscreens, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_fibers" title="Carbon fibers">carbon fiber</a> strengthening using silica nanoparticles, and carbon nanotubes for stain-resistant textiles.<sup id="cite_ref-americanelements_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-americanelements-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-emergingnano_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emergingnano-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Governments moved to promote and <a href="/wiki/Funding_of_science" title="Funding of science">fund research</a> into nanotechnology, such as American the <a href="/wiki/National_Nanotechnology_Initiative" title="National Nanotechnology Initiative">National Nanotechnology Initiative</a>, which formalized a size-based definition of nanotechnology and established research funding, and in Europe via the European <a href="/wiki/Framework_Programmes_for_Research_and_Technological_Development" title="Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development">Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development</a>. </p><p>By the mid-2000s scientific attention began to flourish. Nanotechnology roadmaps centered on atomically precise manipulation of matter and discussed existing and projected capabilities, goals, and applications.<sup id="cite_ref-PNRoadmap_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PNRoadmap-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NASAroadmap_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASAroadmap-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fundamental_concepts">Fundamental concepts</h2></div> <p>Nanotechnology is the science and engineering of functional systems at the molecular scale. In its original sense, nanotechnology refers to the projected ability to construct items from the bottom up making complete, high-performance products. </p><p>One <a href="/wiki/Nanometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanometer">nanometer</a> (nm) is one billionth, or 10<sup>−9</sup>, of a meter. By comparison, typical carbon–carbon <a href="/wiki/Bond_length" title="Bond length">bond lengths</a>, or the spacing between these <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecule</a>, are in the range <span class="nowrap">0.12–0.15 nm</span>, and <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>'s diameter is around 2 nm. On the other hand, the smallest <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cellular</a> life forms, the bacteria of the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Mycoplasma" title="Mycoplasma">Mycoplasma</a></i>, are around 200 nm in length. By convention, nanotechnology is taken as the scale range <span class="nowrap">1 to 100 nm</span>, following the definition used by the American <a href="/wiki/National_Nanotechnology_Initiative" title="National Nanotechnology Initiative">National Nanotechnology Initiative</a>. The lower limit is set by the size of atoms (hydrogen has the smallest atoms, which have an approximately ,25 nm <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_diameter" title="Kinetic diameter">kinetic diameter</a>). The upper limit is more or less arbitrary, but is around the size below which phenomena not observed in larger structures start to become apparent and can be made use of.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These phenomena make nanotechnology distinct from devices that are merely miniaturized versions of an equivalent <a href="/wiki/Macroscopic_scale" title="Macroscopic scale">macroscopic</a> device; such devices are on a larger scale and come under the description of <a href="/wiki/Microtechnology" title="Microtechnology">microtechnology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To put that scale in another context, the comparative size of a nanometer to a meter is the same as that of a marble to the size of the earth.<sup id="cite_ref-NationalG_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NationalG-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two main approaches are used in nanotechnology. In the "bottom-up" approach, materials and devices are built from molecular components which <a href="/wiki/Self-assembly" title="Self-assembly">assemble themselves</a> chemically by principles of <a href="/wiki/Molecular_recognition" title="Molecular recognition">molecular recognition</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the "top-down" approach, nano-objects are constructed from larger entities without atomic-level control.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Areas of physics such as <a href="/wiki/Nanoelectronics" title="Nanoelectronics">nanoelectronics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nanomechanics" title="Nanomechanics">nanomechanics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nanophotonics" title="Nanophotonics">nanophotonics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nanoionics" title="Nanoionics">nanoionics</a> have evolved to provide nanotechnology's scientific foundation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Larger_to_smaller:_a_materials_perspective">Larger to smaller: a materials perspective</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atomic_resolution_Au100.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Atomic_resolution_Au100.JPG/220px-Atomic_resolution_Au100.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Atomic_resolution_Au100.JPG/330px-Atomic_resolution_Au100.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Atomic_resolution_Au100.JPG/440px-Atomic_resolution_Au100.JPG 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Image of <a href="/wiki/Surface_reconstruction" title="Surface reconstruction">reconstruction</a> on a clean <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">Gold</a>(<a href="/wiki/Miller_index" title="Miller index">100</a>) surface, as visualized using <a href="/wiki/Scanning_tunneling_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Scanning tunneling microscopy">scanning tunneling microscopy</a>. The positions of the individual atoms composing the surface are visible.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nanomaterials" title="Nanomaterials">Nanomaterials</a></div> <p>Several phenomena become pronounced as system size. These include <a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">statistical mechanical</a> effects, as well as <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanical</a> effects, for example, the "<a href="/wiki/Quantum" title="Quantum">quantum</a> size effect" in which the electronic properties of solids alter along with reductions in particle size. Such effects do not apply at macro or micro dimensions. However, quantum effects can become significant when nanometer scales. Additionally, physical (mechanical, electrical, optical, etc.) properties change versus macroscopic systems. One example is the increase in surface area to volume ratio altering mechanical, thermal, and catalytic properties of materials. Diffusion and reactions can be different as well. Systems with fast ion transport are referred to as nanoionics. The mechanical properties of nanosystems are of interest in research. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Simple_to_complex:_a_molecular_perspective">Simple to complex: a molecular perspective</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Molecular_self-assembly" title="Molecular self-assembly">Molecular self-assembly</a></div> <p>Modern <a href="/wiki/Chemical_synthesis" title="Chemical synthesis">synthetic chemistry</a> can prepare small molecules of almost any structure. These methods are used to manufacture a wide variety of useful chemicals such as <a href="/wiki/Drug" title="Drug">pharmaceuticals</a> or commercial <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymers</a>. This ability raises the question of extending this kind of control to the next-larger level, seeking methods to assemble single molecules into <a href="/wiki/Supramolecular_assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Supramolecular assembly">supramolecular assemblies</a> consisting of many molecules arranged in a well-defined manner. </p><p>These approaches utilize the concepts of molecular self-assembly and/or <a href="/wiki/Supramolecular_chemistry" title="Supramolecular chemistry">supramolecular chemistry</a> to automatically arrange themselves into a useful conformation through a <a href="/wiki/Top-down_and_bottom-up#Nanotechnology" class="mw-redirect" title="Top-down and bottom-up">bottom-up</a> approach. The concept of <a href="/wiki/Molecular_recognition" title="Molecular recognition">molecular recognition</a> is important: molecules can be designed so that a specific configuration or arrangement is favored due to <a href="/wiki/Noncovalent_bonding" class="mw-redirect" title="Noncovalent bonding">non-covalent</a> <a href="/wiki/Intermolecular_force" title="Intermolecular force">intermolecular forces</a>. The Watson–Crick <a href="/wiki/Base_pair" title="Base pair">basepairing</a> rules are a direct result of this, as is the specificity of an <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzyme</a> targeting a single <a href="/wiki/Substrate_(biochemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Substrate (biochemistry)">substrate</a>, or the specific <a href="/wiki/Protein_folding" title="Protein folding">folding of a protein</a>. Thus, components can be designed to be complementary and mutually attractive so that they make a more complex and useful whole. </p><p>Such bottom-up approaches should be capable of producing devices in parallel and be much cheaper than top-down methods, but could potentially be overwhelmed as the size and complexity of the desired assembly increases. Most useful structures require complex and thermodynamically unlikely arrangements of atoms. Nevertheless, many examples of self-assembly based on molecular recognition in exist in <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, most notably Watson–Crick basepairing and enzyme-substrate interactions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Molecular_nanotechnology:_a_long-term_view">Molecular nanotechnology: a long-term view</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Molecular_nanotechnology" title="Molecular nanotechnology">Molecular nanotechnology</a></div> <p>Molecular nanotechnology, sometimes called molecular manufacturing, concerns engineered nanosystems (nanoscale machines) operating on the molecular scale. Molecular nanotechnology is especially associated with <a href="/wiki/Molecular_assembler" title="Molecular assembler">molecular assemblers</a>, machines that can produce a desired structure or device atom-by-atom using the principles of <a href="/wiki/Mechanosynthesis" title="Mechanosynthesis">mechanosynthesis</a>. Manufacturing in the context of <a href="/wiki/Productive_nanosystems" title="Productive nanosystems">productive nanosystems</a> is not related to conventional technologies used to manufacture nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes and nanoparticles. </p><p>When Drexler independently coined and popularized the term "nanotechnology", he envisioned manufacturing technology based on <a href="/wiki/Molecular_machine" title="Molecular machine">molecular machine</a> systems. The premise was that molecular-scale biological analogies of traditional machine components demonstrated molecular machines were possible: biology was full of examples of sophisticated, <a href="/wiki/Stochastic" title="Stochastic">stochastically</a> optimized <a href="/wiki/Molecular_machine#Biological" title="Molecular machine">biological machines</a>. </p><p>Drexler and other researchers<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have proposed that advanced nanotechnology ultimately could be based on mechanical engineering principles, namely, a manufacturing technology based on the mechanical functionality of these components (such as gears, bearings, motors, and structural members) that would enable programmable, positional assembly to atomic specification.