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</li> <li id="toc-Singapore" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Singapore"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Singapore</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Singapore-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Switzerland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Switzerland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Switzerland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Switzerland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taiwan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taiwan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Taiwan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taiwan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" 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</a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" 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Available in 27 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-27" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">27 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%ADn-kip_p%C4%AB-l%C4%81n" title="Kín-kip pī-lān – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kín-kip pī-lān" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%8F%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%86%D1%8C" title="Крайняя неабходнасць – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Крайняя неабходнасць" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krajn%C3%AD_nouze" title="Krajní nouze – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Krajní nouze" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%B8dret" title="Nødret – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Nødret" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notstand" title="Notstand – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Notstand" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estado_de_necesidad" title="Estado de necesidad – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Estado de necesidad" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi%C4%89a_kondi%C4%89o" title="Sufiĉa kondiĉo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Sufiĉa kondiĉo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principe_de_n%C3%A9cessit%C3%A9" title="Principe de nécessité – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Principe de nécessité" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B8%B4%EA%B8%89%ED%94%BC%EB%82%9C" title="긴급피난 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="긴급피난" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BE%D5%A1%D5%B5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B0%D5%A5%D5%B2_%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B0%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AA%D5%A5%D5%B7%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ծայրահեղ անհրաժեշտություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ծայրահեղ անհրաժեշտություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stato_di_necessit%C3%A0" title="Stato di necessità – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Stato di necessità" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D0%B0_%D2%9B%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Аса қажеттілік – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Аса қажеттілік" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noodzakelijkheid" title="Noodzakelijkheid – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Noodzakelijkheid" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B7%8A%E6%80%A5%E9%81%BF%E9%9B%A3" title="緊急避難 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="緊急避難" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%B8drett" title="Nødrett – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Nødrett" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stan_wy%C5%BCszej_konieczno%C5%9Bci" title="Stan wyższej konieczności – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Stan wyższej konieczności" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estado_de_necessidade" title="Estado de necessidade – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Estado de necessidade" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%8F%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Крайняя необходимость – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Крайняя необходимость" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necessary" title="Necessary – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Necessary" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krajn%C3%A1_n%C3%BAdza" title="Krajná núdza – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Krajná núdza" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skrajna_sila" title="Skrajna sila – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Skrajna sila" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%98%D1%9A%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Крајња нужда – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Крајња нужда" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakkotila" title="Pakkotila – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Pakkotila" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%B6dr%C3%A4tt" title="Nödrätt – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Nödrätt" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zorunluluk" title="Zorunluluk – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Zorunluluk" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%85%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Крайня необхідність – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Крайня необхідність" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh 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For the concept in tort, see <a href="/wiki/Necessity_(tort)" title="Necessity (tort)">Necessity (tort)</a>. For that in the law of war, see <a href="/wiki/Military_necessity" title="Military necessity">Military necessity</a>. For that in constitutional and international law, see <a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_necessity" title="Doctrine of necessity">Doctrine of necessity</a>. For logical meanings, see <a href="/wiki/Necessary_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Necessary (disambiguation)">Necessary (disambiguation)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Modal_logic" title="Modal logic">Modal logic</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1202158006">.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-heading{background:#aaddff;color:#000}.