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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Formation_of_coalition_governments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formation_of_coalition_governments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Formation of coalition governments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formation_of_coalition_governments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coalition_agreement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coalition_agreement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Coalition agreement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coalition_agreement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electoral_accountability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electoral_accountability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Electoral accountability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electoral_accountability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Governing_cost" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Governing_cost"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Governing cost</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Governing_cost-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Distribution</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Distribution-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Distribution subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Armenia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Armenia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Armenia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Armenia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Australia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Belgium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Belgium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Belgium</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Belgium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Canada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Provincial" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Provincial"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.1</span> <span>Provincial</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Provincial-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Denmark" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Denmark"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Denmark</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Denmark-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Finland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Finland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Finland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Finland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Germany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8</span> <span>India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indonesia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indonesia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.9</span> <span>Indonesia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indonesia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ireland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ireland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.10</span> <span>Ireland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ireland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Israel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Israel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.11</span> <span>Israel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Israel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.12</span> <span>Japan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Malaysia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Malaysia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.13</span> <span>Malaysia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Malaysia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Zealand" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Zealand"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.14</span> <span>New Zealand</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Zealand-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.15</span> <span>Spain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Turkey" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Turkey"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.16</span> <span>Turkey</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Turkey-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.17</span> <span>United Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uruguay" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uruguay"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.18</span> <span>Uruguay</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Uruguay-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Support_and_criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Support_and_criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Support and criticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Support_and_criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legislative_coalitions_and_agreements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legislative_coalitions_and_agreements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Legislative coalitions and agreements</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legislative_coalitions_and_agreements-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Legislative coalitions and agreements subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Legislative_coalitions_and_agreements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Coalition government</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 45 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-45" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">45 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%83%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%AA%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="حكومة ائتلافية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حكومة ائتلافية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Govern_de_coalici%C3%B3" title="Govern de coalició – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Govern de coalició" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koalice#Vládní_koalice" title="Koalice – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Koalice" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llywodraeth_glymblaid" title="Llywodraeth glymblaid – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Llywodraeth glymblaid" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koalitionsregering" title="Koalitionsregering – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Koalitionsregering" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koalitsioonivalitsus" title="Koalitsioonivalitsus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Koalitsioonivalitsus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CF%85%CE%B2%CE%AD%CF%81%CE%BD%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%B7_%CF%83%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Κυβέρνηση συνεργασίας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κυβέρνηση συνεργασίας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gobierno_de_coalici%C3%B3n" title="Gobierno de coalición – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Gobierno de coalición" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koalicia_registaro" title="Koalicia registaro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Koalicia registaro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%AA%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C" title="دولت ائتلافی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دولت ائتلافی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gouvernement_de_coalition" title="Gouvernement de coalition – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Gouvernement de coalition" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comhrialtas" title="Comhrialtas – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Comhrialtas" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%B0%EB%A6%BD%EC%A0%95%EB%B6%80" title="연립정부 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="연립정부" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="गठबन्धन सरकार – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="गठबन्धन सरकार" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemerintahan_koalisi" title="Pemerintahan koalisi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pemerintahan koalisi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsteypustj%C3%B3rn" title="Samsteypustjórn – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Samsteypustjórn" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governo_di_coalizione" title="Governo di coalizione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Governo di coalizione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="युती सरकार – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="युती सरकार" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerajaan_gabungan" title="Kerajaan gabungan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kerajaan gabungan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regeringscoalitie" title="Regeringscoalitie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Regeringscoalitie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="गठबन्धन सरकार – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="गठबन्धन सरकार" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%80%A3%E7%AB%8B%E6%94%BF%E6%A8%A9" title="連立政権 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="連立政権" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koalisjonsregjering" title="Koalisjonsregjering – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Koalisjonsregjering" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koalisjonsregjering" title="Koalisjonsregjering – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Koalisjonsregjering" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%A0%E0%A8%9C%E0%A9%8B%E0%A9%9C_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0" title="ਗਠਜੋੜ ਸਰਕਾਰ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਗਠਜੋੜ ਸਰਕਾਰ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gobierno_di_coalicion" title="Gobierno di coalicion – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Gobierno di coalicion" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koalicja_rz%C4%85dowa" title="Koalicja rządowa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Koalicja rządowa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governo_de_coaliz%C3%A3o" title="Governo de coalizão – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Governo de coalizão" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guvern_de_coali%C8%9Bie" title="Guvern de coaliție – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Guvern de coaliție" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Коалиционное правительство – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Коалиционное правительство" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tn mw-list-item"><a href="https://tn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puso_ya_tirisanommogo" title="Puso ya tirisanommogo – Tswana" lang="tn" hreflang="tn" data-title="Puso ya tirisanommogo" 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics" title="Category:Politics">Politics series</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="border-top:1px #fafafa solid; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid; background:#efefef; background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">Politics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="display:block; margin-bottom:0.5em; background:transparent;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_political_science" title="Outline of political science">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_politics_articles" title="Index of politics articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Politics" title="Category:Politics">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Primary topics</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_political_science" title="Outline of political science">Outline of political science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_politics_articles" title="Index of politics articles">Index of politics articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_by_country" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics by country">Politics by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_country_subdivisions" title="Politics of country subdivisions">Politics by subdivision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">Political history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_world" title="Political history of the world">Political history of the world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Political_system" title="Political system">Political systems</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchy" title="Anarchy">Anarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">City-state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_leadership" title="Collective leadership">Collective leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confessional_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Confessional system">Confessional system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directorial_system" title="Directorial