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The physics and engineering performance of exemplar designs were analyzed in Drexler's book <i>Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery, Manufacturing, and Computation</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nanotsystems_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nanotsystems-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In general, assembling devices on the atomic scale requires positioning atoms on other atoms of comparable size and stickiness. <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Montemagno" title="Carlo Montemagno">Carlo Montemagno</a>'s view is that future nanosystems will be hybrids of silicon technology and biological molecular machines.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Smalley" title="Richard Smalley">Richard Smalley</a> argued that mechanosynthesis was impossible due to difficulties in mechanically manipulating individual molecules.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>This led to an exchange of letters in the <a href="/wiki/American_Chemical_Society" title="American Chemical Society">ACS</a> publication <a href="/wiki/Chemical_%26_Engineering_News" title="Chemical & Engineering News">Chemical & Engineering News</a> in 2003.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though biology clearly demonstrates that molecular machines are possible, non-biological molecular machines remained in their infancy. <a href="/wiki/Alex_Zettl" title="Alex Zettl">Alex Zettl</a> and colleagues at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratories and UC Berkeley<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> constructed at least three molecular devices whose motion is controlled via changing voltage: a nanotube <a href="/wiki/Nanomotor" title="Nanomotor">nanomotor</a>, a molecular actuator,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a nanoelectromechanical relaxation oscillator.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ho and Lee at <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a> in 1999 used a scanning tunneling microscope to move an individual carbon monoxide molecule (CO) to an individual iron atom (Fe) sitting on a flat silver crystal and chemically bound the CO to the Fe by applying a voltage.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rotaxane_cartoon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Rotaxane_cartoon.jpg/220px-Rotaxane_cartoon.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Rotaxane_cartoon.jpg/330px-Rotaxane_cartoon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Rotaxane_cartoon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="361" data-file-height="242" /></a><figcaption>Graphical representation of a <a href="/wiki/Rotaxane" title="Rotaxane">rotaxane</a>, useful as a <a href="/wiki/Molecular_switch" title="Molecular switch">molecular switch</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DNA_tetrahedron_white.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/DNA_tetrahedron_white.png/220px-DNA_tetrahedron_white.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/DNA_tetrahedron_white.png/330px-DNA_tetrahedron_white.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/DNA_tetrahedron_white.png/440px-DNA_tetrahedron_white.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="850" /></a><figcaption>This DNA <a href="/wiki/Tetrahedron" title="Tetrahedron">tetrahedron</a><sup id="cite_ref-Goodman05_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goodman05-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is an artificially <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid_design" title="Nucleic acid design">designed</a> nanostructure of the type made in the field of <a href="/wiki/DNA_nanotechnology" title="DNA nanotechnology">DNA nanotechnology</a>. Each edge of the tetrahedron is a 20 base pair DNA <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid_double_helix" title="Nucleic acid double helix">double helix</a>, and each vertex is a three-arm junction.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:C60_Buckyball.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/C60_Buckyball.gif/200px-C60_Buckyball.gif" decoding="async" width="200" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/C60_Buckyball.gif/300px-C60_Buckyball.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/C60_Buckyball.gif/400px-C60_Buckyball.gif 2x" data-file-width="438" data-file-height="422" /></a><figcaption>Rotating view of C<sub>60</sub>, one kind of fullerene</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Achermann7RED.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Achermann7RED.jpg/220px-Achermann7RED.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Achermann7RED.jpg/330px-Achermann7RED.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Achermann7RED.jpg/440px-Achermann7RED.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="2122" /></a><figcaption>This device transfers energy from nano-thin layers of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_well" title="Quantum well">quantum wells</a> to nanocrystals above them, causing the nanocrystals to emit visible light.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nanomaterials">Nanomaterials</h3></div> <p>Many areas of science develop or study materials having unique properties arising from their nanoscale dimensions.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interface_and_colloid_science" title="Interface and colloid science">Interface and colloid science</a> produced many materials that may be useful in nanotechnology, such as carbon nanotubes and other <a href="/wiki/Fullerenes" class="mw-redirect" title="Fullerenes">fullerenes</a>, and various nanoparticles and <a href="/wiki/Nanorod" title="Nanorod">nanorods</a>. Nanomaterials with fast ion transport are related to nanoionics and nanoelectronics.</li> <li>Nanoscale materials can be used for bulk applications; most commercial applications of nanotechnology are of this flavor.</li> <li>Progress has been made in using these materials for <a href="/wiki/Nanomedicine" title="Nanomedicine">medical applications</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Tissue_engineering" title="Tissue engineering">tissue engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drug_delivery" title="Drug delivery">drug delivery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antibacterials" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibacterials">antibacterials</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biosensor" title="Biosensor">biosensors</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Nanoscale materials such as <a href="/wiki/Nanopillar" title="Nanopillar">nanopillars</a> are used in <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cells</a>.</li> <li>Applications incorporating semiconductor <a href="/wiki/Nanoparticle" title="Nanoparticle">nanoparticles</a> in products such as display technology, lighting, solar cells and biological imaging; see <a href="/wiki/Quantum_dots" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum dots">quantum dots</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bottom-up_approaches">Bottom-up approaches</h3></div> <p>The bottom-up approach seeks to arrange smaller components into more complex assemblies. </p> <ul><li>DNA nanotechnology utilizes Watson–Crick basepairing to construct well-defined structures out of DNA and other <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">nucleic acids</a>.</li> <li>Approaches from the field of "classical" chemical synthesis (Inorganic and <a href="/wiki/Organic_synthesis" title="Organic synthesis">organic synthesis</a>) aim at designing molecules with well-defined shape (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Bis-peptide" class="mw-redirect" title="Bis-peptide">bis-peptides</a><sup id="cite_ref-Levins_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levins-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>).</li> <li>More generally, molecular self-assembly seeks to use concepts of supramolecular chemistry, and molecular recognition in particular, to cause single-molecule components to automatically arrange themselves into some useful conformation.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_force_microscope" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic force microscope">Atomic force microscope</a> tips can be used as a nanoscale "write head" to deposit a chemical upon a surface in a desired pattern in a process called <a href="/wiki/Dip_pen_nanolithography" class="mw-redirect" title="Dip pen nanolithography">dip pen nanolithography</a>. This technique fits into the larger subfield of <a href="/wiki/Nanolithography" title="Nanolithography">nanolithography</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_Beam_Epitaxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular Beam Epitaxy">Molecular Beam Epitaxy</a> allows for bottom-up assemblies of materials, most notably semiconductor materials commonly used in chip and computing applications, stacks, gating, and <a href="/wiki/Nanowire_lasers" title="Nanowire lasers">nanowire lasers</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Top-down_approaches">Top-down approaches</h3></div> <p>These seek to create smaller devices by using larger ones to direct their assembly. </p> <ul><li>Many technologies that descended from conventional <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_fabrication" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiconductor fabrication">solid-state silicon methods</a> for fabricating <a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">microprocessors</a> are capable of creating features smaller than 100 nm. <a href="/wiki/Giant_magnetoresistance" title="Giant magnetoresistance">Giant magnetoresistance</a>-based hard drives already on the market fit this description,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as do <a href="/wiki/Atomic_layer_deposition" title="Atomic layer deposition">atomic layer deposition</a> (ALD) techniques. <a href="/wiki/Peter_Gr%C3%BCnberg" title="Peter Grünberg">Peter Grünberg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Albert_Fert" title="Albert Fert">Albert Fert</a> received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2007 for their discovery of giant magnetoresistance and contributions to the field of <a href="/wiki/Spintronics" title="Spintronics">spintronics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Solid-state techniques can be used to create <a href="/wiki/Nanoelectromechanical_systems" title="Nanoelectromechanical systems">nanoelectromechanical systems</a> or NEMS, which are related to <a href="/wiki/Microelectromechanical_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Microelectromechanical systems">microelectromechanical systems</a> or MEMS.