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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Objectives of criminal law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Objectives_of_criminal_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Selected_criminal_laws" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selected_criminal_laws"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Selected criminal laws</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Selected_criminal_laws-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Selected criminal laws subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Selected_criminal_laws-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Elements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Elements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Elements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Actus_reus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Actus_reus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Actus reus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Actus_reus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mens_rea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mens_rea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Mens rea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mens_rea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Strict_liability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strict_liability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Strict liability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strict_liability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fatal_offenses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fatal_offenses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Fatal offenses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fatal_offenses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_offenses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_offenses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Personal offenses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_offenses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Property_offenses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Property_offenses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Property offenses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Property_offenses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Participatory_offenses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Participatory_offenses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Participatory offenses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Participatory_offenses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mala_in_se_v._mala_prohibita" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mala_in_se_v._mala_prohibita"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.9</span> <span>Mala in se v. mala prohibita</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mala_in_se_v._mala_prohibita-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Defenses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Defenses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.10</span> <span>Defenses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Defenses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criminal_law_jurisdictions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criminal_law_jurisdictions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Criminal law jurisdictions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criminal_law_jurisdictions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-International_criminal_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_criminal_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>International criminal law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_criminal_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-National_criminal_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National_criminal_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>National criminal law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-National_criminal_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Publications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Publications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Publications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Publications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Criminal law</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 76 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-76" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">76 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strafrecht" title="Strafrecht – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Strafrecht" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A" title="قانون جنائي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قانون جنائي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derechu_penal" title="Derechu penal – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Derechu penal" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinay%C9%99t_h%C3%BCququ" title="Cinayət hüququ – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Cinayət hüququ" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%AD%D9%88%D9%82%D9%88%D9%82" title="کیفری حوقوق – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="کیفری حوقوق" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A8" title="ফৌজদারি আইন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ফৌজদারি আইন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Крымінальнае права – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Крымінальнае права" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Наказателно право – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Наказателно право" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krivi%C4%8Dno_pravo" title="Krivično pravo – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Krivično pravo" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dret_penal" title="Dret penal – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Dret penal" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%83%C3%A7%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5_%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%C4%95%C3%A7-%D0%B8%D1%80%C4%95%D0%BA%C4%95" title="Пуçиле тивĕç-ирĕкĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Пуçиле тивĕç-ирĕкĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trestn%C3%AD_pr%C3%A1vo" title="Trestní právo – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Trestní právo" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyfraith_Droseddol" title="Cyfraith Droseddol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Cyfraith Droseddol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strafferet" title="Strafferet – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Strafferet" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strafrecht" title="Strafrecht – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Strafrecht" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminaal%C3%B5igus" title="Kriminaalõigus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kriminaalõigus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%BF%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CE%94%CE%AF%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BF" title="Ποινικό Δίκαιο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ποινικό Δίκαιο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derecho_penal" title="Derecho penal – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Derecho penal" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminala_juro" title="Kriminala juro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kriminala juro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zigor-zuzenbide" title="Zigor-zuzenbide – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Zigor-zuzenbide" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%88%D9%82_%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="حقوق کیفری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="حقوق کیفری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droit_p%C3%A9nal" title="Droit pénal – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Droit pénal" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strafrjocht" title="Strafrjocht – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Strafrjocht" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dereito_penal" title="Dereito penal – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Dereito penal" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%98%95%EB%B2%95" title="형법 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="형법" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%94%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AB%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D6%84" title="Քրեական իրավունք – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Քրեական իրավունք" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF" title="दण्डविधि – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="दण्डविधि" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazneno_pravo" title="Kazneno pravo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kazneno pravo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hukum_pidana" title="Hukum pidana – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Hukum pidana" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diritto_penale" title="Diritto penale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Diritto penale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%98_%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%99" title="משפט פלילי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="משפט פלילי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%AE%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="სისხლის