system">Directorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federacy" title="Federacy">Federacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_regime" title="Hybrid regime">Hybrid regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_system" title="Parliamentary system">Parliamentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_system" title="Presidential system">Presidential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-parliamentary_system" title="Semi-parliamentary system">Semi-parliamentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-presidential_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-presidential system">Semi-presidential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Academic disciplines</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em; line-height:1.15em;"><a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/List_of_political_scientists" title="List of political scientists">political scientists</a>)</span></div></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em; line-height:1.15em;"><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">International relations</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/International_relations_theory" title="International relations theory">theory</a>)</span></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_politics" title="Comparative politics">Comparative politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_science" title="Election science">Election science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psephology" title="Psephology">Political analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Policy_studies" title="Policy studies">Policy studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_psychology" title="Political psychology">Political psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political sociology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">Public administration</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Street-level_bureaucracy" title="Street-level bureaucracy">street-level</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adhocracy" title="Adhocracy">Adhocracy</a></li> <li>Service <ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/Public_service" title="Public service">Public</a> / <a href="/wiki/Civil_service" title="Civil service">Civil</a>)</li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">Policy</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">Public policy</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Public_policy_doctrine" title="Public policy doctrine">doctrine</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_policy" title="Domestic policy">Domestic policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy" title="Foreign policy">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">Civil society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_interest" title="Public interest">Public interest</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Government branches</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">Legislature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">Executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_commission" title="Election commission">Election commission</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related topics</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polity" title="Polity">Polity</a> / <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a> / <a href="/wiki/Country" title="Country">Country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_political_behavior" title="Theories of political behavior">Theories of political behavior</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/Election" title="Election">Elections</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Voting" title="Voting">voting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_unitarism" title="Political unitarism">Unitarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">Federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a> <ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_forms_of_government" title="List of forms of government">forms</a> / <a href="/wiki/Governance" title="Governance">Governance</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_culture" title="Political culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_campaign" title="Political campaign">Political campaigning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_party" title="Political party">Political parties</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background:#efefef;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Politics_sidebar" title="Template:Politics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Politics_sidebar" title="Template talk:Politics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Politics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Politics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A <b>coalition government</b>, or <b>coalition cabinet</b>, is a government by <a href="/wiki/Political_party" title="Political party">political parties</a> that enter into a power-sharing arrangement of the <a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">executive</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coalition governments usually occur when no single party has achieved an absolute <a href="/wiki/Majority" title="Majority">majority</a> after an <a href="/wiki/Election" title="Election">election</a>. A party not having majority is common under <a href="/wiki/Proportional_representation" title="Proportional representation">proportional representation</a>, but not in nations with <a href="/wiki/Majoritarian_representation" class="mw-redirect" title="Majoritarian representation">majoritarian electoral systems</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are different forms of coalition governments, minority coalitions and surplus majority coalition governments. A surplus majority coalition government controls more than the absolute majority of seats in <a href="/wiki/Parliament" title="Parliament">parliament</a> necessary to have a majority in the government, whereas minority coalition governments do not hold the majority of legislative seats.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A coalition government may also be created in a time of national difficulty or crisis (for example, during wartime or economic crisis) to give a government the high degree of perceived <a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" title="Legitimacy (political)">political legitimacy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Collective_identity" title="Collective identity">collective identity</a>, it can also play a role in diminishing internal political strife. In such times, parties have formed all-party coalitions (<a href="/wiki/National_unity_government" title="National unity government">national unity governments</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grand_coalition" title="Grand coalition">grand coalitions</a>). </p><p>If a coalition collapses, the <a href="/wiki/Prime_minister" title="Prime minister">prime minister</a> and cabinet may be ousted by a <a href="/wiki/Vote_of_no_confidence" class="mw-redirect" title="Vote of no confidence">vote of no confidence</a>, call <a href="/wiki/Snap_elections" class="mw-redirect" title="Snap elections">snap elections</a>, form a new majority coalition, or continue as a <a href="/wiki/Minority_government" title="Minority government">minority government</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formation_of_coalition_governments">Formation of coalition governments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coalition_government&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Formation of coalition governments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For a coalition to come about the coalition partners need to compromise on their policy expectations. One coalition or probing partner must lose for the other one to win, to achieve a <a href="/wiki/Nash_equilibrium" title="Nash equilibrium">Nash equilibrium</a>, which is necessary for a coalition to form. If the parties are not willing to compromise, the coalition will not come about.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before parties form a coalition government, they formulate a coalition agreement, in which they state what policies they try to adapt in the legislative period. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Coalition_agreement">Coalition agreement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coalition_government&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Coalition agreement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Unterschrift_des_Koalitionsvertrages_der_18._Wahlperiode_des_Bundestages.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Unterschrift_des_Koalitionsvertrages_der_18._Wahlperiode_des_Bundestages.jpg/270px-Unterschrift_des_Koalitionsvertrages_der_18._Wahlperiode_des_Bundestages.jpg" decoding="async" width="270" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Unterschrift_des_Koalitionsvertrages_der_18._Wahlperiode_des_Bundestages.jpg/405px-Unterschrift_des_Koalitionsvertrages_der_18._Wahlperiode_des_Bundestages.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Unterschrift_des_Koalitionsvertrages_der_18._Wahlperiode_des_Bundestages.jpg/540px-Unterschrift_des_Koalitionsvertrages_der_18._Wahlperiode_des_Bundestages.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3239" data-file-height="2506" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sigmar_Gabriel" title="Sigmar Gabriel">Sigmar Gabriel</a> (SPD), <a href="/wiki/Angela_Merkel" title="Angela Merkel">Angela Merkel</a> (CDU) and <a href="/wiki/Horst_Seehofer" title="Horst Seehofer">Horst Seehofer</a> (CSU) presenting the 2013 coalition agreement for Germany's <a href="/wiki/Third_Merkel_cabinet" title="Third Merkel cabinet">third Merkel cabinet</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Multi-party_system" title="Multi-party system">multi-party states</a>, a <b>coalition agreement</b> is an agreement negotiated between the parties that form a coalition government. It codifies the most important shared goals and objectives of the cabinet. It is often written by the <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_leader" title="Parliamentary leader">leaders</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_party" class="mw-redirect" title="Parliamentary party">parliamentary groups</a>. Coalitions that have a written agreement are more productive than those that do not.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>If an issue is discussed more deeply and in more detail in chamber than what appears in the coalition agreement, it indicates that the coalition parties do not share the same policy ideas. Hence, a more detailed written formulation of the issue helps parties in the coalition to limit 'agency loss' when the ministry overseeing that issue is managed by another coalition party.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Electoral_accountability">Electoral accountability</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coalition_government&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Electoral accountability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Coalition governments can also impact voting behavior by diminishing the clarity of responsibility. </p><p>Electoral accountability is harder to achieve in coalition governments than in <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">single party governments</a> because there is no direct responsibility within the governing parties in the coalition.<sup id="cite_ref-linkinghub_elsevier_com_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-linkinghub_elsevier_com-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Voting" title="Voting">Retrospective voting</a> has a huge influence on the outcome of an election. However, the risk of retrospective voting is a lot weaker with coalition governments than in single party governments. Within the coalition, the party with the head of state has the biggest risk of retrospective voting.<sup id="cite_ref-linkinghub_elsevier_com_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-linkinghub_elsevier_com-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Governing_cost">Governing cost</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coalition_government&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Governing cost"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Governing parties lose votes in the election after their legislative period, this is called “the governing cost”. In comparison, a single- party government has a higher electoral cost, than a party that holds the office of the prime minister. Furthermore, the party that holds the office of <a href="/wiki/Prime_minister" title="Prime minister">prime minister</a> suffer less electoral costs, then a junior coalition partner, when looking only on the electoral cost created by being in the coalition government.