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-above{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-below{padding:0.4em;border-top:1px #aaa solid;font-weight:normal;font-size:smaller}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist law-sidebar"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Criminal_defenses" title="Criminal defenses">Criminal defenses</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> Part of the <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> series</td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actual_innocence" title="Actual innocence">Actual innocence</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_immunity" title="Legal immunity">Immunity</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Insanity_defense" title="Insanity defense">Mental disorder (Insanity)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Diminished_responsibility" title="Diminished responsibility">Diminished responsibility</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Intoxication_defense" title="Intoxication defense">Intoxication</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Defense_of_infancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense of infancy">Infancy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Automatism_(law)" title="Automatism (law)">Automatism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Alibi" title="Alibi">Alibi</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Consent_(criminal_law)" title="Consent (criminal law)">Consent</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Mistake_(criminal_law)" title="Mistake (criminal law)">Mistake</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Duress" class="mw-redirect" title="Duress">Duress</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_criminal_responsibility" title="Age of criminal responsibility">Age</a></li><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Necessity</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Provocation_(law)" title="Provocation (law)">Provocation</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_self-defense" title="Right of self-defense">Self-defense</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/False_confession" title="False confession">False confession</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Entrapment" title="Entrapment">Entrapment</a></li></ul></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <dl><dt><span class="nobold"><i>See also</i></span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">Criminal law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Criminal_procedure" title="Criminal procedure">procedure</a></dd></dl></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Other <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> areas</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">Criminal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Contract_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Contract law">Contract</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Tort_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Tort law">Tort</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Will_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Will (law)">wills</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Trust_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Trust law">Trusts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">Estates</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_(law)" title="Evidence (law)">Evidence</a></li></ul></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Portals</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/16px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/24px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/32px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Criminal_defenses" title="Template:Criminal defenses"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Criminal_defenses" title="Template talk:Criminal defenses"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Criminal_defenses" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Criminal defenses"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">criminal law</a> of many nations, <b>necessity</b> may be either a possible <a href="/wiki/Justification_(jurisprudence)" title="Justification (jurisprudence)">justification</a> or an exculpation for breaking the <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>. <a href="/wiki/Defendant" title="Defendant">Defendants</a> seeking to rely on this <a href="/wiki/Defense_(legal)" title="Defense (legal)">defense</a> argue that they should not be held <a href="/wiki/Liable" class="mw-redirect" title="Liable">liable</a> for their <a href="/wiki/Action_(philosophy)" title="Action (philosophy)">actions</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">crime</a> because their conduct was <i>necessary</i> to prevent some greater harm and when that conduct is not excused under some other more specific provision of law such as <a href="/wiki/Self-defense" title="Self-defense">self defense</a>. As a matter of political expediency, states usually allow some classes of person to be excused from liability when they are engaged in socially useful functions but intentionally cause injury, loss or damage. </p><p>For example, drunk drivers might contend that they drove their car to get away from being <a href="/wiki/Kidnapping" title="Kidnapping">kidnapped</a> (cf. <i><a href="/wiki/North_by_Northwest#Plot" title="North by Northwest">North by Northwest</a></i>). Most <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a> <a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">jurisdictions</a> recognize this defense, but only under limited circumstances. Generally, the defendant must affirmatively show (i.e., introduce some evidence) that (a) the harm they sought to avoid outweighs the danger of the prohibited conduct they are charged with; (b) they had no reasonable alternative; (c) they ceased to engage in the prohibited conduct as soon as the danger passed; and (d) they themselves did not create the danger they sought to avoid. Thus, with the "drunk driver" example cited above, the necessity defense will not be recognized if the defendant drove further than was reasonably necessary to get away from the kidnapper, or if some other reasonable alternative was available to them. </p><p>For another example, the <a href="/wiki/Fire_service" class="mw-redirect" title="Fire service">fire services</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Civil_defence" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil defence">civil defence</a> <a href="/wiki/Organization" title="Organization">organizations</a> have a general duty to keep the <a href="/wiki/Community" title="Community">community</a> safe from harm. If a fire or flood is threatening to spread out of control, it may be reasonably necessary to destroy other property to form a <a href="/wiki/Fire_break" class="mw-redirect" title="Fire break">fire break</a>, or to trespass on land to throw up mounds of earth to prevent the water from spreading. </p><p>These examples have the common feature of individuals intentionally breaking the law because they believe it to be urgently necessary to protect others from harm, but some states distinguish between a response to a crisis arising from an entirely natural cause (an inanimate force of nature), e.g. a fire from a lightning strike or rain from a storm, and a response to an entirely human crisis. Thus, <a href="/wiki/Parent" title="Parent">parents</a> who lack the financial means to feed their <a