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.infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><p>The <b>West Computers</b> (<b>West Area Computing Unit</b>, <b>West Area Computers</b>) were the <a href="/wiki/African_American" class="mw-redirect" title="African American">African American</a>, female <a href="/wiki/Mathematician" title="Mathematician">mathematicians</a> who worked as <a href="/wiki/Human_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Human computer">human computers</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Langley_Research_Center" title="Langley Research Center">Langley Research Center</a> of <a href="/wiki/NACA" class="mw-redirect" title="NACA">NACA</a> (predecessor of <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>) from 1943 through 1958. These women were a subset of the hundreds of female mathematicians who began careers in aeronautical research during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. To offset the loss of manpower as men joined the war effort, many U.S. organizations began hiring, and actively recruiting, more women and minorities during the 1940s. In 1935, the Langley Research Center had five female human computers on staff.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1946, the Langley Research Center had recruited about 400 female human computers.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:02_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">West Area Computing Unit</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Nationality</th><td class="infobox-data category">American</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other names</th><td class="infobox-data nickname">West Computers, West Area Computers</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Occupation</th><td class="infobox-data role">NASA Mathematicians</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Years active</th><td class="infobox-data">1943–1958</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The West Computers were originally subject to Virginia's <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a> and got their name because they worked at Langley's West Area, while the white mathematicians worked in the East section.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In order to work at NACA, the applicants had to pass a civil service exam. Despite Executive Order 8802 outlawing discriminatory hiring practices in defense industries, the Jim Crow laws of Virginia overpowered it and made it more difficult for African American women to be hired than white women.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the applicant was black, they would also have to complete a chemistry course at the nearby Hampton Institute.<sup id="cite_ref-:23_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even though they did the same work as the white female human computers at Langley, the West Computers were required to use segregated work areas,<sup id="cite_ref-:02_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> bathrooms, and cafeterias.<sup id="cite_ref-NASACRgis_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASACRgis-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The West Computers were originally sequestered into the West Area of Langley, hence their nickname.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1958, when the NACA made the transition to NASA, segregated facilities, including the West Computing office, were abolished.<sup id="cite_ref-Loff_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loff-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The work of human computers at Langley varied. However, most of the work involved reading, analyzing, and plotting data.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The human computers did this work by hand. They would work one-on-one with engineers or in computing sections.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The computers played major roles in aircraft testing, supersonic flight research, and the space program.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the female computers were as skilled as their male counterparts, they were officially hired as "subprofessionals" while males held "professional" status. The status of professional allowed newly-hired men to be paid <span style="white-space: nowrap">$2,600</span> annually (about $46,000 in 2023)<sup id="cite_ref-inflation-US_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inflation-US-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while newly-hired women began at <span style="white-space: nowrap">$1,440</span> annually (about $25,000 in 2023)<sup id="cite_ref-inflation-US_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inflation-US-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> due to their subprofessional title.<sup id="cite_ref-:23_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to an unpublished study by Beverly E. Golemba of Langley's early computers, a number of other women did not know about the West Computers.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That said, both the black and white women Golemba interviewed recalled that when computers from both groups were assigned to a project together, "everyone worked well together."<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NASACRgis_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASACRgis-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On November 8, 2019, the <a href="/wiki/Congressional_Gold_Medal" title="Congressional Gold Medal">Congressional Gold Medal</a> was awarded "In recognition of all the women who served as computers, mathematicians, and engineers at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) between the 1930s and the 1970s."<sup id="cite_ref-congress_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-congress-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Notable_members"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Notable members</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Protesting_Segregation"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Protesting Segregation</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Notable_members">Notable members</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=West_Area_Computers&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Notable members" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <p>In 1949, <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Vaughan" title="Dorothy Vaughan">Dorothy Vaughan</a> was put in charge of supervising the West Computers. She was the first African American manager at NASA. Vaughan was a mathematician who worked at Langley from 1943 through her retirement in 1971. She was an excellent programmer in <a href="/wiki/FORTRAN" class="mw-redirect" title="FORTRAN">FORTRAN</a>, a popular computer programming language that is especially suited to <a href="/wiki/Numerical_analysis" title="Numerical analysis">numeric computation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computational_science" title="Computational science">scientific computing</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mary_Jackson_(engineer)" title="Mary Jackson (engineer)">Mary Jackson</a> was involved in fluid dynamics (air streams) and flight tests. Her job was to get relevant data from experiments and conduct tests.