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Distribution">Distribution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coalition_government&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Distribution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_with_coalition_governments" title="List of countries with coalition governments">List of countries with coalition governments</a></div> <p>Countries which often operate with coalition cabinets include: the <a href="/wiki/Nordic_countries" title="Nordic countries">Nordic countries</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Benelux" title="Benelux">Benelux</a> countries, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>, <a href="/wiki/East_Timor" title="East Timor">East Timor</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau" title="Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kosovo" title="Kosovo">Kosovo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia">Latvia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lesotho" title="Lesotho">Lesotho</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>. <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> has been ruled by a <a href="/wiki/Consensus_democracy" title="Consensus democracy">consensus government</a> with a coalition of the four strongest parties in parliament since 1959, called the "<a href="/wiki/Magic_formula_(Swiss_politics)" title="Magic formula (Swiss politics)">Magic Formula</a>". Between 2010 and 2015, the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> also operated a formal coalition between the <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_(UK)" title="Conservative Party (UK)">Conservative</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Democrats_(UK)" title="Liberal Democrats (UK)">Liberal Democrat</a> parties, but this was unusual: the UK usually has a single-party majority government. Not every parliament forms a coalition government, for example the <a href="/wiki/European_Parliament" title="European Parliament">European Parliament</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Armenia">Armenia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coalition_government&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Armenia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> became an independent state in 1991, following the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. Since then, many <a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Armenia" title="List of political parties in Armenia">political parties</a> were formed in it, who mainly work with each other to form coalition governments. The country was governed by the <a href="/wiki/My_Step_Alliance" title="My Step Alliance">My Step Alliance</a> coalition after successfully gaining a majority in the <a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_of_Armenia" class="mw-redirect" title="National Assembly of Armenia">National Assembly of Armenia</a> following the <a href="/wiki/2018_Armenian_parliamentary_election" title="2018 Armenian parliamentary election">2018 Armenian parliamentary election</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australia">Australia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coalition_government&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Australia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In federal <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Australia" title="Politics of Australia">Australian politics</a>, the conservative <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Australia" title="Liberal Party of Australia">Liberal</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Party_of_Australia" title="National Party of Australia">National</a>, <a href="/wiki/Country_Liberal_Party" title="Country Liberal Party">Country Liberal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liberal_National_Party_of_Queensland" title="Liberal National Party of Queensland">Liberal National</a> parties are united in a coalition, known simply as <a href="/wiki/Coalition_(Australia)" title="Coalition (Australia)">the Coalition</a>. </p><p>While nominally two parties, the Coalition has become so stable, at least at the federal level, that in practice the lower house of Parliament has become a <a href="/wiki/Two-party_system" title="Two-party system">two-party system</a>, with the Coalition and the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Labor_Party" title="Australian Labor Party">Labor Party</a> being the major parties. This coalition is also found in the states of <a href="/wiki/New_South_Wales" title="New South Wales">New South Wales</a> and <a href="/wiki/Victoria_(Australia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Victoria (Australia)">Victoria</a>. In <a href="/wiki/South_Australia" title="South Australia">South Australia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Australia" title="Western Australia">Western Australia</a> the Liberal and National parties compete separately, while in the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Territory" title="Northern Territory">Northern Territory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Queensland" title="Queensland">Queensland</a> the two parties have merged, forming the Country Liberal Party, in 1978, and the Liberal National Party, in 2008, respectively. </p><p>Coalition governments involving the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Labor_Party" title="Australian Labor Party">Labor Party</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Greens" title="Australian Greens">Australian Greens</a> have occurred at <a href="/wiki/Labor%E2%80%93Greens_coalition_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Labor–Greens coalition (disambiguation)">state and territory level</a>, for example following the <a href="/wiki/2010_Tasmanian_state_election" title="2010 Tasmanian state election">2010 Tasmanian state election</a> and the <a href="/wiki/2016_Australian_Capital_Territory_election" title="2016 Australian Capital Territory election">2016</a> and <a href="/wiki/2020_Australian_Capital_Territory_election" title="2020 Australian Capital Territory election">2020</a> <a href="/wiki/ACT_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="ACT Government">Australian Capital Territory</a> elections. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Belgium">Belgium</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coalition_government&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Belgium"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Belgium" title="Politics of Belgium">Belgium</a>, a nation internally divided along linguistic lines (primarily between <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>-speaking <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a> in the north and French-speaking <a href="/wiki/Wallonia" title="Wallonia">Wallonia</a> in the south, with <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a> also being by and large Francophone), each main political disposition (<a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Right-wing_populism" title="Right-wing populism">right-wing populism</a>, etc.) is, with the exception of the far-left <a href="/wiki/Workers%27_Party_of_Belgium" title="Workers' Party of Belgium">Workers' Party of Belgium</a>, split between Francophone and Dutch-speaking parties (e.g. the Dutch-speaking <a href="/wiki/Vooruit_(political_party)" title="Vooruit (political party)">Vooruit</a> and French-speaking <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Party_(Belgium)" title="Socialist Party (Belgium)">Socialist Party</a> being the two social-democratic parties). In the <a href="/wiki/2019_Belgian_federal_election" title="2019 Belgian federal election">2019 federal election</a>, no party got more than 17% of the vote. Thus, forming a coalition government is an expected and necessary part of Belgian politics. In Belgium, coalition governments containing ministers from six or more parties are not uncommon; consequently, <a href="/wiki/Government_formation" title="Government formation">government formation</a> can take an exceptionally long time. Between <a href="/wiki/2007%E2%80%932011_Belgian_political_crisis" title="2007–2011 Belgian political crisis">2007 and 2011</a>, Belgium operated under a <a href="/wiki/Caretaker_government" title="Caretaker government">caretaker government</a> as no coalition could be formed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canada">Canada</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coalition_government&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Canada" title="Politics of Canada">Canada</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Coalition" title="Great Coalition">Great Coalition</a> was formed in 1864 by the <a href="/wiki/Clear_Grits" title="Clear Grits">Clear Grits</a>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Parti_bleu" title="Parti bleu">Parti bleu</a></span></span>, and <a href="/wiki/Liberal-Conservative_Party" title="Liberal-Conservative Party">Liberal-Conservative Party</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a>, Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Robert_Borden" title="Robert Borden">Robert Borden</a> attempted to form a coalition with the opposition Liberals to broaden support for controversial conscription legislation. The Liberal Party refused the offer but some of their members did <a href="/wiki/Crossing_the_floor" title="Crossing the floor">cross the floor</a> and join the government. Although sometimes referred to as a coalition government, according to the definition above, it was not. It was disbanded after the end of the war.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_Canadian_parliamentary_dispute" class="mw-redirect" title="2008–09 Canadian parliamentary dispute">2008–09 Canadian parliamentary dispute</a>, two of Canada's opposition parties signed an agreement to form what would become the country's second federal coalition government since <a href="/wiki/Canadian_confederation" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian confederation">Confederation</a> if the minority Conservative government was defeated on a vote of non-confidence,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> unseating <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Harper" title="Stephen Harper">Stephen Harper</a> as Prime Minister. The agreement outlined a formal coalition consisting of two opposition parties, the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Canada" title="Liberal Party of Canada">Liberal Party</a> and the <a href="/wiki/New_Democratic_Party_(Canada)" class="mw-redirect" title="New Democratic Party (Canada)">New Democratic Party</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Bloc_Qu%C3%A9b%C3%A9cois" title="Bloc Québécois">Bloc Québécois</a> agreed to support the proposed coalition on confidence matters for 18 months. In the end, parliament was <a href="/wiki/Prorogation_in_Canada" title="Prorogation in Canada">prorogued</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Governor_General_of_Canada" title="Governor General of Canada">Governor General</a>, and the coalition dispersed before parliament was reconvened. </p><p>According to historian <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Moore_(Canadian_historian)" title="Christopher Moore (Canadian historian)">Christopher Moore</a>, coalition governments in Canada became much less possible in 1919, when the leaders of parties were no longer chosen by elected MPs but instead began to be chosen by party members. Such a manner of leadership election had never been tried in any parliamentary system before. According to Moore, as long as that kind of leadership selection process remains in place and concentrates power in the hands of the leader, as opposed to backbenchers, then coalition governments will be very difficult to form. Moore shows that the diffusion of power within a party tends to also lead to a diffusion of power in the parliament in which that party operates, thereby making coalitions more likely.<sup id="cite_ref-Moore-1_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moore-1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Provincial">Provincial</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coalition_government&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Provincial"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several coalition governments have been formed within provincial politics. As a result of the <a href="/wiki/1919_Ontario_general_election" title="1919 Ontario general election">1919 Ontario election</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_Farmers_of_Ontario" title="United Farmers of Ontario">United Farmers of Ontario</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_of_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Labour Party of Canada">Labour Party</a>, together with three independent MLAs, formed a coalition that governed <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a> until 1923. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a>, the governing Liberals formed a coalition with the opposition Conservatives in order to prevent the surging, left-wing <a href="/wiki/Cooperative_Commonwealth_Federation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cooperative Commonwealth Federation">Cooperative Commonwealth Federation</a> from taking power in the <a href="/wiki/1941_British_Columbia_general_election" title="1941 British Columbia general election">1941 British Columbia general election</a>. Liberal premier <a href="/wiki/Duff_Pattullo" title="Duff Pattullo">Duff Pattullo</a> refused to form a coalition with the third-place Conservatives, so his party removed him. The Liberal–Conservative coalition introduced a winner-take-all preferential voting system (the "<a href="/wiki/Alternative_Vote" class="mw-redirect" title="Alternative Vote">Alternative Vote</a>") in the hopes that their supporters would rank the other party as their second preference; however, this strategy backfired in the subsequent <a href="/wiki/1952_British_Columbia_general_election" title="1952 British Columbia general election">1952 British Columbia general election</a> where, to the surprise of many, the right-wing populist <a href="/wiki/BC_Social_Credit_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="BC Social Credit Party">BC Social Credit Party</a> won a minority. They were able to win a majority in the subsequent election as Liberal and Conservative supporters shifted their anti-CCF vote to Social Credit. </p><p>Manitoba has had more formal coalition governments than any other province. Following gains by the United Farmer's/Progressive movement elsewhere in the country, the <a href="/wiki/United_Farmers_of_Manitoba" class="mw-redirect" title="United Farmers of Manitoba">United Farmers of Manitoba</a> unexpectedly won the 1921 election. Like their counterparts in Ontario, they had not expected to win and did not have a leader. They asked <a href="/wiki/John_Bracken" title="John Bracken">John Bracken</a>, a professor in animal husbandry, to become leader and premier. Bracken changed the party's name to the <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Party_of_Manitoba" title="Progressive Party of Manitoba">Progressive Party of Manitoba</a>. During the Great Depression, Bracken survived at a time when other premiers were being defeated by forming a coalition government with the Manitoba Liberals (eventually, the two parties would merge into the <a href="/wiki/Manitoba_Liberal_Party#Liberal-Progressive_Party:_Merger_with_the_Progressives" title="Manitoba Liberal Party">Liberal-Progressive Party of Manitoba</a>, and decades later, the party would change its name to the <a href="/wiki/Manitoba_Liberal_Party" title="Manitoba Liberal Party">Manitoba Liberal Party</a>). In 1940, Bracken formed a wartime coalition government with almost every party in the Manitoba Legislature (the Conservatives, CCF, and Social Credit; however, the CCF broke with the coalition after a few years over policy differences). The only party not included was the small, communist <a href="/wiki/Labor-Progressive_Party" title="Labor-Progressive Party">Labor-Progressive Party</a>, which had a handful of seats. </p><p>In Saskatchewan, NDP premier <a href="/wiki/Roy_Romanow" title="Roy Romanow">Roy Romanow</a> formed a formal coalition with the <a href="/wiki/Saskatchewan_Liberal_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Saskatchewan Liberal Party">Saskatchewan Liberals</a> in 1999 after being reduced to a minority. After two years, the newly elected Liberal leader David Karwacki ordered the coalition be disbanded, the Liberal caucus disagreed with him and left the Liberals to run as New Democrats in the upcoming election. The <a href="/wiki/Saskatchewan_NDP" class="mw-redirect" title="Saskatchewan NDP">Saskatchewan NDP</a> was re-elected with a majority under its new leader <a href="/wiki/Lorne_Calvert" title="Lorne Calvert">Lorne Calvert</a>, while the Saskatchewan Liberals lost their remaining seats and have not been competitive in the province since. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Denmark">Denmark</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coalition_government&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Denmark"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Folketing" title="Folketing">Folketing</a> in 1849 through the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Proportional_representation" title="Proportional representation">proportional representation</a> in 1918, there were only single-party governments in Denmark. <a href="/wiki/Thorvald_Stauning" title="Thorvald Stauning">Thorvald Stauning</a> formed his <a href="/wiki/Stauning_II_Cabinet" title="Stauning II Cabinet">second government</a> and Denmark's first coalition government in 1929. Since then, the norm has been coalition governments, though there have been periods where single-party governments were frequent, such as the decade after the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, during the 1970s, and in the late 2010s. Every government from 1982 until the <a href="/wiki/2015_Danish_general_election" title="2015 Danish general election">2015 elections</a> were coalitions. While <a href="/wiki/Mette_Frederiksen" title="Mette Frederiksen">Mette Frederiksen</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Frederiksen_I_Cabinet" title="Frederiksen I Cabinet">first government</a> only consisted of her own <a href="/wiki/Social_Democrats_(Denmark)" title="Social Democrats (Denmark)">Social Democrats</a>, her <a href="/wiki/Frederiksen_II_Cabinet" title="Frederiksen II Cabinet">second government</a> is a coalition of the Social Democrats, <a href="/wiki/Venstre_(Denmark)" title="Venstre (Denmark)">Venstre</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Moderates_(Denmark)" title="Moderates (Denmark)">Moderates</a>. </p><p>When the Social Democrats under Stauning won 46% of the votes in the <a href="/wiki/1935_Danish_Folketing_election" title="1935 Danish Folketing election">1935 election</a>, this was the closest any party has gotten to winning an outright majority in parliament since 1918. One party has thus never held a majority alone, and even one-party governments have needed to have <a href="/wiki/Confidence_and_supply" title="Confidence and supply">confidence agreements</a> with at least one other party to govern. For example, though Frederiksen's first government only consisted of the Social Democrats, it also relied on the support of the <a href="/wiki/Danish_Social_Liberal_Party" title="Danish Social Liberal Party">Social Liberal Party</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Socialist_People%27s_Party_(Denmark)" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist People's Party (Denmark)">Socialist People's Party</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Red%E2%80%93Green_Alliance_(Denmark)" title="Red–Green Alliance (Denmark)">Red–Green Alliance</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Finland">Finland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coalition_government&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Finland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Finland" title="Politics of Finland">Finland</a>, no party has had an absolute majority in the parliament since independence, and multi-party coalitions have been the norm. Finland experienced its most stable government (<a href="/wiki/Paavo_Lipponen%27s_first_cabinet" class="mw-redirect" title="Paavo Lipponen's first cabinet">Lipponen I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paavo_Lipponen%27s_second_cabinet" class="mw-redirect" title="Paavo Lipponen's second cabinet">II</a>) since <a href="/wiki/Finland%27s_declaration_of_independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Finland's declaration of independence">independence</a> with a five-party governing coalition, a so-called "rainbow government". The Lipponen cabinets set the stability record and were unusual in the respect that both the centre-left (SDP) and radical left-wing (Left Alliance) parties sat in the government with the major centre-right party (National Coalition). The <a href="/wiki/Jyrki_Katainen%27s_cabinet" class="mw-redirect" title="Jyrki Katainen's cabinet">Katainen cabinet</a> was also a rainbow coalition of a total of five parties. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germany">Germany</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coalition_government&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Germany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/German_governing_coalition" title="German governing coalition">German governing coalition</a></div> <p>In Germany, coalition governments are the norm, as it is rare for any single party to win a majority in parliament. The German political system makes extensive use of the <a href="/wiki/Constructive_vote_of_no_confidence" title="Constructive vote of no confidence">constructive vote of no confidence</a>, which requires governments to control an absolute majority of seats. Every government since the foundation of the Federal Republic in 1949 has involved at least two political parties. Typically, governments involve one of the two major parties forming a coalition with a smaller party. For example, from 1982 to 1998, the country was governed by a coalition of the <a href="/wiki/CDU/CSU" title="CDU/CSU">CDU/CSU</a> with the minor <a href="/wiki/Free_Democratic_Party_(Germany)" title="Free Democratic Party (Germany)">Free Democratic Party</a> (FDP); from 1998 to 2005, a coalition of the <a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany" title="Social Democratic Party of Germany">Social Democratic Party of Germany</a> (SPD) and the minor <a href="/wiki/Alliance_90/The_Greens" title="Alliance 90/The Greens">Greens</a> held power.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The CDU/CSU comprises an alliance of the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_of_Germany" title="Christian Democratic Union of Germany">Christian Democratic Union of Germany</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_Social_Union_in_Bavaria" title="Christian Social Union in Bavaria">Christian Social Union in Bavaria</a>, described as "sister parties" which form a joint parliamentary group, and for this purpose are always considered a single party.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coalition arrangements are often given names based on the colours of the parties involved, such as "red-green" for the SPD and Greens. Coalitions of three parties are often named after countries whose flags contain those colours, such as the black-yellow-green <a href="/wiki/Jamaica_coalition_(politics)" title="Jamaica coalition (politics)">Jamaica coalition</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Grand_coalition_(Germany)" title="Grand coalition (Germany)">Grand coalitions</a> of the two major parties also occur, but these are relatively rare, as they typically prefer to associate with smaller ones. However, if the major parties are unable to assemble a majority, a grand coalition may be the only practical option. This was the case following the <a href="/wiki/2005_German_federal_election" title="2005 German federal election">2005 federal election</a>, in which the incumbent SPD–Green government was defeated but the opposition CDU/CSU–FDP coalition also fell short of a majority. A grand coalition government was subsequently formed between the CDU/CSU and the SPD. Partnerships like these typically involve carefully structured cabinets: <a href="/wiki/Angela_Merkel" title="Angela Merkel">Angela Merkel</a> of the CDU/CSU became <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_Germany" title="Chancellor of Germany">Chancellor</a> while the SPD was granted the majority of cabinet posts. </p><p>Coalition formation has become increasingly complex as voters increasingly migrate away from the major parties during the 2000s and 2010s.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While coalitions of more than two parties were extremely rare in preceding decades, they have become common on the state level. These often include the liberal FDP and the Greens alongside one of the major parties, or <a href="/wiki/Red%E2%80%93red%E2%80%93green_coalition" title="Red–red–green coalition">"red–red–green"</a> coalitions of the SPD, Greens, and <a href="/wiki/The_Left_(Germany)" title="The Left (Germany)">The Left</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/New_states_of_Germany" title="New states of Germany">eastern states</a>, dwindling support for moderate parties has seen the rise of new forms of grand coalitions such as the <a href="/wiki/Black-red-green_coalition" title="Black-red-green coalition">Kenya coalition</a>. The rise of populist parties also increases the time that it takes for a successful coalition to form.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 2016, the Greens were participating eleven governing coalitions on the state level in seven different constellations.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During campaigns, parties often declare which coalitions or partners they prefer or reject. This tendency toward fragmentation also spread to the federal level, particularly during the <a href="/wiki/2021_German_federal_election" title="2021 German federal election">2021 federal election</a>, which saw the CDU/CSU and SPD fall short of a combined majority of votes for the first time in history.