სამართალი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="სისხლის სამართალი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%9A%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%BC%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D2%9B%D2%B1%D2%9B%D1%8B%D2%9B" title="Қылмыстық құқық – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Қылмыстық құқық" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%BC%D1%8B%D1%88-%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%B3%D1%83" title="Кылмыш-жаза укугу – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Кылмыш-жаза укугу" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ius_criminale" title="Ius criminale – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ius criminale" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krimin%C4%81lties%C4%ABbas" title="Krimināltiesības – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Krimināltiesības" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baud%C5%BEiamoji_teis%C4%97" title="Baudžiamoji teisė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Baudžiamoji teisė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sjtroafrech" title="Sjtroafrech – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Sjtroafrech" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BCntet%C5%91jog" title="Büntetőjog – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Büntetőjog" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Кривично право – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Кривично право" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%89" title="القانون الجنائى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="القانون الجنائى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undang-undang_jenayah" title="Undang-undang jenayah – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Undang-undang jenayah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hukum_pidana" title="Hukum pidana – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Hukum pidana" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strafrecht" title="Strafrecht – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Strafrecht" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A8" title="फौजदारी कानुन – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="फौजदारी कानुन" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%91%E4%BA%8B%E6%B3%95" title="刑事法 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="刑事法" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strafferett" title="Strafferett – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Strafferett" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drech_penau" title="Drech penau – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Drech penau" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A7%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%95_%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%82%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%A8" title="ਅਪਰਾਧਿਕ ਕਾਨੂੰਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਅਪਰਾਧਿਕ ਕਾਨੂੰਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prawo_karne" title="Prawo karne – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Prawo karne" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direito_penal" title="Direito penal – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Direito penal" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drept_penal" title="Drept penal – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Drept penal" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Уголовное право – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Уголовное право" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_drejta_penale" title="E drejta penale – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="E drejta penale" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%85%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B0_%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA" title="අපරාධ නීතිය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="අපරාධ නීතිය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Criminal law" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trestn%C3%A9_pr%C3%A1vo" title="Trestné právo – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Trestné právo" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazensko_pravo" title="Kazensko pravo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kazensko pravo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Кривично право – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Кривично право" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazneno_pravo" title="Kazneno pravo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kazneno pravo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hukum_pidana" title="Hukum pidana – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Hukum pidana" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rikosoikeus" title="Rikosoikeus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Rikosoikeus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straffr%C3%A4tt" title="Straffrätt – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Straffrätt" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batas_na_pangkrimen" title="Batas na pangkrimen – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Batas na pangkrimen" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="குற்றவியல் சட்டம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="குற்றவியல் சட்டம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B7%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%83%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%BF" title="శిక్షాస్మృతి – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="శిక్షాస్మృతి" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%8E%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%B2" title="กฎหมายอาญา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="กฎหมายอาญา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceza_hukuku" title="Ceza hukuku – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Ceza hukuku" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Кримінальне право – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Кримінальне право" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derito_pena%C5%82e" title="Derito penałe – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Derito penałe" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lu%E1%BA%ADt_h%C3%ACnh_s%E1%BB%B1" title="Luật hình sự – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Luật hình sự" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balaod_pankrimen" title="Balaod pankrimen – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Balaod pankrimen" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%91%E6%B3%95" title="刑法 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="刑法" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%91%E6%B3%95" title="刑法 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="刑法" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%91%E6%B3%95" title="刑法 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="刑法" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%A3%E2%B5%94%E2%B4%BC_%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%8F%E2%B4%B1%E2%B4%BD%E2%B4%B0%E2%B4%B9" title="ⴰⵣⵔⴼ ⴰⵏⴱⴽⴰⴹ – Standard Moroccan Tamazight" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⴰⵣⵔⴼ ⴰⵏⴱⴽⴰⴹ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="Standard Moroccan Tamazight" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q146491#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Body of law that relates to crimes</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Penal law" redirects here. For the historic British laws punishing nonconformists, see <a href="/wiki/Penal_law_(British)" title="Penal law (British)">Penal law (British)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the 1988 film, see <a href="/wiki/Criminal_Law_(film)" title="Criminal Law (film)"><i>Criminal Law</i> (film)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output 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3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1202158006">.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-heading{background:#aaddff;color:#000}.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-above{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-below{padding:0.4em;border-top:1px #aaa solid;font-weight:normal;font-size:smaller}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist law-sidebar"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-top-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Handcuffs_icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Handcuffs_icon.svg/100px-Handcuffs_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Handcuffs_icon.svg/150px-Handcuffs_icon.svg.png 1.5x, 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<li><a href="/wiki/Aiding_and_abetting" title="Aiding and abetting">Accomplice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complicity" title="Complicity">Complicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_liability" title="Corporate liability">Corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principal_(criminal_law)" title="Principal (criminal law)">Principal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicarious_liability_(criminal)" title="Vicarious liability (criminal)">Vicarious</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Severity of offense</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Felony" title="Felony">Felony</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Indictable_offence" title="Indictable offence">Indictable offense</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summary_offence#United_States" title="Summary