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class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Biosensor_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biosensor_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Biosensor system </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biosensor_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bioreceptors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bioreceptors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Bioreceptors </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bioreceptors-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Bioreceptors subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Bioreceptors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Antibody/antigen_interactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antibody/antigen_interactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Antibody/antigen interactions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antibody/antigen_interactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Artificial_binding_proteins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Artificial_binding_proteins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Artificial binding proteins </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Artificial_binding_proteins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Enzymatic_interactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Enzymatic_interactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Enzymatic interactions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Enzymatic_interactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Affinity_binding_receptors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Affinity_binding_receptors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Affinity binding receptors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Affinity_binding_receptors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nucleic_acid_interactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nucleic_acid_interactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Nucleic acid interactions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nucleic_acid_interactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epigenetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epigenetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Epigenetics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epigenetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organelles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organelles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Organelles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organelles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cells" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cells"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 Cells </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cells-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tissue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tissue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.9 Tissue </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tissue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Microbial_biosensors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microbial_biosensors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.10 Microbial biosensors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microbial_biosensors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Surface_attachment_of_the_biological_elements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surface_attachment_of_the_biological_elements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Surface attachment of the biological elements </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surface_attachment_of_the_biological_elements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biotransducer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biotransducer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Biotransducer </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Biotransducer-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Biotransducer subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Biotransducer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Electrochemical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrochemical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Electrochemical </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrochemical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ion_channel_switch" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ion_channel_switch"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Ion channel switch </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ion_channel_switch-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reagentless_fluorescent_biosensor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reagentless_fluorescent_biosensor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Reagentless fluorescent biosensor </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reagentless_fluorescent_biosensor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Magnetic_biosensors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magnetic_biosensors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Magnetic biosensors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magnetic_biosensors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Others" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Others"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Others </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Others-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biosensor_MOSFET_(BioFET)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biosensor_MOSFET_(BioFET)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Biosensor MOSFET (BioFET) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biosensor_MOSFET_(BioFET)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Placement_of_biosensors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Placement_of_biosensors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Placement of biosensors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Placement_of_biosensors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Applications </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Applications subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Glucose_monitoring" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Glucose_monitoring"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Glucose monitoring </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Glucose_monitoring-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interferometric_reflectance_imaging_sensor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interferometric_reflectance_imaging_sensor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Interferometric reflectance imaging sensor </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interferometric_reflectance_imaging_sensor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Food_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Food_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Food analysis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Food_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Detection/monitoring_of_pollutants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Detection/monitoring_of_pollutants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Detection/monitoring of pollutants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Detection/monitoring_of_pollutants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ozone_measurement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ozone_measurement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Ozone measurement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ozone_measurement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metastatic_cancer_cell_detection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metastatic_cancer_cell_detection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6 Metastatic cancer cell detection </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metastatic_cancer_cell_detection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pathogen_detection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pathogen_detection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.7 Pathogen detection </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pathogen_detection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Types </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Types subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Optical_biosensors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Optical_biosensors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Optical biosensors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Optical_biosensors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biological_biosensors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biological_biosensors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Biological biosensors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biological_biosensors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electronic_nose_devices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electronic_nose_devices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Electronic nose devices </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electronic_nose_devices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-DNA_biosensors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#DNA_biosensors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 DNA biosensors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-DNA_biosensors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Graphene-based_biosensor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Graphene-based_biosensor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 Graphene-based biosensor </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Graphene-based_biosensor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links 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Available in 28 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-28" aria-hidden="true" > 28 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B4%D8%B9%D8%B1_%D8%AD%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%8A" title="مستشعر حيوي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مستشعر حيوي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosenzor" title="Biosenzor – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Biosenzor" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosensor" title="Biosensor – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Biosensor" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosenzor" title="Biosenzor – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Biosenzor" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosensor" title="Biosensor – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Biosensor" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosensor" title="Biosensor – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Biosensor" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosensor" title="Biosensor – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Biosensor" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B3%DA%AF%D8%B1_%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="حسگر زیستی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="حسگر زیستی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosenseur" title="Biosenseur – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Biosenseur" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosensor" title="Biosensor – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Biosensor" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%94%EC%9D%B4%EC%98%A4%EC%84%BC%EC%84%9C" title="바이오센서 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="바이오센서" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%AB%D5%B8-%D5%8D%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Բիո-Սենսորներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բիո-Սենսորներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosensor" title="Biosensor – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Biosensor" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosensore" title="Biosensore – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Biosensore" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%A0%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A8" title="ביוסנסור – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ביוסנסור" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosensor" title="Biosensor – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Biosensor" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%90%E3%82%A4%E3%82%AA%E3%82%BB%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B5%E3%83%BC" title="バイオセンサー – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="バイオセンサー" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioczujnik" title="Bioczujnik – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Bioczujnik" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biossensores" title="Biossensores – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Biossensores" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosenzor" title="Biosenzor – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Biosenzor" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Биосенсор – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Биосенсор" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Биосензор – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Биосензор" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosensor" title="Biosensor – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Biosensor" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyosensor" title="Biyosensor – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Biyosensor" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF_%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%A3%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="உயிரி உணர்திறன் அமைப்புகள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உயிரி உணர்திறன் அமைப்புகள்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyosens%C3%B6r" title="Biyosensör – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Biyosensör" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Біосенсор – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Біосенсор" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E4%BC%A0%E6%84%9F%E5%99%A8" title="生物传感器 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="生物传感器" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q669391#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Probe which tests for biological molecules</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the journals, see <a href="/wiki/Biosensors_(MDPI_journal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Biosensors (MDPI journal)">Biosensors (MDPI journal)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biosensors_(Elsevier_journal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Biosensors (Elsevier journal)">Biosensors (Elsevier journal)</a>.