CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="fr" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Paraphylie — Wikipédia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )frwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":[",\t."," \t,"],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""], "wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy","wgMonthNames":["","janvier","février","mars","avril","mai","juin","juillet","août","septembre","octobre","novembre","décembre"],"wgRequestId":"5d9bb865-dd2d-4cdc-b94f-f82554317b29","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Paraphylie","wgTitle":"Paraphylie","wgCurRevisionId":220066725,"wgRevisionId":220066725,"wgArticleId":173695,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Article manquant de références depuis février 2013","Article manquant de références/Liste complète","Article à référence souhaitée","Portail:Origine et évolution du vivant/Articles liés","Portail:Biologie/Articles liés","Portail:Sciences/Articles liés","Projet:Biologie/Pages liées","Phylogénétique"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"fr","wgPageContentLanguage":"fr","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Paraphylie","wgRelevantArticleId":173695 ,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgRedirectedFrom":"Paraphylétique","wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":true,"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"fr","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"fr"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":true,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":6000,"wgInternalRedirectTargetUrl":"/wiki/Paraphylie","wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q208755","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"], "GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["mediawiki.action.view.redirect","ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ArchiveLinks","ext.gadget.Wdsearch","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap", "ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=fr&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=fr&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=fr&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.5"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Traditional_Reptilia.jpg/1200px-Traditional_Reptilia.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="968"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Traditional_Reptilia.jpg/800px-Traditional_Reptilia.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="645"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Traditional_Reptilia.jpg/640px-Traditional_Reptilia.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="516"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Paraphylie — Wikipédia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//fr.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraphylie"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Modifier" href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphylie&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipédia (fr)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//fr.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraphylie"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.fr"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Flux Atom de Wikipédia" href="/w/index.php?title=Sp%C3%A9cial:Modifications_r%C3%A9centes&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Paraphylie rootpage-Paraphylie skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Aller au contenu</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Menu principal" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Menu principal</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Menu principal</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">déplacer vers la barre latérale</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">masquer</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikip%C3%A9dia:Accueil_principal" title="Accueil général [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Accueil</span></a></li><li id="n-thema" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portail:Accueil"><span>Portails thématiques</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Page_au_hasard" title="Affiche un article au hasard [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Article au hasard</span></a></li><li id="n-contact" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikip%C3%A9dia:Contact"><span>Contact</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-Contribuer" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-Contribuer" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribuer </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-aboutwp" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Aide:D%C3%A9buter"><span>Débuter sur Wikipédia</span></a></li><li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Aide:Accueil" title="Accès à l’aide"><span>Aide</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikip%C3%A9dia:Accueil_de_la_communaut%C3%A9" title="À propos du projet, ce que vous pouvez faire, où trouver les informations"><span>Communauté</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Modifications_r%C3%A9centes" title="Liste des modifications récentes sur le wiki [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Modifications récentes</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Wikip%C3%A9dia:Accueil_principal" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipédia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-fr.svg" style="width: 7.4375em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="l'encyclopédie libre" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-fr.svg" width="120" height="13" style="width: 7.5em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Recherche" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Rechercher sur Wikipédia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Rechercher</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Rechercher sur Wikipédia" aria-label="Rechercher sur Wikipédia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Rechercher sur Wikipédia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Spécial:Recherche"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Rechercher</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Outils personnels"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Apparence"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Modifier l'apparence de la taille, de la largeur et de la couleur de la police de la page" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Apparence" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Apparence</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="//donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_fr.wikipedia.org&uselang=fr" class=""><span>Faire un don</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Sp%C3%A9cial:Cr%C3%A9er_un_compte&returnto=Paraphylie" title="Nous vous encourageons à créer un compte utilisateur et vous connecter ; ce n’est cependant pas obligatoire." class=""><span>Créer un compte</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Sp%C3%A9cial:Connexion&returnto=Paraphylie" title="Nous vous encourageons à vous connecter ; ce n’est cependant pas obligatoire. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Se connecter</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Plus d’options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Outils personnels" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Outils personnels</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="Menu utilisateur" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="//donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_fr.wikipedia.org&uselang=fr"><span>Faire un don</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sp%C3%A9cial:Cr%C3%A9er_un_compte&returnto=Paraphylie" title="Nous vous encourageons à créer un compte utilisateur et vous connecter ; ce n’est cependant pas obligatoire."><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Créer un compte</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sp%C3%A9cial:Connexion&returnto=Paraphylie" title="Nous vous encourageons à vous connecter ; ce n’est cependant pas obligatoire. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Se connecter</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages pour les contributeurs déconnectés <a href="/wiki/Aide:Premiers_pas" aria-label="En savoir plus sur la contribution"><span>en savoir plus</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Mes_contributions" title="Une liste des modifications effectuées depuis cette adresse IP [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Mes_discussions" title="La page de discussion pour les contributions depuis cette adresse IP [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Discussion</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Sommaire" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Sommaire</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">déplacer vers la barre latérale</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">masquer</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">Début</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Définitions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Définitions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Définitions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Définitions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Afficher / masquer la sous-section Définitions</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Définitions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sens_biologique" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sens_biologique"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Sens biologique</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sens_biologique-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Propriétés_mathématiques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Propriétés_mathématiques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Propriétés mathématiques</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Propriétés_mathématiques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exemples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exemples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Exemples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exemples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Statut_de_la_paraphylie" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Statut_de_la_paraphylie"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Statut de la paraphylie</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Statut_de_la_paraphylie-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Voir_aussi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Voir_aussi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Voir aussi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Voir_aussi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes_et_références" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes_et_références"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Notes et références</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes_et_références-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Sommaire" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Basculer la table des matières" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Basculer la table des matières</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Paraphylie</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Aller à un article dans une autre langue. Disponible en 50 langues." > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-50" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">50 langues</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafileties" title="Parafileties – afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Parafileties" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafilia_(filochenetica)" title="Parafilia (filochenetica) – aragonais" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Parafilia (filochenetica)" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="aragonais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A8%D9%87_%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%82" title="شبه عرق – arabe" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="شبه عرق" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="arabe" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafil%C3%A9ticu" title="Parafiléticu – asturien" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Parafiléticu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="asturien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF" title="প্যারাফাইলি – bengali" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্যারাফাইলি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="bengali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafileti%C4%8Dnost" title="Parafiletičnost – bosniaque" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Parafiletičnost" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="bosniaque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafiletisme" title="Parafiletisme – catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Parafiletisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafyletismus" title="Parafyletismus – tchèque" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Parafyletismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="tchèque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafyletisk_gruppe" title="Parafyletisk gruppe – danois" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Parafyletisk gruppe" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="danois" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraphyly" title="Paraphyly – anglais" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Paraphyly" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="anglais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafiletika" title="Parafiletika – espéranto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Parafiletika" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="espéranto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafil%C3%A9tico" title="Parafilético – espagnol" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Parafilético" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="espagnol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraf%C3%BCleetiline_r%C3%BChm" title="Parafüleetiline rühm – estonien" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Parafüleetiline rühm" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="estonien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafiletiko" title="Parafiletiko – basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Parafiletiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="پیراتبار – persan" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پیراتبار" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="persan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafyleettinen_ryhm%C3%A4" title="Parafyleettinen ryhmä – finnois" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Parafyleettinen ryhmä" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="finnois" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafyly" title="Parafyly – frison occidental" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Parafyly" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="frison occidental" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraif%C3%ADl%C3%A9iteach" title="Paraifíléiteach – irlandais" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Paraifíléiteach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="irlandais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafil%C3%A9tico" title="Parafilético – galicien" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Parafilético" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="galicien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%98%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="פרפילטיות – hébreu" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פרפילטיות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="hébreu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%80" title="पारवर्गी – hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पारवर्गी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafiletikus_csoport" title="Parafiletikus csoport – hongrois" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Parafiletikus csoport" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="hongrois" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraphylia" title="Paraphylia – interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Paraphylia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafili" title="Parafili – indonésien" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Parafili" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="indonésien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafilia_(filogenesi)" title="Parafilia (filogenesi) – italien" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Parafilia (filogenesi)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="italien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%81%B4%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1%E7%BE%A4" title="側系統群 – japonais" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="側系統群" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="japonais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafiletik" title="Parafiletik – javanais" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Parafiletik" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="javanais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B8%A1%EA%B3%84%ED%86%B5%EA%B5%B0" title="측계통군 – coréen" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="측계통군" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="coréen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafyletisch_taxon" title="Parafyletisch taxon – limbourgeois" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Parafyletisch taxon" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="limbourgeois" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafili" title="Parafili – malais" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Parafili" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="malais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafyletische_groep" title="Parafyletische groep – néerlandais" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Parafyletische groep" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="néerlandais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafyletisk_gruppe" title="Parafyletisk gruppe – norvégien nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Parafyletisk gruppe" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="norvégien nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafyletisk_gruppe" title="Parafyletisk gruppe – norvégien bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Parafyletisk gruppe" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="norvégien bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takson_parafiletyczny" title="Takson parafiletyczny – polonais" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Takson parafiletyczny" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="polonais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafil%C3%A9tico" title="Parafilético – portugais" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Parafilético" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="portugais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grup_parafiletic" title="Grup parafiletic – roumain" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Grup parafiletic" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="roumain" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%8F_(%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Парафилия (таксономия) – russe" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Парафилия (таксономия)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="russe" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafileti%C4%8Dnost" title="Parafiletičnost – serbo-croate" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Parafiletičnost" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="serbo-croate" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraphyly" title="Paraphyly – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Paraphyly" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafyletizmus" title="Parafyletizmus – slovaque" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Parafyletizmus" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="slovaque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafilija" title="Parafilija – slovène" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Parafilija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="slovène" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafileti%C4%8Dnost" title="Parafiletičnost – serbe" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Parafiletičnost" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="serbe" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraphylie" title="Paraphylie – saterlandais" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Paraphylie" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="saterlandais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafyli" title="Parafyli – suédois" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Parafyli" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="suédois" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafili_(filogenetik)" title="Parafili (filogenetik) – turc" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Parafili (filogenetik)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="turc" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Парафілія – ukrainien" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Парафілія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="ukrainien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%E1%BA%ADn_ng%C3%A0nh" title="Cận ngành – vietnamien" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Cận ngành" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="vietnamien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafiletike" title="Parafiletike – wallon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Parafiletike" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="wallon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%A6%E7%B3%BB%E7%BE%A4" title="並系群 – chinois" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="並系群" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="chinois" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%A6%E7%B3%BB%E7%BE%A4" title="並系群 – cantonais" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="並系群" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="cantonais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q208755#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Modifier les liens interlangues" class="wbc-editpage">Modifier les liens</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Espaces de noms"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Paraphylie" title="Voir le contenu de la page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Discussion:Paraphylie" rel="discussion" title="Discussion au sujet de cette page de contenu [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Discussion</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Modifier la variante de langue" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">français</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Affichages"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Paraphylie"><span>Lire</span></a></li><li id="ca-ve-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphylie&veaction=edit" title="Modifier cette page [v]" accesskey="v"><span>Modifier</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="collapsible vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphylie&action=edit" title="Modifier le wikicode de cette page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Modifier le code</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphylie&action=history" title="Historique des versions de cette page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>Voir l’historique</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Outils de la page"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Outils" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Outils</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Outils</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">déplacer vers la barre latérale</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">masquer</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="Plus d’options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Paraphylie"><span>Lire</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-ve-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphylie&veaction=edit" title="Modifier cette page [v]" accesskey="v"><span>Modifier</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="collapsible vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphylie&action=edit" title="Modifier le wikicode de cette page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Modifier le code</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphylie&action=history"><span>Voir l’historique</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Général </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Pages_li%C3%A9es/Paraphylie" title="Liste des pages liées qui pointent sur celle-ci [j]" accesskey="j"><span>Pages liées</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Suivi_des_liens/Paraphylie" rel="nofollow" title="Liste des modifications récentes des pages appelées par celle-ci [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Suivi des pages liées</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Aide:Importer_un_fichier" title="Téléverser des fichiers [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Téléverser un fichier</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Pages_sp%C3%A9ciales" title="Liste de toutes les pages spéciales [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Pages spéciales</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphylie&oldid=220066725" title="Adresse permanente de cette version de cette page"><span>Lien permanent</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphylie&action=info" title="Davantage d’informations sur cette page"><span>Informations sur la page</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sp%C3%A9cial:Citer&page=Paraphylie&id=220066725&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Informations