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focused_ion_beam" title="Focused ion beam">Focused ion beams</a> can directly remove material, or even deposit material when suitable precursor gasses are applied at the same time. For example, this technique is used routinely to create sub-100 nm sections of material for analysis in <a href="/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy" title="Transmission electron microscopy">Transmission electron microscopy</a>.</li> <li>Atomic force microscope tips can be used as a nanoscale "write head" to deposit a resist, which is then followed by an etching process to remove material in a top-down method.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Functional_approaches">Functional approaches</h3></div> <p>Functional approaches seek to develop useful components without regard to how they might be assembled. </p> <ul><li>Magnetic assembly for the synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Anisotropy" title="Anisotropy">anisotropic</a> <a href="/wiki/Superparamagnetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Superparamagnetic">superparamagnetic</a> materials such as magnetic nano chains.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_scale_electronics" title="Molecular scale electronics">Molecular scale electronics</a> seeks to develop molecules with useful electronic properties. These could be used as single-molecule components in a nanoelectronic device,<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as <a href="/wiki/Rotaxane" title="Rotaxane">rotaxane</a>.</li> <li>Synthetic chemical methods can be used to create <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_molecular_motor" title="Synthetic molecular motor">synthetic molecular motors</a>, such as in a so-called <a href="/wiki/Nanocar" title="Nanocar">nanocar</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biomimetic_approaches">Biomimetic approaches</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bionics" title="Bionics">Bionics</a> or <a href="/wiki/Biomimicry" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomimicry">biomimicry</a> seeks to apply biological methods and systems found in nature to the study and design of engineering systems and modern technology. <a href="/wiki/Biomineralization" title="Biomineralization">Biomineralization</a> is one example of the systems studied.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bionanotechnology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bionanotechnology">Bionanotechnology</a> is the use of <a href="/wiki/Biomolecule" title="Biomolecule">biomolecules</a> for applications in nanotechnology, including the use of viruses and lipid assemblies.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Nanocellulose" title="Nanocellulose">Nanocellulose</a>, a nanopolymer often used for bulk-scale applications, has gained interest owing to its useful properties such as abundance, high aspect ratio, good <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_properties" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical properties">mechanical properties</a>, <a href="/wiki/Renewability" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewability">renewability</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Biocompatibility" title="Biocompatibility">biocompatibility</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Speculative">Speculative</h3></div> <p>These subfields seek to <a href="/wiki/Futures_studies" title="Futures studies">anticipate</a> what inventions nanotechnology might yield, or attempt to propose an agenda along which inquiry could progress. These often take a big-picture view, with more emphasis on societal implications than engineering details. </p> <ul><li>Molecular nanotechnology is a proposed approach that involves manipulating single molecules in finely controlled, deterministic ways. This is more theoretical than the other subfields, and many of its proposed techniques are beyond current capabilities.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanorobotics" title="Nanorobotics">Nanorobotics</a> considers self-sufficient machines operating at the nanoscale. There are hopes for applying nanorobots in medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, progress on innovative materials and patented methodologies have been demonstrated.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Productive nanosystems are "systems of nanosystems" could produce atomically precise parts for other nanosystems, not necessarily using novel nanoscale-emergent properties, but well-understood fundamentals of manufacturing. Because of the discrete (i.e. atomic) nature of matter and the possibility of exponential growth, this stage could form the basis of another industrial revolution. <a href="/wiki/Mihail_Roco" title="Mihail Roco">Mihail Roco</a> proposed four states of nanotechnology that seem to parallel the technical progress of the Industrial Revolution, progressing from passive nanostructures to active nanodevices to complex <a href="/wiki/Nanomachine" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanomachine">nanomachines</a> and ultimately to productive nanosystems.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_matter" title="Programmable matter">Programmable matter</a> seeks to design materials whose properties can be easily, reversibly and externally controlled though a fusion of <a href="/wiki/Information_science" title="Information science">information science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">materials science</a>.</li> <li>Due to the popularity and media exposure of the term nanotechnology, the words <a href="/wiki/Picotechnology" title="Picotechnology">picotechnology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Femtotechnology" title="Femtotechnology">femtotechnology</a> have been coined in analogy to it, although these are used only informally.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dimensionality_in_nanomaterials">Dimensionality in nanomaterials</h3></div> <p>Nanomaterials can be classified in 0D, 1D, 2D and 3D <a href="/wiki/Nanomaterials" title="Nanomaterials">nanomaterials</a>. Dimensionality plays a major role in determining the characteristic of nanomaterials including <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/physical" class="extiw" title="wikt:physical">physical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical">chemical</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Biological" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological">biological</a> characteristics. With the decrease in dimensionality, an increase in surface-to-volume ratio is observed. This indicates that smaller dimensional <a href="/wiki/Nanomaterials" title="Nanomaterials">nanomaterials</a> have higher surface area compared to 3D nanomaterials. <a href="/wiki/Two_dimensional_(2D)_nanomaterials" class="mw-redirect" title="Two dimensional (2D) nanomaterials">Two dimensional (2D) nanomaterials</a> have been extensively investigated for <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biomedical" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomedical">biomedical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drug_delivery" title="Drug delivery">drug delivery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biosensor" title="Biosensor">biosensor</a> applications. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tools_and_techniques">Tools and techniques</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AFMsetup.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/AFMsetup.jpg/300px-AFMsetup.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/AFMsetup.jpg/450px-AFMsetup.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/AFMsetup.jpg/600px-AFMsetup.jpg 2x" data-file-width="721" data-file-height="569" /></a><figcaption>Typical <a href="/wiki/Atomic_force_microscope" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic force microscope">AFM</a> setup. A microfabricated <a href="/wiki/Cantilever" title="Cantilever">cantilever</a> with a sharp tip is deflected by features on a sample surface, much like in a <a href="/wiki/Phonograph" title="Phonograph">phonograph</a> but on a much smaller scale. A <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">laser</a> beam reflects off the backside of the cantilever into a set of <a href="/wiki/Photodetector" title="Photodetector">photodetectors</a>, allowing the deflection to be measured and assembled into an image of the surface.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scanning_microscopes">Scanning microscopes</h3></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Atomic_force_microscope" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic force microscope">atomic force microscope</a> (AFM) and the <a href="/wiki/Scanning_Tunneling_Microscope" class="mw-redirect" title="Scanning Tunneling Microscope">Scanning Tunneling Microscope</a> (STM) are two versions of scanning probes that are used for nano-scale observation. Other types of <a href="/wiki/Scanning_probe_microscopy" title="Scanning probe microscopy">scanning probe microscopy</a> have much higher resolution, since they are not limited by the wavelengths of sound or light. </p><p>The tip of a scanning probe can also be used to manipulate nanostructures (positional assembly). <a href="/wiki/Feature-oriented_scanning" title="Feature-oriented scanning">Feature-oriented scanning</a> may be a promising way to implement these nano-scale manipulations via an automatic <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithm</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-feature2004_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-feature2004-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-fospm2011_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fospm2011-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this is still a slow process because of low velocity of the microscope. </p><p>The top-down approach anticipates nanodevices that must be built piece by piece in stages, much as manufactured items are made. <a href="/wiki/Scanning_probe_microscopy" title="Scanning probe microscopy">Scanning probe microscopy</a> is an important technique both for characterization and synthesis. Atomic force microscopes and scanning tunneling microscopes can be used to look at surfaces and to move atoms around. By designing different tips for these microscopes, they can be used for carving out structures on surfaces and to help guide self-assembling structures. By using, for example, feature-oriented scanning approach, atoms or molecules can be moved around on a surface with scanning probe microscopy techniques.