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id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Molten-salt battery</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bateria_de_sal_fosa" title="Bateria de sal fosa – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Bateria de sal fosa" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermalbatterie" title="Thermalbatterie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Thermalbatterie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bater%C3%ADa_de_sal_fundida" title="Batería de sal fundida – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Batería de sal fundida" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pile_thermique" title="Pile thermique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Pile thermique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9A%A9%EC%9C%B5%EC%97%BC_%EB%B0%B0%ED%84%B0%EB%A6%AC" title="용융염 배터리 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="용융염 배터리" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baterija_na_rastaljenu_sol" title="Baterija na rastaljenu sol – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Baterija na rastaljenu sol" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Type of battery that uses molten salts</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 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.ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Lead_too_short plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-lead_too_short" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/60px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/80px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="44" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section#Length" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section">lead section</a> <b>may be too short to adequately <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Summary_style" title="Wikipedia:Summary style">summarize</a> the key points</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please consider expanding the lead to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section#Provide_an_accessible_overview" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section">provide an accessible overview</a> of all important aspects of the article.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2015</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Molten_Salt_Battery_(Zebra).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Molten_Salt_Battery_%28Zebra%29.JPG/220px-Molten_Salt_Battery_%28Zebra%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Molten_Salt_Battery_%28Zebra%29.JPG/330px-Molten_Salt_Battery_%28Zebra%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Molten_Salt_Battery_%28Zebra%29.JPG/440px-Molten_Salt_Battery_%28Zebra%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4173" data-file-height="2834" /></a><figcaption>FZSoNick 48TL200: sodium–nickel battery with welding-sealed cells and heat insulation</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Molten-salt batteries</b> are a class of <a href="/wiki/Electric_battery" title="Electric battery">battery</a> that uses <a href="/wiki/Molten_salt" title="Molten salt">molten salts</a> as an <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolyte</a> and offers both a high <a href="/wiki/Energy_density" title="Energy density">energy density</a> and a high <a href="/wiki/Power_density" title="Power density">power density</a>. Traditional non-rechargeable <b>thermal batteries</b> can be stored in their solid state at room temperature for long periods of time before being activated by heating. Rechargeable <b>liquid-metal batteries</b> are used for industrial power backup, special <a href="/wiki/Electric_vehicle" title="Electric vehicle">electric vehicles</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="cannot find cite in body (April 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>and for <a href="/wiki/Grid_energy_storage" title="Grid energy storage">grid energy storage</a>, to balance out intermittent <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable power</a> sources such as <a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">solar panels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">wind turbines</a>. </p><p>In 2023, the use of molten salts as electrolytes for high-energy rechargeable lithium metal batteries was demonstrated.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molten-salt_battery&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Thermal batteries originated during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> when German scientist Georg Otto Erb developed the first practical cells using a salt mixture as an electrolyte. Erb developed batteries for military applications, including the <a href="/wiki/V-1_flying_bomb" title="V-1 flying bomb">V-1 flying bomb</a> and the <a href="/wiki/V-2" class="mw-redirect" title="V-2">V-2</a> rocket, and artillery fuzing systems. None of these batteries entered field use during the war. Afterwards, Erb was interrogated by British intelligence. His work was reported in "The Theory and Practice of Thermal Cells". This information was subsequently passed on to the United States Ordnance Development Division of the <a href="/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Standards" class="mw-redirect" title="National Bureau of Standards">National Bureau of Standards</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the technology reached the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> in 1946, it was immediately applied to replacing the troublesome liquid-based systems that had previously been used to power artillery <a href="/wiki/Proximity_fuzes" class="mw-redirect" title="Proximity fuzes">proximity fuzes</a>. They were used for <a href="/wiki/Ammunition#Ordnance_ammunition" title="Ammunition">ordnance</a> applications (e.g., proximity fuzes) since WWII and later in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear weapons">nuclear weapons</a>. The same technology was