</div> A biosensor is an analytical device, used for the detection of a chemical substance, that combines a biological component with a <a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">physicochemical</a> detector.<a href="#cite_note-Highly_sensitive_and_wide-dynamic-r-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> The sensitive biological element, e.g. tissue, microorganisms, <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">organelles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cell_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell receptor">cell receptors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antibody" title="Antibody">antibodies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">nucleic acids</a>, etc., is a biologically derived material or biomimetic component that interacts with, binds with, or recognizes the analyte under study. The biologically sensitive elements can also be created by <a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">biological engineering</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Biotransducer" title="Biotransducer">transducer</a> or the detector element, which transforms one signal into another one, works in a physicochemical way: optical, <a href="/wiki/Piezoelectric" class="mw-redirect" title="Piezoelectric">piezoelectric</a>, electrochemical, <a href="/wiki/Electrochemiluminescence" title="Electrochemiluminescence">electrochemiluminescence</a> etc., resulting from the interaction of the analyte with the biological element, to easily measure and quantify. The biosensor reader device connects with the associated electronics or signal processors that are primarily responsible for the display of the results in a user-friendly way.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> This sometimes accounts for the most expensive part of the sensor device, however it is possible to generate a user friendly display that includes transducer and sensitive element (<a href="/wiki/Holographic_sensor" title="Holographic sensor">holographic sensor</a>). The readers are usually custom-designed and manufactured to suit the different working principles of biosensors. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biosensor_system">Biosensor system</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Biosensor system">edit</a>]</div> A biosensor typically consists of a bio-receptor (enzyme/antibody/cell/nucleic acid/aptamer), transducer component (semi-conducting material/nanomaterial), and <a href="/wiki/Electronic_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic system">electronic system</a> which includes a <a href="/wiki/Signal_amplifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal amplifier">signal amplifier</a>, processor & display.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Transducers and electronics can be combined, e.g., in <a href="/wiki/CMOS" title="CMOS">CMOS</a>-based microsensor systems.<a href="#cite_note-A1-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-A2-8">[8]</a> The recognition component, often called a bioreceptor, uses biomolecules from organisms or receptors modeled after biological systems to interact with the analyte of interest. This interaction is measured by the biotransducer which outputs a measurable signal proportional to the presence of the target analyte in the sample. The general aim of the design of a biosensor is to enable quick, convenient testing at the point of concern or care where the sample was procured.<a href="#cite_note-Highly_sensitive_and_wide-dynamic-r-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bioreceptors">Bioreceptors</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Bioreceptors">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Biosensors_used_for_screening_combinatorial_DNA_libraries.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Biosensors_used_for_screening_combinatorial_DNA_libraries.svg/220px-Biosensors_used_for_screening_combinatorial_DNA_libraries.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Biosensors_used_for_screening_combinatorial_DNA_libraries.svg/330px-Biosensors_used_for_screening_combinatorial_DNA_libraries.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Biosensors_used_for_screening_combinatorial_DNA_libraries.svg/440px-Biosensors_used_for_screening_combinatorial_DNA_libraries.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="256" /></a><figcaption>Biosensors used for screening combinatorial DNA libraries</figcaption></figure> In a biosensor, the bioreceptor is designed to interact with the specific analyte of interest to produce an effect measurable by the transducer. High <a href="/wiki/Binding_selectivity" title="Binding selectivity">selectivity</a> for the analyte among a matrix of other chemical or biological components is a key requirement of the bioreceptor. While the type of biomolecule used can vary widely, biosensors can be classified according to common types of bioreceptor interactions involving: antibody/antigen,<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> enzymes/ligands, nucleic acids/DNA, cellular structures/cells, or biomimetic materials.<a href="#cite_note-BiosensorsandBiochips-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antibody/antigen_interactions">Antibody/antigen interactions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Antibody/antigen interactions">edit</a>]</div> An <a href="/wiki/Immunoassay" title="Immunoassay">immunosensor</a> utilizes the very specific binding affinity of <a href="/wiki/Antibodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibodies">antibodies</a> for a specific compound or <a href="/wiki/Antigen" title="Antigen">antigen</a>. The specific nature of the <a href="/wiki/Antibody-antigen_interaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibody-antigen interaction">antibody-antigen interaction</a> is analogous to a lock and key fit in that the antigen will only bind to the antibody if it has the correct conformation. Binding events result in a physicochemical change that in combination with a tracer, such as fluorescent molecules, enzymes, or radioisotopes, can generate a signal. There are limitations with using antibodies in sensors: 1. The antibody binding capacity is strongly dependent on assay conditions (e.g. pH and temperature), and 2. the antibody-antigen interaction is generally robust, however, binding can be disrupted by <a href="/wiki/Chaotropic" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaotropic">chaotropic</a> reagents, organic solvents, or even ultrasonic radiation.<a href="#cite_note-High-performance_graphene-based_bio-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FiberOpticBiosensor-15">[15]</a> Antibody-antigen interactions can also be used for <a href="/wiki/Serology" title="Serology">serological testing</a>, or the detection of circulating antibodies in response to a specific disease. Importantly, serology tests have become an important part of the global response to the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19" title="COVID-19">COVID-19</a> pandemic.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Artificial_binding_proteins">Artificial binding proteins</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Artificial binding proteins">edit</a>]</div> The use of antibodies as the bio-recognition component of biosensors has several drawbacks. They have high molecular weights and limited stability, contain essential disulfide bonds and are expensive to produce. In one approach to overcome these limitations, recombinant binding fragments (<a href="/wiki/Fragment_antigen-binding" class="mw-redirect" title="Fragment antigen-binding">Fab</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fragment_variable" class="mw-redirect" title="Fragment variable">Fv</a> or <a href="/wiki/ScFv" class="mw-redirect" title="ScFv">scFv</a>) or domains (VH, <a href="/wiki/VHH" class="mw-redirect" title="VHH">VHH</a>) of antibodies have been engineered.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> In another approach, small protein scaffolds with favorable biophysical properties have been engineered to generate artificial families of Antigen Binding Proteins (AgBP), capable of specific binding to different target proteins while retaining the favorable properties of the parent molecule. The elements of the family that specifically bind to a given target antigen, are often selected in vitro by display techniques: <a href="/wiki/Phage_display" title="Phage display">phage display</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ribosome_display" title="Ribosome display">ribosome display</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yeast_display" title="Yeast display">yeast display</a> or <a href="/wiki/MRNA_display" title="MRNA display">mRNA display</a>. The artificial binding proteins are much smaller than antibodies (usually less than 100 amino-acid residues), have a strong stability, lack disulfide bonds and can be expressed in high yield in reducing cellular environments like the bacterial cytoplasm, contrary to antibodies and their derivatives.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> They are thus especially suitable to create biosensors.<a href="#cite_note-pmid19945965-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid21565483-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Enzymatic_interactions">Enzymatic interactions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Enzymatic interactions">edit</a>]</div> The specific binding capabilities and catalytic activity of <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a> make them popular bioreceptors. Analyte recognition is enabled through several possible mechanisms: 1) the enzyme converting the analyte into a product that is sensor-detectable, 2) detecting enzyme inhibition or activation by the analyte, or 3) monitoring modification of enzyme properties resulting from interaction with the analyte.<a href="#cite_note-FiberOpticBiosensor-15">[15]</a> The main reasons for the common use of enzymes in biosensors are: 1) ability to catalyze a large number of reactions; 2) potential to detect a group of analytes (substrates, products, inhibitors, and modulators of the catalytic activity); and 3) suitability with several different transduction methods for detecting the analyte. Notably, since enzymes are not consumed in reactions, the biosensor can easily be used continuously. The catalytic activity of enzymes also allows lower limits of detection compared to common binding techniques. However, the sensor's lifetime is limited by the stability of the enzyme. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Affinity_binding_receptors">Affinity binding receptors</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Affinity binding receptors">edit</a>]</div> Antibodies have a high <a href="/wiki/Binding_constant" title="Binding constant">binding constant</a> in excess of 10^8 L/mol, which stands for a nearly irreversible association once the antigen-antibody couple has formed. For certain analyte molecules like <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> affinity binding proteins exist that bind their ligand with a high <a href="/wiki/Sensitivity_and_specificity" title="Sensitivity and specificity">specificity</a> like an antibody, but with a much smaller binding constant on the order of 10^2 to 10^4 L/mol. The association between analyte and receptor then is of <a href="/wiki/Reversible_process_(thermodynamics)" title="Reversible process (thermodynamics)">reversible</a> nature and next to the couple between both also their free molecules occur in a measurable concentration. In case of glucose, for instance, <a href="/wiki/Concanavalin_A" title="Concanavalin A">concanavalin A</a> may function as affinity receptor exhibiting a binding constant of 4x10^2 L/mol.