<sup id="cite_ref-feature2004_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-feature2004-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-fospm2011_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fospm2011-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lithography">Lithography</h3></div> <p>Various techniques of lithography, such as <a href="/wiki/Optical_lithography" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical lithography">optical lithography</a>, <a href="/wiki/X-ray_lithography" title="X-ray lithography">X-ray lithography</a>, dip pen lithography, <a href="/wiki/Electron_beam_lithography" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron beam lithography">electron beam lithography</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nanoimprint_lithography" title="Nanoimprint lithography">nanoimprint lithography</a> offer top-down fabrication techniques where a bulk material is reduced to a nano-scale pattern. </p><p>Another group of nano-technological techniques include those used for fabrication of <a href="/wiki/Ion_track_technology_(track_etching)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ion track technology (track etching)">nanotubes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ion_track_technology_(track_replication)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ion track technology (track replication)">nanowires</a>, those used in semiconductor fabrication such as deep ultraviolet lithography, electron beam lithography, focused ion beam machining, nanoimprint lithography, <a href="/wiki/Atomic_layer_deposition" title="Atomic layer deposition">atomic layer deposition</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Molecular_vapor_deposition" title="Molecular vapor deposition">molecular vapor deposition</a>, and further including molecular self-assembly techniques such as those employing di-block <a href="/wiki/Copolymer" title="Copolymer">copolymers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid26295171_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid26295171-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bottom-up">Bottom-up</h4></div> <p>In contrast, bottom-up techniques build or grow larger structures atom by atom or molecule by molecule. These techniques include chemical synthesis, <a href="/wiki/Self-assembly" title="Self-assembly">self-assembly</a> and positional assembly. <a href="/wiki/Dual-polarization_interferometry" title="Dual-polarization interferometry">Dual-polarization interferometry</a> is one tool suitable for characterization of self-assembled thin films. Another variation of the bottom-up approach is <a href="/wiki/Molecular-beam_epitaxy" title="Molecular-beam epitaxy">molecular-beam epitaxy</a> or MBE. Researchers at <a href="/wiki/Bell_Telephone_Laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="Bell Telephone Laboratories">Bell Telephone Laboratories</a> including <a href="/wiki/John_R._Arthur_Jr." title="John R. Arthur Jr.">John R. Arthur</a>. <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Y._Cho" title="Alfred Y. Cho">Alfred Y. Cho</a>, and Art C. Gossard developed and implemented MBE as a research tool in the late 1960s and 1970s. Samples made by MBE were key to the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Fractional_quantum_Hall_effect" title="Fractional quantum Hall effect">fractional quantum Hall effect</a> for which the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Physics" title="List of Nobel laureates in Physics">1998 Nobel Prize in Physics</a> was awarded. MBE lays down atomically precise layers of atoms and, in the process, build up complex structures. Important for research on semiconductors, MBE is also widely used to make samples and devices for the newly emerging field of <a href="/wiki/Spintronics" title="Spintronics">spintronics</a>. </p><p>Therapeutic products based on responsive <a href="/wiki/Nanomaterials" title="Nanomaterials">nanomaterials</a>, such as the highly deformable, stress-sensitive <a href="/wiki/Transfersome" title="Transfersome">Transfersome</a> vesicles, are approved for human use in some countries.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Threshold_formation_nowatermark.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Threshold_formation_nowatermark.gif/400px-Threshold_formation_nowatermark.gif" decoding="async" width="400" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Threshold_formation_nowatermark.gif/600px-Threshold_formation_nowatermark.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Threshold_formation_nowatermark.gif 2x" data-file-width="722" data-file-height="328" /></a><figcaption>One of the major applications of nanotechnology is in the area of <a href="/wiki/Nanoelectronics" title="Nanoelectronics">nanoelectronics</a> with <a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a>'s being made of small <a href="/wiki/Nanowire" title="Nanowire">nanowires</a> ≈10 nm in length. Here is a simulation of such a nanowire.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/A-simple-and-fast-fabrication-of-a-both-self-cleanable-and-deep-UV-antireflective-quartz-1556-276X-7-430-S1.ogv/220px--A-simple-and-fast-fabrication-of-a-both-self-cleanable-and-deep-UV-antireflective-quartz-1556-276X-7-430-S1.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="34" data-mwtitle="A-simple-and-fast-fabrication-of-a-both-self-cleanable-and-deep-UV-antireflective-quartz-1556-276X-7-430-S1.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:A-simple-and-fast-fabrication-of-a-both-self-cleanable-and-deep-UV-antireflective-quartz-1556-276X-7-430-S1.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/6d/A-simple-and-fast-fabrication-of-a-both-self-cleanable-and-deep-UV-antireflective-quartz-1556-276X-7-430-S1.ogv/A-simple-and-fast-fabrication-of-a-both-self-cleanable-and-deep-UV-antireflective-quartz-1556-276X-7-430-S1.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/A-simple-and-fast-fabrication-of-a-both-self-cleanable-and-deep-UV-antireflective-quartz-1556-276X-7-430-S1.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/6d/A-simple-and-fast-fabrication-of-a-both-self-cleanable-and-deep-UV-antireflective-quartz-1556-276X-7-430-S1.ogv/A-simple-and-fast-fabrication-of-a-both-self-cleanable-and-deep-UV-antireflective-quartz-1556-276X-7-430-S1.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/6d/A-simple-and-fast-fabrication-of-a-both-self-cleanable-and-deep-UV-antireflective-quartz-1556-276X-7-430-S1.ogv/A-simple-and-fast-fabrication-of-a-both-self-cleanable-and-deep-UV-antireflective-quartz-1556-276X-7-430-S1.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /></video></span><figcaption>Nanostructures provide this surface with <a href="/wiki/Superhydrophobicity" class="mw-redirect" title="Superhydrophobicity">superhydrophobicity</a>, which lets <a href="/wiki/Water_droplet" class="mw-redirect" title="Water droplet">water droplets</a> roll down the <a href="/wiki/Inclined_plane" title="Inclined plane">inclined plane</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nanowire_laser.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Nanowire_laser.png/220px-Nanowire_laser.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Nanowire_laser.png/330px-Nanowire_laser.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Nanowire_laser.png/440px-Nanowire_laser.png 2x" data-file-width="739" data-file-height="379" /></a><figcaption>Nanowire lasers for ultrafast transmission of information in light pulses</figcaption></figure><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs to be <b>updated</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2024</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_nanotechnology_applications" class="mw-redirect" title="List of nanotechnology applications">List of nanotechnology applications</a></div> <p>As of August 21, 2008, the <a href="/wiki/Project_on_Emerging_Nanotechnologies" title="Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies">Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies</a> estimated that over 800 manufacturer-identified nanotech products were publicly available, with new ones hitting the market at a pace of 3–4 per week.<sup id="cite_ref-emergingnano_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emergingnano-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most applications are "first generation" passive nanomaterials that includes titanium dioxide in sunscreen, cosmetics, surface coatings,<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and some food products; Carbon allotropes used to produce <a href="/wiki/Gecko_tape" class="mw-redirect" title="Gecko tape">gecko tape</a>; silver in <a href="/wiki/Food_packaging" title="Food packaging">food packaging</a>, clothing, disinfectants, and household appliances; zinc oxide in sunscreens and cosmetics, surface coatings, paints and outdoor furniture varnishes; and cerium oxide as a fuel catalyst.<sup id="cite_ref-americanelements_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-americanelements-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the electric car industry, single wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) address key lithium-ion battery challenges, including energy density, charge rate, service life, and cost. SWCNTs connect electrode particles during charge/discharge process, preventing battery premature degradation. Their exceptional ability to wrap active material particles enhanced electrical conductivity and physical properties, setting them apart multi-walled carbon nanotubes and carbon black.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Further applications allow <a href="/wiki/Tennis_ball" title="Tennis ball">tennis balls</a> to last longer, <a href="/wiki/Golf_ball" title="Golf ball">golf balls</a> to fly straighter, and <a href="/wiki/Bowling_ball" title="Bowling ball">bowling balls</a> to become more durable. <a href="/wiki/Trouser" class="mw-redirect" title="Trouser">Trousers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Socks" class="mw-redirect" title="Socks">socks</a> have been infused with nanotechnology to last longer and lower temperature in the summer. <a href="/wiki/Bandage" title="Bandage">Bandages</a> are infused with silver nanoparticles to heal cuts faster.<sup id="cite_ref-nnin_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nnin-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Video_game_console" title="Video game console">Video game consoles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Personal_computer" title="Personal computer">personal computers</a> may become cheaper, faster, and contain more memory thanks to nanotechnology.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, to build structures for on chip computing with light, for example on chip optical quantum information processing, and picosecond transmission of information.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nanotechnology may have the ability to make existing medical applications cheaper and easier to use in places like the doctors' offices and at homes.