studied by <a href="/wiki/Argonne_National_Laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="Argonne National Laboratories">Argonne National Laboratories</a><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and other researchers in the 1980s for use in <a href="/wiki/Electric_vehicle" title="Electric vehicle">electric vehicles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rechargeable_configurations">Rechargeable configurations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molten-salt_battery&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Rechargeable configurations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since the mid-1960s much development work has been undertaken on <a href="/wiki/Rechargeable_batteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Rechargeable batteries">rechargeable batteries</a> using <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a> (Na) for the negative electrodes. Sodium is attractive because of its high <a href="/wiki/Reduction_potential" title="Reduction potential">reduction potential</a> of −2.71 volts, low weight, relative abundance, and low cost. In order to construct practical batteries, the sodium must be in liquid form. The <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">melting point</a> of sodium is 98 °C (208 °F). This means that sodium-based batteries operate at temperatures between 245 and 350 °C (470 and 660 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research has investigated metal combinations with operating temperatures at 200 °C (390 °F) and room temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sodium–sulfur"><span id="Sodium.E2.80.93sulfur"></span>Sodium–sulfur</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molten-salt_battery&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Sodium–sulfur"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sodium%E2%80%93sulfur_battery" title="Sodium–sulfur battery">Sodium–sulfur battery</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Sodium%E2%80%93sulfur_battery" title="Sodium–sulfur battery">sodium–sulfur battery</a> (NaS battery), along with the related <a href="/wiki/Lithium%E2%80%93sulfur_battery" title="Lithium–sulfur battery">lithium–sulfur battery</a> employs cheap and abundant electrode materials. It was the first <a href="/wiki/Alkali_metal" title="Alkali metal">alkali-metal</a> commercial battery. It used liquid <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> for the positive electrode and a <a href="/wiki/Ceramic" title="Ceramic">ceramic</a> tube of <a href="/wiki/Beta-alumina_solid_electrolyte" title="Beta-alumina solid electrolyte">beta-alumina solid electrolyte</a> (BASE). Insulator corrosion was a problem because they gradually became conductive, and the self-discharge rate increased. </p><p>Because of their high specific power, NaS batteries have been proposed for space applications.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An NaS battery for space use was successfully tested on the <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a> mission <a href="/wiki/STS-87" title="STS-87">STS-87</a> in 1997,<sup id="cite_ref-venus_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-venus-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the batteries have not been used operationally in space. NaS batteries have been proposed for use in the high-temperature environment of <a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-venus_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-venus-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A consortium formed by <a href="/wiki/Tokyo_Electric_Power_Company" title="Tokyo Electric Power Company">Tokyo Electric Power Co</a>. (TEPCO) and NGK Insulators Ltd. declared their interest in researching the NaS battery in 1983, and became the primary drivers behind the development of this type ever since. TEPCO chose the NaS battery because its component elements (sodium, sulfur and ceramics) are abundant in Japan. The first large-scale field testing took place at TEPCO's Tsunashima substation between 1993 and 1996, using 3<span class="nowrap"> × </span>2 MW, 6.6 kV battery banks. Based on the findings from this trial, improved battery modules were developed and were made commercially available in 2000. The commercial NaS battery bank offers: </p> <ul><li>Capacity : 25–250 kWh per bank</li> <li>Efficiency of 87%</li> <li>Lifetime of 2,500 cycles at 100% depth of discharge (DOD), or 4,500 cycles at 80% DOD</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sodium–nickel_chloride_(Zebra)_battery"><span id="Sodium.E2.80.93nickel_chloride_.28Zebra.29_battery"></span>Sodium–nickel chloride (Zebra) battery<span class="anchor" id="Zebra"></span><span class="anchor" id="Na-NiCl2"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molten-salt_battery&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Sodium–nickel chloride (Zebra) battery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Venturi_Global_Challenges,_Mission_02_%22Shanghai_to_Paris%22.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Venturi_Global_Challenges%2C_Mission_02_%22Shanghai_to_Paris%22.JPG/220px-Venturi_Global_Challenges%2C_Mission_02_%22Shanghai_to_Paris%22.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Venturi_Global_Challenges%2C_Mission_02_%22Shanghai_to_Paris%22.JPG/330px-Venturi_Global_Challenges%2C_Mission_02_%22Shanghai_to_Paris%22.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Venturi_Global_Challenges%2C_Mission_02_%22Shanghai_to_Paris%22.JPG/440px-Venturi_Global_Challenges%2C_Mission_02_%22Shanghai_to_Paris%22.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4272" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Citro%C3%ABn_Berlingo_First_Electric" class="mw-redirect" title="Citroën Berlingo First Electric">Citroën Berlingo First Electric</a> "Powered by Venturi" used a ZEBRA storage battery; a specially-prepared version was driven from Shanghai to Paris in 2010.