<a href="#cite_note-SMG1982-22">[22]</a> The use of affinity binding receptors for purposes of biosensing has been proposed by Schultz and Sims in 1979 <a href="#cite_note-SSi1979-23">[23]</a> and was subsequently configured into a fluorescent assay for measuring glucose in the relevant <a href="/wiki/Blood_sugar" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood sugar">physiological range</a> between 4.4 and 6.1 mmol/L.<a href="#cite_note-BS2000-24">[24]</a> The sensor principle has the advantage that it does not consume the analyte in a chemical reaction as occurs in enzymatic assays. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nucleic_acid_interactions">Nucleic acid interactions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Nucleic acid interactions">edit</a>]</div> Biosensors employing nucleic acid based receptors can be either based on complementary base pairing interactions referred to as genosensors or specific nucleic acid based antibody mimics (aptamers) as aptasensors.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> In the former, the recognition process is based on the principle of complementary <a href="/wiki/Base_pair" title="Base pair">base pairing</a>, adenine:thymine and cytosine:guanine in <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>. If the target nucleic acid sequence is known, complementary sequences can be synthesized, labeled, and then immobilized on the sensor. The hybridization event can be optically detected and presence of target DNA/RNA ascertained. In the latter, aptamers generated against the target recognise it via interplay of specific non-covalent interactions and induced fitting. These aptamers can be labelled with a fluorophore/metal nanoparticles easily for optical detection or may be employed for label-free electrochemical or cantilever based detection platforms for a wide range of target molecules or complex targets like cells and viruses.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> Additionally, aptamers can be combined with nucleic acid enzymes, such as RNA-cleaving DNAzymes, providing both target recognition and signal generation in a single molecule, which shows potential applications in the development of multiplex biosensors.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Epigenetics">edit</a>]</div> It has been proposed that properly optimized integrated optical resonators can be exploited for detecting epigenetic modifications (e.g. DNA methylation, histone post-translational modifications) in body fluids from patients affected by cancer or other diseases.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Photonic biosensors with ultra-sensitivity are nowadays being developed at a research level to easily detect cancerous cells within the patient's urine.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Different research projects aim to develop new portable devices that use cheap, environmentally friendly, disposable cartridges that require only simple handling with no need of further processing, washing, or manipulation by expert technicians.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Organelles">Organelles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Organelles">edit</a>]</div> Organelles form separate compartments inside cells and usually perform functions independently. Different kinds of organelles have various metabolic pathways and contain enzymes to fulfill its function. Commonly used organelles include lysosome, chloroplast and mitochondria. The spatial-temporal distribution pattern of calcium is closely related to ubiquitous signaling pathway. Mitochondria actively participate in the metabolism of calcium ions to control the function and also modulate the calcium related signaling pathways. Experiments have proved that mitochondria have the ability to respond to high calcium concentrations generated in their proximity by opening the calcium channels.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> In this way, mitochondria can be used to detect the calcium concentration in medium and the detection is very sensitive due to high spatial resolution. Another application of mitochondria is used for detection of water pollution. Detergent compounds' toxicity will damage the cell and subcellular structure including mitochondria. The detergents will cause a swelling effect which could be measured by an absorbance change. Experiment data shows the change rate is proportional to the detergent concentration, providing a high standard for detection accuracy.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cells">Cells</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Cells">edit</a>]</div> Cells are often used in bioreceptors because they are sensitive to surrounding environment and they can respond to all kinds of stimulants. Cells tend to attach to the surface so they can be easily immobilized. Compared to organelles they remain active for longer period and the reproducibility makes them reusable. They are commonly used to detect global parameter like stress condition, toxicity and organic derivatives. They can also be used to monitor the treatment effect of drugs. One application is to use cells to determine herbicides which are main aquatic contaminant.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Microalgae are entrapped on a quartz <a href="/wiki/Microfiber" title="Microfiber">microfiber</a> and the chlorophyll fluorescence modified by herbicides is collected at the tip of an optical fiber bundle and transmitted to a fluorimeter. The algae are continuously cultured to get optimized measurement. Results show that detection limit of certain herbicide can reach sub-ppb concentration level. Some cells can also be used to monitor the microbial corrosion.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Pseudomonas sp. is isolated from corroded material surface and immobilized on acetylcellulose membrane. The respiration activity is determined by measuring oxygen consumption. There is linear relationship between the current generated and the concentration of <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a>. The response time is related to the loading of cells and surrounding environments and can be controlled to no more than 5min. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tissue">Tissue</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Tissue">edit</a>]</div> Tissues are used for biosensor for the abundance of enzymes existing. Advantages of tissues as biosensors include the following:<a href="#cite_note-planttissue-36">[36]</a> <ul><li>easier to immobilize compared to cells and organelles</li> <li>the higher activity and stability from maintaining enzymes in the natural environment</li> <li>the availability and low price</li> <li>the avoidance of tedious work of extraction, centrifuge, and purification of enzymes</li> <li>necessary cofactors for an enzyme to function exists</li> <li>the diversity providing a wide range of choices concerning different objectives.</li></ul> There also exist some disadvantages of tissues, like the lack of specificity due to the interference of other enzymes and longer response time due to the transport barrier. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Microbial_biosensors">Microbial biosensors</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Microbial biosensors">edit</a>]</div> Microbial biosensors exploit the response of bacteria to a given substance. For example, <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a> can be detected using the <a href="/wiki/Ars_operon" title="Ars operon">ars operon</a> found in several bacterial taxon.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Surface_attachment_of_the_biological_elements">Surface attachment of the biological elements</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Surface attachment of the biological elements">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sensing_negatively_charged_exosomes_bound_a_graphene_surface.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Sensing_negatively_charged_exosomes_bound_a_graphene_surface.svg/220px-Sensing_negatively_charged_exosomes_bound_a_graphene_surface.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Sensing_negatively_charged_exosomes_bound_a_graphene_surface.svg/330px-Sensing_negatively_charged_exosomes_bound_a_graphene_surface.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Sensing_negatively_charged_exosomes_bound_a_graphene_surface.svg/440px-Sensing_negatively_charged_exosomes_bound_a_graphene_surface.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="569" /></a><figcaption>Sensing negatively charged exosomes bound a graphene surface</figcaption></figure> An important part of a biosensor is to attach the biological elements (small molecules/protein/cells) to the surface of the sensor (be it metal, polymer, or glass). The simplest way is to <a href="/wiki/Surface_engineering" title="Surface engineering">functionalize</a> the surface in order to coat it with the biological elements. This can be done by polylysine, aminosilane, epoxysilane, or nitrocellulose in the case of silicon chips/silica glass. Subsequently, the bound biological agent may also be fixed—for example, by <a href="/wiki/Layer_by_layer" title="Layer by layer">layer by layer</a> deposition of alternatively charged polymer coatings.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Alternatively, three-dimensional lattices (<a href="/wiki/Hydrogel" title="Hydrogel">hydrogel</a>/<a href="/wiki/Xerogel" class="mw-redirect" title="Xerogel">xerogel</a>) can be used to chemically or physically entrap these (whereby chemically entrapped it is meant that the biological element is kept in place by a strong bond, while physically they are kept in place being unable to pass through the pores of the gel matrix). The most commonly used hydrogel is <a href="/wiki/Sol-gel" class="mw-redirect" title="Sol-gel">sol-gel</a>, glassy silica generated by polymerization of silicate monomers (added as tetra alkyl orthosilicates, such as <a href="/wiki/Tetramethyl_orthosilicate" title="Tetramethyl orthosilicate">TMOS</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tetraethyl_orthosilicate" title="Tetraethyl orthosilicate">TEOS</a>) in the presence of the biological elements (along with other stabilizing polymers, such as <a href="/wiki/Polyethylene_glycol" title="Polyethylene glycol">PEG</a>) in the case of physical entrapment.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Another group of hydrogels, which set under conditions suitable for cells or protein, are <a href="/wiki/Acrylate_polymer" title="Acrylate polymer">acrylate</a> hydrogel, which polymerizes upon <a href="/wiki/Radical_initiator" title="Radical initiator">radical initiation</a>. One type of radical initiator is a <a href="/wiki/Peroxide" title="Peroxide">peroxide</a> radical, typically generated by combining a <a href="/wiki/Ammonium_persulfate" title="Ammonium persulfate">persulfate</a> with <a href="/wiki/Tetramethylethylenediamine" title="Tetramethylethylenediamine">TEMED</a> (<a href="/wiki/Polyacrylamide_gel" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyacrylamide gel">Polyacrylamide gel</a> are also commonly used for <a href="/wiki/Protein_electrophoresis" class="mw-redirect" title="Protein electrophoresis">protein electrophoresis</a>),<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> alternatively light can be used in combination with a photoinitiator, such as DMPA (<a href="/wiki/2,2-dimethoxy-2-phenylacetophenone" class="mw-redirect" title="2,2-dimethoxy-2-phenylacetophenone">2,2-dimethoxy-2-phenylacetophenone</a>).<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Smart materials that mimic the biological components of a sensor can also be classified as biosensors using only the active or catalytic site or analogous configurations of a biomolecule.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biotransducer">Biotransducer</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Biotransducer">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Biotransducer" title="Biotransducer">Biotransducer</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Biosensors_based_on_biotransducers.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Biosensors_based_on_biotransducers.png/220px-Biosensors_based_on_biotransducers.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="65" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Biosensors_based_on_biotransducers.png/330px-Biosensors_based_on_biotransducers.