sur la manière de citer cette page"><span>Citer cette page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sp%C3%A9cial:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FParaphylie"><span>Obtenir l'URL raccourcie</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sp%C3%A9cial:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FParaphylie"><span>Télécharger le code QR</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Imprimer / exporter </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-create_a_book" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sp%C3%A9cial:Livre&bookcmd=book_creator&referer=Paraphylie"><span>Créer un livre</span></a></li><li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sp%C3%A9cial:DownloadAsPdf&page=Paraphylie&action=show-download-screen"><span>Télécharger comme PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphylie&printable=yes" title="Version imprimable de cette page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Version imprimable</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Dans d’autres projets </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Paraphyly" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q208755" title="Lien vers l’élément dans le dépôt de données connecté [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Élément Wikidata</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Outils de la page"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Apparence"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Apparence</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">déplacer vers la barre latérale</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">masquer</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">Un article de Wikipédia, l'encyclopédie libre.</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirigé depuis <a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphyl%C3%A9tique&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraphylétique">Paraphylétique</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="fr" dir="ltr"><div class="bandeau-container metadata homonymie hatnote"><div class="bandeau-cell bandeau-icone" style="display:table-cell;padding-right:0.5em"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Aide:Homonymie" title="Aide:Homonymie"><img alt="Page d’aide sur l’homonymie" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Logo_disambig-homophone.svg/20px-Logo_disambig-homophone.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Logo_disambig-homophone.svg/30px-Logo_disambig-homophone.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Logo_disambig-homophone.svg/40px-Logo_disambig-homophone.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="375" /></a></span></div><div class="bandeau-cell" style="display:table-cell;padding-right:0.5em"> <p>Pour l’article ayant un titre homophone, voir <a href="/wiki/Paraphilie" title="Paraphilie">Paraphilie</a>. </p> </div></div> <div class="bandeau-container metadata bandeau-article bandeau-niveau-modere"><figure class="mw-halign-right noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Mod%C3%A8le:%C3%80_sourcer" title="Si ce bandeau n'est plus pertinent, retirez-le. Cliquez ici pour en savoir plus."><img alt="Si ce bandeau n'est plus pertinent, retirez-le. Cliquez ici pour en savoir plus." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Info_Simple.svg/12px-Info_Simple.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Info_Simple.svg/18px-Info_Simple.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Info_Simple.svg/24px-Info_Simple.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption>Si ce bandeau n'est plus pertinent, retirez-le. Cliquez ici pour en savoir plus.</figcaption></figure><div class="bandeau-cell bandeau-icone" style="display:table-cell;padding-right:0.5em"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Fichier:2017-fr.wp-orange-source.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/2017-fr.wp-orange-source.svg/45px-2017-fr.wp-orange-source.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/2017-fr.wp-orange-source.svg/68px-2017-fr.wp-orange-source.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/2017-fr.wp-orange-source.svg/90px-2017-fr.wp-orange-source.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div><div class="bandeau-cell" style="display:table-cell;padding-right:0.5em"> <p><strong class="bandeau-titre">Cet article <a href="/wiki/Wikip%C3%A9dia:Citez_vos_sources" title="Wikipédia:Citez vos sources">ne cite pas suffisamment ses sources</a></strong> <small>(<time class="nowrap" datetime="2013-02" data-sort-value="2013-02">février 2013</time>).</small> </p><p>Si vous disposez d'ouvrages ou d'articles de référence ou si vous connaissez des sites web de qualité traitant du thème abordé ici, merci de compléter l'article en donnant les <b>références utiles à sa <a href="/wiki/Wikip%C3%A9dia:V%C3%A9rifiabilit%C3%A9" title="Wikipédia:Vérifiabilité">vérifiabilité</a></b> et en les liant à la section « <a href="/wiki/Aide:Ins%C3%A9rer_une_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence" title="Aide:Insérer une référence">Notes et références</a> ». </p><p><b>En pratique :</b> <a href="/wiki/Wikip%C3%A9dia:Citez_vos_sources#Qualité_des_sources" title="Wikipédia:Citez vos sources">Quelles sources sont attendues ?</a> <a href="/wiki/Aide:Ins%C3%A9rer_une_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence_(%C3%89diteur_visuel)" title="Aide:Insérer une référence (Éditeur visuel)">Comment ajouter mes sources ?</a> </p> </div></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fichier:Traditional_Reptilia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Arbre d’évolution. Ce groupe comprend un ancêtre et une partie de ses descendants mais pas tous puisque les oiseaux et les mammifères en sont exclus. C'est un groupe paraphylétique de degré deux." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Traditional_Reptilia.jpg/350px-Traditional_Reptilia.