</figcaption></figure> <p>A lower-temperature<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> variant of molten-salt batteries was the development of the ZEBRA (originally, "Zeolite Battery Research Africa"; later, the "Zero Emissions Batteries Research Activity") battery in 1985, originally developed for electric vehicle applications.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The battery uses <span class="chemf nowrap">NaNiCl<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span> with Na<sup>+</sup>-beta-alumina ceramic electrolyte.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <span class="chemf nowrap">NaNiCl<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span> battery operates at 245 °C (473 °F) and uses molten <a href="/wiki/Sodium_tetrachloroaluminate" title="Sodium tetrachloroaluminate">sodium tetrachloroaluminate</a> (<span class="chemf nowrap">NaAlCl<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">4</sub></span></span></span>), which has a melting point of 157 °C (315 °F), as the electrolyte. The negative electrode is molten sodium. The positive electrode is <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a> in the discharged state and <a href="/wiki/Nickel_chloride" class="mw-redirect" title="Nickel chloride">nickel chloride</a> in the charged state. Because nickel and nickel chloride are nearly insoluble in neutral and <a href="/wiki/Alkaline" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkaline">basic</a> melts, contact is allowed, providing little resistance to charge transfer. Since both <span class="chemf nowrap">NaAlCl<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">4</sub></span></span></span> and Na are liquid at the operating temperature, a sodium-conducting <a href="/wiki/Beta-alumina_solid_electrolyte" title="Beta-alumina solid electrolyte">β-alumina ceramic</a> is used to separate the liquid sodium from the molten <span class="chemf nowrap">NaAlCl<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">4</sub></span></span></span>. The primary elements used in the manufacture of these batteries have much higher worldwide reserves and annual production than lithium.<sup id="cite_ref-Trouble_with_Lithium_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trouble_with_Lithium-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It was invented in 1985 by the Zeolite Battery Research Africa Project (ZEBRA) group at the <a href="/wiki/Council_for_Scientific_and_Industrial_Research" title="Council for Scientific and Industrial Research">Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pretoria,_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Pretoria, South Africa">Pretoria, South Africa</a>. It can be assembled in the discharged state, using NaCl, Al, nickel and iron powder. The positive electrode is composed mostly of materials in the solid state, which reduces the likelihood of corrosion, improving safety.<sup id="cite_ref-science.uwaterloo.ca_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-science.uwaterloo.ca-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its <a href="/wiki/Specific_energy" title="Specific energy">specific energy</a> is 100 Wh/kg; specific power is 150 W/kg. The β-alumina solid ceramic is unreactive to sodium metal and sodium aluminum chloride. Lifetimes of over 2,000 cycles and twenty years have been demonstrated with full-sized batteries, and over 4,500 cycles and fifteen years with 10- and 20-cell modules. For comparison,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Lifepo4" class="mw-redirect" title="Lifepo4">LiFePO<sub>4</sub></a> <a href="/wiki/Lithium_iron_phosphate_battery" title="Lithium iron phosphate battery">lithium iron phosphate batteries</a> store 90–110 Wh/kg, and the more common <a href="/wiki/Li-ion" class="mw-redirect" title="Li-ion">LiCoO<sub>2</sub> lithium-ion</a> batteries store 150–200 Wh/kg. A nano <a href="/wiki/Lithium-titanate_battery" title="Lithium-titanate battery">lithium-titanate battery</a> stores 72 Wh/kg and can provide power of 760 W/kg.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ZEBRA's liquid electrolyte freezes at 157 °C (315 °F), and the normal operating temperature range is 270–350 °C (520–660 °F). Adding iron to the cell increases its power response.<sup id="cite_ref-science.uwaterloo.ca_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-science.uwaterloo.ca-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ZEBRA batteries are currently manufactured by FZSoNick<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and used as a power backup in the telecommunication industries, Oil&Gas and Railways. It is also used in special electric vehicles used in mining. In the past it was adopted in the <a href="/wiki/Modec" title="Modec">Modec</a> Electric Van,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> the <a href="/wiki/Iveco_Daily#Electric_Version_with_Zebra_Battery" title="Iveco Daily">Iveco Daily</a> 3.5-ton delivery vehicle,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> the prototype <a href="/wiki/Smart_ED" class="mw-redirect" title="Smart ED">Smart ED</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Th!nk_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Th!nk City">Th!nk City</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2011 the US Postal Service began testing all-electric delivery vans, one powered by a ZEBRA battery.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2010 <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a> announced a <span class="chemf nowrap">Na-NiCl<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span> battery that it called a sodium–metal halide battery, with a 20-year lifetime. Its cathode structure consists of a conductive nickel network, molten salt electrolyte, metal current collector, carbon felt electrolyte reservoir and the active sodium–metal halide salts.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2015, as a result of a global restructuring, the company abandoned the project.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2017 Chinese battery maker Chilwee Group (also known as Chaowei) created a new company with General Electric (GE) to bring to market a Na-NiCl battery for industrial and energy storage applications.