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cars use <a href="/wiki/Nanomaterial" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanomaterial">nanomaterials</a> in such ways that car parts require fewer <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metals</a> during manufacturing and less <a href="/wiki/Fuel" title="Fuel">fuel</a> to operate in the future.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nanoencapsulation involves the enclosure of active substances within carriers. Typically, these carriers offer advantages, such as enhanced bioavailability, controlled release, targeted delivery, and protection of the encapsulated substances. In the medical field, nanoencapsulation plays a significant role in <a href="/wiki/Drug_delivery" title="Drug delivery">drug delivery</a>. It facilitates more efficient drug administration, reduces side effects, and increases treatment effectiveness. Nanoencapsulation is particularly useful for improving the bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs, enabling controlled and sustained drug release, and supporting the development of targeted therapies. These features collectively contribute to advancements in medical treatments and patient care.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nanotechnology may play role in <a href="/wiki/Tissue_Engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Tissue Engineering">tissue engineering</a>. When designing scaffolds, researchers attempt to mimic the nanoscale features of a <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cell</a>'s microenvironment to direct its differentiation down a suitable lineage.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, when creating scaffolds to support bone growth, researchers may mimic <a href="/wiki/Osteoclast" title="Osteoclast">osteoclast</a> resorption pits.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Researchers used <a href="/wiki/DNA_origami" title="DNA origami">DNA origami</a>-based nanobots capable of carrying out logic functions to target drug delivery in cockroaches.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A nano bible (a .5mm2 silicon chip) was created by the <a href="/wiki/Technion_%E2%80%93_Israel_Institute_of_Technology" title="Technion – Israel Institute of Technology">Technion</a> in order to increase youth interest in nanotechnology.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Implications">Implications</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Implications_of_nanotechnology" class="mw-redirect" title="Implications of nanotechnology">Implications of nanotechnology</a></div> <p>One concern is the effect that industrial-scale manufacturing and use of nanomaterials will have on human health and the environment, as suggested by <a href="/wiki/Nanotoxicology" title="Nanotoxicology">nanotoxicology</a> research. For these reasons, some groups advocate that nanotechnology be regulated. However, regulation might stifle scientific research and the development of beneficial innovations. <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a> research agencies, such as the <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health" title="National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health">National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health</a> research potential health effects stemming from exposures to nanoparticles.<sup id="cite_ref-niosh_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-niosh-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nioshnano_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nioshnano-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nanoparticle products may have <a href="/wiki/Unintended_consequences" title="Unintended consequences">unintended consequences</a>. Researchers have discovered that <a href="/wiki/Bacteriostatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacteriostatic">bacteriostatic</a> silver nanoparticles used in socks to reduce foot odor are released in the wash.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These particles are then flushed into the wastewater stream and may destroy bacteria that are critical components of natural ecosystems, farms, and waste treatment processes.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Public deliberations on <a href="/wiki/Risk_perception" title="Risk perception">risk perception</a> in the US and UK carried out by the Center for Nanotechnology in Society found that participants were more positive about nanotechnologies for energy applications than for health applications, with health applications raising moral and ethical dilemmas such as cost and availability.<sup id="cite_ref-harthorn_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harthorn-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Experts, including director of the Woodrow Wilson Center's Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies David Rejeski, testified<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that commercialization depends on adequate oversight, risk research strategy, and public engagement. As of 206 <a href="/wiki/Berkeley,_California" title="Berkeley, California">Berkeley, California</a> was the only US city to regulate nanotechnology.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health_and_environmental_concerns">Health and environmental concerns</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/NIOSH_Nano_Research_-_Engineering_Controls_for_Nanomaterial_Production_and_Handling_Processes.webm/220px--NIOSH_Nano_Research_-_Engineering_Controls_for_Nanomaterial_Production_and_Handling_Processes.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="270" data-mwtitle="NIOSH_Nano_Research_-_Engineering_Controls_for_Nanomaterial_Production_and_Handling_Processes.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:NIOSH_Nano_Research_-_Engineering_Controls_for_Nanomaterial_Production_and_Handling_Processes.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/21/NIOSH_Nano_Research_-_Engineering_Controls_for_Nanomaterial_Production_and_Handling_Processes.webm/NIOSH_Nano_Research_-_Engineering_Controls_for_Nanomaterial_Production_and_Handling_Processes.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/21/NIOSH_Nano_Research_-_Engineering_Controls_for_Nanomaterial_Production_and_Handling_Processes.webm/NIOSH_Nano_Research_-_Engineering_Controls_for_Nanomaterial_Production_and_Handling_Processes.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/21/NIOSH_Nano_Research_-_Engineering_Controls_for_Nanomaterial_Production_and_Handling_Processes.webm/NIOSH_Nano_Research_-_Engineering_Controls_for_Nanomaterial_Production_and_Handling_Processes.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/NIOSH_Nano_Research_-_Engineering_Controls_for_Nanomaterial_Production_and_Handling_Processes.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/21/NIOSH_Nano_Research_-_Engineering_Controls_for_Nanomaterial_Production_and_Handling_Processes.webm/NIOSH_Nano_Research_-_Engineering_Controls_for_Nanomaterial_Production_and_Handling_Processes.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/21/NIOSH_Nano_Research_-_Engineering_Controls_for_Nanomaterial_Production_and_Handling_Processes.webm/NIOSH_Nano_Research_-_Engineering_Controls_for_Nanomaterial_Production_and_Handling_Processes.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/21/NIOSH_Nano_Research_-_Engineering_Controls_for_Nanomaterial_Production_and_Handling_Processes.webm/NIOSH_Nano_Research_-_Engineering_Controls_for_Nanomaterial_Production_and_Handling_Processes.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/21/NIOSH_Nano_Research_-_Engineering_Controls_for_Nanomaterial_Production_and_Handling_Processes.webm/NIOSH_Nano_Research_-_Engineering_Controls_for_Nanomaterial_Production_and_Handling_Processes.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANIOSH_Nano_Research_-_Engineering_Controls_for_Nanomaterial_Production_and_Handling_Processes.webm&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video></span><figcaption>A video on the health and safety implications of nanotechnology</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Health_and_safety_hazards_of_nanomaterials" title="Health and safety hazards of nanomaterials">Health and safety hazards of nanomaterials</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pollution_from_nanomaterials" title="Pollution from nanomaterials">Pollution from nanomaterials</a></div> <p>Inhaling airborne nanoparticles and nanofibers may contribute to <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmonary disease">pulmonary diseases</a>, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Fibrosis" title="Fibrosis">fibrosis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researchers found that when rats breathed in nanoparticles, the particles settled in the brain and lungs, which led to significant increases in biomarkers for inflammation and stress response<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that nanoparticles induce skin aging through oxidative stress in hairless mice.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A two-year study at <a href="/wiki/UCLA_Fielding_School_of_Public_Health" title="UCLA Fielding School of Public Health">UCLA's School of Public Health</a> found lab mice consuming nano-titanium dioxide showed DNA and chromosome damage to a degree "linked to all the big killers of man, namely cancer, heart disease, neurological disease and aging".<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_Nanotechnology" title="Nature Nanotechnology">Nature Nanotechnology</a></i> study suggested that some forms of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_nanotube" title="Carbon nanotube">carbon nanotubes</a> could be as harmful as <a href="/wiki/Asbestos" title="Asbestos">asbestos</a> if inhaled in sufficient quantities. <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Seaton" title="Anthony Seaton">Anthony Seaton</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Occupational_Medicine" title="Institute of Occupational Medicine">Institute of Occupational Medicine</a> in Edinburgh, Scotland, who contributed to the article on <a href="/wiki/Carbon_nanotube" title="Carbon nanotube">carbon nanotubes</a> said "We know that some of them probably have the potential to cause mesothelioma. So those sorts of materials need to be handled very carefully."<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the absence of specific regulation forthcoming from governments, Paull and Lyons (2008) have called for an exclusion of engineered nanoparticles in food.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A newspaper article reports that workers in a paint factory developed serious lung disease and nanoparticles were found in their lungs.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Regulation">Regulation</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_nanotechnology" title="Regulation of nanotechnology">Regulation of nanotechnology</a></div> <p>Calls for tighter regulation of nanotechnology have accompanied a debate related to human health and safety risks.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some regulatory agencies cover some nanotechnology products and processes – by "bolting on" nanotechnology to existing regulations – leaving clear gaps.