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Biosensors_based_on_biotransducers.png/440px-Biosensors_based_on_biotransducers.png 2x" data-file-width="877" data-file-height="258" /></a><figcaption>Classification of biosensors based on type of biotransducer</figcaption></figure> Biosensors can be classified by their <a href="/wiki/Biotransducer" title="Biotransducer">biotransducer</a> type. The most common types of biotransducers used in biosensors are: <ul><li>electrochemical biosensors</li> <li>optical biosensors</li> <li>electronic biosensors</li> <li>piezoelectric biosensors</li> <li>gravimetric biosensors</li> <li>pyroelectric biosensors</li> <li>magnetic biosensors</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electrochemical">Electrochemical</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Electrochemical">edit</a>]</div> Electrochemical biosensors, based on enzymes, work through the enzymatic catalysis of reactions that directly or indirectly produce or consume electrons (such enzymes are rightly called <a href="/wiki/Oxidoreductase" title="Oxidoreductase">redox enzymes</a>). The sensor design usually consists of three <a href="/wiki/Electrode" title="Electrode">electrodes</a>; a <a href="/wiki/Reference_electrode" title="Reference electrode">reference electrode</a>, a working electrode, and a counter electrode. The target analyte is involved in the reaction that takes place on the surface of the active working electrode, and the reaction may cause either electron transfer across the <a href="/wiki/Double_layer_(surface_science)" title="Double layer (surface science)">double layer</a> (producing a current) or can contribute to the double layer potential (producing a voltage). The current (rate of flow of electrons is now proportional to the analyte concentration) can be measured at a fixed potential or the potential can be measured at zero current (this gives a logarithmic response). Note that potential of the working electrode is space charge sensitive and this is often used. Additionally, the label-free and direct electrical detection of small peptides and proteins is possible by their intrinsic charges using <a href="/wiki/Bio-FET" title="Bio-FET">biofunctionalized</a> <a href="/wiki/ISFET" title="ISFET">ion-sensitive</a> <a href="/wiki/Field-effect_transistors" class="mw-redirect" title="Field-effect transistors">field-effect transistors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Another example, the potentiometric biosensor, (potential produced at zero current) gives a logarithmic response with a high dynamic range. Such biosensors are often made by screen printing the electrode patterns on a plastic substrate, coated with a conducting polymer and then some protein (enzyme or antibody) is attached. They have only two electrodes and are extremely sensitive and robust. They enable the detection of analytes at levels previously only achievable by HPLC and LC/MS and without rigorous sample preparation. All biosensors usually involve minimal sample preparation as the biological sensing component is highly selective for the analyte concerned. The signal is produced by electrochemical and physical changes in the conducting polymer layer due to changes occurring at the surface of the sensor. Such changes can be attributed to ionic strength, pH, hydration and redox reactions, the latter due to the enzyme label turning over a substrate.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Field effect transistors, in which the <a href="/wiki/Metal_gate" title="Metal gate">gate</a> region has been modified with an enzyme or antibody, can also detect very low concentrations of various analytes as the binding of the analyte to the gate region of the FET cause a change in the drain-source current. Impedance spectroscopy based biosensor development has been gaining traction nowadays and many such devices / developments are found in the academia and industry. One such device, based on a 4-electrode electrochemical cell, using a nanoporous alumina membrane, has been shown to detect low concentrations of human alpha thrombin in presence of high background of serum albumin.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Also interdigitated electrodes have been used for impedance biosensors.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ion_channel_switch">Ion channel switch</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Ion channel switch">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_ics-a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wiki_ics-a.jpg/130px-Wiki_ics-a.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wiki_ics-a.jpg/195px-Wiki_ics-a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wiki_ics-a.jpg/260px-Wiki_ics-a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1026" data-file-height="770" /></a><figcaption>ICS – channel open</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_ics-b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Wiki_ics-b.jpg/130px-Wiki_ics-b.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Wiki_ics-b.jpg/195px-Wiki_ics-b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Wiki_ics-b.jpg/260px-Wiki_ics-b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1026" data-file-height="770" /></a><figcaption>ICS – channel closed</figcaption></figure> The use of ion channels has been shown to offer highly sensitive detection of target biological molecules.<a href="#cite_note-Vockenroth2005-47">[47]</a> By embedding the ion channels in supported or <a href="/wiki/Model_lipid_bilayer" title="Model lipid bilayer">tethered bilayer membranes</a> (t-BLM) attached to a gold electrode, an electrical circuit is created. Capture molecules such as antibodies can be bound to the ion channel so that the binding of the target molecule controls the ion flow through the channel. This results in a measurable change in the electrical conduction which is proportional to the concentration of the target. An ion channel switch (ICS) biosensor can be created using gramicidin, a dimeric peptide channel, in a tethered bilayer membrane.<a href="#cite_note-Cornell1997-48">[48]</a> One peptide of gramicidin, with attached antibody, is mobile and one is fixed. Breaking the dimer stops the ionic current through the membrane. The magnitude of the change in electrical signal is greatly increased by separating the membrane from the metal surface using a hydrophilic spacer. Quantitative detection of an extensive class of target species, including proteins, bacteria, drug and toxins has been demonstrated using different membrane and capture configurations.<a href="#cite_note-Oh2008-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-Krishnamurthy2010-50">[50]</a> The European research project <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://projects.leitat.org/greensense/">Greensense</a> develops a biosensor to perform quantitative screening of drug-of-abuse such as THC, morphine, and cocaine <a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> in saliva and urine. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reagentless_fluorescent_biosensor">Reagentless fluorescent biosensor</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Reagentless fluorescent biosensor">edit</a>]</div> A reagentless biosensor can monitor a target analyte in a complex biological mixture without additional reagent. Therefore, it can function continuously if immobilized on a solid support. A fluorescent biosensor reacts to the interaction with its target analyte by a change of its fluorescence properties. A Reagentless Fluorescent biosensor (RF biosensor) can be obtained by integrating a biological receptor, which is directed against the target analyte, and a <a href="/wiki/Solvatochromism" title="Solvatochromism">solvatochromic</a> fluorophore, whose emission properties are sensitive to the nature of its local environment, in a single macromolecule. The fluorophore transduces the recognition event into a measurable optical signal. The use of extrinsic fluorophores, whose emission properties differ widely from those of the intrinsic fluorophores of proteins, tryptophan and tyrosine, enables one to immediately detect and quantify the analyte in complex biological mixtures. The integration of the fluorophore must be done in a site where it is sensitive to the binding of the analyte without perturbing the affinity of the receptor. Antibodies and artificial families of Antigen Binding Proteins (AgBP) are well suited to provide the recognition module of RF biosensors since they can be directed against any antigen (see the paragraph on bioreceptors). A general approach to integrate a solvatochromic fluorophore in an AgBP when the atomic structure of the complex with its antigen is known, and thus transform it into a RF biosensor, has been described.<a href="#cite_note-pmid19945965-20">[20]</a> A residue of the AgBP is identified in the neighborhood of the antigen in their complex. This residue is changed into a cysteine by site-directed mutagenesis. The fluorophore is chemically coupled to the mutant cysteine. When the design is successful, the coupled fluorophore does not prevent the binding of the antigen, this binding shields the fluorophore from the solvent, and it can be detected by a change of fluorescence. This strategy is also valid for antibody fragments.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> However, in the absence of specific structural data, other strategies must be applied. Antibodies and artificial families of AgBPs are constituted by a set of hypervariable (or randomized) residue positions, located in a unique sub-region of the protein, and supported by a constant polypeptide scaffold. The residues that form the binding site for a given antigen, are selected among the hypervariable residues. It is possible to transform any AgBP of these families into a RF biosensor, specific of the target antigen, simply by coupling a solvatochromic fluorophore to one of the hypervariable residues that have little or no importance for the interaction with the antigen, after changing this residue into cysteine by mutagenesis. More specifically, the strategy consists in individually changing the residues of the hypervariable positions into cysteine at the genetic level, in chemically coupling a solvatochromic fluorophore with the mutant cysteine, and then in keeping the resulting conjugates that have the highest sensitivity (a parameter that involves both affinity and variation of fluorescence signal).<a href="#cite_note-pmid21565483-21">[21]</a> This approach is also valid for families of antibody fragments.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> A posteriori studies have shown that the best reagentless fluorescent biosensors are obtained when the fluorophore does not make non-covalent interactions with the surface of the bioreceptor, which would increase the background signal, and when it interacts with a binding pocket at the surface of the target antigen.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> The RF biosensors that are obtained by the above methods, can function and detect target analytes inside living cells.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Magnetic_biosensors">Magnetic biosensors</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Magnetic biosensors">edit</a>]</div> Magnetic biosensors utilize paramagnetic or supra-paramagnetic particles, or crystals, to detect biological interactions. Examples could be coil-inductance, resistance, or other magnetic properties. It is common to use magnetic nano or microparticles. In the surface of such particles are the bioreceptors, that can be DNA (complementary to a sequence or aptamers) antibodies, or others. The binding of the bioreceptor will affect some of the magnetic particle properties that can be measured by AC susceptometry,<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> a Hall Effect sensor,<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> a giant magnetoresistance device,<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> or others. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Others">Others</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Others">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Piezoelectric" class="mw-redirect" title="Piezoelectric">Piezoelectric</a> sensors utilise crystals which undergo an elastic deformation when an electrical potential is applied to them. An alternating potential (A.C.) produces a standing wave in the crystal at a characteristic frequency. This frequency is highly dependent on the elastic properties of the crystal, such that if a crystal is coated with a biological recognition element the binding of a (large) target analyte to a receptor will produce a change in the resonance frequency, which gives a binding signal. In a mode that uses surface acoustic waves (SAW), the sensitivity is greatly increased. This is a specialised application of the <a href="/wiki/Quartz_crystal_microbalance" title="Quartz crystal microbalance">quartz crystal microbalance</a> as a biosensor <a href="/wiki/Electrochemiluminescence" title="Electrochemiluminescence">Electrochemiluminescence</a> (ECL) is nowadays a leading technique in biosensors.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-Forster-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-Valenti-62">[62]</a> Since the excited species are produced with an electrochemical stimulus rather than with a light excitation source, ECL displays improved signal-to-noise ratio compared to photoluminescence, with minimized effects due to light scattering and luminescence background. In particular, coreactant ECL operating in buffered aqueous solution in the region of positive potentials (oxidative-reduction mechanism) definitively boosted ECL for immunoassay, as confirmed by many research applications and, even more, by the presence of important companies which developed commercial hardware for high throughput immunoassays analysis in a market worth billions of dollars each year. Thermometric biosensors are rare. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biosensor_MOSFET_(BioFET)">Biosensor MOSFET (BioFET)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Biosensor MOSFET (BioFET)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bio-FET" title="Bio-FET">Bio-FET</a></div> The MOSFET invented at Bell Labs between 1955 and 1960,<a href="#cite_note-:0-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lojek1202-68">[68]</a> Later, <a href="/wiki/Leland_C._Clark" class="mw-redirect" title="Leland C. Clark">Leland C. Clark</a> and Champ Lyons invented the first biosensor in 1962.