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When not in use, <span class="chemf nowrap">Na-NiCl<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span> batteries are typically kept molten and ready for use because if allowed to solidify they typically take twelve hours to reheat and charge.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This reheating time varies depending on the battery-pack temperature, and power available for reheating. After shutdown a fully charged battery pack loses enough energy to cool and solidify in five-to-seven days depending on the amount of insulation.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Sodium metal chloride batteries are very safe; a <a href="/wiki/Thermal_runaway" title="Thermal runaway">thermal runaway</a> can be activated only by piercing the battery and also, in this unlikely event, no fire or explosion will be generated. For this reason and also for the possibility to be installed outdoor without cooling systems, make the sodium metal chloride batteries very suitable for the industrial and commercial energy storage installations. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Sumitomo" class="mw-redirect" title="Sumitomo">Sumitomo</a> studied a battery using a salt that is molten at 61 °C (142 °F), far lower than sodium based batteries, and operational at 90 °C (194 °F). It offers energy densities as high as 290 Wh/L and 224 Wh/kg and charge/discharge rates of 1C with a lifetime of 100–1000 charge cycles. The battery employs only nonflammable materials and neither ignites on contact with air nor risks thermal runaway. This eliminates waste-heat storage or fire- and explosion-proof equipment, and allows closer cell packing. The company claimed that the battery required half the volume of lithium-ion batteries and one quarter that of sodium–sulfur batteries.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cell used a nickel cathode and a glassy carbon anode.<sup id="cite_ref-Nitta_2013_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nitta_2013-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2014 researchers identified a liquid sodium–cesium alloy that operates at 50 °C (122 °F) and produced 420 milliampere-hours per gram. The new material was able to fully coat, or "wet," the electrolyte. After 100 charge/discharge cycles, a test battery maintained about 97% of its initial storage capacity. The lower operating temperature allowed the use of a less-expensive polymer external casing instead of steel, offsetting some of the increased cost of cesium.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Innovenergy in <a href="/wiki/Meiringen" title="Meiringen">Meiringen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> has further optimised this technology with the use of domestically sourced raw materials, except for the nickel powder component. Despite the reduced capacity compared with <a href="/wiki/Lithium-ion_batteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-ion batteries">lithium-ion batteries</a>, the ZEBRA technology is applicable for <a href="/wiki/Stationary_energy_storage" class="mw-redirect" title="Stationary energy storage">stationary energy storage</a> from <a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">solar power</a>. In 2022, the company operated a 540 kWh storage facility for solar cells on the roof of a shopping center, and currently produces over a million battery units per year from sustainable, non-toxic materials (<a href="/wiki/Table_salt" class="mw-redirect" title="Table salt">table salt</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Liquid-metal_batteries">Liquid-metal batteries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molten-salt_battery&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Liquid-metal batteries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ambri_(company)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambri (company)">Ambri (company)</a></div> <p>Professor <a href="/wiki/Donald_Sadoway" title="Donald Sadoway">Donald Sadoway</a> at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology has pioneered the research of liquid-metal rechargeable batteries, using both magnesium–antimony and more recently <a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93antimony" class="mw-redirect" title="Lead–antimony">lead–antimony</a>. The electrode and electrolyte layers are heated until they are liquid and self-segregate due to density and <a href="/wiki/Immiscibility" class="mw-redirect" title="Immiscibility">immiscibility</a>. Such batteries may have longer lifetimes than conventional batteries, as the electrodes go through a cycle of creation and destruction during the charge–discharge cycle, which makes them immune to the degradation that afflicts conventional battery electrodes.<sup id="cite_ref-sadoway.mit.edu_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sadoway.mit.edu-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The technology was proposed in 2009 based on <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">antimony</a> separated by a molten salt.<sup id="cite_ref-Ambri_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ambri-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Magnesium was chosen as the negative electrode for its low cost and low solubility in the molten-salt electrolyte. Antimony was selected as the positive electrode due to its low cost and higher anticipated discharge voltage. </p><p>In 2011, the researchers demonstrated a cell with a lithium anode and a lead–antimony cathode, which had higher ionic conductivity and lower melting points (350–430 °C).<sup id="cite_ref-sadoway.mit.edu_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sadoway.mit.edu-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The drawback of the Li chemistry is higher cost. A Li/LiF + LiCl + LiI/Pb-Sb cell with about 0.9 V open-circuit potential operating at 450 °C had electroactive material costs of US$100/kWh and US$100/kW and a projected 25-year lifetime. Its discharge power at 1.1 A/cm<sup>2</sup> is only 44% (and 88% at 0.14 A/cm<sup>2</sup>). </p><p>Experimental data shows 69% storage efficiency, with good storage capacity (over 1000 mAh/cm<sup>2</sup>), low leakage (< 1 mA/cm<sup>2</sup>) and high maximal discharge capacity (over 200 mA/cm<sup>2</sup>).