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India">India</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coalition_government&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After India's Independence on 15 August 1947, the <a href="/wiki/Indian_National_Congress" title="Indian National Congress">Indian National Congress</a>, the major political party instrumental in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_independence_movement" title="Indian independence movement">Indian independence movement</a>, ruled the nation. The first Prime Minister, <a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Jawaharlal Nehru</a>, his successor <a href="/wiki/Lal_Bahadur_Shastri" title="Lal Bahadur Shastri">Lal Bahadur Shastri</a>, and the third Prime Minister, <a href="/wiki/Indira_Gandhi" title="Indira Gandhi">Indira Gandhi</a>, were all members of the Congress party. However, <a href="/wiki/Raj_Narain" title="Raj Narain">Raj Narain</a>, who had unsuccessfully contested an election against Indira from the constituency of <a href="/wiki/Rae_Bareli_Lok_Sabha_constituency" title="Rae Bareli Lok Sabha constituency">Rae Bareli</a> in 1971, lodged a case alleging electoral malpractice. In June 1975, Indira was found guilty and barred by the High Court from holding public office for six years. In response, a state of emergency was declared under the pretext of national security. The <a href="/wiki/1977_Indian_general_election" title="1977 Indian general election">next election</a> resulted in the formation of <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_India" title="Politics of India">India</a>'s first ever national coalition government under the prime ministership of <a href="/wiki/Morarji_Desai" title="Morarji Desai">Morarji Desai</a>, which was also the first non-Congress national government. It existed from 24 March 1977 to 15 July 1979, headed by the <a href="/wiki/Janata_Party" title="Janata Party">Janata Party</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-UK_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UK-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an amalgam of political parties opposed to the emergency imposed between 1975 and 1977. As the popularity of the Janata Party dwindled, Desai had to resign, and <a href="/wiki/Chaudhary_Charan_Singh" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaudhary Charan Singh">Chaudhary Charan Singh</a>, a rival of his, became the fifth Prime Minister. However, due to lack of support, this coalition government did not complete its five-year term. </p><p>Congress returned to power in 1980 under Indira Gandhi, and later under <a href="/wiki/Rajiv_Gandhi" title="Rajiv Gandhi">Rajiv Gandhi</a> as the sixth Prime Minister. However, the <a href="/wiki/1989_Indian_general_election" title="1989 Indian general election">general election of 1989</a> once again brought a coalition government under <a href="/wiki/National_Front_(India)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Front (India)">National Front</a>, which lasted until 1991, with two Prime Ministers, the second one being supported by Congress. The 1991 election resulted in a Congress-led stable <a href="/wiki/Minority_government" title="Minority government">minority government</a> for five years. The eleventh <a href="/wiki/Lok_Sabha" title="Lok Sabha">parliament</a> produced three Prime Ministers in two years and forced the country back to the polls in 1998. The first successful coalition government in India which completed a whole five-year term was the <a href="/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party" title="Bharatiya Janata Party">Bharatiya Janata Party</a> (BJP)-led <a href="/wiki/National_Democratic_Alliance_(India)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Democratic Alliance (India)">National Democratic Alliance</a> with <a href="/wiki/Atal_Bihari_Vajpayee" title="Atal Bihari Vajpayee">Atal Bihari Vajpayee</a> as Prime Minister from 1999 to 2004. Then another coalition, the Congress-led <a href="/wiki/United_Progressive_Alliance" title="United Progressive Alliance">United Progressive Alliance</a>, consisting of 13 separate parties, ruled India for two terms from 2004 to 2014 with <a href="/wiki/Manmohan_Singh" title="Manmohan Singh">Manmohan Singh</a> as PM. However, in the <a href="/wiki/2014_Indian_general_election" title="2014 Indian general election">16th general election</a> in May 2014, the BJP secured a majority on its own (becoming the first party to do so since the 1984 election), and the National Democratic Alliance came into power, with <a href="/wiki/Narendra_Modi" title="Narendra Modi">Narendra Modi</a> as Prime Minister. In 2019, Narendra Modi was re-elected as Prime Minister as the National Democratic Alliance again secured a majority in the <a href="/wiki/2019_Indian_general_election" title="2019 Indian general election">17th general election</a>. India returned to an NDA led coalition government in 2024 as the BJP failed to achieve an outright majority. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indonesia">Indonesia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coalition_government&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Indonesia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As a result of the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Suharto" title="Fall of Suharto">toppling of Suharto</a>, political freedom is significantly increased. Compared to only three parties allowed to exist in the <a href="/wiki/New_Order_(Indonesia)" title="New Order (Indonesia)">New Order</a> era, a total of 48 political parties participated in the <a href="/wiki/1999_Indonesian_legislative_election" title="1999 Indonesian legislative election">1999 election</a> and always a total of more than 10 parties in next elections. There are no majority winner of those elections and coalition governments are inevitable. The current government is a coalition of seven parties led by the major <a href="/wiki/Centre-left" class="mw-redirect" title="Centre-left">centre-left</a> <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_Democratic_Party_%E2%80%93_Struggle" class="mw-redirect" title="Indonesian Democratic Party – Struggle">PDIP</a> to let governing <a href="/wiki/Big_tent" title="Big tent">big tent</a> <a href="/wiki/Onward_Indonesia_Coalition" title="Onward Indonesia Coalition">Onward Indonesia Coalition</a> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ireland">Ireland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coalition_government&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Ireland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a>, coalition governments are common; not since 1977 has a single party formed a majority government. Coalition governments to date have been led by either <a href="/wiki/Fianna_F%C3%A1il" title="Fianna Fáil">Fianna Fáil</a> or <a href="/wiki/Fine_Gael" title="Fine Gael">Fine Gael</a>. They have been joined in government by one or more smaller parties or <a href="/wiki/Independent_politician_(Ireland)" title="Independent politician (Ireland)">independent</a> members of parliament (TDs). </p><p>Ireland's <a href="/wiki/5th_Government_of_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="5th Government of Ireland">first coalition government</a> was formed after the <a href="/wiki/1948_Irish_general_election" title="1948 Irish general election">1948 general election</a>, with five parties and independents represented at cabinet. Before 1989, Fianna Fáil had opposed participation in coalition governments, preferring single-party minority government instead. It formed a coalition government with the <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Democrats" title="Progressive Democrats">Progressive Democrats</a> in that year. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(Ireland)" title="Labour Party (Ireland)">Labour Party</a> has been in government on eight occasions. On all but one of those occasions, it was as a junior coalition party to <a href="/wiki/Fine_Gael" title="Fine Gael">Fine Gael</a>. The exception was a government with Fianna Fáil from 1993 to 1994. The <a href="/wiki/29th_Government_of_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="29th Government of Ireland">29th Government of Ireland</a> (2011–16), was a <a href="/wiki/Grand_coalition" title="Grand coalition">grand coalition</a> of the two largest parties, as Fianna Fáil had fallen to third place in the Dáil. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/32nd_Government_of_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="32nd Government of Ireland">current government</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Fianna_F%C3%A1il" title="Fianna Fáil">Fianna Fáil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fine_Gael" title="Fine Gael">Fine Gael</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Green_Party_of_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Green Party of Ireland">Green Party</a>. It is the first time Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael have served in government together, having derived from opposing sides in the <a href="/wiki/Irish_Civil_War" title="Irish Civil War">Irish Civil War</a> (1922–23). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Israel">Israel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coalition_government&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Israel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Rotation_government" title="Rotation government">Rotation government</a></div> <p>A similar situation exists in <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Israel" title="Politics of Israel">Israel</a>, which typically has at least 10 parties holding representation in the <a href="/wiki/Knesset" title="Knesset">Knesset</a>. The only faction to ever gain the majority of Knesset seats was <a href="/wiki/Alignment_(political_party)" class="mw-redirect" title="Alignment (political party)">Alignment</a>, an alliance of the <a href="/wiki/Israeli_Labor_Party" title="Israeli Labor Party">Labor Party</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mapam" title="Mapam">Mapam</a> that held an absolute majority for a brief period from 1968 to 1969. Historically, control of the Israeli government has alternated between periods of rule by the right-wing <a href="/wiki/Likud" title="Likud">Likud</a> in coalition with several right-wing and religious parties and periods of rule by the center-left Labor in coalition with several left-wing parties. <a href="/wiki/Ariel_Sharon" title="Ariel Sharon">Ariel Sharon</a>'s formation of the centrist <a href="/wiki/Kadima" title="Kadima">Kadima</a> party in 2006 drew support from former Labor and Likud members, and Kadima ruled in coalition with several other parties. </p><p>Israel also formed a <a href="/wiki/National_unity_government" title="National unity government">national unity government</a> from <a href="/wiki/1984_Israeli_legislative_election" title="1984 Israeli legislative election">1984–1988</a>. The premiership and foreign ministry portfolio were held by the head of each party for two years, and they switched roles in 1986. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japan">Japan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coalition_government&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Japan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Japan" title="Politics of Japan">Japan</a>, controlling a majority in the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Representatives_(Japan)" title="House of Representatives (Japan)">House of Representatives</a> is enough to decide the <a href="/wiki/Election_of_the_Prime_Minister_of_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Election of the Prime Minister of Japan">election of the prime minister</a> (=recorded, two-round votes in both houses of the <a href="/wiki/National_Diet" title="National Diet">National Diet</a>, yet the vote of the House of Representatives decision eventually overrides a dissenting <a href="/wiki/House_of_Councillors_(Japan)" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Councillors (Japan)">House of Councillors</a> vote automatically after the mandatory conference committee procedure fails which, by precedent, it does without real attempt to reconcile the different votes). Therefore, a party that controls the lower house can form a government on its own. It can also pass a budget on its own. But passing any law (including important budget-related laws) requires either majorities in both houses of the legislature or, with the drawback of longer legislative proceedings, a two-thirds majority in the House of Representatives. </p><p>In recent decades, single-party full legislative control is rare, and coalition governments are the norm: Most <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Japan" title="Cabinet of Japan">governments of Japan</a> since the 1990s and, as of 2020, all since 1999 have been coalition governments, some of them still fell short of a legislative majority. The <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Democratic_Party_(Japan)" title="Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)">Liberal Democratic Party</a> (LDP) held a legislative majority of its own in the National Diet until 1989 (when it initially continued to govern alone), and between the 2016 and 2019 elections (when it remained in its previous ruling coalition). The <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Japan" title="Democratic Party of Japan">Democratic Party of Japan</a> (through accessions in the House of Councillors) briefly controlled a single-party legislative majority for a few weeks before it lost the 2010 election (it, too, continued to govern as part of its previous ruling coalition). </p><p>From the constitutional establishment of parliamentary cabinets and the introduction of the new, now directly elected upper house of parliament in 1947 until the formation of the LDP and the reunification of the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Socialist_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese Socialist Party">Japanese Socialist Party</a> in 1955, no single party formally controlled a legislative majority on its own. Only few formal coalition governments (<a href="/wiki/Katayama_Cabinet" title="Katayama Cabinet">46th</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ashida_Cabinet" title="Ashida Cabinet">47th</a>, initially <a href="/wiki/Third_Yoshida_Cabinet" title="Third Yoshida Cabinet">49th</a> cabinet) interchanged with technical minority governments and cabinets without technical control of the House of Councillors (later called "twisted Diets", <i>nejire kokkai</i>, when they were not only technically, but actually divided). But during most of that period, the centrist <a href="/wiki/Ryokuf%C5%ABkai_(1947%E2%80%9360)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ryokufūkai (1947–60)">Ryokufūkai</a> was the strongest overall or decisive cross-bench group in the House of Councillors, and it was willing to cooperate with both centre-left and centre-right governments even when it was not formally part of the cabinet; and in the House of Representatives, minority governments of Liberals or Democrats (or