<a href="#cite_note-Park-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bio-FET" title="Bio-FET">Biosensor MOSFETs</a> (BioFETs) were later developed, and they have since been widely used to measure <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biological" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological">biological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biophysical_environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Biophysical environment">environmental</a> parameters.<a href="#cite_note-Bergveld-71">[71]</a> The first BioFET was the <a href="/wiki/Ion-sensitive_field-effect_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Ion-sensitive field-effect transistor">ion-sensitive field-effect transistor</a> (ISFET), invented by <a href="/wiki/Piet_Bergveld" title="Piet Bergveld">Piet Bergveld</a> for <a href="/wiki/Electrochemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrochemical">electrochemical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biological" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological">biological</a> applications in 1970.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bergveld1970-73">[73]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Adsorption" title="Adsorption">adsorption</a> FET (ADFET) was <a href="/wiki/Patented" class="mw-redirect" title="Patented">patented</a> by P.F. Cox in 1974, and a <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>-sensitive MOSFET was demonstrated by I. Lundstrom, M.S. Shivaraman, C.S. Svenson and L. Lundkvist in 1975.<a href="#cite_note-Bergveld-71">[71]</a> The ISFET is a special type of MOSFET with a gate at a certain distance,<a href="#cite_note-Bergveld-71">[71]</a> and where the <a href="/wiki/Metal_gate" title="Metal gate">metal gate</a> is replaced by an <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ion</a>-sensitive <a href="/wiki/Membrane" title="Membrane">membrane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolyte</a> solution and <a href="/wiki/Reference_electrode" title="Reference electrode">reference electrode</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Schoning-74">[74]</a> The ISFET is widely used in <a href="/wiki/Biomedical" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomedical">biomedical</a> applications, such as the detection of <a href="/wiki/DNA_hybridization" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA hybridization">DNA hybridization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biomarker" title="Biomarker">biomarker</a> detection from <a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antibody" title="Antibody">antibody</a> detection, <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> measurement, <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> sensing, and <a href="/wiki/Genetic_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic technology">genetic technology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Schoning-74">[74]</a> By the mid-1980s, other BioFETs had been developed, including the <a href="/wiki/Gas_sensor" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas sensor">gas sensor</a> FET (GASFET), <a href="/wiki/Pressure_sensor" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressure sensor">pressure sensor</a> FET (PRESSFET), <a href="/wiki/Chemical_field-effect_transistor" title="Chemical field-effect transistor">chemical field-effect transistor</a> (ChemFET), <a href="/wiki/ISFET" title="ISFET">reference ISFET</a> (REFET), enzyme-modified FET (ENFET) and immunologically modified FET (IMFET).<a href="#cite_note-Bergveld-71">[71]</a> By the early 2000s, BioFETs such as the <a href="/wiki/DNA_field-effect_transistor" title="DNA field-effect transistor">DNA field-effect transistor</a> (DNAFET), <a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetically modified">gene-modified</a> FET (GenFET) and <a href="/wiki/Membrane_potential" title="Membrane potential">cell-potential</a> BioFET (CPFET) had been developed.<a href="#cite_note-Schoning-74">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Placement_of_biosensors">Placement of biosensors</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Placement of biosensors">edit</a>]</div> The appropriate placement of biosensors depends on their field of application, which may roughly be divided into <a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Food_technology" title="Food technology">food technology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biomedicine" title="Biomedicine">biomedicine</a>. In biotechnology, analysis of the chemical composition of <a href="/wiki/Microbial_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbial culture">cultivation</a> broth can be conducted in-line, on-line, at-line and off-line. As outlined by the US Food and Drug Administration (<a href="/wiki/FDA" class="mw-redirect" title="FDA">FDA</a>) the sample is not removed from the process stream for in-line sensors, while it is diverted from the manufacturing process for on-line measurements. For at-line sensors the sample may be removed and analyzed in close proximity to the process stream.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> An example of the latter is the monitoring of lactose in a dairy processing plant.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Off-line biosensors compare to <a href="/wiki/Bioanalysis" title="Bioanalysis">bioanalytical techniques</a> that are not operating in the field, but in the laboratory. These techniques are mainly used in agriculture, food technology and biomedicine. In medical applications biosensors are generally categorized as <a href="/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro">in vitro</a> and <a href="/wiki/In_vivo" title="In vivo">in vivo</a> systems. An in vitro, biosensor measurement takes place in a test tube, a culture dish, a microtiter plate or elsewhere outside a living organism. The sensor uses a bioreceptor and transducer as outlined above. An example of an in vitro biosensor is an enzyme-conductimetric biosensor for <a href="/wiki/Blood_glucose_monitoring" title="Blood glucose monitoring">blood glucose monitoring</a>. There is a challenge to create a biosensor that operates by the principle of <a href="/wiki/Point-of-care_testing" title="Point-of-care testing">point-of-care testing</a>, i.e. at the location where the test is needed.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Development of wearable biosensors is among such studies.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> The elimination of lab testing can save time and money. An application of a POCT biosensor can be for the testing of <a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a> in areas where it is difficult for patients to be tested. A biosensor can be sent directly to the location and a quick and easy test can be used. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Glucose_biosensor_implant.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Glucose_biosensor_implant.png/220px-Glucose_biosensor_implant.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Glucose_biosensor_implant.png 1.5x" data-file-width="295" data-file-height="217" /></a><figcaption>Biosensor implant for glucose monitoring in subcutaneous tissue (59x45x8 mm). Electronic components are hermetically enclosed in a Ti casing, while antenna and sensor probe are moulded into the epoxy header.<a href="#cite_note-MIM2016-80">[80]</a></figcaption></figure> An in vivo biosensor is an <a href="/wiki/Implant_(medicine)" title="Implant (medicine)">implantable device</a> that operates inside the body. Of course, biosensor implants have to fulfill the strict regulations on <a href="/wiki/Sterilization_(microbiology)" title="Sterilization (microbiology)">sterilization</a> in order to avoid an initial inflammatory response after implantation. The second concern relates to the long-term <a href="/wiki/Biocompatibility" title="Biocompatibility">biocompatibility</a>, i.e. the unharmful interaction with the body environment during the intended period of use.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Another issue that arises is failure. If there is failure, the device must be removed and replaced, causing additional surgery. An example for application of an in vivo biosensor would be the insulin monitoring within the body, which is not available yet. Most advanced biosensor implants have been developed for the continuous monitoring of glucose.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> The figure displays a device, for which a Ti casing and a battery as established for cardiovascular implants like <a href="/wiki/Pacemakers" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacemakers">pacemakers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Implantable_cardioverter-defibrillator" title="Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator">defibrillators</a> is used.<a href="#cite_note-MIM2016-80">[80]</a> Its size is determined by the battery as required for a lifetime of one year. Measured glucose data will be transmitted wirelessly out of the body within the <a href="/wiki/Medical_Implant_Communication_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical Implant Communication Service">MICS</a> 402-405 MHz band as approved for medical implants. Biosensors can also be integrated into mobile phone systems, making them user-friendly and accessible to a large number of users.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Applications">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Biosensing_of_influenza_virus_using_an_antibody-modified_boron-doped_diamond.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Biosensing_of_influenza_virus_using_an_antibody-modified_boron-doped_diamond.svg/220px-Biosensing_of_influenza_virus_using_an_antibody-modified_boron-doped_diamond.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Biosensing_of_influenza_virus_using_an_antibody-modified_boron-doped_diamond.svg/330px-Biosensing_of_influenza_virus_using_an_antibody-modified_boron-doped_diamond.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Biosensing_of_influenza_virus_using_an_antibody-modified_boron-doped_diamond.svg/440px-Biosensing_of_influenza_virus_using_an_antibody-modified_boron-doped_diamond.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="488" /></a><figcaption>Biosensing of influenza virus using an antibody-modified boron-doped diamond</figcaption></figure> There are many potential applications of biosensors of various types. The main requirements for a biosensor approach to be valuable in terms of research and commercial applications are the identification of a target molecule, availability of a suitable biological recognition element, and the potential for disposable portable detection systems to be preferred to sensitive laboratory-based techniques in some situations. Some examples are: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Continuous_glucose_monitor" title="Continuous glucose monitor">glucose monitoring in diabetes patients</a>, other medical health related targets,</li> <li>environmental applications, e.g. the detection of <a href="/wiki/Pesticides" class="mw-redirect" title="Pesticides">pesticides</a>, detection and determining of <a href="/wiki/Organophosphate" title="Organophosphate">organophosphate</a>, and river water contaminants, such as heavy metal ions,<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a></li> <li>remote sensing of airborne <a href="/wiki/Bacterium" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacterium">bacteria</a>, e.g. in counter-bioterrorist activities,</li> <li>remote sensing of water quality in coastal waters by describing online different aspects of clam ethology (biological rhythms, growth rates, spawning or death records) in groups of abandoned bivalves around the world,<a href="#cite_note-MolluSCAN_eye-86">[86]</a></li> <li>detection of pathogens,</li> <li>determining levels of toxic substances before and after <a href="/wiki/Bioremediation" title="Bioremediation">bioremediation</a>,</li> <li>routine analytical measurement of <a href="/wiki/Folic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Folic acid">folic acid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biotin" title="Biotin">biotin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_B12" title="Vitamin B12">vitamin B12</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pantothenic_acid" title="Pantothenic acid">pantothenic acid</a> as an alternative to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Microbiological_assay&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Microbiological assay (page does not exist)">microbiological assay</a>,</li> <li>determination of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Drug_residue&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Drug residue (page does not exist)">drug residues</a> in food, such as <a href="/wiki/Antibiotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotics">antibiotics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Growth_promoters" class="mw-redirect" title="Growth promoters">growth promoters</a>, particularly meat and honey,</li> <li>drug discovery and evaluation of biological activity of new compounds,</li> <li>protein engineering in biosensors,<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> and</li> <li>detection of toxic metabolites such as <a href="/wiki/Mycotoxin" title="Mycotoxin">mycotoxins</a>.