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Traditional_Reptilia.jpg/525px-Traditional_Reptilia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Traditional_Reptilia.jpg/700px-Traditional_Reptilia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2439" data-file-height="1967" /></a><figcaption>Le groupe traditionnel paraphylétique des <a href="/wiki/Reptile" class="mw-redirect" title="Reptile">reptiles</a> apparaît en vert. Ce groupe comprend un ancêtre et une partie de ses descendants mais pas tous puisque les <a href="/wiki/Oiseau" title="Oiseau">oiseaux</a> et les <a href="/wiki/Mammif%C3%A8re" title="Mammifère">mammifères</a> en sont exclus. C'est un groupe paraphylétique de degré deux. </figcaption></figure> <p>En <a href="/wiki/Syst%C3%A9matique" title="Systématique">systématique</a>, un groupe est dit <b>paraphylétique</b> quand il ne rassemble pas tous les descendants d'une <a href="/wiki/Souche_(biologie)" title="Souche (biologie)">espèce souche</a> qu'il contient<sup id="cite_ref-aub15_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aub15-1"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>1<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Définitions"><span id="D.C3.A9finitions"></span>Définitions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphylie&veaction=edit&section=1" title="Modifier la section : Définitions" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifier</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphylie&action=edit&section=1" title="Modifier le code source de la section : Définitions"><span>modifier le code</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sens_biologique">Sens biologique</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphylie&veaction=edit&section=2" title="Modifier la section : Sens biologique" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifier</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphylie&action=edit&section=2" title="Modifier le code source de la section : Sens biologique"><span>modifier le code</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Contrairement à la <a href="/wiki/Polyphylie" title="Polyphylie">polyphylie</a>, le groupe paraphylétique est fondé sur une similitude héritée d'un ancêtre commun (<a href="/wiki/Homologie_(%C3%A9volution)" title="Homologie (évolution)">homologie</a>).<sup class="need_ref_tag" style="padding-left:2px;"><a href="/wiki/Aide:R%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence_n%C3%A9cessaire" title="Aide:Référence nécessaire">[<abbr class="abbr" title="référence">réf.</abbr> souhaitée]</a></sup> L'exclusion de certaines lignées nécessite de considérer les <a href="/wiki/Caract%C3%A8re_ancestral_et_caract%C3%A8re_d%C3%A9riv%C3%A9" title="Caractère ancestral et caractère dérivé">états ancestraux</a> de certains caractères (encore appelé <a href="/wiki/Sympl%C3%A9siomorphie" title="Symplésiomorphie">symplésiomorphie</a>) par opposition à leurs <a href="/wiki/Caract%C3%A8re_ancestral_et_caract%C3%A8re_d%C3%A9riv%C3%A9" title="Caractère ancestral et caractère dérivé">états dérivés</a> (ou <a href="/wiki/Synapomorphie" title="Synapomorphie">synapomorphie</a>) dans les lignées exclues. </p><p>Le groupe des <a href="/wiki/Reptiles" title="Reptiles">reptiles</a> (<a href="/wiki/Amniota" title="Amniota">amniotes</a> desquels ont été exclus les <a href="/wiki/Oiseau" title="Oiseau">oiseaux</a> et les <a href="/wiki/Mammif%C3%A8re" title="Mammifère">mammifères</a>) en est un exemple : les <a href="/wiki/Crocodilia" title="Crocodilia">crocodiliens</a>, inclus dans les reptiles, sont généalogiquement plus proches des <a href="/wiki/Oiseau" title="Oiseau">oiseaux</a>, exclus des reptiles, que des autres <a href="/wiki/Sauropsida" title="Sauropsida">sauropsides</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tortue" title="Tortue">chéloniens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Squamata" title="Squamata">squamates</a> et <a href="/wiki/Rhynchocephalia" title="Rhynchocephalia">sphénodontiens</a>) et les reptiles mammaliens, inclus, sont plus proches des mammifères, exclus, que des autres <a href="/wiki/Amniota" title="Amniota">amniotes</a>. L'ancêtre commun le plus proche de tous les reptiles est également l'ancêtre commun le plus proche des oiseaux et des mammifères. Le groupe des reptiles ainsi défini est donc paraphylétique. </p> <pre> <a href="/wiki/Amniota" title="Amniota">amniotes</a> ├─<a href="/wiki/Synapsida" title="Synapsida">Synapsides</a> │ ├─<a href="/wiki/Mammif%C3%A8re" title="Mammifère">Mammifères</a> │ └─<a href="/wiki/Synapsida#Les_«_reptiles_mammaliens_»" title="Synapsida">Reptiles mammaliens</a>----------| | └─<a href="/wiki/Sauropsida" title="Sauropsida">Sauropsides</a> ├─<b><a href="/wiki/Tortue" title="Tortue">Chéloniens</a></b>-------------------| │ | « <b><a href="/wiki/Reptiles" title="Reptiles">Reptiles</a></b> » └─<a href="/wiki/Diapsida" title="Diapsida">Diapsides</a>--------------------| ├─<b><a href="/wiki/Lepidosauria" title="Lepidosauria">Lépidosauriens</a></b>-----------| │ ├─<b><a href="/wiki/Squamata" title="Squamata">Squamates</a></b>-----------| │ └─<b><a href="/wiki/Rhynchocephalia" title="Rhynchocephalia">Sphénodontiens</a></b>------| │ | └─<a href="/wiki/Archosauria" title="Archosauria">Archosauriens</a> | ├─<b><a href="/wiki/Crocodilia" title="Crocodilia">Crocodiliens</a></b>--------| └─<a href="/wiki/Oiseau" title="Oiseau">Oiseaux</a> </pre> <p><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Note</span> : Les <a href="/wiki/Crustac%C3%A9s" title="Crustacés">crustacés</a>, les <a href="/wiki/Amphibia" title="Amphibia">amphibiens</a> ou les <a href="/wiki/Poisson" title="Poisson">poissons</a> sont d'autres exemples de groupes paraphylétiques. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Propriétés_mathématiques"><span id="Propri.C3.A9t.C3.A9s_math.C3.A9matiques"></span>Propriétés mathématiques</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphylie&veaction=edit&section=3" title="Modifier la section : Propriétés mathématiques" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifier</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphylie&action=edit&section=3" title="Modifier le code source de la section : Propriétés mathématiques"><span>modifier le code</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>En <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9orie_des_graphes" title="Théorie des graphes">théorie des graphes</a>, on peut définir le « degré de paraphylie » d'un groupe comme étant le nombre minimum de branches qu'il faudrait retirer à un groupe <a href="/wiki/Monophylie" title="Monophylie">holophylétique</a><sup id="cite_ref-aub15_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aub15-1"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>1<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Un groupe holophylétique a donc un degré de paraphylie de zéro. </p><p>La définition traditionnelle des reptiles (<a href="/wiki/Sauropsida" title="Sauropsida">sauropsides</a> + <a href="/wiki/Synapsida" title="Synapsida">synapsides</a>) en fait un groupe ayant un degré de paraphylie de 2, puisqu'il faut retirer au groupe des <a href="/wiki/Amniota" title="Amniota">amniotes</a> la branche des <a href="/wiki/Mammif%C3%A8re" title="Mammifère">mammifères</a> et celle des <a href="/wiki/Oiseau" title="Oiseau">oiseaux</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Exemples">Exemples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphylie&veaction=edit&section=4" title="Modifier