their precursors; loose, indirect successors to the two major pre-war parties) could usually count on support from some members of the other major conservative party or from smaller conservative parties and independents. Finally in 1955, when Hatoyama Ichirō's Democratic Party minority government called early House of Representatives elections and, while gaining seats substantially, remained in the minority, the Liberal Party refused to cooperate until negotiations on a long-debated "conservative merger" of the two parties were agreed upon, and eventually successful. </p><p>After it was founded in 1955, the Liberal Democratic Party dominated Japan's governments for a long period: The new party governed alone without interruption until 1983, again from 1986 to 1993 and most recently between 1996 and 1999. The first time the LDP entered a coalition government followed its third loss of its <a href="/wiki/House_of_Representatives_of_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Representatives of Japan">House of Representatives</a> majority in the <a href="/wiki/1983_Japanese_general_election" title="1983 Japanese general election">1983 House of Representatives general election</a>. The LDP-<a href="/wiki/New_Liberal_Club" title="New Liberal Club">New Liberal Club</a> <a href="/wiki/Second_Nakasone_Cabinet" title="Second Nakasone Cabinet">coalition government</a> lasted until 1986 when the LDP won landslide victories in simultaneous double elections to both houses of parliament. </p><p>There have been coalition cabinets where the post of prime minister was given to a junior coalition partner: the <a href="/wiki/Ashida_Cabinet" title="Ashida Cabinet">JSP-DP-Cooperativist coalition government</a> in 1948 of prime minister <a href="/wiki/Ashida_Hitoshi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashida Hitoshi">Ashida Hitoshi</a> (DP) who took over after his JSP predecessor <a href="/wiki/Tetsu_Katayama" title="Tetsu Katayama">Tetsu Katayama</a> had been toppled by the left wing of his own party, the <a href="/wiki/Hosokawa_Cabinet" title="Hosokawa Cabinet">JSP-Renewal-Kōmei-DSP-JNP-Sakigake-SDF-DRP coalition</a> in 1993 with <a href="/wiki/Morihiro_Hosokawa" title="Morihiro Hosokawa">Morihiro Hosokawa</a> (JNP) as compromise PM for the <a href="/wiki/Ichir%C5%8D_Ozawa" title="Ichirō Ozawa">Ichirō Ozawa</a>-negotiated rainbow coalition that removed the LDP from power for the first time to break up in less than a year, and the <a href="/wiki/Murayama_Cabinet" title="Murayama Cabinet">LDP-JSP-Sakigake government</a> that was formed in 1994 when the LDP had agreed, if under internal turmoil and with some defections, to bury the main post-war partisan rivalry and support the election of JSP prime minister <a href="/wiki/Tomiichi_Murayama" title="Tomiichi Murayama">Tomiichi Murayama</a> in exchange for the return to government. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Malaysia">Malaysia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coalition_government&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Malaysia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ever since <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> gained <a href="/wiki/Independence_Day_(Malaysia)" title="Independence Day (Malaysia)">independence in 1957</a>, none of its <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Malaysia" title="Government of Malaysia">federal governments</a> have ever been controlled by a single political party. Due to the social nature of the country, the <a href="/wiki/First_Rahman_cabinet" title="First Rahman cabinet">first federal government</a> was formed by a three-party <a href="/wiki/Alliance_Party_(Malaysia)" title="Alliance Party (Malaysia)">Alliance</a> coalition, composed of the <a href="/wiki/United_Malays_National_Organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="United Malays National Organisation">United Malays National Organisations (UMNO)</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Chinese_Association" title="Malaysian Chinese Association">Malaysian Chinese Association (MCA)</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Indian_Congress" title="Malaysian Indian Congress">Malaysian Indian Congress (MIC)</a>. It was later expanded and rebranded as <a href="/wiki/Barisan_Nasional" title="Barisan Nasional">Barisan Nasional (BN)</a>, which includes parties representing the Malaysian states of <a href="/wiki/Sabah" title="Sabah">Sabah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sarawak" title="Sarawak">Sarawak</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/2018_Malaysian_general_election" title="2018 Malaysian general election">2018 Malaysian general election</a> saw the first non-BN coalition federal government in the country's electoral history, formed through an alliance between the <a href="/wiki/Pakatan_Harapan" title="Pakatan Harapan">Pakatan Harapan (PH)</a> coalition and the <a href="/wiki/Sabah_Heritage_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Sabah Heritage Party">Sabah Heritage Party (WARISAN)</a>. The federal government formed after the <a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932022_Malaysian_political_crisis" title="2020–2022 Malaysian political crisis">2020–2022 Malaysian political crisis</a> was the first to be established through coordination between multiple political coalitions. This occurred when the newly formed <a href="/wiki/Perikatan_Nasional" title="Perikatan Nasional">Perikatan Nasional (PN)</a> coalition partnered with BN and <a href="/wiki/Gabungan_Parti_Sarawak" title="Gabungan Parti Sarawak">Gabungan Parti Sarawak (GPS)</a>. In 2022 after its registration, Sabah-based <a href="/wiki/Gabungan_Rakyat_Sabah" title="Gabungan Rakyat Sabah">Gabungan Rakyat Sabah (GRS)</a> formally joined the government (though it had been a part of an informal coalition since 2020). The <a href="/wiki/Anwar_Ibrahim_cabinet" title="Anwar Ibrahim cabinet">current government</a> led by Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Anwar_Ibrahim" title="Anwar Ibrahim">Anwar Ibrahim</a> is composed of four political coalitions and 19 parties. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_Zealand">New Zealand</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coalition_government&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: New Zealand"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electoral_system_of_New_Zealand#MMP_in_New_Zealand" title="Electoral system of New Zealand">Electoral system of New Zealand § MMP in New Zealand</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/MMP_representation" class="mw-redirect" title="MMP representation">MMP</a> was introduced in <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> in <a href="/wiki/1996_New_Zealand_general_election" title="1996 New Zealand general election">the 1996 election</a>. In order to get into power, parties need to get a total of 50% of the approximately (there can be more if an <a href="/wiki/Overhang_seat" title="Overhang seat">Overhang seat</a> exists) 120 seats in parliament – 61. Since it is rare for a party to win a full majority, they must form coalitions with other parties. For example, from 1996 to 1998, the country was governed by a coalition of the <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_National_Party" title="New Zealand National Party">National</a> with the minor <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_First" title="New Zealand First">NZ First</a>; from 1999 to 2002, a coalition of the <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Labour_Party" title="New Zealand Labour Party">Labour</a> and the minor <a href="/wiki/Alliance_(New_Zealand_political_party)" title="Alliance (New Zealand political party)">Alliance</a> and with <a href="/wiki/Confidence_and_supply" title="Confidence and supply">confidence and supply</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Green_Party_(New_Zealand)" class="mw-redirect" title="Green Party (New Zealand)">Green Party</a> held power. Between 2017 and 2020, <a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(New_Zealand)" class="mw-redirect" title="Labour Party (New Zealand)">Labour</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_First" title="New Zealand First">New Zealand First</a> formed a <a href="/wiki/Sixth_Labour_Government_of_New_Zealand" title="Sixth Labour Government of New Zealand">Coalition Government</a> with confidence and supply from the <a href="/wiki/Green_Party_(New_Zealand)" class="mw-redirect" title="Green Party (New Zealand)">Green Party</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/2023_New_Zealand_general_election" title="2023 New Zealand general election">2023 general election</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_National_Party" title="New Zealand National Party">National</a> won 49 seats, <a href="/wiki/ACT_New_Zealand" title="ACT New Zealand">ACT</a> won eleven and <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_First" title="New Zealand First">New Zealand First</a> won eight formed a <a href="/wiki/Sixth_National_Government_of_New_Zealand" title="Sixth National Government of New Zealand">coalition government</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spain">Spain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coalition_government&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Spain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since 2015, there are many more coalition governments than previously in municipalities, autonomous regions and, since 2020 (coming from the <a href="/wiki/November_2019_Spanish_general_election" title="November 2019 Spanish general election">November 2019 Spanish general election</a>), in the Spanish Government. There are two ways of conforming them: all of them based on a program and its institutional architecture, one consists on distributing the different areas of government between the parties conforming the coalition and the other one is, like in the Valencian Community,<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where the ministries are structured with members of all the political parties being represented, so that conflicts that may occur are regarding competences and not fights between parties. </p><p>Coalition governments in Spain had already existed during the 2nd Republic, and have been common in some specific Autonomous Communities since the 1980s. Nonetheless, the prevalence of two big parties overall has been eroded and the need for coalitions appears to be the new normal since around 2015. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Turkey">Turkey</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coalition_government&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Turkey"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Coalition_governments_in_Turkey" title="Coalition governments in Turkey">Coalition governments in Turkey</a></div> <p>Turkey's <a href="/wiki/26th_government_of_Turkey" title="26th government of Turkey">first coalition government</a> was formed after the <a href="/wiki/1961_Turkish_general_election" title="1961 Turkish general election">1961 general election</a>, with two political parties and independents represented at cabinet. It was also Turkey's first <a href="/wiki/Grand_coalition" title="Grand coalition">grand coalition</a> as the two largest political parties of opposing political ideologies (<a href="/wiki/Republican_People%27s_Party" title="Republican People's Party">Republican People's Party</a> and <a href="/wiki/Justice_Party_(Turkey)" title="Justice Party (Turkey)">Justice Party</a>) united. Between 1960 and 2002, 17 coalition governments were formed in Turkey. The media and the general public view coalition governments as unfavorable and unstable due to their lack of effectiveness and short lifespan.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Following Turkey's transition to a <a href="/wiki/Presidential_system" title="Presidential system">presidential system</a> in 2017, political parties focussed more on forming <a href="/wiki/Electoral_alliance" title="Electoral alliance">electoral alliances</a>. Due to <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a>, the government doesn't have to be formed by parliamentarians and therefore not obliged to result in a coalition government. However, the parliament can dissolve the cabinet if the <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_opposition" title="Parliamentary opposition">parliamentary opposition</a> is in majority. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coalition_government&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: United Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/National_Government_(United_Kingdom)" title="National Government (United Kingdom)">National Government (United Kingdom)</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_coalition_government" title="United Kingdom coalition government">United Kingdom coalition government</a></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Politics of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, coalition governments (sometimes known as "national governments") usually have only been formed at times of national crisis. The most prominent was the <a href="/wiki/National_Government_(United_Kingdom)" title="National Government (United Kingdom)">National Government</a> of 1931 to 1940. There were multi-party coalitions during both <a href="/wiki/World_war" title="World war">world wars</a>. Apart from this, when no party has had a majority, minority governments normally have been formed with one or more opposition parties agreeing to vote in favour of the legislation which governments need to function: for instance the <a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)" title="Labour Party (UK)">Labour</a> government of <a href="/wiki/James_Callaghan" title="James Callaghan">James Callaghan</a> formed <a href="/wiki/Lib%E2%80%93Lab_pact" title="Lib–Lab pact">a pact</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(UK)" title="Liberal Party (UK)">Liberals</a> from March 1977 until July 1978, following a series of by-election defeats had eroded Labour's majority of three seats which had been gained at the <a href="/wiki/October_1974_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="October 1974 United Kingdom general election">October 1974 election</a>. However, in the run-up to the <a href="/wiki/1997_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1997 United Kingdom general election">1997 general election</a>, Labour opposition leader <a href="/wiki/Tony_Blair" title="Tony Blair">Tony Blair</a> was in talks with <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Democrats_(UK)" title="Liberal Democrats (UK)">Liberal Democrat</a> leader <a href="/wiki/Paddy_Ashdown" title="Paddy Ashdown">Paddy Ashdown</a> about forming a coalition government if Labour failed to win a majority at the election; but there proved to be no need for a coalition as Labour won the election by a <a href="/wiki/Landslide_victory" title="Landslide victory">landslide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/2010_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="2010 United Kingdom general election">2010 general election</a> resulted in a <a href="/wiki/Hung_parliament" title="Hung parliament">hung parliament</a> (Britain's first for <a href="/wiki/February_1974_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="February 1974 United Kingdom general election">36 years</a>), and the <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_(UK)" title="Conservative Party (UK)">Conservatives</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/David_Cameron" title="David Cameron">David Cameron</a>, which had won the largest number of seats, formed a <a href="/wiki/Cameron%E2%80%93Clegg_coalition" title="Cameron–Clegg coalition">coalition</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Democrats_(UK)" title="Liberal Democrats (UK)">Liberal Democrats</a> in order to gain a parliamentary majority, ending 13 years of Labour government. This was the first time that the Conservatives and Lib Dems had made a power-sharing deal at Westminster.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was also the first full coalition in Britain since 1945, having been formed 70 years virtually to the day after the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a>'s wartime coalition,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Labour and the Liberal Democrats have entered into a coalition twice in the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Parliament" title="Scottish Parliament">Scottish Parliament</a>, as well as twice in the <a href="/wiki/Senedd" title="Senedd">Welsh Assembly</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Uruguay">Uruguay</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coalition_government&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Uruguay"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since the <a href="/wiki/1989_Uruguayan_general_election" title="1989 Uruguayan general election">1989 election</a>, there have been 4 coalition governments, all including at least both the conservative <a href="/wiki/National_Party_(Uruguay)" title="National Party (Uruguay)">National Party</a> and the liberal <a href="/wiki/Colorado_Party_(Uruguay)" title="Colorado Party (Uruguay)">Colorado Party</a>. The first one was after the election of the blanco <a href="/wiki/Luis_Alberto_Lacalle" title="Luis Alberto Lacalle">Luis Alberto Lacalle</a> and lasted until 1992 due to policy disagreements, the longest lasting coalition was the Colorado-led coalition under the second government of <a href="/wiki/Julio_Mar%C3%ADa_Sanguinetti" title="Julio María Sanguinetti">Julio María Sanguinetti</a>, in which the national leader <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alberto_Volont%C3%A9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alberto Volonté (page does not exist)">Alberto Volonté</a> was frequently described as a "Prime Minister", the next coalition (under president <a href="/wiki/Jorge_Batlle" title="Jorge Batlle">Jorge Batlle</a>) was also Colorado-led, but it lasted only until after the <a href="/wiki/2002_Uruguay_banking_crisis" title="2002 Uruguay banking crisis">2002 Uruguay banking crisis</a>, when the blancos abandoned the government.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the <a href="/wiki/2019_Uruguayan_general_election" title="2019 Uruguayan general election">2019 Uruguayan general election</a>, the blanco <a href="/wiki/Luis_Lacalle_Pou" title="Luis Lacalle Pou">Luis Lacalle Pou</a> formed the <a href="/wiki/Coalici%C3%B3n_Multicolor" class="mw-redirect" title="Coalición Multicolor">coalición multicolor</a>, composed of his own National Party, the liberal Colorado Party, the eclectic <a href="/wiki/Open_Cabildo_(Uruguay)" class="mw-redirect" title="Open Cabildo (Uruguay)">Open Cabildo</a> and the center left <a href="/wiki/Independent_Party_(Uruguay)" title="Independent Party (Uruguay)">Independent Party</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Support_and_criticism">Support and criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coalition_government&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Support and criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Coalition_government" title="Special:EditPage/Coalition government">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2014</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Advocates of proportional representation suggest that a coalition government leads to more consensus-based politics, as a government comprising differing parties (often based on different ideologies) need to compromise about governmental policy. Another stated advantage is that a coalition government better reflects the popular opinion of the electorate within a country; this means, for instance, that the political system contains just one majority-based mechanism. Contrast this with district voting in which the majority mechanism occurs twice: first, the majority of voters pick the representative and, second, the body of representatives make a subsequent majority decision. The doubled majority decision undermines voter support for that decision. The benefit of proportional representation is that it contains that majority mechanism just once. Additionally, coalition partnership may play an important role in moderating the level of affective polarization over parties, that is, the animosity and hostility against the opponent party identifiers/supporters.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Those who disapprove of coalition governments believe that such governments have a tendency to be fractious and prone to disharmony, as their component parties hold differing beliefs and thus may not always agree on policy.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sometimes the results of an election mean that the coalitions which are mathematically most probable are ideologically infeasible, for example in <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a> or <a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a>. A second difficulty might be the ability of minor parties to play "<a href="/wiki/Kingmaker" title="Kingmaker">kingmaker</a>" and, particularly in close elections, gain far more power in exchange for their support than the size of their vote would otherwise justify. </p><p>Germany is the largest nation ever to have had proportional representation during the interbellum. After WW II, the German system, district based but then proportionally adjusted afterward, contains a threshold that keeps the number of parties limited. The threshold is set at five percent, resulting in empowered parties with at least a minimum amount of political gravity. </p><p>Coalition governments have also been criticized<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (May 2014)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> for sustaining a <a href="/wiki/Consensus_decision-making" title="Consensus decision-making">consensus</a> on issues when disagreement and the consequent discussion would be more fruitful. To forge a consensus, the leaders of ruling coalition parties can agree to silence their disagreements on an issue to unify the coalition against the opposition. The coalition partners, if they control the parliamentary majority, can collude to make the parliamentary discussion on the issue irrelevant by consistently disregarding the arguments of the opposition and voting against the opposition's proposals — even if there is disagreement within the ruling parties about the issue. However, in winner-take-all this seems always to be the case. </p><p>Powerful parties can also act in an <a href="/wiki/Oligocracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Oligocracy">oligocratic</a> way to form an alliance to stifle the growth of emerging parties. Of course, such an event is rare in coalition governments when compared to <a href="/wiki/Two-party_system" title="Two-party system">two-party systems</a>, which typically exist because of stifling of the growth of emerging parties, often through discriminatory <a href="/wiki/Nomination_rules" title="Nomination rules">nomination rules</a> regulations and <a href="/wiki/Plurality_voting_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Plurality voting system">plurality voting systems</a>, and so on. </p><p>A single, more powerful party can shape the policies of the coalition disproportionately. Smaller or less powerful parties can be intimidated to not openly disagree. In order to maintain the coalition, they would have to vote against their own party's platform in the parliament. If they do not, the party has to leave the government and loses executive power. However, this is contradicted by the "kingmaker" factor mentioned above. </p><p>Finally, a strength that can also be seen as a weakness is that proportional representation puts the emphasis on collaboration. All parties involved are looking at the other parties in the best light possible, since they may be (future) coalition partners. The pendulum may therefore show less of a swing between political extremes. Still, facing external issues may then also be approached from a collaborative perspective, even when the outside force is not benevolent. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legislative_coalitions_and_agreements">Legislative coalitions and agreements</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coalition_government&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Legislative coalitions and agreements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_group" title="Parliamentary group">Parliamentary group</a></div> <p>A legislative coalition or voting coalition is when political parties in a legislature align on voting to push forward specific policies or legislation, but do not engage in power-sharing of the executive branch like in coalition governments.<sup id="cite_ref-willdowns_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-willdowns-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a parliamentary system, political parties may form a <a href="/wiki/Confidence_and_supply" title="Confidence and supply">confidence and supply</a> arrangement, pledging to support the governing party on legislative bills and motions that carry a <a href="/wiki/Vote_of_confidence" class="mw-redirect" title="Vote of confidence">vote of confidence</a>. Unlike a coalition government, which is a more formalised partnership characterised by the sharing of the executive branch, a confidence and supply arrangement does not entail executive "power-sharing". Instead, it involves the governing party supporting specific proposals and priorities of the other parties in the arrangement, in return for their continued support on motions of confidence.