offence">Infraction</a> (also called violation)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misdemeanor" title="Misdemeanor">Misdemeanor</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Summary_offence" title="Summary offence">Summary offense</a>)</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Inchoate_offense" title="Inchoate offense">Inchoate offenses</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attempt" title="Attempt">Attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_conspiracy" title="Criminal conspiracy">Conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incitement" title="Incitement">Incitement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solicitation" title="Solicitation">Solicitation</a></li></ul> </td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Offence_against_the_person" title="Offence against the person">Offense against the person</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assassination" title="Assassination">Assassination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assault" title="Assault">Assault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battery_(crime)" title="Battery (crime)">Battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_abuse" title="Child abuse">Child abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_negligence" title="Criminal negligence">Criminal negligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence" title="Domestic violence">Domestic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_imprisonment" title="False imprisonment">False imprisonment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frameup" title="Frameup">Frameup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harassment" title="Harassment">Harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_invasion" title="Home invasion">Home invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homicide" title="Homicide">Homicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intimidation" title="Intimidation">Intimidation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidnapping" title="Kidnapping">Kidnapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menacing" title="Menacing">Menacing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manslaughter" title="Manslaughter">Manslaughter</a> (<a href="/wiki/Corporate_manslaughter" title="Corporate manslaughter">corporate</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayhem_(crime)" title="Mayhem (crime)">Mayhem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder" title="Murder">Murder</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Felony_murder_rule" title="Felony murder rule">felony</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preterintention" title="Preterintention">Preterintention</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Homicide" title="Homicide">Homicide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negligent_homicide" title="Negligent homicide">Negligent homicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reckless_homicide" title="Reckless homicide">Reckless homicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robbery" title="Robbery">Robbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalking" title="Stalking">Stalking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stabbing" title="Stabbing">Stabbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">Torture</a></li></ul> </td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Sex_and_the_law" title="Sex and the law">Sexual offenses</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adultery" title="Adultery">Adultery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bigamy" title="Bigamy">Bigamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_sexual_abuse" title="Child sexual abuse">Child sexual abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybersex_trafficking" title="Cybersex trafficking">Cybersex trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fornication#Across_history,_cultures,_and_laws" title="Fornication">Fornication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminalization_of_homosexuality" title="Criminalization of homosexuality">Homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legality_of_incest" title="Legality of incest">Incest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indecent_exposure" title="Indecent exposure">Indecent exposure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masturbation#Law" title="Masturbation">Masturbation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obscenity" title="Obscenity">Obscenity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution" title="Prostitution">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape" title="Rape">Rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pederasty" title="Pederasty">Pederasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking" title="Sex trafficking">Sex trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_assault" title="Sexual assault">Sexual assault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">Sexual slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voyeurism" title="Voyeurism">Voyeurism</a></li></ul> </td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Crimes against property</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arson" title="Arson">Arson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arms_trafficking" title="Arms trafficking">Arms trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackmail" title="Blackmail">Blackmail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bribery" title="Bribery">Bribery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burglary" title="Burglary">Burglary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybercrime" title="Cybercrime">Cybercrime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embezzlement" title="Embezzlement">Embezzlement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extortion" title="Extortion">Extortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_pretenses" title="False pretenses">False pretenses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forgery" title="Forgery">Forgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fraud" title="Fraud">Fraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambling" title="Gambling">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property violation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larceny" title="Larceny">Larceny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Looting" title="Looting">Looting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Payola" title="Payola">Payola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pickpocketing" title="Pickpocketing">Pickpocketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possession_of_stolen_goods" title="Possession of stolen goods">Possessing stolen property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robbery" title="Robbery">Robbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smuggling" title="Smuggling">Smuggling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_evasion" title="Tax evasion">Tax evasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theft" title="Theft">Theft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trespass_to_land" title="Trespass to land">Trespass to land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandalism" title="Vandalism">Vandalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mischief" title="Mischief">Mischief</a></li></ul> </td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Crimes against justice</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compounding_a_felony" title="Compounding a felony">Compounding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malfeasance_in_office" title="Malfeasance in office">Malfeasance in office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miscarriage_of_justice" title="Miscarriage of justice">Miscarriage of justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misprision_of_felony" title="Misprision of felony">Misprision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstruction_of_justice" class="mw-redirect" title="Obstruction of justice">Obstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perjury" title="Perjury">Perjury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perverting_the_course_of_justice" title="Perverting the course of justice">Perverting the course of justice</a></li></ul> </td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Crimes against the public</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy" title="Apostasy">Apostasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Begging" title="Begging">Begging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption" title="Corruption">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">Censorship violation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duel" title="Duel">Dueling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hostage" title="Hostage">Hostage-taking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insider_trading" title="Insider trading">Insider trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smuggling" title="Smuggling">Smuggling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumptuary_law" title="Sumptuary law">Illegal consumption</a> (such as prohibition of <a href="/wiki/Prohibition_of_drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Prohibition of drugs">drugs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prohibition" title="Prohibition">alcohol</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Smoking_ban" title="Smoking ban">smoking</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws" title="Anti-miscegenation laws">Miscegenation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">Piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_corruption" title="Political corruption">Political corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regicide" title="Regicide">Regicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usurper" title="Usurper">Usurpation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War crimes</a></li></ul> </td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Crimes against animals</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cruelty_to_animals" title="Cruelty to animals">Cruelty to animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poaching" title="Poaching">Poaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_smuggling" title="Wildlife smuggling">Wildlife smuggling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoophilia" title="Zoophilia">Bestiality</a></li></ul> </td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Crimes against the state</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A8se-majest%C3%A9" title="Lèse-majesté">Lèse-majesté</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treason" title="Treason">Treason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Espionage" title="Espionage">Espionage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secession" title="Secession">Secession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedition" title="Sedition">Sedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subversion" title="Subversion">Subversion</a></li></ul> </td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Defense_(legal)" title="Defense (legal)">Defenses to liability</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actual_innocence" title="Actual innocence">Actual innocence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automatism_(law)" title="Automatism (law)">Automatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent" title="Consent">Consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defence_of_property" title="Defence of property">Defense of property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diminished_responsibility" title="Diminished responsibility">Diminished responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coercion" title="Coercion">Duress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entrapment" title="Entrapment">Entrapment</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ignorantia_juris_non_excusat" title="Ignorantia juris non excusat">Ignorantia juris non excusat</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_criminal_responsibility" title="Age of criminal responsibility">Infancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insanity_defense" title="Insanity defense">Insanity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_(jurisprudence)" title="Justification (jurisprudence)">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mistake_(criminal_law)" title="Mistake (criminal law)">Mistake</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mistake_of_law" title="Mistake of law">of law</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necessity_(criminal_law)" title="Necessity (criminal law)">Necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provocation_(law)" title="Provocation (law)">Provocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_self-defense" title="Right of self-defense">Self-defense</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Other common-law areas</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">Contracts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_defenses" title="Criminal defenses">Defenses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_(law)" title="Evidence (law)">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">Torts</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Will_and_testament" title="Will and testament">Wills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trust_(law)" title="Trust (law)">trusts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Administration_(probate_law)" title="Administration (probate law)">estates</a></span></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Portals</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Criminal_law" title="Template:Criminal law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Criminal_law" title="Template talk:Criminal law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Criminal_law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Criminal law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Criminal law</b> is the body of <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a> that relates to <a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">crime</a>. It proscribes conduct perceived as threatening, harmful, or otherwise endangering to the <a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">property</a>, <a href="/wiki/Health" title="Health">health</a>, <a href="/wiki/Safety" title="Safety">safety</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Welfare_spending" title="Welfare spending">welfare</a> of people inclusive of one's self. Most criminal law is established by <a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">statute</a>, which is to say that the laws are enacted by a <a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">legislature</a>. Criminal law includes the <a href="/wiki/Punishment" title="Punishment">punishment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">rehabilitation</a> of people who violate such laws. </p><p>Criminal law varies according to <a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">jurisdiction</a>, and differs from <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(common_law)" title="Civil law (common law)">civil law</a>, where emphasis is more on dispute resolution and victim compensation, rather than on <a href="/wiki/Punishment" title="Punishment">punishment</a> or <a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">rehabilitation</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Criminal_procedure" title="Criminal procedure">Criminal procedure</a> is a formalized official activity that authenticates the fact of commission of a crime and authorizes punitive or rehabilitative treatment of the <a href="/wiki/Criminal" class="mw-redirect" title="Criminal">offender</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminal_law&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first civilizations generally did not distinguish between <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(area)" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil law (area)">civil law</a> and criminal law. The first written codes of law were designed by the <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumerians</a>. Around 2100–2050 BC <a href="/wiki/Ur-Nammu" title="Ur-Nammu">Ur-Nammu</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Sumerian" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Sumerian">Neo-Sumerian</a> king of <a href="/wiki/Ur" title="Ur">Ur</a>, enacted written legal code whose text has been discovered: the <i><a href="/wiki/Code_of_Ur-Nammu" title="Code of Ur-Nammu">Code of Ur-Nammu</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although an earlier code of <a href="/wiki/Urukagina" title="Urukagina">Urukagina</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a> ( 2380–2360 BC ) is also known to have existed. Another important early code was the <a href="/wiki/Code_Hammurabi" class="mw-redirect" title="Code Hammurabi">Code of Hammurabi</a>, which formed the core of <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_law" title="Babylonian law">Babylonian law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only fragments of the early criminal laws of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a> have survived, e.g. those of <a href="/wiki/Solon" title="Solon">Solon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Draco_(lawgiver)" title="Draco (lawgiver)">Draco</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Microcosm_of_London_Plate_058_-_Old_Bailey_edited.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Microcosm_of_London_Plate_058_-_Old_Bailey_edited.jpg/190px-Microcosm_of_London_Plate_058_-_Old_Bailey_edited.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Microcosm_of_London_Plate_058_-_Old_Bailey_edited.jpg/285px-Microcosm_of_London_Plate_058_-_Old_Bailey_edited.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Microcosm_of_London_Plate_058_-_Old_Bailey_edited.jpg/380px-Microcosm_of_London_Plate_058_-_Old_Bailey_edited.jpg 2x" data-file-width="828" data-file-height="626" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Old_Bailey" title="Old Bailey">Old Bailey</a> in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> (in 1808) was the venue for more than 100,000 criminal trials between 1674 and 1834, including all death penalty cases.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gaius_(jurist)" title="Gaius (jurist)">Gaius</a>'s <i>Commentaries on the <a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a></i> also conflated the civil and criminal aspects, treating theft (<i><a href="/wiki/Furtum" title="Furtum">furtum</a></i>) as a <a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">tort</a>. Assault and violent <a href="/wiki/Robbery" title="Robbery">robbery</a> were analogized to <a href="/wiki/Trespass" title="Trespass">trespass</a> as to property. Breach of such laws created an obligation of law or <i>vinculum juris</i> discharged by payment of monetary compensation or <a href="/wiki/Damages" title="Damages">damages</a>. The criminal law of <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Rome">imperial Rome</a> is collected in Books 47–48 of the <a href="/wiki/Digest_(Roman_law)" title="Digest (Roman law)">Digest</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the revival of Roman law in the 12th century, sixth-century Roman classifications and jurisprudence provided the foundations of the distinction between criminal and civil law in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">European</a> law from then until the present time.