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Davies proposed a road map describing steps to deal with these shortcomings.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Andrew Maynard, chief science advisor to the Woodrow Wilson Center's Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies, reported insufficient funding for human health and safety research, and as a result inadequate understanding of human health and safety risks.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some academics called for stricter application of the <a href="/wiki/Precautionary_principle" title="Precautionary principle">precautionary principle</a>, slowing marketing approval, enhanced labelling and additional safety data.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A Royal Society report identified a risk of nanoparticles or nanotubes being released during disposal, destruction and recycling, and recommended that "manufacturers of products that fall under <a href="/wiki/Extended_producer_responsibility" title="Extended producer responsibility">extended producer responsibility</a> regimes such as end-of-life regulations publish procedures outlining how these materials will be managed to minimize possible human and environmental exposure".<sup id="cite_ref-royalsociety_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-royalsociety-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/28px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/42px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/56px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Noun-technology.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Noun-technology.svg/29px-Noun-technology.svg.png" decoding="async" width="29" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Noun-technology.svg/43px-Noun-technology.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Noun-technology.svg/57px-Noun-technology.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="90" data-file-height="88" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Technology" title="Portal:Technology">Technology portal</a></span></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_nanotechnology" title="Outline of nanotechnology">Outline of nanotechnology</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_nanotube" title="Carbon nanotube">Carbon nanotube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_deflection_(molecular_physics/nanotechnology)" title="Electrostatic deflection (molecular physics/nanotechnology)">Electrostatic deflection (molecular physics/nanotechnology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_applications_of_nanotechnology" title="Energy applications of nanotechnology">Energy applications of nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_nanotechnologies" title="Ethics of nanotechnologies">Ethics of nanotechnologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion_implantation-induced_nanoparticle_formation" title="Ion implantation-induced nanoparticle formation">Ion implantation-induced nanoparticle formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_nanoparticle" class="mw-redirect" title="Gold nanoparticle">Gold nanoparticle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_emerging_technologies" title="List of emerging technologies">List of emerging technologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nanotechnology_organizations" title="List of nanotechnology organizations">List of nanotechnology organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_software_for_nanostructures_modeling" title="List of software for nanostructures modeling">List of software for nanostructures modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_nanochains" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic nanochains">Magnetic nanochains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materiomics" title="Materiomics">Materiomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nano-thermite" title="Nano-thermite">Nano-thermite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_design_software" title="Molecular design software">Molecular design software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_mechanics" title="Molecular mechanics">Molecular mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanobiotechnology" title="Nanobiotechnology">Nanobiotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanoelectromechanical_relay" title="Nanoelectromechanical relay">Nanoelectromechanical relay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanoengineering" title="Nanoengineering">Nanoengineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanofluidics" title="Nanofluidics">Nanofluidics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NanoHUB" title="NanoHUB">NanoHUB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanometrology" title="Nanometrology">Nanometrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanoneuronics" title="Nanoneuronics">Nanoneuronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanoparticle" title="Nanoparticle">Nanoparticle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanoscale_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanoscale networks">Nanoscale networks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology_education" title="Nanotechnology education">Nanotechnology education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology_in_fiction" title="Nanotechnology in fiction">Nanotechnology in fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology_in_water_treatment" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanotechnology in water treatment">Nanotechnology in water treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanoweapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanoweapons">Nanoweapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Nanotechnology_Initiative" title="National Nanotechnology Initiative">National Nanotechnology Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-assembly_of_nanoparticles" title="Self-assembly of nanoparticles">Self-assembly of nanoparticles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Top-down_and_bottom-up#Nanotechnology" class="mw-redirect" title="Top-down and bottom-up">Top-down and bottom-up</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translational_research" title="Translational research">Translational research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_nanotechnology" title="Wet nanotechnology">Wet nanotechnology</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Engines1-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Engines1_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDrexler1986" class="citation book cs1">Drexler KE (1986). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/enginesofcreatio00drex"><i>Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology</i></a></span>. Doubleday. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-19973-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-19973-5"><bdi>978-0-385-19973-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/12752328">12752328</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Engines+of+Creation%3A+The+Coming+Era+of+Nanotechnology&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F12752328&rft.isbn=978-0-385-19973-5&rft.aulast=Drexler&rft.aufirst=KE&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fenginesofcreatio00drex&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanotechnology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nanotsystems-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nanotsystems_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nanotsystems_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrexler1992" class="citation book cs1">Drexler KE (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F6BRAAAAMAAJ"><i>Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery, Manufacturing, and Computation</i></a>. Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-57547-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-57547-4"><bdi>978-0-471-57547-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/26503231">26503231</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nanosystems%3A+Molecular+Machinery%2C+Manufacturing%2C+and+Computation&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F26503231&rft.isbn=978-0-471-57547-4&rft.aulast=Drexler&rft.aufirst=KE&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DF6BRAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanotechnology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHubler2010" class="citation journal cs1">Hubler A (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fcplx.20306">"Digital quantum batteries: Energy and information storage in nanovacuum tube arrays"</a>. <i>Complexity</i>. <b>15</b> (5): 48–55. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fcplx.20306">10.1002/cplx.20306</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1076-2787">1076-2787</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6994736">6994736</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Complexity&rft.atitle=Digital+quantum+batteries%3A+Energy+and+information+storage+in+nanovacuum+tube+arrays&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=48-55&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6994736%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1076-2787&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fcplx.20306&rft.aulast=Hubler&rft.aufirst=A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1002%252Fcplx.20306&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanotechnology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShinn2012" class="citation journal cs1">Shinn E (2012). 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nanotechproject.org/publications/archive/pen13/">the original</a> on 2008-11-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nanotechnology+Oversight%3A+An+Agenda+for+the+Next+Administration&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=JC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nanotechproject.org%2Fpublications%2Farchive%2Fpen13%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanotechnology" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaynard2008" class="citation web cs1">Maynard A (2008-04-16). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101205122135/http://science.house.gov/publications/Testimony.aspx?TID=12957">"Testimony by Dr. Andrew Maynard for the U.S. House Committee on Science and Technology"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.science.house.gov/publications/Testimony.aspx?TID=12957">the original</a> on 2010-12-05<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-11-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Testimony+by+Dr.+Andrew+Maynard+for+the+U.S.+House+Committee+on+Science+and+Technology&rft.date=2008-04-16&rft.aulast=Maynard&rft.aufirst=A&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.house.gov%2Fpublications%2FTestimony.aspx%3FTID%3D12957&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanotechnology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaunceMurrayNasuBowman2008" class="citation journal cs1">Faunce T, Murray K, Nasu H, Bowman D (2008). "Sunscreen Safety: The Precautionary Principle, the Australian Therapeutic Goods Administration and Nanoparticles in Sunscreens". <i>NanoEthics</i>. <b>2</b> (3): 231–240. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11569-008-0041-z">10.1007/s11569-008-0041-z</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55719697">55719697</a>.</cite><span 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href="/wiki/Telecommunications_engineering" title="Telecommunications engineering">Telecommunications</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biochemical_engineering" title="Biochemical engineering">Biochemical/Bioprocess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioresource_engineering" title="Bioresource engineering">Bioresource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tissue_engineering" title="Tissue engineering">Tissue</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction_engineering" title="Chemical reaction engineering">Chemical reaction</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/Ceramic_engineering" title="Ceramic engineering">Ceramics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrosion_engineering" title="Corrosion engineering">Corrosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_engineering" title="Molecular engineering">Molecular</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_engineering" title="Polymer engineering">Polymers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">Semiconductors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_engineering" title="Surface engineering">Surfaces</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">Computer</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_engineering" title="Artificial intelligence engineering">AI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">Computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybersecurity_engineering" title="Cybersecurity engineering">Cybersecurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_engineering" title="Data engineering">Data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network_engineering" title="Computer network engineering">Networks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robotics_engineering" title="Robotics engineering">Robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png/50px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png/75px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png/100px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Engineering_education" title="Engineering education">Engineering education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Engineering" title="Bachelor of Engineering">Bachelor of Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">Bachelor of Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">Master's degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctorate" title="Doctorate">Doctorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graduate_certificate" title="Graduate certificate">Graduate certificate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineer%27s_degree" title="Engineer's degree">Engineer's degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_and_licensure_in_engineering" title="Regulation and licensure in engineering">Licensed engineer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Engineer" title="Engineer">Engineer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glossary" title="Glossary">Glossaries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Engineering <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_A%E2%80%93L" title="Glossary of engineering: A–L">A–L</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_M%E2%80%93Z" title="Glossary of engineering: M–Z">M–Z</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" title="Glossary of aerospace engineering">Aerospace engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering" title="Glossary of civil engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" title="Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering">Electrical and electronics engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering" title="Glossary of mechanical engineering">Mechanical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering" title="Glossary of structural engineering">Structural engineering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_engineering" title="Agricultural engineering">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audio_engineer" title="Audio engineer">Audio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automation_engineering" title="Automation engineering">Automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomedical_engineering" title="Biomedical engineering">Biomedical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_engineering" title="Clinical engineering">Clinical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_technology" title="Health technology">Health technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_engineering" title="Pharmaceutical engineering">Pharmaceutical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_engineering" title="Rehabilitation engineering">Rehabilitation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_services_engineering" title="Building services engineering">Building services</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical,_electrical,_and_plumbing" title="Mechanical, electrical, and plumbing">MEP</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design_engineer" title="Design engineer">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explosives_engineering" title="Explosives engineering">Explosives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facilities_engineering" title="Facilities engineering">Facilities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_protection_engineering" title="Fire protection engineering">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_engineering" title="Forensic engineering">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_engineering" title="Climate engineering">Geoengineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Geomatics engineering">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_drawing" title="Engineering drawing">Graphics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">Industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_engineering" title="Information engineering">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentation_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumentation engineering">Instrumentation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentation_and_control_engineering" title="Instrumentation and control engineering">and Control</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistics_engineering" title="Logistics engineering">Logistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_management" title="Engineering management">Management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_mathematics" title="Engineering mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechatronics" title="Mechatronics">Mechatronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_engineering" title="Military engineering">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_engineering" title="Nuclear engineering">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology_engineering" title="Ontology engineering">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packaging_engineering" title="Packaging engineering">Packaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_physics" title="Engineering physics">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy_engineering" title="Privacy engineering">Privacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_engineering" title="Safety engineering">Safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_engineering" title="Security engineering">Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Survey engineering">Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_engineering" title="Sustainable engineering">Sustainability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_engineering" title="Systems engineering">Systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Textile engineering">Textile</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" 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style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nanotech_footer" title="Template:Nanotech footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nanotech_footer" title="Template talk:Nanotech footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nanotech_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nanotech footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nanotechnology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nanotechnology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_nanotechnology" title="Outline of nanotechnology">Overview</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nanotechnology" title="History of nanotechnology">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nanotechnology_organizations" title="List of nanotechnology organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology_in_fiction" title="Nanotechnology in fiction">Popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_nanotechnology" title="Outline of nanotechnology">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_nanotechnology" title="Impact of nanotechnology">Impact</a> and <a href="/wiki/Applications_of_nanotechnology" title="Applications of nanotechnology">applications</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanomedicine" title="Nanomedicine">Nanomedicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanotoxicology" title="Nanotoxicology">Nanotoxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_nanotechnology" title="Green nanotechnology">Green nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_nanotechnology" title="Regulation of nanotechnology">Regulation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nanomaterials" title="Nanomaterials">Nanomaterials</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fullerene" title="Fullerene">Fullerenes</a></li> <li>Nanotubes <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_nanotube" title="Carbon nanotube">Carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-carbon_nanotube" title="Non-carbon nanotube">Non-carbon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanoparticle" title="Nanoparticle">Nanoparticles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Characterization_of_nanoparticles" title="Characterization of nanoparticles">characterization</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Molecular_self-assembly" title="Molecular self-assembly">Molecular self-assembly</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Self-assembled_monolayer" title="Self-assembled monolayer">Self-assembled monolayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supramolecular_assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Supramolecular assembly">Supramolecular assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_nanotechnology" title="DNA nanotechnology">DNA nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid_lipid_nanoparticle" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid lipid nanoparticle">Solid lipid nanoparticle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nanoelectronics" title="Nanoelectronics">Nanoelectronics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_scale_electronics" title="Molecular scale electronics">Molecular scale electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanolithography" title="Nanolithography">Nanolithography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scanning_probe_microscopy" title="Scanning probe microscopy">Scanning probe microscopy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_force_microscopy" title="Atomic force microscopy">Atomic force microscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scanning_tunneling_microscope" title="Scanning tunneling microscope">Scanning tunneling microscope</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Molecular_nanotechnology" title="Molecular nanotechnology">Molecular nanotechnology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_assembler" title="Molecular assembler">Molecular assembler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanorobotics" title="Nanorobotics">Nanorobotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanosynthesis" title="Mechanosynthesis">Mechanosynthesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Emerging_technologies" title="Template:Emerging technologies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Emerging_technologies" title="Template talk:Emerging technologies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Emerging_technologies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Emerging technologies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Emerging_technologies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Emerging_technologies" title="Emerging technologies">Emerging technologies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Manufacturing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3D_microfabrication" title="3D microfabrication">3D microfabrication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3D_printing" title="3D printing">3D printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3D_publishing" title="3D publishing">3D publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claytronics" class="mw-redirect" title="Claytronics">Claytronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_assembler" title="Molecular assembler">Molecular assembler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_manufacturing" title="Smart manufacturing">Smart manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utility_fog" title="Utility fog">Utility fog</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerogel" title="Aerogel">Aerogel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amorphous_metal" title="Amorphous metal">Amorphous metal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_muscle" title="Artificial muscle">Artificial muscle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conductive_polymer" title="Conductive polymer">Conductive polymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femtotechnology" title="Femtotechnology">Femtotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fullerene" title="Fullerene">Fullerene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphene" title="Graphene">Graphene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-temperature_superconductivity" title="High-temperature superconductivity">High-temperature superconductivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superfluidity" title="Superfluidity">High-temperature superfluidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_acetylenic_carbon" title="Linear acetylenic carbon">Linear acetylenic carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamaterial" title="Metamaterial">Metamaterials</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metamaterial_cloaking" title="Metamaterial cloaking">Metamaterial cloaking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal_foam" title="Metal foam">Metal foam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-function_structure" title="Multi-function structure">Multi-function structures</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nanotechnology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_nanotube" title="Carbon nanotube">Carbon nanotubes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_nanotechnology" title="Molecular nanotechnology">Molecular nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanomaterials" title="Nanomaterials">Nanomaterials</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picotechnology" title="Picotechnology">Picotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_matter" title="Programmable matter">Programmable matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_dot" title="Quantum dot">Quantum dots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicene" title="Silicene">Silicene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_diamond" title="Synthetic diamond">Synthetic diamond</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Robotics" title="Robotics">Robotics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Home_automation" title="Home automation">Domotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanorobotics" title="Nanorobotics">Nanorobotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powered_exoskeleton" title="Powered exoskeleton">Powered exoskeleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-reconfiguring_modular_robot" title="Self-reconfiguring modular robot">Self-reconfiguring modular robot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarm_robotics" title="Swarm robotics">Swarm robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncrewed_vehicle" title="Uncrewed vehicle">Uncrewed vehicle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automation" title="Automation">Automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collingridge_dilemma" title="Collingridge dilemma">Collingridge dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_technological_development" title="Differential technological development">Differential technological development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disruptive_innovation" title="Disruptive innovation">Disruptive innovation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephemeralization" title="Ephemeralization">Ephemeralization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_technology" title="Ethics of technology">Ethics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bioethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberethics" title="Cyberethics">Cyberethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroethics" title="Neuroethics">Neuroethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robot_ethics" title="Robot ethics">Robot ethics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploratory_engineering" title="Exploratory engineering">Exploratory engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proactionary_principle" title="Proactionary principle">Proactionary principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_change" title="Technological change">Technological change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technological_unemployment" title="Technological unemployment">Technological unemployment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_convergence" title="Technological convergence">Technological convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_evolution" title="Technological evolution">Technological evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_paradigm" title="Technological paradigm">Technological paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_forecasting" title="Technology forecasting">Technology forecasting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accelerating_change" title="Accelerating change">Accelerating change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future-oriented_technology_analysis" title="Future-oriented technology analysis">Future-oriented technology analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizon_scanning" title="Horizon scanning">Horizon scanning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moore%27s_law" title="Moore's law">Moore's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_singularity" title="Technological singularity">Technological singularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_scouting" title="Technology scouting">Technology scouting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_in_science_fiction" title="Technology in science fiction">Technology in science fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_readiness_level" title="Technology readiness level">Technology readiness level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_roadmap" title="Technology roadmap">Technology roadmap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_emerging_technologies" title="List of emerging technologies">List</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Levels_of_technological_manipulation_of_matter" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(length)" title="Orders of magnitude (length)">Orders of magnitude (length)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Megascale_engineering" title="Megascale engineering">Megascale engineering</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astroengineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Astroengineering">Astroengineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_engineering" title="Climate engineering">Climate engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megastructure" title="Megastructure">Megastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_engineering" title="Planetary engineering">Planetary engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_elevator" title="Space elevator">Space elevator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terraforming" title="Terraforming">Terraforming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Macro-engineering" title="Macro-engineering">Macro-engineering</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantropa" title="Atlantropa">Atlantropa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bering_Strait_crossing" title="Bering Strait crossing">Bering Strait crossing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delta_Works" title="Delta Works">Delta Works</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China" title="Great Wall of China">Great Wall of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panama_Canal" title="Panama Canal">Panama Canal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_dam" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Sea dam">Red Sea dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahara_Sea" title="Sahara Sea">Sahara Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_settlement" title="Space settlement">Space 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