<sup id="cite_ref-Loff_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loff-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mathematician <a href="/wiki/Katherine_Johnson" title="Katherine Johnson">Katherine Johnson</a>, who in 2015 was named a <a href="/wiki/Presidential_Medal_of_Freedom" title="Presidential Medal of Freedom">Presidential Medal of Freedom</a> recipient, joined the West Area Computing group in 1953. She was subsequently reassigned to Langley's Flight Research Division, where she performed notable work including providing the trajectory analysis for <a href="/wiki/Astronaut" title="Astronaut">astronaut</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Glenn" title="John Glenn">John Glenn</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Mercury-Atlas_6" title="Mercury-Atlas 6">MA-6</a> <a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Project Mercury</a> orbital spaceflight. Katherine started her career working with information from flight tests, but later on a portion of her math work and research were used in lectures called Notes on Space Technology and taught to many students. These talks were given by engineers that later shaped the Space Task Group, that helped with space travel.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The work of all three women (Vaughan, Johnson, and Jackson) is featured in the 2016 film <i><a href="/wiki/Hidden_Figures" title="Hidden Figures">Hidden Figures</a></i>. Note that this film incorrectly depicts NASA as segregated. Desegregation occurred in 1958 in the transition from NACA to NASA.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Protesting_Segregation">Protesting Segregation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=West_Area_Computers&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Protesting Segregation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <p>Some of the West Computers engaged in small acts of protest against segregation at Langley. Many small protests occurred in the segregated dining room since colored women were forbidden to enter the white cafeteria.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Miriam_D._Mann" title="Miriam D. Mann">Miriam Mann</a> repeatedly removed signs denoting where "coloured girls" could sit for their meals.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both Katherine Johnson and Mary Winston Jackson refused to use the segregated cafeterias and exclusively ate at their desks.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:02_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Katherine Johnson also refused to use segregated restrooms since they were on the opposite side of the campus,<sup id="cite_ref-:32_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so she used an unmarked restroom.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After discovering that the males on her team were attending meetings to share important information about their current tasks, Katherine Johnson also began attending these meetings despite no other women being invited to participate. She participated heavily during these meetings by frequently asking questions and engaging in discussions.<sup id="cite_ref-:23_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Christine_Darden" title="Christine Darden">Christine Darden</a> became an engineer after demonstrating that she possessed or exceeded all skills and qualifications male engineers had and asked to be moved to the engineering pool instead of continuing to be a computer.<sup id="cite_ref-:23_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=West_Area_Computers&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Melba_Roy_Mouton" title="Melba Roy Mouton">Melba Roy Mouton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathaleen_Land" title="Kathaleen Land">Kathaleen Land</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=West_Area_Computers&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:1-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://crgis.ndc.nasa.gov/historic/Human_Computers">"Human Computers"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Human+Computers&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcrgis.ndc.nasa.gov%2Fhistoric%2FHuman_Computers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWest+Area+Computers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:02_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZing2018" class="citation book cs1">Zing, Tsjeng (2018). <i>Forgotten Women: The Scientists</i>. Cassell Illustrated. p. 191. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78840-042-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78840-042-8"><bdi>978-1-78840-042-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forgotten+Women%3A+The+Scientists&rft.pages=191&rft.pub=Cassell+Illustrated&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-78840-042-8&rft.aulast=Zing&rft.aufirst=Tsjeng&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWest+Area+Computers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaynes2017" class="citation news cs1">Haynes, Korey (February 2017). "Fighting FOR Visibility". <i>Astronomy</i>. Vol. 45, no. 2. pp. 44–49. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0091-6358">0091-6358</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astronomy&rft.atitle=Fighting+FOR+Visibility&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=44-49&rft.date=2017-02&rft.issn=0091-6358&rft.aulast=Haynes&rft.aufirst=Korey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWest+Area+Computers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:3_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2018" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Talithia (2018). <i>Power in Numbers: The Rebel Women of Mathematics</i>. New York, New York: Race Point Publishing. p. 76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-63106-485-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-63106-485-2"><bdi>978-1-63106-485-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Power+in+Numbers%3A+The+Rebel+Women+of+Mathematics&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pages=76&rft.pub=Race+Point+Publishing&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-63106-485-2&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Talithia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWest+Area+Computers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:23-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:23_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:23_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:23_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:23_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwardsHarris2017" class="citation book cs1">Edwards, Sue Bradford; Harris, Duchess (2017). <i>Hidden Human Computers: The Black Women of NASA</i>. North Mankato, Minnesota: Essential Library. p. 68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781680783872" title="Special:BookSources/9781680783872"><bdi>9781680783872</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hidden+Human+Computers%3A+The+Black+Women+of+NASA&rft.place=North+Mankato%2C+Minnesota&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=Essential+Library&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781680783872&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=Sue+Bradford&rft.au=Harris%2C+Duchess&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWest+Area+Computers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NASACRgis-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NASACRgis_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NASACRgis_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLennan,_Sarah2011" class="citation web cs1">McLennan, Sarah (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://crgis.ndc.nasa.gov/historic/Human_Computers">"Human Computers"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> Cultural