href="/wiki/Child" title="Child">children</a> cannot use necessity as a defense if they steal food. The existence of welfare benefits and strategies other than self-help defeat the claim of an urgent necessity that cannot be avoided in any way other than by breaking the law. </p><p>Further, some states apply a test of proportionality, where the defense would only be allowed where the degree of harm actually caused was a reasonably proportionate response to the degree of harm threatened. This is a legal form of <a href="/wiki/Cost%E2%80%93benefit_analysis" title="Cost–benefit analysis">cost–benefit analysis</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Specific_jurisdictions">Specific jurisdictions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Necessity_(criminal_law)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Specific jurisdictions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canada">Canada</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Necessity_(criminal_law)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Necessity_in_Canadian_law" title="Necessity in Canadian law">Necessity in Canadian law</a></div> <p>In Canada, necessity is recognized as a defence for crimes committed in urgent situations of clear and imminent peril in which the accused has no safe or legal way out of the situation. </p><p>Three requirements for defence of necessity: </p> <ol><li>Urgent situation of imminent peril or danger</li> <li>No reasonable legal alternative</li> <li>Proportionality between harm inflicted and harm avoided</li></ol> <p>The first and second element are evaluated on the modified objective standard. The third element is evaluated on a purely objective standard: <a href="/wiki/R_v_Latimer" title="R v Latimer">R v Latimer</a>, 2001 SCC 1. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Denmark_and_Norway">Denmark and Norway</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Necessity_(criminal_law)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Denmark and Norway"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Emergency law/right (<i>nødret</i>, <i>nødrett</i>) is the equivalent of necessity in Denmark and Norway.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is considered related to but separate from self-defence. Common legal examples of necessity includes: breaking windows and other objects in order to escape a fire, commandeering a vehicle to serve as an emergency ambulance, ignoring traffic rules while rushing a dying patient to a hospital, and even killing a person who poses an immediate threat to several other people not including yourself. In the last case self-defense laws are not enough, but the case is covered by <i>nødret</i>. <i>Nødret</i> can only be invoked though when no other option is available. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="English_law">English law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Necessity_(criminal_law)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: English law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Necessity_in_English_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Necessity in English law">Necessity in English law</a></div> <p>Except for a few statutory exemptions and in some medical cases<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> there is no corresponding defense in <a href="/wiki/Necessity_in_English_law#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Necessity in English law">English law</a> for murder.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Singapore">Singapore</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Necessity_(criminal_law)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Singapore"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Necessity is a defence per the Penal Code.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This requires lack of criminal intent, good faith (due care and attention<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), and the goal of preventing harm. The harm must be sufficiently serious and imminent to justify or excuse the act. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Switzerland">Switzerland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Necessity_(criminal_law)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Switzerland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerichtsverfahren_zu_Klimaprotesten_in_der_Schweiz" class="extiw" title="de:Gerichtsverfahren zu Klimaprotesten in der Schweiz">de:Gerichtsverfahren zu Klimaprotesten in der Schweiz</a></div> <p>In two separate cases in 2020, climate activists were not convicted of trespassing and damaging property after holding unauthorized demonstrations in <a href="/wiki/Cr%C3%A9dit_Suisse" class="mw-redirect" title="Crédit Suisse">Crédit Suisse</a> branches due to pleading a necessity defense in the face of a <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">climate emergency</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taiwan">Taiwan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Necessity_(criminal_law)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Taiwan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Necessity is a possible defense per the Criminal Code<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the Administrative Penalty Act.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Necessity_(criminal_law)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Necessity as a defense to criminal acts conducted to meet political ends was rejected in the case of <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Schoon" title="United States v. Schoon">United States v. Schoon</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In that case, 30 people, including appellants, gained admittance to the <a href="/wiki/Internal_Revenue_Service" title="Internal Revenue Service">IRS</a> office in Tucson, where they chanted "keep America's tax dollars out of El Salvador," splashed simulated blood on the counters, walls, and carpeting, and generally obstructed the office's operation. The court ruled that the elements of necessity did not exist in this case.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="In_specific_states">In specific states</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Necessity_(criminal_law)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: In specific states"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Necessity_defense_(Kansas)" title="Necessity defense (Kansas)">Necessity defense (Kansas)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Necessity_defense_(New_York)" title="Necessity defense (New York)">Necessity defense (New York)</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Winooski_44" title="Winooski 44">Winooski 44</a> case in Vermont resulted in activists being acquitted of charges after using a necessity defense. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_religious_law">In religious law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Necessity_(criminal_law)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: In religious law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Judaism">Judaism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Necessity_(criminal_law)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Judaism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Judaism, the principle of <i><a href="/wiki/Pikuach_nefesh" title="Pikuach nefesh">pikuach nefesh</a></i> allows any law to be broken to save a life, except laws against murder, adultery/incest and blasphemy/idolatry. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Catholicism">Catholicism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Necessity_(criminal_law)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Catholicism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Canon_1324" title="Canon 1324">Canon 1324</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Necessity_(criminal_law)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Competing_harms" title="Competing harms">Competing harms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opinio_juris_sive_necessitatis" title="Opinio juris sive necessitatis">Opinio juris sive necessitatis</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Necessity_(criminal_law)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Christie, <i>The Defense of Necessity Considered from the Legal and Moral Points of View</i>, (1999) Vol. 48 Duke Law Journal, 975.</li> <li>Fuller, Lon L. <i>The Case of the Speluncean Explorers</i>, (1949) Vol. 62, No. 4 Harvard Law Review <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nullapoena.de/stud/explorers.html">The Case of the Speluncean Explorers</a> and <i>The Case of the Speluncean Explorers: A Fiftieth Anniversary Symposium</i>, (1999) 12 Harvard Law Review 1834.</li> <li>Herman, <i>United States v. Oakland Cannabis Buyer's Cooperative. Whatever Happened to Federalism?</i> (2002) Vol. 95, No. 1 The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 121.</li> <li>Travis, M. <i>The Compulsion Element in a Defence of Necessity</i> (2000) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040718053121/http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/~ttpbst/me/writing/compulsion.htm">Compulsion & Necessity</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.retsinformation.dk/Forms/R0710.aspx?id=113401">Straffeloven</a> på <a href="/w/index.php?title=Retsinformation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Retsinformation (page does not exist)">Retsinformation</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lovdata.no/all/hl-20050520-028.html#17">"Straffeloven av 2005 § 17"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Straffeloven+av+2005+%C2%A7+17&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lovdata.no%2Fall%2Fhl-20050520-028.html%2317&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANecessity+%28criminal+law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Re A (Conjoined Twins: Surgical Separation) [2001] Fam 147</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="/wiki/R_v_Dudley_and_Stephens" title="R v Dudley and Stephens">R v Dudley and Stephens</a> [1884] 14 QBD 273 and R v Howe [1987] 1 AC 417</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://statutes.agc.gov.sg/aol/search/display/view.w3p;ident=85fe891c-9489-47a0-a0c2-15a8a9fb92c9;page=0;query=DocId%3A%22025e7646-947b-462c-b557-60aa55dc7b42%22%20Status%3Ainforce%20Depth%3A0;rec=0#pr81-he-.">Section 81 of the Penal Code of Singapore.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://statutes.agc.gov.sg/aol/search/display/view.w3p;ident=4933180d-0e2b-4808-bcb8-1e276b9522b4;page=0;query=DocId%3A%22025e7646-947b-462c-b557-60aa55dc7b42%22%20Status%3Ainforce%20Depth%3A0;rec=0#pr52-he-.">Section 52 of the Penal Code of Singapore.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStucki2020" class="citation news cs1">Stucki, Saskia (30 October 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://verfassungsblog.de/in-defence-of-green-civil-disobedience/">"In Defence of Green Civil Disobedience"</a>. <i>Verfassungsblog</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Verfassungsblog&rft.atitle=In+Defence+of+Green+Civil+Disobedience&rft.date=2020-10-30&rft.aulast=Stucki&rft.aufirst=Saskia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fverfassungsblog.de%2Fin-defence-of-green-civil-disobedience%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANecessity+%28criminal+law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.srf.ch/news/schweiz/credit-suisse-unterliegt-genfer-kantonsgericht-gibt-klimaaktivist-recht">"Credit Suisse unterliegt - Genfer Kantonsgericht gibt Klimaaktivist Recht"</a>. <i>Schweizer Radio und Fernsehen (SRF)</i> (in German). 14 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Schweizer+Radio+und+Fernsehen+%28SRF%29&rft.atitle=Credit+Suisse+unterliegt+-+Genfer+Kantonsgericht+gibt+Klimaaktivist+Recht&rft.date=2020-10-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.srf.ch%2Fnews%2Fschweiz%2Fcredit-suisse-unterliegt-genfer-kantonsgericht-gibt-klimaaktivist-recht&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANecessity+%28criminal+law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://law.moj.gov.tw/Eng/LawClass/LawSearchNo.aspx?PC=C0000001&DF=&SNo=24">Article 24 of the Criminal Code of the Republic of China</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://law.moj.gov.tw/Eng/LawClass/LawSearchNo.aspx?PC=A0030210&DF=&SNo=13">Article 13 of Administrative Penalty Act</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCavallaro,_James_L._Jr.1993" class="citation cs2">Cavallaro, James L. Jr. (1993), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu/californialawreview/vol81/iss1/6">"The demise of the political necessity defense: indirect civil disobedience and United States v. Schoon"</a>, <i>California Law Review</i>, <b>81</b> (1), University of California Press: 351–385, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3480788">10.2307/3480788</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0008-1221">0008-1221</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3480788">3480788</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=California+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+demise+of+the+political+necessity+defense%3A+indirect+civil+disobedience+and+United+States+v.+Schoon&rft.volume=81&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=351-385&rft.date=1993&rft.issn=0008-1221&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3480788%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3480788&rft.au=Cavallaro%2C+James+L.+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarship.law.berkeley.edu%2Fcalifornialawreview%2Fvol81%2Fiss1%2F6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANecessity+%28criminal+law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite><i><a href="/wiki/U.S._v._Schoon" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. v. Schoon">U.S. v. Schoon</a></i></cite>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://openjurist.org/939/f2d/826/united-states-v-d-schoon">939 F2d 826</a> (July 29, 1991).</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output 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