</li></ul> A common example of a commercial biosensor is the <a href="/wiki/Blood_glucose" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood glucose">blood glucose</a> biosensor, which uses the enzyme <a href="/wiki/Glucose_oxidase" title="Glucose oxidase">glucose oxidase</a> to break blood glucose down. In doing so it first oxidizes glucose and uses two electrons to reduce the FAD (a component of the enzyme) to FADH2. This in turn is oxidized by the electrode in a number of steps. The resulting current is a measure of the concentration of glucose. In this case, the electrode is the transducer and the enzyme is the biologically active component. A <a href="/wiki/Domestic_Canary#Miner's_canary" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic Canary">canary in a cage</a>, as used by miners to warn of gas, could be considered a biosensor. Many of today's biosensor applications are similar, in that they use organisms which respond to <a href="/wiki/Toxic" class="mw-redirect" title="Toxic">toxic</a> substances at a much lower concentrations than humans can detect to warn of their presence. Such devices can be used in <a href="/wiki/Environmental_monitoring" title="Environmental monitoring">environmental monitoring</a>,<a href="#cite_note-MolluSCAN_eye-86">[86]</a> trace gas detection and in water treatment facilities. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Glucose_monitoring">Glucose monitoring</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Glucose monitoring">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Blood_glucose_monitoring" title="Blood glucose monitoring">Blood glucose monitoring</a></div> Commercially available glucose monitors rely on <a href="/wiki/Blood_glucose_monitoring" title="Blood glucose monitoring">amperometric sensing of glucose</a> by means of <a href="/wiki/Glucose_oxidase" title="Glucose oxidase">glucose oxidase</a>, which oxidises glucose producing hydrogen peroxide which is detected by the electrode. To overcome the limitation of amperometric sensors, a flurry of research is present into novel sensing methods, such as <a href="/wiki/Fluorescent_glucose_biosensors" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluorescent glucose biosensors">fluorescent glucose biosensors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ghoshdastider-88">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interferometric_reflectance_imaging_sensor">Interferometric reflectance imaging sensor</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Interferometric reflectance imaging sensor">edit</a>]</div> The interferometric reflectance imaging sensor (IRIS) is based on the principles of <a href="/wiki/Interference_(wave_propagation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Interference (wave propagation)">optical interference</a> and consists of a silicon-silicon oxide substrate, standard optics, and low-powered coherent LEDs. When light is illuminated through a low magnification objective onto the layered silicon-silicon oxide substrate, an interferometric signature is produced. As biomass, which has a similar <a href="/wiki/Index_of_refraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Index of refraction">index of refraction</a> as silicon oxide, accumulates on the substrate surface, a change in the interferometric signature occurs and the change can be correlated to a quantifiable mass. Daaboul et al. used IRIS to yield a label-free sensitivity of approximately 19 ng/mL.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> Ahn et al. improved the sensitivity of IRIS through a mass tagging technique.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> Since initial publication, IRIS has been adapted to perform various functions. First, IRIS integrated a fluorescence imaging capability into the interferometric imaging instrument as a potential way to address fluorescence protein microarray variability.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> Briefly, the variation in fluorescence microarrays mainly derives from inconsistent protein immobilization on surfaces and may cause misdiagnoses in allergy microarrays.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-92">[92]</a> To correct for any variation in protein immobilization, data acquired in the fluorescence modality is then normalized by the data acquired in the label-free modality.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-92">[92]</a> IRIS has also been adapted to perform single <a href="/wiki/Nanoparticle" title="Nanoparticle">nanoparticle</a> counting by simply switching the low magnification objective used for label-free biomass quantification to a higher objective magnification.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> This modality enables size discrimination in complex human biological samples. Monroe et al. used IRIS to quantify protein levels spiked into human whole blood and serum and determined allergen sensitization in characterized human blood samples using zero sample processing.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> Other practical uses of this device include virus and pathogen detection.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Food_analysis">Food analysis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Food analysis">edit</a>]</div> There are several applications of biosensors in food analysis.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> In the food industry, optics coated with antibodies are commonly used to detect pathogens and food toxins. Commonly, the light system in these biosensors is fluorescence, since this type of optical measurement can greatly amplify the signal. A range of immuno- and ligand-binding assays for the detection and measurement of small molecules such as <a href="/wiki/Water-soluble_vitamins" class="mw-redirect" title="Water-soluble vitamins">water-soluble vitamins</a> and chemical contaminants (<a href="/wiki/Drug_residues" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug residues">drug residues</a>) such as <a href="/wiki/Sulfonamide_(medicine)" title="Sulfonamide (medicine)">sulfonamides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beta-agonists" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta-agonists">Beta-agonists</a> have been developed for use on <a href="/wiki/Surface_plasmon_resonance" title="Surface plasmon resonance">SPR</a> based sensor systems, often adapted from existing <a href="/wiki/ELISA" title="ELISA">ELISA</a> or other immunological assay. These are in widespread use across the food industry. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Detection/monitoring_of_pollutants">Detection/monitoring of pollutants</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Detection/monitoring of pollutants">edit</a>]</div> Biosensors could be used to monitor <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution#Monitoring" title="Air pollution">air</a>, <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution#Measurement" title="Water pollution">water</a>, and soil pollutants such as pesticides, potentially carcinogenic, mutagenic, and/or toxic substances and endocrine disrupting chemicals.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1002/bab.1621-102">[102]</a> For example, <a href="/wiki/Nanobiotechnology#Bionanotechnology" title="Nanobiotechnology">bionanotechnologists</a> developed a viable biosensor, <abbr title="RNA Output Sensors Activated by Ligand INDuction">ROSALIND 2.0</abbr>, that can detect levels of diverse <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">water pollutants</a>.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ozone_measurement">Ozone measurement</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Ozone measurement">edit</a>]</div> Because <a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">ozone</a> filters out harmful ultraviolet radiation, the discovery of holes in the ozone layer of the earth's atmosphere has raised concern about how much <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet light">ultraviolet light</a> reaches the earth's surface. Of particular concern are the questions of how deeply into sea water ultraviolet radiation penetrates and how it affects <a href="/wiki/Marine_life" title="Marine life">marine organisms</a>, especially <a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">plankton</a> (floating microorganisms) and <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a> that attack plankton. Plankton form the base of the marine food chains and are believed to affect our planet's temperature and weather by uptake of CO2 for photosynthesis. Deneb Karentz, a researcher at the Laboratory of Radio-biology and Environmental Health (<a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_San_Francisco" title="University of California, San Francisco">University of California, San Francisco</a>) has devised a simple method for measuring ultraviolet penetration and intensity. Working in the Antarctic Ocean, she submerged to various depths thin plastic bags containing special strains of E. coli that are almost totally unable to repair ultraviolet radiation damage to their DNA. Bacterial death rates in these bags were compared with rates in unexposed control bags of the same organism. The bacterial "biosensors" revealed constant significant ultraviolet damage at depths of 10 m and frequently at 20 and 30 m. Karentz plans additional studies of how ultraviolet may affect seasonal plankton <a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">blooms</a> (growth spurts) in the oceans.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metastatic_cancer_cell_detection">Metastatic cancer cell detection</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Metastatic cancer cell detection">edit</a>]</div> Metastasis is the spread of cancer from one part of the body to another via either the circulatory system or lymphatic system.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> Unlike radiology imaging tests (mammograms), which send forms of energy (x-rays, magnetic fields, etc.) through the body to only take interior pictures, biosensors have the potential to directly test the malignant power of the tumor. The combination of a biological and detector element allows for a small sample requirement, a compact design, rapid signals, rapid detection, high selectivity and high sensitivity for the analyte being studied. Compared to the usual radiology imaging tests biosensors have the advantage of not only finding out how far cancer has spread and checking if treatment is effective but also are cheaper, more efficient (in time, cost and productivity) ways to assess metastaticity in early stages of cancer. Biological engineering researchers have created oncological biosensors for breast cancer.<a href="#cite_note-Atay,_Seda_2016-107">[107]</a> Breast cancer is the leading common cancer among women worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> An example would be a transferrin- quartz crystal microbalance (QCM). As a biosensor, <a href="/wiki/Quartz_crystal_microbalance" title="Quartz crystal microbalance">quartz crystal microbalances</a> produce oscillations in the frequency of the crystal's standing wave from an alternating potential to detect nano-gram mass changes. These biosensors are specifically designed to interact and have high selectivity for receptors on cell (cancerous and normal) surfaces. Ideally, this provides a quantitative detection of cells with this receptor per surface area instead of a qualitative picture detection given by mammograms. Seda Atay, a biotechnology researcher at Hacettepe University, experimentally observed this specificity and selectivity between a QCM and <a href="/wiki/MDA-MB_231" class="mw-redirect" title="MDA-MB 231">MDA-MB 231</a> breast cells, <a href="/wiki/MCF_7" class="mw-redirect" title="MCF 7">MCF 7</a> cells, and starved MDA-MB 231 cells in vitro.<a href="#cite_note-Atay,_Seda_2016-107">[107]</a> With other researchers she devised a method of washing these different metastatic leveled cells over the sensors to measure mass shifts due to different quantities of transferrin receptors. Particularly, the metastatic power of breast cancer cells can be determined by Quartz crystal microbalances with nanoparticles and transferrin that would potentially attach to transferrin receptors on cancer cell surfaces. There is very high selectivity for transferrin receptors because they are over-expressed in cancer cells. If cells have high expression of transferrin receptors, which shows their high metastatic power, they have higher affinity and bind more to the QCM that measures the increase in mass. Depending on the magnitude of the nano-gram mass change, the metastatic power can be determined. Additionally, in the last years, significant attentions have been focused to detect the biomarkers of lung cancer without biopsy. In this regard, biosensors are very attractive and applicable tools for providing rapid, sensitive, specific, stable, cost-effective and non-invasive detections for early lung cancer diagnosis. Thus, cancer biosensors consisting of specific biorecognition molecules such as antibodies, complementary nucleic acid probes or other immobilized biomolecules on a transducer surface. The biorecognition molecules interact specifically with the biomarkers (targets) and the generated biological responses are converted by the transducer into a measurable analytical signal. Depending on the type of biological response, various transducers are utilized in the fabrication of cancer biosensors such as electrochemical, optical and mass-based transducers.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pathogen_detection">Pathogen detection</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Pathogen detection">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs expansion. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. (July 2021)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Biosensors could be used for the detection of pathogenic organisms.