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first signs of the modern distinction between crimes and civil matters emerged during the <a href="/wiki/William_the_Conqueror" title="William the Conqueror">Norman Invasion</a> of England.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The special notion of criminal penalty, at least concerning Europe, arose in Spanish Late Scholasticism (see <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_de_Castro" title="Alfonso de Castro">Alfonso de Castro</a>), when the theological notion of God's penalty (poena aeterna) that was inflicted solely for a guilty mind, became transfused into canon law first and, finally, to secular criminal law.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Codifiers and architects of Early Modern criminal law were the German jurist <a href="/wiki/Benedikt_Carpzov_Jr." title="Benedikt Carpzov Jr.">Benedikt Carpzov</a> (1595–1666), professor of law in <a href="/wiki/Leipzig_University" title="Leipzig University">Leipzig</a>, and two Italians, the Roman judge and lawyer <a href="/wiki/Prospero_Farinacci" title="Prospero Farinacci">Prospero Farinacci</a> (1544–1618) and the Piedmontese lawyer and statesman <a href="/wiki/Giulio_Claro" title="Giulio Claro">Giulio Claro</a> (1525–1575).<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The development of the <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">state</a> dispensing <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a> in a court clearly emerged in the eighteenth century when European countries began maintaining police services. From this point, criminal law formalized the mechanisms for enforcement, which allowed for its development as a discernible entity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Objectives_of_criminal_law">Objectives of criminal law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminal_law&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Objectives of criminal law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Criminal law is distinctive for the uniquely serious, potential consequences or <a href="/wiki/Sanctions_(law)" title="Sanctions (law)">sanctions</a> for failure to abide by its rules.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Every crime is composed of <a href="/wiki/Element_(criminal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Element (criminal)">criminal elements</a>. <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">Capital punishment</a> may be imposed in some jurisdictions for the most serious crimes. Physical or <a href="/wiki/Corporal_punishment" title="Corporal punishment">corporal punishment</a> may be imposed such as <a href="/wiki/Flagellation" title="Flagellation">whipping</a> or <a href="/wiki/Caning" title="Caning">caning</a>, although these punishments are prohibited in much of the world. Individuals may be <a href="/wiki/Incarcerated" class="mw-redirect" title="Incarcerated">incarcerated</a> in <a href="/wiki/Prison" title="Prison">prison</a> or <a href="/wiki/Jail" class="mw-redirect" title="Jail">jail</a> in a variety of conditions depending on the jurisdiction. Confinement may be solitary. Length of incarceration may vary from a day to life. Government supervision may be imposed, including <a href="/wiki/House_arrest" title="House arrest">house arrest</a>, and convicts may be required to conform to particularized guidelines as part of a <a href="/wiki/Parole" title="Parole">parole</a> or <a href="/wiki/Probation" title="Probation">probation</a> regimen. <a href="/wiki/Fine_(penalty)" title="Fine (penalty)">Fines</a> also may be imposed, seizing money or property from a person convicted of a crime. </p><p>Five objectives are widely accepted for enforcement of the criminal law by <a href="/wiki/Criminal_punishment" class="mw-redirect" title="Criminal punishment">punishments</a>: <a href="/wiki/Retributive_justice" title="Retributive justice">retribution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deterrence_(legal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Deterrence (legal)">deterrence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Incapacitation_(penology)" title="Incapacitation (penology)">incapacitation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">rehabilitation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Restorative_justice" title="Restorative justice">restoration</a>. Jurisdictions differ on the value to be placed on each. </p> <ul><li><b>Retribution</b> – Criminals ought to be punished in some way. This is the most widely seen goal. Criminals have taken improper advantage, or inflicted unfair detriment, upon others and consequently, the criminal law will put criminals at some unpleasant disadvantage to "balance the scales." People submit to the law to receive the right not to be murdered and if people contravene these laws, they surrender the rights granted to them by the law. Thus, one who murders may be executed himself. A related theory includes the idea of "righting the balance."</li> <li><b>Deterrence</b> – <i>Individual</i> deterrence is aimed toward the specific offender. The aim is to impose a sufficient penalty to discourage the offender from criminal behavior. <i>General</i> deterrence aims at society at large. By imposing a penalty on those who commit offenses, other individuals are discouraged from committing those offenses.</li> <li><b>Incapacitation</b> – Designed simply to keep criminals <i>away</i> from society so that the public is protected from their misconduct. This is often achieved through prison sentences today, and capital punishment or <a href="/wiki/Banishment" class="mw-redirect" title="Banishment">banishment</a> serve the same purpose.</li> <li><b>Rehabilitation</b> – Aims at transforming an offender into a valuable member of society. Its primary goal is to prevent further offense by convincing the offender that his conduct was wrong.</li> <li><b>Restoration</b> – This is a victim-oriented theory of punishment. The goal is to repair, through state authority, any injury inflicted upon the victim by the offender. For example, an <a href="/wiki/Embezzle" class="mw-redirect" title="Embezzle">embezzler</a> will be required to repay the amount improperly acquired. Restoration is commonly combined with other main goals of <a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">criminal justice</a> and is closely related to concepts in the <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(common_law)" title="Civil law (common law)">civil law</a>, i.e., returning the victim to his or her original position before the injury.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Selected_criminal_laws">Selected criminal laws</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminal_law&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Selected criminal laws"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many laws are enforced by threat of <a href="/wiki/Criminal_punishment" class="mw-redirect" title="Criminal punishment">criminal punishment</a>, and the range of the punishment varies with the jurisdiction. The scope of criminal law is too vast to catalog intelligently. Nevertheless, the following are some of the more typical aspects of criminal law. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Elements">Elements</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminal_law&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Elements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Element_(criminal_law)" title="Element (criminal law)">Element (criminal law)</a></div> <p>The criminal law generally prohibits undesirable <i>acts</i>. Thus, proof of a crime requires proof of some act. Scholars label this the requirement of an <a href="/wiki/Actus_reus" title="Actus reus">actus reus</a> or <i>guilty act</i>. Some crimes – particularly modern regulatory offenses – require no more, and they are known as <a href="/wiki/Strict_liability" title="Strict liability">strict liability</a> offenses (E.g. Under the <i>Road traffic Act 1988</i> it is a strict liability offence to drive a vehicle with an alcohol concentration above the prescribed limit). Nevertheless, because of the potentially severe consequences of criminal conviction, judges at <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> also sought proof of an <i>intent</i> to do some bad thing, the <a href="/wiki/Mens_rea" title="Mens rea">mens rea</a> or <i>guilty mind</i>. As to crimes of which both <i>actus reus</i> and <i>mens rea</i> are requirements, judges have concluded that the elements must be present at precisely the same moment and it is not enough that they occurred sequentially at different times.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Actus_reus">Actus reus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminal_law&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Actus reus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Actus_reus" title="Actus reus">Actus reus</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LCJ-Court-1886.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/LCJ-Court-1886.jpg" decoding="async" width="204" height="267" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="204" data-file-height="267" /></a><figcaption>An English court room in 1886, with <a href="/wiki/Lord_Chief_Justice_Coleridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Chief Justice Coleridge">Lord Chief Justice Coleridge</a> presiding</figcaption></figure> <p><i>Actus reus</i> is <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> for "<b>guilty act</b>" and is the physical element of committing a crime. It may be accomplished by an action, by threat of action, or exceptionally, by an <a href="/wiki/Omission_(criminal_law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Omission (criminal law)">omission</a> to act, which is a legal duty to act. For example, the act of <i>A</i> striking <i>B</i> might suffice, or a parent's failure to give food to a young child also may provide the actus reus for a crime. </p><p>Where the actus reus is a <i>failure</i> to act, there must be a <i>duty of care</i>. A duty can arise through <a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">contract</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a voluntary undertaking,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a blood relation with whom one lives,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and occasionally through one's official position.