Resources</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NASA+Cultural+Resources&rft.atitle=Human+Computers&rft.date=2011&rft.au=McLennan%2C+Sarah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcrgis.ndc.nasa.gov%2Fhistoric%2FHuman_Computers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWest+Area+Computers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Loff-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Loff_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Loff_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoff2016" class="citation news cs1">Loff, Sarah (22 November 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/content/dorothy-vaughan-biography">"Dorothy Vaughan Biography"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NASA&rft.atitle=Dorothy+Vaughan+Biography&rft.date=2016-11-22&rft.aulast=Loff&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasa.gov%2Fcontent%2Fdorothy-vaughan-biography&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWest+Area+Computers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-inflation-US-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-inflation-US_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-inflation-US_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">1634–1699: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCusker1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_J._McCusker" title="John J. McCusker">McCusker, J. J.</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americanantiquarian.org/proceedings/44525121.pdf"><i>How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/American_Antiquarian_Society" title="American Antiquarian Society">American Antiquarian Society</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Much+Is+That+in+Real+Money%3F+A+Historical+Price+Index+for+Use+as+a+Deflator+of+Money+Values+in+the+Economy+of+the+United+States%3A+Addenda+et+Corrigenda&rft.pub=American+Antiquarian+Society&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=McCusker&rft.aufirst=J.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanantiquarian.org%2Fproceedings%2F44525121.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWest+Area+Computers" class="Z3988"></span> 1700–1799: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCusker1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_J._McCusker" title="John J. McCusker">McCusker, J. J.</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americanantiquarian.org/proceedings/44517778.pdf"><i>How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/American_Antiquarian_Society" title="American Antiquarian Society">American Antiquarian Society</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Much+Is+That+in+Real+Money%3F+A+Historical+Price+Index+for+Use+as+a+Deflator+of+Money+Values+in+the+Economy+of+the+United+States&rft.pub=American+Antiquarian+Society&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=McCusker&rft.aufirst=J.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanantiquarian.org%2Fproceedings%2F44517778.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWest+Area+Computers" class="Z3988"></span> 1800–present: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFederal_Reserve_Bank_of_Minneapolis" class="citation web cs1">Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.minneapolisfed.org/about-us/monetary-policy/inflation-calculator/consumer-price-index-1800-">"Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 29,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Consumer+Price+Index+%28estimate%29+1800%E2%80%93&rft.au=Federal+Reserve+Bank+of+Minneapolis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.minneapolisfed.org%2Fabout-us%2Fmonetary-policy%2Finflation-calculator%2Fconsumer-price-index-1800-&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWest+Area+Computers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://n2t.net/ark:/87292/w9gr20">"Beverly E. Golemba Papers, MS 307, Archives of Women in Science and Engineering, Special Collections Department"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Iowa_State_University" title="Iowa State University">Iowa State University</a> Library</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Iowa+State+University+Library&rft.atitle=Beverly+E.+Golemba+Papers%2C+MS+307%2C+Archives+of+Women+in+Science+and+Engineering%2C+Special+Collections+Department&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fn2t.net%2Fark%3A%2F87292%2Fw9gr20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWest+Area+Computers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Panel Discussion with Women Computers" NASA Langley videotape". 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Congress.gov&rft.atitle=H.R.1396+-+Hidden+Figures+Congressional+Gold+Medal+Act&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.congress.gov%2Fbill%2F116th-congress%2Fhouse-bill%2F1396&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWest+Area+Computers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShetterly2016" class="citation book cs1">Shetterly, Margot Lee (2016-09-06). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hiddenfiguresame0000shet"><i>Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space Race</i></a></span>. William Morrow. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780062363596" title="Special:BookSources/9780062363596"><bdi>9780062363596</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hidden+Figures%3A+The+American+Dream+and+the+Untold+Story+of+the+Black+Women+Mathematicians+Who+Helped+Win+the+Space+Race&rft.pub=William+Morrow&rft.date=2016-09-06&rft.isbn=9780062363596&rft.aulast=Shetterly&rft.aufirst=Margot+Lee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhiddenfiguresame0000shet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWest+Area+Computers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/sites/default/files/history/files/AIP-West-Area-Computers-Handout.pdf">"West Area Computers - Trailblazers in American Space History"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Center for the History of Physics at <a href="/wiki/American_Institute_of_Physics" title="American Institute of Physics">AIP</a></i>. Summer 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 5,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=%27Hidden+Figures%27+and+the+true+NASA+stories+behind+the+movie&rft.date=2017-02-18&rft.aulast=Trenholm&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnet.com%2Fnews%2Fhidden-figures-nasa-true-stories-octavia-spencer-janelle-monae-taraji-henson-kevin-costner%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWest+Area+Computers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:32-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:32_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:32_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:32_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Talithia_Williams" title="Talithia Williams">Williams, Talithia</a> (2018). <a href="/wiki/Power_in_Numbers:_The_Rebel_Women_of_Mathematics" title="Power in Numbers: The Rebel Women of Mathematics"><i>Power in Numbers: The Rebel Women of Mathematics</i></a>. New York, New York: Race Point Publishing. p. 76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-63106-485-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-63106-485-2"><bdi>978-1-63106-485-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Power+in+Numbers%3A+The+Rebel+Women+of+Mathematics&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pages=76&rft.pub=Race+Point+Publishing&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-63106-485-2&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Talithia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWest+Area+Computers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div>    </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&mobile=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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