<a href="#cite_note-10.1002/bab.1621-102">[102]</a> Embedded biosensors for pathogenic signatures – such as of <a href="/wiki/SARS-CoV-2" title="SARS-CoV-2">SARS-CoV-2</a> – that are <a href="/wiki/Wearable_technology" title="Wearable technology">wearable</a> have been developed – such as <a href="/wiki/Surgical_mask#Research_and_development" title="Surgical mask">face masks with built-in tests</a>.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> See also: <a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_public_transport#Research_and_development" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on public transport">COVID-19 public transport R&D</a> New types of biosensor-chips could enable novel methods "such as drone-deployed pathogen sensors actively surveying air or wastewater". Protein-binding aptamers could be used for testing for infectious disease pathogens.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> Systems of <a href="/wiki/Electronic_skin" title="Electronic skin">electronic skins</a> (or robot skins) with built-in biosensors (or chemical sensors) and human-machine interfaces may enable wearable as well as <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">remote sensed</a> device- or <a href="/wiki/Robotic_sensing" title="Robotic sensing">robotic-sensing</a> of pathogens (as well as of several hazardous materials and <a href="/wiki/Tactile_sensor" title="Tactile sensor">tactile perceptions</a>).<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">additional citation(s) needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Types">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Optical_biosensors">Optical biosensors</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Optical biosensors">edit</a>]</div> Many optical biosensors are based on the phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Surface_plasmon_resonance" title="Surface plasmon resonance">surface plasmon resonance</a> (SPR) techniques.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> This utilises a property of gold and other materials (metals);<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> specifically that a thin layer of gold on a high refractive index glass surface can absorb laser light, producing electron waves (surface plasmons) on the gold surface. This occurs only at a specific angle and wavelength of incident light and is highly dependent on the surface of the gold, such that binding of a target <a href="/wiki/Analyte" title="Analyte">analyte</a> to a receptor on the gold surface produces a measurable signal. Surface plasmon resonance sensors operate using a sensor chip consisting of a plastic cassette supporting a glass plate, one side of which is coated with a microscopic layer of gold. This side contacts the optical detection apparatus of the instrument. The opposite side is then contacted with a microfluidic flow system. The contact with the flow system creates channels across which reagents can be passed in solution. This side of the glass sensor chip can be modified in a number of ways, to allow easy attachment of molecules of interest. Normally it is coated in carboxymethyl <a href="/wiki/Dextran" title="Dextran">dextran</a> or similar compound. The refractive index at the flow side of the chip surface has a direct influence on the behavior of the light reflected off the gold side. Binding to the flow side of the chip has an effect on the <a href="/wiki/Refractive" class="mw-redirect" title="Refractive">refractive</a> index and in this way biological interactions can be measured to a high degree of sensitivity with some sort of energy. The refractive index of the medium near the surface changes when biomolecules attach to the surface, and the SPR angle varies as a function of this change. Light of a fixed wavelength is reflected off the gold side of the chip at the angle of total internal reflection, and detected inside the instrument. The angle of incident light is varied in order to match the evanescent wave propagation rate with the propagation rate of the surface plasmon polaritons.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> This induces the evanescent wave to penetrate through the glass plate and some distance into the liquid flowing over the surface. Other optical biosensors are mainly based on changes in absorbance or fluorescence of an appropriate indicator compound and do not need a total internal reflection geometry. For example, a fully operational prototype device detecting casein in milk has been fabricated. The device is based on detecting changes in absorption of a gold layer.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> A widely used research tool, the micro-array, can also be considered a biosensor. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biological_biosensors">Biological biosensors</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Biological biosensors">edit</a>]</div> Biological biosensors, also known as <a href="/wiki/Optogenetic_methods_to_record_cellular_activity" title="Optogenetic methods to record cellular activity">optogenetic sensors</a>, often incorporate a genetically modified form of a native protein or enzyme. The protein is configured to detect a specific analyte and the ensuing signal is read by a detection instrument such as a fluorometer or luminometer. An example of a recently developed biosensor is one for detecting <a href="/wiki/Cytosol" title="Cytosol">cytosolic</a> concentration of the analyte cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate), a second messenger involved in cellular signaling triggered by ligands interacting with receptors on the cell membrane.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> Similar systems have been created to study cellular responses to native ligands or xenobiotics (toxins or small molecule inhibitors). Such "assays" are commonly used in drug discovery development by pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies. Most cAMP assays in current use require lysis of the cells prior to measurement of cAMP. A live-cell biosensor for cAMP can be used in non-lysed cells with the additional advantage of multiple reads to study the kinetics of receptor response. Nanobiosensors use an immobilized bioreceptor probe that is selective for target analyte molecules. Nanomaterials are exquisitely sensitive chemical and biological sensors. Nanoscale materials demonstrate unique properties. Their large surface area to volume ratio can achieve rapid and low cost reactions, using a variety of designs.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> Other evanescent wave biosensors have been commercialised using waveguides where the propagation constant through the waveguide is changed by the absorption of molecules to the waveguide surface. One such example, <a href="/wiki/Dual_polarisation_interferometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Dual polarisation interferometry">dual polarisation interferometry</a> uses a buried waveguide as a reference against which the change in propagation constant is measured. Other configurations such as the <a href="/wiki/Mach%E2%80%93Zehnder" class="mw-redirect" title="Mach–Zehnder">Mach–Zehnder</a> have reference arms lithographically defined on a substrate. Higher levels of integration can be achieved using resonator geometries where the resonant frequency of a ring resonator changes when molecules are absorbed.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electronic_nose_devices">Electronic nose devices</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Electronic nose devices">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Machine_olfaction" title="Machine olfaction">Machine olfaction</a></div> Recently, arrays of many different detector molecules have been applied in so called <a href="/wiki/Electronic_nose" title="Electronic nose">electronic nose</a> devices, where the pattern of response from the detectors is used to fingerprint a substance.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Wasp_Hound" class="mw-redirect" title="Wasp Hound">Wasp Hound</a> odor-detector, the mechanical element is a video camera and the biological element is five parasitic wasps who have been conditioned to swarm in response to the presence of a specific chemical.<a href="#cite_note-scicentr-124">[124]</a> Current commercial electronic noses, however, do not use biological elements. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="DNA_biosensors">DNA biosensors</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: DNA biosensors">edit</a>]</div> DNA can be the analyte of a biosensor, being detected through specific means, but it can also be used as part of a biosensor or, theoretically, even as a whole biosensor. Many techniques exist to detect DNA, which is usually a means to detect organisms that have that particular DNA. DNA sequences can also be used as described above. But more forward-looking approaches exist, where DNA can be synthesized to hold enzymes in a biological, stable gel.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> Other applications are the design of aptamers, sequences of DNA that have a specific shape to bind a desired molecule. The most innovative processes use <a href="/wiki/DNA_origami" title="DNA origami">DNA origami</a> for this, creating sequences that fold in a predictable structure that is useful for detection.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> Scientists have built prototype sensors to detect DNA of animals from sucked in air, "airborne eDNA".<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> "Nanoantennas" made out of DNA – a novel type of nano-scale <a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_antenna&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Optical antenna (page does not exist)">optical antenna</a> – can be attached to <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a> and produce a signal via <a href="/wiki/Fluorescence" title="Fluorescence">fluorescence</a> when these perform their biological functions, in particular for distinct <a href="/wiki/Conformational_change" title="Conformational change">conformational changes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Graphene-based_biosensor">Graphene-based biosensor</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Graphene-based biosensor">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Graphene" title="Graphene">Graphene</a> is a two-dimensional carbon-based substance with superior optical, electrical, mechanical, thermal, and mechanical properties. The ability to absorb and immobilize a variety of proteins, particularly some with carbon ring structures, has proven graphene to be an excellent candidate as a biosensor transducer. As a result, various graphene-based biosensors have been explored and developed in recent times.<a href="#cite_note-High-performance_graphene-based_bio-14">[14]</a> <a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> Graphene has been employed as a biosensor in various formats especially electrochemical sensors and field effect transistors. Amongst them graphene field effect transistors (GFETs) especially have shown excellent performance as rapid point of care (PoC) diagnostics as observed through a surge in number of research articles reporting COVID-19 diagnostics using GFETs. They have been reported to have some of the lowest limit of detection whilst also having a rapid turn around time of a few seconds along with multiplexing abilities.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> These capabilities allow for immediate disease detection especially in cases with overlapping symptoms which are hard to distinguish at the outset, thus allowing for better patient outcomes especially in resource strained medical settings. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioactive_paper" title="Bioactive paper">Bioactive paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioelectronics" title="Bioelectronics">Bioelectronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biointerface" title="Biointerface">Biointerface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomarker" title="Biomarker">Biomarker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_field-effect_transistor" title="DNA field-effect transistor">DNA field-effect transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual-polarization_interferometry" title="Dual-polarization interferometry">Dual-polarization interferometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electro-switchable_biosurfaces" class="mw-redirect" title="Electro-switchable biosurfaces">Electro-switchable biosurfaces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemiluminescence" title="Electrochemiluminescence">Electrochemiluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impedance_microbiology" title="Impedance microbiology">Impedance microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lanthanide_probes" title="Lanthanide probes">Lanthanide probes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnotech" title="Magnotech">Magnotech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microphysiometry" title="Microphysiometry">Microphysiometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-parametric_surface_plasmon_resonance" title="Multi-parametric surface plasmon resonance">Multi-parametric surface plasmon resonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanobiotechnology" title="Nanobiotechnology">Nanobiotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optogenetic_methods_to_record_cellular_activity" title="Optogenetic methods to record cellular activity">Optogenetic methods to record cellular activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmon" title="Plasmon">Plasmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_molecule_sensors" title="Small molecule sensors">Small molecule sensors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_plasmon_resonance" title="Surface plasmon resonance">Surface plasmon resonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bio-FET" title="Bio-FET">Bio-FET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanopore" title="Nanopore">Nanopore</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Highly_sensitive_and_wide-dynamic-r-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Highly_sensitive_and_wide-dynamic-r_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Highly_sensitive_and_wide-dynamic-r_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 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Nature Methods. 