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coalition_government&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the United States, political parties have formed legislative coalitions in the past in order to push forward specific policies or legislation in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-willdowns_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-willdowns-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/34th_United_States_Congress" title="34th United States Congress">1855</a>, a coalition was formed between members of the <a href="/wiki/Know_Nothing" title="Know Nothing">American Party</a>, <a href="/wiki/Opposition_Party_(Northern_U.S.)" title="Opposition Party (Northern U.S.)">Opposition Party</a> and <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican Party</a> to elect <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_P._Banks" title="Nathaniel P. Banks">Nathaniel P. Banks</a> <a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Speaker of the United States House of Representatives">speaker of the House</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-LSQ2000_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LSQ2000-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most recent legislative coalition took place in <a href="/wiki/65th_United_States_Congress" title="65th United States Congress">1917</a>, a coalition was formed between members of the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic Party</a>, <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Party_(United_States,_1912%E2%80%931920)" class="mw-redirect" title="Progressive Party (United States, 1912–1920)">Progressive Party</a> and <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_America" title="Socialist Party of America">Socialist Party of America</a> to elect <a href="/wiki/Champ_Clark" title="Champ Clark">Champ Clark</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Speaker of the United States House of Representatives">speaker of the United States House of Representatives</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More recently, during the <a href="/wiki/118th_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="118th Congress">118th Congress</a>, an informal <a href="/wiki/U.S._House_legislative_coalition" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. House legislative coalition">legislative coalition</a> formed between Democrats and mainline Republicans to pass critical legislation opposed by the <a href="/wiki/Freedom_Caucus" title="Freedom Caucus">Freedom Caucus</a>, an extreme right-wing faction controlling a minority of seats in the Republican Conference. </p><p>A coalition government, in which "power-sharing" of executive offices is performed, has not occurred in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-willdowns_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-willdowns-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-marktush_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-marktush-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The norms that allow coalition governments to form and persist do not exist in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-marktush_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-marktush-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coalition_government&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cohabitation_(government)" title="Cohabitation (government)">Cohabitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collaborative_leadership" title="Collaborative leadership">Collaborative leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_alliance" title="Electoral alliance">Electoral alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_fusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Electoral fusion">Electoral fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hung_parliament" title="Hung parliament">Hung parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_democracy_and_election-related_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of democracy and election-related topics">List of democracy and election-related topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_with_coalition_governments" title="List of countries with coalition governments">List of countries with coalition governments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majority_government" title="Majority government">Majority government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minority_government" title="Minority government">Minority government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_system" title="Parliamentary system">Parliamentary system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plurality_voting_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Plurality voting system">Plurality voting system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_coalition" class="mw-redirect" title="Political coalition">Political coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_organisation" title="Political organisation">Political organisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_party_alliances" title="Category:Political party alliances">Category:Political party alliances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_front" title="Popular front">Popular front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_sharing" title="Power sharing">Power sharing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unholy_Alliance_(geopolitical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Unholy Alliance (geopolitical)">Unholy alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_front" title="United front">United front</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coalition_government&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output 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no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 25,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Legislative+Studies+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Institutional+Origins+of+the+Republican+Party%3A+Spatial+Voting+and+the+House+Speakership+Election+of+1855%E2%80%9356&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=114%2C+128-130&rft.date=2000-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F440395%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Jenkins&rft.aufirst=Jeffery+A.&rft.au=Nokken%2C+Timothy+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcpb-us-e1.wpmucdn.com%2Fsites.usc.edu%2Fdist%2F2%2F77%2Ffiles%2F2018%2F01%2FLSQ2000-2mtuewd.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoalition+government" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGPO">GPO</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1917-pt1-v55/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1917-pt1-v55-11-2.pdf">55 <i>Cong. Rec.</i> 106–108 (1917)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-marktush-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-marktush_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-marktush_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTushnet2014" class="citation journal cs1">Tushnet, Mark (2014). "Why Are There No Coalition Governments in the United States: A Speculative Essay". <i>Boston University Law Review</i>. <b>94</b>: 964.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Boston+University+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Why+Are+There+No+Coalition+Governments+in+the+United+States%3A+A+Speculative+Essay&rft.volume=94&rft.pages=964&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Tushnet&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoalition+government" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coalition_government&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGPO" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.govinfo.gov/app/collection/crecb_gpo/_crecb">"Congressional Record (Bound Edition)"</a>. <i>govinfo.gov</i>. Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/United_States_Government_Publishing_Office" title="United States Government Publishing Office">United States Government Publishing Office</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=govinfo.gov&rft.atitle=Congressional+Record+%28Bound+Edition%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.govinfo.gov%2Fapp%2Fcollection%2Fcrecb_gpo%2F_crecb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoalition+government" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Coalition_spectrum" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Coalition_Spectrum_navbox" title="Template:Coalition Spectrum navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Coalition_Spectrum_navbox" title="Template talk:Coalition Spectrum navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Coalition_Spectrum_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Coalition Spectrum navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Coalition_spectrum" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Coalition spectrum</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;">Type of government</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;">Government parties</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;">Opposition parties</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;text-align:left;font-size:105%;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minority_government" title="Minority government">Minority government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confidence_and_supply" title="Confidence and supply">Confidence and supply</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rainbow coalition</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Full coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majority_government" title="Majority government">Majority government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_coalition" title="Grand coalition">Grand coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_unity_government" title="National unity government">National unity government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Consensus government">Consensus government</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:left;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff0000; color:black;"> ∘ </span></li> <li><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff0000; color:black;"> ∘ </span> ⇐ <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#f79646; color:black;"> ∘ </span></li> <li><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff0000; color:black;"> ∘ </span>—<span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#f79646; color:black;"> ∘ </span>—<span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffc000; color:black;"> ∘ </span>—<span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00b050; color:black;"> ∘ </span></li> <li><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff0000; color:black;"> ∘ </span>—<span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00b050; color:black;"> ∘ </span></li> <li><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff0000; color:black;"> ∘ </span></li> <li><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff0000; color:black;"> ∘ </span>—<span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#7030a0; color:white;"> ∘ </span></li> <li><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff0000; color:black;"> ∘ </span>—<span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00b050; color:black;"> ∘ </span>—<span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#7030a0; color:white;"> ∘ </span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Non-partisan_democracy" title="Non-partisan democracy">Non-partisan</a></i></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:left;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#f79646; color:black;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffc000; color:black;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00b050; color:black;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00b0f0; color:black;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#0070c0; color:white;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#7030a0; color:white;"> ∘ </span></li> <li><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffffff; color:black;color:white;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffc000; color:black;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00b050; color:black;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00b0f0; color:black;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#0070c0; color:white;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#7030a0; color:white;"> ∘ </span></li> <li><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffffff; color:black;color:white;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffffff; color:black;color:white;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffffff; color:black;color:white;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00b0f0; color:black;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#0070c0; color:white;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#7030a0; color:white;"> ∘ </span></li> <li><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#f79646; color:black;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffc000; color:black;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffffff; color:black;color:white;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00b0f0; color:black;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#0070c0; color:white;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#7030a0; color:white;"> ∘ </span></li> <li><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#f79646; color:black;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffc000; color:black;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00b050; color:black;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00b0f0; color:black;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#0070c0; color:white;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#7030a0; color:white;"> ∘ </span></li> <li><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#f79646; color:black;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffc000; color:black;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00b050; color:black;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00b0f0; color:black;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#0070c0; color:white;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffffff; color:black;color:white;"> ∘ </span></li> <li><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#f79646; color:black;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffc000; color:black;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffffff; color:black;color:white;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00b0f0; color:black;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#0070c0; color:white;"> ∘ </span> <span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffffff; color:black;color:white;"> ∘ </span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Non-partisan_democracy" title="Non-partisan democracy">Non-partisan</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" 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