la section : Exemples" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifier</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphylie&action=edit&section=4" title="Modifier le code source de la section : Exemples"><span>modifier le code</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Les <a href="/wiki/Prokaryota" title="Prokaryota">procaryotes</a> (excluent les <a href="/wiki/Eukaryota" title="Eukaryota">eucaryotes</a>)</li> <li>Les <a href="/wiki/Micro-organisme" title="Micro-organisme">microorganismes</a></li> <li>Les <a href="/wiki/Pr%C3%A9spermaphytes" title="Préspermaphytes">préspermaphytes</a></li> <li>Les <a href="/wiki/Herbe" title="Herbe">herbes</a></li> <li>Les <a href="/wiki/Invert%C3%A9br%C3%A9" title="Invertébré">invertébrés</a></li> <li>Les <a href="/wiki/Crustac%C3%A9s" title="Crustacés">crustacés</a> (excluent les <a href="/wiki/Insecte" title="Insecte">insectes</a>)</li> <li>Les <a href="/wiki/Poisson" title="Poisson">poissons</a> (excluent les <a href="/wiki/Tetrapoda" title="Tetrapoda">tétrapodes</a>)</li> <li>Les <a href="/wiki/Amphibia" title="Amphibia">amphibiens</a> (excluent les <a href="/wiki/Amniota" title="Amniota">amniotes</a>)</li> <li>Les <a href="/wiki/Reptile" class="mw-redirect" title="Reptile">reptiles</a> (excluent les <a href="/wiki/Oiseau" title="Oiseau">oiseaux</a> et les mammifères)</li> <li>Les <a href="/wiki/Antilopes" title="Antilopes">antilopes</a> (excluent les <a href="/wiki/Bovini" title="Bovini">bovins</a> et <a href="/wiki/Caprinae" title="Caprinae">caprins</a>)</li> <li>Les reptiles mammaliens (incluent tous les <a href="/wiki/Synapsida" title="Synapsida">synapsides</a> sauf les mammifères, qui en sont exclus)</li> <li>Les <a href="/wiki/Micromammif%C3%A8re" title="Micromammifère">micromammifères</a></li> <li>Les <a href="/wiki/Renard" title="Renard">renards</a></li> <li>Les <a href="/wiki/Singe" title="Singe">singes</a> (Débat concernant l'inclusion, ou non, de l'humain dans ce groupe ; il peut, donc, être aussi vu comme <a href="/wiki/Monophylie" title="Monophylie">monophylétique</a>, ce qui va donner au groupe des <a href="/wiki/Simien" class="mw-disambig" title="Simien">simiens</a>).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Statut_de_la_paraphylie">Statut de la paraphylie</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphylie&veaction=edit&section=5" title="Modifier la section : Statut de la paraphylie" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifier</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphylie&action=edit&section=5" title="Modifier le code source de la section : Statut de la paraphylie"><span>modifier le code</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pour les <a href="/wiki/Classification_phylog%C3%A9n%C3%A9tique" title="Classification phylogénétique">cladistes</a>, les <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxons</a> paraphylétiques sont inacceptables dans la classification. Au contraire pour les <a href="/wiki/Syst%C3%A9matique_%C3%A9volutionniste" title="Systématique évolutionniste">évolutionnistes</a> il n'y a aucun problème dans le fait d'accepter de tels <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxons</a>. Selon la définition qui en est donnée (voir l'article <a href="/wiki/Monophylie" title="Monophylie">Monophylie</a>), la paraphylie est parfois considérée comme une forme de <a href="/wiki/Monophylie" title="Monophylie">monophylie</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Voir_aussi">Voir aussi</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphylie&veaction=edit&section=6" title="Modifier la section : Voir aussi" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifier</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphylie&action=edit&section=6" title="Modifier le code source de la section : Voir aussi"><span>modifier le code</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Termes associés : </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A9t%C3%A9rophylie" title="Hétérophylie">hétérophylétique</a> ;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monophylie" title="Monophylie">holophylétique et monophylétique</a> ;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyphylie" title="Polyphylie">polyphylétique</a>.</li></ul> <p>Concepts associés : </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomie" title="Taxonomie">taxinomie</a> ;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxon_poubelle" title="Taxon poubelle">taxon poubelle</a> ;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbre_phylog%C3%A9n%C3%A9tique" title="Arbre phylogénétique">arbre phylogénétique</a> ;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syst%C3%A9matique_%C3%A9volutionniste" title="Systématique évolutionniste">évolutionnisme (biologie)</a> ;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classification_phylog%C3%A9n%C3%A9tique" title="Classification phylogénétique">cladisme</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_et_références"><span id="Notes_et_r.C3.A9f.C3.A9rences"></span>Notes et références</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphylie&veaction=edit&section=7" title="Modifier la section : Notes et références" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifier</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphylie&action=edit&section=7" title="Modifier le code source de la section : Notes et références"><span>modifier le code</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="references-small decimal" style=""><div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-aub15-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-aub15_1-0">a</a> et <a href="#cite_ref-aub15_1-1">b</a></sup> </span><span class="reference-text">Aubert, D. 2015. A formal analysis of phylogenetic terminology: Towards a reconsideration of the current paradigm in systematics. <i>Phytoneuron</i> <b>2015-66</b>:1–54. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01240878v1">https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01240878v1</a></span> </li> </ol></div> </div> <ul id="bandeau-portail" class="bandeau-portail"><li><span class="bandeau-portail-element"><span class="bandeau-portail-icone"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Portail:Origine_et_%C3%A9volution_du_vivant" title="Portail origine et évolution du vivant"><img alt="icône décorative" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Icone_OEV2.jpg/48px-Icone_OEV2.jpg" decoding="async" width="48" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Icone_OEV2.jpg/72px-Icone_OEV2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Icone_OEV2.jpg/96px-Icone_OEV2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="170" data-file-height="83" /></a></span></span> <span class="bandeau-portail-texte"><a href="/wiki/Portail:Origine_et_%C3%A9volution_du_vivant" title="Portail:Origine et évolution du vivant">Portail origine et évolution du vivant</a></span> </span></li> </ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Ce document provient de « <a dir="ltr" href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paraphylie&oldid=220066725">https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paraphylie&oldid=220066725</a> ».