19 (1): 71–80. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41592-021-01355-5">10.1038/s41592-021-01355-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1548-7105">1548-7105</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34969985">34969985</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:245593311">245593311</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Methods&rft.atitle=Monitoring+protein+conformational+changes+using+fluorescent+nanoantennas&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=71-80&rft.date=2022-01&rft.issn=1548-7105&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A245593311%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34969985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41592-021-01355-5&rft.aulast=Harroun&rft.aufirst=Scott+G.&rft.au=Lauzon%2C+Dominic&rft.au=Ebert%2C+Maximilian+C.+C.+J.+C.&rft.au=Desrosiers%2C+Arnaud&rft.au=Wang%2C+Xiaomeng&rft.au=Vall%C3%A9e-B%C3%A9lisle%2C+Alexis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fs41592-021-01355-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiosensor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhayamianPariziGhaderiniaAbadijoo2021" class="citation journal cs1">Khayamian, Mohammad Ali; Parizi, Mohammad Salemizadeh; Ghaderinia, Mohammadreza; Abadijoo, Hamed; Vanaei, Shohreh; Simaee, Hossein; Abdolhosseini, Saeed; Shalileh, Shahriar; Faramarzpour, Mahsa; Naeini, Vahid Fadaei; Hoseinpour, Parisa; Shojaeian, Fatemeh; Abbasvandi, Fereshteh; Abdolahad, Mohammad (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9042719">"A label-free graphene-based impedimetric biosensor for real-time tracing of the cytokine storm in blood serum; suitable for screening COVID-19 patients"</a>. RSC Advances. 11 (55): 34503–34515. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021RSCAd..1134503K">2021RSCAd..1134503K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1039%2FD1RA04298J">10.1039/D1RA04298J</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9042719">9042719</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35494759">35494759</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=RSC+Advances&rft.atitle=A+label-free+graphene-based+impedimetric+biosensor+for+real-time+tracing+of+the+cytokine+storm+in+blood+serum%3B+suitable+for+screening+COVID-19+patients&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=55&rft.pages=34503-34515&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9042719%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35494759&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1039%2FD1RA04298J&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021RSCAd..1134503K&rft.aulast=Khayamian&rft.aufirst=Mohammad+Ali&rft.au=Parizi%2C+Mohammad+Salemizadeh&rft.au=Ghaderinia%2C+Mohammadreza&rft.au=Abadijoo%2C+Hamed&rft.au=Vanaei%2C+Shohreh&rft.au=Simaee%2C+Hossein&rft.au=Abdolhosseini%2C+Saeed&rft.au=Shalileh%2C+Shahriar&rft.au=Faramarzpour%2C+Mahsa&rft.au=Naeini%2C+Vahid+Fadaei&rft.au=Hoseinpour%2C+Parisa&rft.au=Shojaeian%2C+Fatemeh&rft.au=Abbasvandi%2C+Fereshteh&rft.au=Abdolahad%2C+Mohammad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9042719&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiosensor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKumarTowersMyersGalvin2023" class="citation journal cs1">Kumar, Neelotpala; Towers, Dalton; Myers, Samantha; Galvin, Cooper; Kireev, Dmitry; Ellington, Andrew D.; Akinwande, Deji (13 September 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsnano.3c07707">"Graphene Field Effect Biosensor for Concurrent and Specific Detection of SARS-CoV-2 and Influenza"</a>. ACS Nano. 17 (18): 18629–18640. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Facsnano.3c07707">10.1021/acsnano.3c07707</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1936-0851">1936-0851</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37703454">37703454</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ACS+Nano&rft.atitle=Graphene+Field+Effect+Biosensor+for+Concurrent+and+Specific+Detection+of+SARS-CoV-2+and+Influenza&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=18&rft.pages=18629-18640&rft.date=2023-09-13&rft.issn=1936-0851&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F37703454&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Facsnano.3c07707&rft.aulast=Kumar&rft.aufirst=Neelotpala&rft.au=Towers%2C+Dalton&rft.au=Myers%2C+Samantha&rft.au=Galvin%2C+Cooper&rft.au=Kireev%2C+Dmitry&rft.au=Ellington%2C+Andrew+D.&rft.au=Akinwande%2C+Deji&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubs.acs.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1021%2Facsnano.3c07707&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiosensor" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrieder_SchellerFlorian_Schubert1989" class="citation book cs1">Frieder Scheller & Florian Schubert (1989). Biosensoren. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-05-500659-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-05-500659-3"><bdi>978-3-05-500659-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biosensoren.&rft.pub=Akademie-Verlag%2C+Berlin&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-3-05-500659-3&rft.au=Frieder+Scheller&rft.au=Florian+Schubert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiosensor" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMassimo_GrattarolaGiuseppe_Massobrio1998" class="citation book cs1">Massimo Grattarola & Giuseppe Massobrio (1998). Bioelectronics Handbook - MOSFETs, Biosensors and Neurons. McGraw-Hill, New York. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0070031746" title="Special:BookSources/978-0070031746"><bdi>978-0070031746</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bioelectronics+Handbook+-+MOSFETs%2C+Biosensors+and+Neurons.&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill%2C+New+York&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0070031746&rft.au=Massimo+Grattarola&rft.au=Giuseppe+Massobrio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiosensor" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biosensor&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rsc.org/Publishing/ChemTech/Volume/2009/02/biosensors.asp">Scratching at the surface of biosensors</a> – an <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rsc.org/Publishing/ChemTech/Instant_insights.asp">Instant Insight</a> discussing how surface chemistry lets porous silicon biosensors fulfil their promise from the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Chemistry" title="Royal Society of Chemistry">Royal Society of Chemistry</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">Allele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>/<a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fermentation" title="Fermentation">Fermentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">Gene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">Plasmid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">Protein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">Selective breeding</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_industrial_park" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotechnology industrial park">Biotechnology industrial park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_products" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotechnology products">Biotechnology products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotechnology law">Biotechnology law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Revolution" title="Green Revolution">Green Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_company" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical company">Pharmaceutical company</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic techniques and tools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biology field</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioreactor" title="Bioreactor">Bioreactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_culture" title="Cell culture">Cell culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultured_meat" title="Cultured meat">Cultured meat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flow_cytometry" title="Flow cytometry">Flow cytometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybridoma_technology" title="Hybridoma technology">Hybridoma technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-performance_liquid_chromatography" title="High-performance liquid chromatography">HPLC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance">NMR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chemical field</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centrifugation" title="Centrifugation">Centrifugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuous_stirred-tank_reactor" title="Continuous stirred-tank reactor">CSTR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallization" title="Crystallization">Crystallization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidney_dialysis" title="Kidney dialysis">Kidney dialysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrophoresis" title="Electrophoresis">Electrophoresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extraction_(chemistry)" title="Extraction (chemistry)">Extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fed-batch_culture" title="Fed-batch culture">Fed Batch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filtration" title="Filtration">Filtration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plug_flow_reactor_model" title="Plug flow reactor model">PFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedimentation" title="Sedimentation">Sedimentation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_cell_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal cell culture">Animal cell culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biofabrication" title="Biofabrication">Biofabrication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosynthesis" title="Biosynthesis">Biosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bionic_architecture" title="Bionic architecture">Bionic architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_immunity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell immunity">Cell immunity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloning" title="Cloning">Cloning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_cloning" class="mw-redirect" title="Reproductive cloning">Reproductive cloning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therapeutic_cloning" class="mw-redirect" title="Therapeutic cloning">Therapeutic cloning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_biotechnology" title="Environmental biotechnology">Environmental biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_organism" title="Genetically modified organism">Genetically modified organism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular genetics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_therapy" title="Gene therapy">Gene therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_biodegradation" title="Microbial biodegradation">Microbial biodegradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omics" title="Omics">Omics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacogenomics" title="Pharmacogenomics">Pharmacogenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stem_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Stem cells">Stem cells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telomere" title="Telomere">Telomere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tissue_culture" title="Tissue culture">Tissue culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biobased_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Biobased economy">Bioeconomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioelectronics" title="Bioelectronics">Bioelectronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Bioengineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biopharmaceutical" title="Biopharmaceutical">Biopharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomedical_engineering" title="Biomedical engineering">Biomedical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomedicine" title="Biomedicine">Biomedicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomimetics" title="Biomimetics">Biomimetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemicals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biorobotics" title="Biorobotics">Biorobotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanobiotechnology" title="Nanobiotechnology">Nanobiotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group 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