<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By October 2014 the MIT team achieved an operational efficiency of approximately 70% at high charge/discharge rates (275 mA/cm<sup>2</sup>), similar to that of <a href="/wiki/Pumped-storage_hydroelectricity" title="Pumped-storage hydroelectricity">pumped-storage hydroelectricity</a> and higher efficiencies at lower currents. Tests showed that after 10 years of regular use, the system would retain about 85% of its initial capacity.<sup id="cite_ref-storage_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-storage-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In September 2014, a study described an arrangement using a molten alloy of lead and antimony for the positive electrode, liquid lithium for the negative electrode; and a molten mixture of lithium salts as the electrolyte. </p><p>A recent innovation is the PbBi alloy which enables lower melting point lithium-based battery. It uses a molten salt electrolyte based on LiCl-LiI and operates at 410 °C.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ionic_liquid" title="Ionic liquid">Ionic liquids</a> have been shown to have prowess for use in rechargeable batteries. The electrolyte is pure molten salt with no added solvent, which is accomplished by using a salt having a room temperature liquid phase. This causes a highly viscous solution, and is typically made with structurally large salts with malleable lattice structures.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Thermal_batteries_(non-rechargeable)"><span id="Thermal_batteries_.28non-rechargeable.29"></span>Thermal batteries (non-rechargeable)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molten-salt_battery&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Thermal batteries (non-rechargeable)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy_storage" title="Thermal energy storage">Thermal energy storage</a>.</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Technologies">Technologies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molten-salt_battery&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Technologies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Thermal batteries use an electrolyte that is solid and inactive at ambient temperatures. They can be stored indefinitely (over 50 years) yet provide full power in an instant when required. Once activated, they provide a burst of high power for a short period (a few tens of seconds to 60 minutes or more), with output ranging from <a href="/wiki/Watt" title="Watt">watts</a> to <a href="/wiki/Kilowatt" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilowatt">kilowatts</a>. The high power is due to the high <a href="/wiki/Conductivity_(electrolytic)" title="Conductivity (electrolytic)">ionic conductivity</a> of the molten salt (resulting in a low internal resistance), which is three orders of magnitude (or more) greater than that of the <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93acid_battery" title="Lead–acid battery">lead–acid car battery</a>. </p><p>One design uses a fuze strip (containing <a href="/wiki/Barium_chromate" title="Barium chromate">barium chromate</a> and powdered <a href="/wiki/Zirconium" title="Zirconium">zirconium</a> metal in a ceramic paper) along the edge of the heat pellets to initiate the electrochemical reaction. The fuze strip is typically fired by an <a href="/wiki/Electric_match" title="Electric match">electrical igniter</a> or <a href="/wiki/Squib_(explosive)" title="Squib (explosive)">squib</a> which is activated with an electric current. </p><p>Another design uses a central hole in the middle of the battery stack, into which the high-energy electrical igniter fires a mixture of hot gases and <a href="/wiki/Incandescent" class="mw-redirect" title="Incandescent">incandescent</a> particles. This allows much shorter activation times (tens of milliseconds) vs. hundreds of milliseconds for the edge-strip design. Battery activation can be accomplished by a <a href="/wiki/Percussion_primer" class="mw-redirect" title="Percussion primer">percussion primer</a>, similar to a <a href="/wiki/Shotgun_shell" class="mw-redirect" title="Shotgun shell">shotgun shell</a>. The heat source should be gasless. The standard heat source typically consists of mixtures of <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> powder and <a href="/wiki/Potassium_perchlorate" title="Potassium perchlorate">potassium perchlorate</a> in weight ratios of 88/12, 86/14, or 84/16.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The higher the potassium perchlorate level, the higher the heat output (nominally 200, 259, and 297 <a href="/wiki/Calories" class="mw-redirect" title="Calories">cal</a>/<a href="/wiki/Gram" title="Gram">g</a> respectively). This property of unactivated storage has the double benefit of avoiding deterioration of the active materials during storage and eliminating capacity loss due to <a href="/wiki/Self-discharge" title="Self-discharge">self-discharge</a> until the battery is activated. </p><p>In the 1980s <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a>-alloy anodes replaced <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a> or <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a> anodes, with cathodes of <a href="/wiki/Calcium_chromate" title="Calcium chromate">calcium chromate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vanadium_pentoxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Vanadium pentoxide">vanadium</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tungsten_trioxide" title="Tungsten trioxide">tungsten oxides</a>. Lithium–<a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> alloys are favored over the earlier lithium–aluminium alloys. The corresponding cathode for