</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Cat%C3%A9gorie:Accueil" title="Catégorie:Accueil">Catégorie</a> : <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cat%C3%A9gorie:Phylog%C3%A9n%C3%A9tique" title="Catégorie:Phylogénétique">Phylogénétique</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Catégories cachées : <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cat%C3%A9gorie:Article_manquant_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rences_depuis_f%C3%A9vrier_2013" title="Catégorie:Article manquant de références depuis février 2013">Article manquant de références depuis février 2013</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Cat%C3%A9gorie:Article_manquant_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rences/Liste_compl%C3%A8te" title="Catégorie:Article manquant de références/Liste complète">Article manquant de références/Liste complète</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Cat%C3%A9gorie:Article_%C3%A0_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence_souhait%C3%A9e" title="Catégorie:Article à référence souhaitée">Article à référence souhaitée</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Cat%C3%A9gorie:Portail:Origine_et_%C3%A9volution_du_vivant/Articles_li%C3%A9s" title="Catégorie:Portail:Origine et évolution du vivant/Articles liés">Portail:Origine et évolution du vivant/Articles liés</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Cat%C3%A9gorie:Portail:Biologie/Articles_li%C3%A9s" title="Catégorie:Portail:Biologie/Articles liés">Portail:Biologie/Articles liés</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Cat%C3%A9gorie:Portail:Sciences/Articles_li%C3%A9s" title="Catégorie:Portail:Sciences/Articles liés">Portail:Sciences/Articles liés</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Cat%C3%A9gorie:Projet:Biologie/Pages_li%C3%A9es" title="Catégorie:Projet:Biologie/Pages liées">Projet:Biologie/Pages liées</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> La dernière modification de cette page a été faite le 6 novembre 2024 à 13:37.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright"><span style="white-space: normal"><a href="/wiki/Wikip%C3%A9dia:Citation_et_r%C3%A9utilisation_du_contenu_de_Wikip%C3%A9dia" title="Wikipédia:Citation et réutilisation du contenu de Wikipédia">Droit d'auteur</a> : les textes sont disponibles sous <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.fr">licence Creative Commons attribution, partage dans les mêmes conditions</a> ; d’autres conditions peuvent s’appliquer. Voyez les <a class="external text" href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Policy:Terms_of_Use/fr">conditions d’utilisation</a> pour plus de détails, ainsi que les <a href="/wiki/Wikip%C3%A9dia:Cr%C3%A9dits_graphiques" title="Wikipédia:Crédits graphiques">crédits graphiques</a>. En cas de réutilisation des textes de cette page, voyez <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Citer/Paraphylie" title="Spécial:Citer/Paraphylie">comment citer les auteurs et mentionner la licence</a>.<br /> Wikipedia® est une marque déposée de la <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, organisation de bienfaisance régie par le paragraphe <a href="/wiki/501c" title="501c">501(c)(3)</a> du code fiscal des États-Unis.</span><br /></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy/fr">Politique de confidentialité</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikip%C3%A9dia:%C3%80_propos_de_Wikip%C3%A9dia">À propos de Wikipédia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikip%C3%A9dia:Avertissements_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9raux">Avertissements</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipédia:Contact">Contact</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code de conduite</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Développeurs</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/fr.wikipedia.org">Statistiques</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Déclaration sur les témoins (cookies)</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//fr.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paraphylie&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Version mobile</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-6dfcdd5ff5-wcw2h","wgBackendResponseTime":240,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.138","walltime":"0.437","ppvisitednodes":{"value":582,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":10327,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":690,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":12,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":1,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":0,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":1041,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 152.849 1 -total"," 42.57% 65.063 1 Modèle:Portail"," 26.17% 40.004 1 Modèle:Homophonie"," 23.22% 35.488 1 Modèle:Méta_bandeau_de_note"," 21.93% 33.521 1 Modèle:Méta_bandeau"," 21.55% 32.932 1 Modèle:Catégorisation_badges"," 18.63% 28.480 1 Modèle:À_sourcer"," 14.47% 22.123 1 Modèle:Suivi_des_biographies"," 9.80% 14.976 1 Modèle:Méta_bandeau_d'avertissement"," 7.01% 10.713 1 Modèle:Contrôle_date_bandeau"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.046","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":1785087,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.eqiad.main-6f4956b788-7gsw9","timestamp":"20241128184305","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Paraphylie","url":"https:\/\/fr.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paraphylie","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q208755","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q208755","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributeurs aux projets Wikimedia"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Fondation Wikimedia, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2005-01-04T16:29:47Z","dateModified":"2024-11-06T12:37:34Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/2f\/Traditional_Reptilia.jpg","headline":"notion en syst\u00e9matique de classification en biologie"}</script> </body> </html>