use with the lithium-alloy anodes is mainly <a href="/wiki/Iron_disulfide" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron disulfide">iron disulfide</a> (pyrite) replaced by cobalt disulfide for high-power applications. The electrolyte is normally a <a href="/wiki/Eutectic_mixture" class="mw-redirect" title="Eutectic mixture">eutectic mixture</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lithium_chloride" title="Lithium chloride">lithium chloride</a> and <a href="/wiki/Potassium_chloride" title="Potassium chloride">potassium chloride</a>. </p><p>More recently, other lower-melting, eutectic electrolytes based on <a href="/wiki/Lithium_bromide" title="Lithium bromide">lithium bromide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Potassium_bromide" title="Potassium bromide">potassium bromide</a>, and lithium chloride or <a href="/wiki/Lithium_fluoride" title="Lithium fluoride">lithium fluoride</a> have also been used to provide longer operational lifetimes; they are also better conductors. The so-called "all-lithium" electrolyte based on <a href="/wiki/Lithium_chloride" title="Lithium chloride">lithium chloride</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lithium_bromide" title="Lithium bromide">lithium bromide</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lithium_fluoride" title="Lithium fluoride">lithium fluoride</a> (no potassium salts) is also used for high-power applications, because of its high ionic conductivity. A <a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_thermal_generator" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioisotope thermal generator">radioisotope thermal generator</a>, such as in the form of pellets of <sup>90</sup>SrTiO<sub>4</sub>, can be used for long-term delivery of heat for the battery after activation, keeping it in a molten state.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Uses">Uses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molten-salt_battery&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Thermal batteries are used almost exclusively for military applications, notably for nuclear weapons<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Guided_missiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Guided missiles">guided missiles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. domain on WP:BLACKLIST (August 2016)">unreliable source?</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. domain on WP:BLACKLIST (August 2016)">unreliable source?</span></a></i>]</sup> They are the primary power source for many missiles such as the <a href="/wiki/AIM-9_Sidewinder" title="AIM-9 Sidewinder">AIM-9 Sidewinder</a>, <a href="/wiki/AIM-54_Phoenix" title="AIM-54 Phoenix">AIM-54 Phoenix</a>, <a href="/wiki/MIM-104_Patriot" title="MIM-104 Patriot">MIM-104 Patriot</a>, <a href="/wiki/BGM-71_TOW" title="BGM-71 TOW">BGM-71 TOW</a>, <a href="/wiki/BGM-109_Tomahawk" class="mw-redirect" title="BGM-109 Tomahawk">BGM-109 Tomahawk</a> and others. In these batteries the electrolyte is immobilized when molten by a special grade of <a href="/wiki/Magnesium_oxide" title="Magnesium oxide">magnesium oxide</a> that holds it in place by <a href="/wiki/Capillary_action" title="Capillary action">capillary action</a>. This powdered mixture is pressed into <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pellet" class="extiw" title="wikt:pellet">pellets</a> to form a separator between the <a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">anode</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cathode" title="Cathode">cathode</a> of each cell in the battery stack. As long as the electrolyte (salt) is solid, the battery is inert and remains inactive. Each cell also contains a <a href="/wiki/Pyrotechnic_heat_source" title="Pyrotechnic heat source">pyrotechnic heat source</a>, which is used to heat the cell to the typical operating temperature of 400–550 °C. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molten-salt_battery&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary cell">Primary cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary cell">Secondary cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_grid" title="Smart grid">Smart grid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flow_battery" title="Flow battery">Flow battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnot_battery" title="Carnot battery">Carnot battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_battery_types" title="List of battery types">List of battery types</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molten-salt_battery&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPhanJayawardanaLeZhang2023" class="citation journal cs1">Phan, An L; 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.navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Electrochemical_cells543" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Galvanic_cells" title="Template:Galvanic cells"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Galvanic_cells" title="Template talk:Galvanic cells"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Galvanic_cells" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Galvanic cells"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Electrochemical_cells543" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_cell" title="Electrochemical cell">Electrochemical cells</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galvanic_cell" title="Galvanic cell">Galvanic cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentration_cell" title="Concentration cell">Concentration cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_battery" title="Electric battery">Electric battery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flow_battery" title="Flow battery">Flow battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trough_battery" title="Trough battery">Trough battery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">Fuel cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermogalvanic_cell" title="Thermogalvanic cell">Thermogalvanic cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaic_pile" title="Voltaic pile">Voltaic pile</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Galvanic_Cell.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Galvanic cell"><img alt="Galvanic cell" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Galvanic_Cell.svg/150px-Galvanic_Cell.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Galvanic_Cell.svg/225px-Galvanic_Cell.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Galvanic_Cell.svg/300px-Galvanic_Cell.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="376" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Primary_battery" title="Primary battery">Primary cell</a><br /><span class="nobold">(non-rechargeable)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkaline_battery" title="Alkaline battery">Alkaline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aluminium%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Aluminium–air battery">Aluminium–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunsen_cell" title="Bunsen cell">Bunsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromic_acid_cell" title="Chromic acid cell">Chromic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clark_cell" title="Clark cell">Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniell_cell" title="Daniell cell">Daniell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_cell" title="Dry cell">Dry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edison%E2%80%93Lalande_cell" title="Edison–Lalande cell">Edison–Lalande</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grove_cell" title="Grove cell">Grove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leclanch%C3%A9_cell" title="Leclanché cell">Leclanché</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_metal_battery" title="Lithium metal battery">Lithium metal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_hybrid_organic_battery" title="Lithium hybrid organic battery">Lithium organic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Lithium–air battery">Lithium–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_battery" title="Mercury battery">Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93air_electrochemical_cell" title="Metal–air electrochemical cell">Metal–air electrochemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel_oxyhydroxide_battery" title="Nickel oxyhydroxide battery">Nickel oxyhydroxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Silicon–air battery">Silicon–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver_oxide_battery" title="Silver oxide battery">Silver oxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weston_cell" title="Weston cell">Weston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zamboni_pile" title="Zamboni pile">Zamboni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Zinc–air battery">Zinc–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93carbon_battery" title="Zinc–carbon battery">Zinc–carbon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Rechargeable_battery" title="Rechargeable battery">Secondary cell</a><br /><span class="nobold">(rechargeable)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_battery" title="Automotive battery">Automotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93acid_battery" title="Lead–acid battery">Lead–acid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/VRLA_battery" title="VRLA battery">gel–VRLA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Lithium–air battery">Lithium–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium-ion_battery" title="Lithium-ion battery">Lithium ion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dual_carbon_battery" title="Dual carbon battery">Dual carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_iron_phosphate_battery" title="Lithium iron phosphate battery">Lithium–iron–phosphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_polymer_battery" title="Lithium polymer battery">Lithium–polymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium%E2%80%93sulfur_battery" title="Lithium–sulfur battery">Lithium–sulfur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium-titanate_battery" title="Lithium-titanate battery">Lithium–titanate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93air_electrochemical_cell" title="Metal–air electrochemical cell">Metal–air</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Molten salt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanopore_battery" title="Nanopore battery">Nanopore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanowire_battery" title="Nanowire battery">Nanowire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93cadmium_battery" title="Nickel–cadmium battery">Nickel–cadmium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93hydrogen_battery" title="Nickel–hydrogen battery">Nickel–hydrogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93iron_battery" title="Nickel–iron battery">Nickel–iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93lithium_battery" title="Nickel–lithium battery">Nickel–lithium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93metal_hydride_battery" title="Nickel–metal hydride battery">Nickel–metal hydride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93zinc_battery" title="Nickel–zinc battery">Nickel–zinc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polysulfide%E2%80%93bromide_battery" title="Polysulfide–bromide battery">Polysulfide–bromide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potassium-ion_battery" title="Potassium-ion battery">Potassium ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rechargeable_alkaline_battery" title="Rechargeable alkaline battery">Rechargeable alkaline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver%E2%80%93cadmium_battery" title="Silver–cadmium battery">Silver–cadmium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver_zinc_battery" title="Silver zinc battery">Silver–zinc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium-ion_battery" title="Sodium-ion battery">Sodium ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium%E2%80%93sulfur_battery" title="Sodium–sulfur battery">Sodium–sulfur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_battery" title="Solid-state battery">Solid state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanadium_redox_battery" title="Vanadium redox battery">Vanadium redox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93bromine_battery" title="Zinc–bromine battery">Zinc–bromine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93cerium_battery" title="Zinc–cerium battery">Zinc–cerium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Other cell</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_battery" title="Atomic battery">Atomic battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">Fuel cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">Solar cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cell parts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">Anode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binder_(material)" title="Binder (material)">Binder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">Catalyst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cathode" title="Cathode">Cathode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrode" title="Electrode">Electrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">Electrolyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Half-cell" title="Half-cell">Half-cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">Ions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_bridge" title="Salt bridge">Salt bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semipermeable_membrane" title="Semipermeable membrane">Semipermeable membrane</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Emerging_technologies167" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Emerging_technologies" title="Template:Emerging technologies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Emerging_technologies" title="Template talk:Emerging technologies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Emerging_technologies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Emerging technologies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Emerging_technologies167" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Emerging_technologies" title="Emerging technologies">Emerging technologies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Energy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Production</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_wind_turbine" title="Airborne wind turbine">Airborne wind turbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_photosynthesis" title="Artificial photosynthesis">Artificial photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">Biofuels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon-neutral_fuel" title="Carbon-neutral fuel">Carbon-neutral fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentrated_solar_power" title="Concentrated solar power">Concentrated solar power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusion_power" title="Fusion power">Fusion power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_fuel_cell" title="Home fuel cell">Home fuel cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_economy" title="Hydrogen economy">Hydrogen economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methanol_economy" title="Methanol economy">Methanol economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molten_salt_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Molten salt reactor">Molten salt reactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_rectenna" title="Optical rectenna">Nantenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_pavement" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic pavement">Photovoltaic pavement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space-based_solar_power" title="Space-based solar power">Space-based solar power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vortex_engine" title="Vortex engine">Vortex engine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Energy_storage" title="Energy storage">Storage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compressed-air_energy_storage" title="Compressed-air energy storage">Compressed-air energy storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flywheel_energy_storage" title="Flywheel energy storage">Flywheel energy storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grid_energy_storage" title="Grid energy storage">Grid energy storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Lithium–air battery">Lithium–air battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_iron_phosphate_battery" title="Lithium iron phosphate battery">Lithium iron phosphate battery</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Molten-salt battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanowire_battery" title="Nanowire battery">Nanowire battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries" title="Research in lithium-ion batteries">Research in lithium-ion batteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Silicon–air battery">Silicon–air battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy_storage" title="Thermal energy storage">Thermal energy storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercapacitor" title="Supercapacitor">Ultracapacitor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_fuel_vehicle" title="Alternative fuel vehicle">Alternative fuel vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battery_electric_vehicle" title="Battery electric vehicle">Battery electric vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_electric_vehicle" title="Hybrid electric vehicle">Hybrid electric vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_grid" title="Smart grid">Smart grid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_power_transfer" title="Wireless power transfer">Wireless power</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td 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