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Duty also can arise from one's own creation of a dangerous situation.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, it was held in the U.K. that switching off the life support of someone in a <a href="/wiki/Persistent_vegetative_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Persistent vegetative state">persistent vegetative state</a> is an omission to act and not criminal. Since discontinuation of power is not a voluntary act, not grossly negligent, and is in the patient's best interests, no crime takes place.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this case it was held that since a PVS patient could not give or withhold consent to medical treatment, it was for the doctors to decide whether treatment was in the patient's best interest. It was reasonable for them to conclude that treatment was not in the patient's best interest, and should therefore be stopped, when there was no prospect of improvement. It has always been illegal to take active steps to cause or accelerate death, although in certain circumstances it was lawful to withhold life sustaining treatment, including feeding, without which the patient would die. </p><p>An actus reus may be nullified by an absence of <a href="/wiki/Causation_(law)" title="Causation (law)">causation</a>. For example, a crime involves harm to a person, the person's action must be the <i><a href="/wiki/But_for_test" class="mw-redirect" title="But for test">but for</a></i> cause and <i><a href="/wiki/Proximate_cause" title="Proximate cause">proximate cause</a></i> of the harm.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If more than one cause exists (e.g. harm comes at the hands of more than one culprit) the act must have "more than a slight or trifling link" to the harm.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Causation is not broken simply because a victim is particularly vulnerable. This is known as the <a href="/wiki/Thin_skull_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Thin skull rule">thin skull rule</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it may be broken by an intervening act (<i>novus actus interveniens</i>) of a third party, the victim's own conduct,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or another unpredictable event. A mistake in <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medical</a> treatment typically will not sever the chain, unless the mistakes are in themselves "so potent in causing death."<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mens_rea">Mens rea</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminal_law&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Mens rea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mens_rea" title="Mens rea">Mens rea</a></div> <p><i>Mens rea</i> is another <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> phrase, meaning "guilty mind". This is the mental element of the crime. A guilty mind means an <a href="/wiki/Intention_in_English_law" title="Intention in English law">intention</a> to commit some wrongful act. Intention under criminal law is separate from a person's <a href="/wiki/Motive_(law)" title="Motive (law)">motive</a><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (although motive does not exist in Scots law).<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A lower threshold of <i>mens rea</i> is satisfied when a defendant recognizes an act is dangerous but decides to commit it anyway. This is <a href="/wiki/Recklessness_(law)" title="Recklessness (law)">recklessness</a>. It is the mental state of mind of the person at the time the actus reus was committed. For instance, if <i>C</i> tears a gas meter from a wall to get the money inside, and knows this will let flammable gas escape into a neighbour's house, he could be liable for poisoning.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Courts often consider whether the actor did recognize the danger, or alternatively ought to have recognized a risk.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of course, a requirement only that one <i>ought</i> to have recognized a danger (though he did not) is tantamount to erasing <i>intent</i> as a requirement. In this way, the importance of <a href="/wiki/Mens_rea" title="Mens rea">mens rea</a> has been reduced in some areas of the criminal law but is obviously still an important part in the criminal system. </p><p>Wrongfulness of intent also may vary the seriousness of an offense and possibly reduce the punishment but this is not always the case. A killing committed with specific intent to kill or with conscious recognition that <a href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">death</a> or <a href="/wiki/Grievous_bodily_harm" title="Grievous bodily harm">serious bodily harm</a> will result, would be murder, whereas a killing effected by reckless acts lacking such a consciousness could be manslaughter.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, it matters not who is actually harmed through a defendant's actions. The doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Transferred_intent" title="Transferred intent">transferred malice</a> means, for instance, that if a man intends to strike a person with his belt, but the belt bounces off and hits another, mens rea is transferred from the intended target to the person who actually was struck.[Note: The notion of transferred intent does not exist within Scots' Law. In Scotland, one would not be charged with assault due to transferred intent, but instead assault due to recklessness.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Strict_liability">Strict liability</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminal_law&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Strict liability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Strict_liability_(criminal)" title="Strict liability (criminal)">Strict liability (criminal)</a></div> <p>Strict liability can be described as criminal or civil liability notwithstanding the lack of mens rea or intent by the defendant. Not all crimes require specific intent, and the threshold of culpability required may be reduced or demoted. For example, it might be sufficient to show that a defendant acted <a href="/wiki/Negligence" title="Negligence">negligently</a>, rather than <a href="/wiki/Intention_(criminal_law)" title="Intention (criminal law)">intentionally</a> or <a href="/wiki/Recklessness_(law)" title="Recklessness (law)">recklessly</a>. In offenses of <a href="/wiki/Absolute_liability" title="Absolute liability">absolute liability</a>, other than the prohibited act, it may not be necessary to show the act was intentional. Generally, crimes must include an intentional act, and "intent" is an element that must be proved in order to find a crime occurred. The idea of a "strict liability crime" is an oxymoron. The few exceptions are not truly crimes at all – but are administrative regulations and civil penalties created by statute, such as crimes against the traffic or highway code. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fatal_offenses">Fatal offenses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminal_law&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Fatal offenses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Murder" title="Murder">Murder</a> and <a href="/wiki/Culpable_homicide" title="Culpable homicide">Culpable homicide</a></div> <p>A <i>murder</i>, defined broadly, is an unlawful killing. Unlawful killing is probably the act most frequently targeted by the criminal law. In many <a href="/wiki/Jurisdictions" class="mw-redirect" title="Jurisdictions">jurisdictions</a>, the crime of murder is divided into various gradations of severity, e.g., murder in the <i>first degree</i>, based on <i>intent</i>. <i><a href="/wiki/Malice_(law)" title="Malice (law)">Malice</a></i> is a required element of murder. Manslaughter (Culpable Homicide in Scotland) is a lesser variety of killing committed in the absence of <i>malice</i>, brought about by reasonable <a href="/wiki/Provocation_(legal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Provocation (legal)">provocation</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Diminished_capacity" class="mw-redirect" title="Diminished capacity">diminished capacity</a>. <a href="/wiki/Involuntary_manslaughter" class="mw-redirect" title="Involuntary manslaughter"><i>Involuntary</i> manslaughter</a>, where it is recognized, is a killing that lacks all but the most attenuated guilty intent, recklessness. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Settled_insanity" title="Settled insanity">Settled insanity</a> is a possible defense. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personal_offenses">Personal offenses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminal_law&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Personal offenses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Assault" title="Assault">Assault</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battery_(crime)" title="Battery (crime)">Battery (crime)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rape" title="Rape">Rape</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sexual_abuse" title="Sexual abuse">Sexual abuse</a></div> <p>Many criminal codes protect the physical integrity of the body. The crime of <a href="/wiki/Battery_(crime)" title="Battery (crime)">battery</a> is traditionally understood as an unlawful touching, although this does not include everyday knocks and jolts to which people silently consent as the result of presence in a crowd. Creating a fear of imminent battery is an <a href="/wiki/Assault" title="Assault">assault</a>, and also may give rise to criminal liability. Non-consensual <a href="/wiki/Sexual_intercourse" title="Sexual intercourse">intercourse</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Rape" title="Rape">rape</a>, is a particularly egregious form of battery. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Property_offenses">Property offenses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminal_law&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Property offenses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Criminal_damage" class="mw-redirect" title="Criminal damage">Criminal damage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Criminal_trespass" class="mw-redirect" title="Criminal trespass">Criminal trespass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theft" title="Theft">Theft</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robbery" title="Robbery">Robbery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Extortion" title="Extortion">Extortion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dacoity" title="Dacoity">Dacoity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Burglary" title="Burglary">Burglary</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fraud" title="Fraud">Fraud</a></div> <p>Property often is protected by the criminal law. <a href="/wiki/Trespass" title="Trespass">Trespassing</a> is unlawful entry onto the real property of another. Many criminal codes provide penalties for <a href="/wiki/Criminal_conversion" title="Criminal conversion">conversion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Embezzlement" title="Embezzlement">embezzlement</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Theft" title="Theft">theft</a>, all of which involve deprivations of the value of the property. <a href="/wiki/Robbery" title="Robbery">Robbery</a> is a theft by force. <a href="/wiki/Fraud" title="Fraud">Fraud</a> in the UK is a breach of the Fraud Act 2006 by false representation, by failure to disclose information or by abuse of position. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Participatory_offenses">Participatory offenses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminal_law&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Participatory offenses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Accomplice" class="mw-redirect" title="Accomplice">Accomplice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aid_and_abet" class="mw-redirect" title="Aid and abet">Aid and abet</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Inchoate_offenses" class="mw-redirect" title="Inchoate offenses">Inchoate offenses</a></div> <p>Some criminal codes criminalize association with a criminal venture or involvement in criminality that does not actually come to fruition. Some examples are aiding, abetting, <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_(crime)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conspiracy (crime)">conspiracy</a>, and attempt. However, in Scotland, the English concept of <b>Aiding and Abetting</b> is known as <b>Art and Part Liability</b>. See Glanville Williams, Textbook of Criminal Law, (London: Stevens & Sons, 1983); Glanville Williams, Criminal Law the General Part (London: Stevens & Sons, 1961). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mala_in_se_v._mala_prohibita">Mala in se v. mala prohibita</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminal_law&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Mala in se v. mala prohibita"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While crimes are typically broken into degrees or classes to punish appropriately, all offenses can be divided into 'mala in se' and 'mala prohibita' laws. Both are Latin legal terms, <b>mala in se</b> meaning crimes that are thought to be inherently evil or morally wrong, and thus will be widely regarded as crimes regardless of jurisdiction. Mala in se offenses are felonies, property crimes, immoral acts and corrupt acts by public officials. <b>Mala prohibita</b>, on the other hand, refers to offenses that do not have wrongfulness associated with them. Parking in a restricted area, driving the wrong way down a one-way street, jaywalking or unlicensed fishing are examples of acts that are prohibited by statute, but without which are not considered wrong. Mala prohibita statutes are usually imposed strictly, as there does not need to be mens rea component for punishment under those offenses, just the act itself. For this reason, it can be argued that offenses that are mala prohibita are not really crimes at all.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Defenses">Defenses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminal_law&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Defenses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Criminal_defenses" title="Criminal defenses">Criminal defenses</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criminal_law_jurisdictions">Criminal law jurisdictions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminal_law&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Criminal law jurisdictions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Criminal_law" title="Special:EditPage/Criminal law">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2008</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">Crimes against humanity</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_and_the_International_Criminal_Court" title="United States and the International Criminal Court">United States and the International Criminal Court</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:International_Criminal_Court_2018.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/International_Criminal_Court_2018.jpg/220px-International_Criminal_Court_2018.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/International_Criminal_Court_2018.jpg/330px-International_Criminal_Court_2018.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/International_Criminal_Court_2018.jpg/440px-International_Criminal_Court_2018.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption>The exterior of the <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court</a>'s headquarters building in <a href="/wiki/The_Hague" title="The Hague">the Hague</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Public_international_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Public international law">Public international law</a> deals extensively and increasingly with criminal conduct that is heinous and ghastly enough to affect entire societies and regions. The formative source of modern international criminal law was the <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trials</a> following the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a> in which the leaders of <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a> were prosecuted for their part in <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a> and atrocities across <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>. The Nuremberg trials marked the beginning of criminal fault for individuals, where individuals acting on behalf of a government can be tried for violations of international law without the benefit of sovereign immunity. In 1998 an <a href="/wiki/International_criminal_court" class="mw-redirect" title="International criminal court">International criminal court</a> was established in the Rome Statute.<sup id="cite_ref-un.org_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-un.org-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminal_law&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_law" title="Administrative law">Administrative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_socialization" title="Legal socialization">Legal socialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_criminology" title="Public criminology">Public criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_law" title="Martial law">Martial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_law" class="mw-redirect" title="European Union law">European Union law</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_criminal_law">International criminal law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminal_law&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: International criminal law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">Crimes against humanity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">International criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_against_nature" title="Crime against nature">Crime against nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_and_the_International_Criminal_Court" title="United States and the International Criminal Court">United States and the International Criminal Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_jurisdiction" title="Universal jurisdiction">Universal jurisdiction</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="National_criminal_law">National criminal law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminal_law&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: National criminal law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_criminal_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian criminal law">Australian criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_criminal_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian criminal law">Canadian criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_Code_of_Russia" title="Criminal Code of Russia">Criminal Code of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_Code_of_Romania" title="Penal Code of Romania">Penal Code of Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_law_of_Singapore" title="Criminal law of Singapore">Criminal law of Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_law_of_the_United_States" title="Criminal law of the United States">Criminal law of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_criminal_law" title="English criminal law">English criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_criminal_law" title="French criminal law">French criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_criminal_law" title="Hong Kong criminal law">Hong Kong criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_criminal_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian criminal law">Indian criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_criminal_law" title="Irish criminal law">Irish criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_law#Criminal_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Ireland law">Northern Irish criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_criminal_law" title="Philippine criminal law">Philippine criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_criminal_law" title="Scottish criminal law">Scottish criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_criminal_law" title="South African criminal law">South African criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strafgesetzbuch_(Switzerland)" class="mw-redirect" title="Strafgesetzbuch (Switzerland)">Strafgesetzbuch (Switzerland)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Publications">Publications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminal_law&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Publications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>De pace Regis et regni</i>, by <a href="/wiki/Ferdinando_Pulton" title="Ferdinando Pulton">Ferdinando Pulton</a>, published 1609</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminal_law&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminal_law&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kramer, Samuel Noah. (1971) <i>The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character,</i> p.4, University of Chicago <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-45238-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-45238-7">0-226-45238-7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarper1999" class="citation book cs1">Harper, Robert Francis (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jeLz_BYUoeQC&q=code+of+hammurabi+babylon&pg=PR9"><i>The Code of Hammurabi, King of Babylon: About 2250 B.C. : Autographed Text, Transliteration, Translation, Glossary Index of Subjects, Lists of Proper Names, Signs, Numuerals ...</i></a> The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781584770039" title="Special:BookSources/9781584770039"><bdi>9781584770039</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Code+of+Hammurabi%2C+King+of+Babylon%3A+About+2250+B.C.+%3A+Autographed+Text%2C+Transliteration%2C+Translation%2C+Glossary+Index+of+Subjects%2C+Lists+of+Proper+Names%2C+Signs%2C+Numuerals+...&rft.pub=The+Lawbook+Exchange%2C+Ltd.&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9781584770039&rft.aulast=Harper&rft.aufirst=Robert+Francis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjeLz_BYUoeQC%26q%3Dcode%2Bof%2Bhammurabi%2Bbabylon%26pg%3DPR9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlbrecht" class="citation web cs1">Albrecht, James F. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090731194918/http://www.mypolice.ca/research_and_publications/GreekRomanJurisprudence.htm">"Law and Order in Ancient Civilizations"</a>. St. John's University (NYC). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mypolice.ca/research_and_publications/GreekRomanJurisprudence.htm">the original</a> on July 31, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 22,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Law+and+Order+in+Ancient+Civilizations&rft.place=St.+John%27s+University+%28NYC%29&rft.aulast=Albrecht&rft.aufirst=James+F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmypolice.ca%2Fresearch_and_publications%2FGreekRomanJurisprudence.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCraies1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Craies, William Feilden (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Criminal Law"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Criminal_Law">"Criminal Law" </a></span>. In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">454–</span>464. <q>see page 454, para: Rome</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Criminal+Law&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E454-%3C%2Fspan%3E464&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Craies&rft.aufirst=William+Feilden&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Law, Criminal Procedure", <i>Dictionary of the Middle Ages: Supplement 1</i>, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons-Thompson-Gale, 2004: 309–320</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see, Pennington, Kenneth (1993) <i>The Prince and the Law, 1200–1600: Sovereignty and Rights in the Western Legal Tradition,</i> University of California Press</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harald Maihold, <i>Strafe für fremde Schuld? Die Systematisierung des Strafbegriffs in der Spanischen Spätscholastik und Naturrechtslehre</i>, Köln u.a. 2005</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pennington, Kenneth, "Canon Law in the Late Middle Ages: The Need and the Opportunity", in <i>Proceedings of the eleventh International Congress of Medieval Canon Law</i>: Catania, 30 July – 6 August 2000, p. 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDennis_J._Baker2011" class="citation web cs1">Dennis J. Baker (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111013102024/http://www.ashgate.com/isbn/9781409427650">"The Right Not to be Criminalized: Demarcating Criminal Law's Authority"</a>. Ashgate. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ashgate.com/isbn/9781409427650">the original</a> on 2011-10-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-11-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Right+Not+to+be+Criminalized%3A+Demarcating+Criminal+Law%27s+Authority&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2011&rft.au=Dennis+J.+Baker&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ashgate.com%2Fisbn%2F9781409427650&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This is demonstrated by <i>R v. Church</i> [1966] 1 QB 59. Mr. Church had a fight with a woman which rendered her unconscious. He attempted to revive her, but gave up, believing her to be dead. He threw her, still alive, in a nearby river, where she <a href="/wiki/Drown" class="mw-redirect" title="Drown">drowned</a>. The court held that Mr. Church was not guilty of murder (because he did not ever desire to kill her), but was guilty of <a href="/wiki/Manslaughter" title="Manslaughter">manslaughter</a>. The "chain of events," his act of throwing her into the water and his desire to hit her, coincided. In this manner, it does not matter when a guilty mind and act coincide, as long as at some point they do. See also, <i>Fagan v. Metropolitan Police Commissioner</i> [1968] 3 All ER 442, where angry Mr Fagan would not take his car off a policeman's foot</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>R v. Pittwood</i> (1902) 19 TLR 37 – a railway worker who omitted to shut the crossing gates, convicted of manslaughter when someone was run over by a train</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">e.g. the partner in <i>Gibbons</i> who was not a blood parent, but had assumed a duty of care</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>R v. Stone and Dobinson</i> [1977] QB 354, where an ill tended sister named Fanny could not leave bed, was not cared for at all and literally rotted in her own filth. This is <a href="/wiki/Gross_negligence" title="Gross negligence">gross negligence</a> <a href="/wiki/Manslaughter" title="Manslaughter">manslaughter</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>R v. Dytham</i> [1979] QB 722, where a policeman on duty stood and watched three men kick another to death.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>R v. Miller</i> [1983] 1 All ER 978, a squatter flicked away a still lit <a href="/wiki/Cigarette" title="Cigarette">cigarette</a>, which landed on a <a href="/wiki/Mattress" title="Mattress">mattress</a>. He failed to take action, and after the building had burned down, he was convicted of <a href="/wiki/Arson" title="Arson">arson</a>. He failed to correct the dangerous situation he created, as he was duty bound to do. See also, <i>R v. Santana-Bermudez</i> (2003) where a thug with a needle failed to tell a policewoman searching his pockets that he had one.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Airedale NHS Trust v. Bland</i> [1993] 1 All ER 821</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">e.g. <i>R v. Pagett</i> [1983] Crim LR 393, where '<b>but for'</b> the defendant using his pregnant girlfriend for a <a href="/wiki/Human_shield" title="Human shield">human shield</a> from police fire, she would not have died. Pagget's conduct foreseeably procured the heavy police response.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>R v. Kimsey</i> [1996] Crim LR 35, where 2 girls were racing their cars dangerously and crashed. One died, but the other was found slightly at fault for her death and convicted.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">e.g. <i><a href="/wiki/R_v._Blaue" class="mw-redirect" title="R v. Blaue">R v. Blaue</a></i> [1975] where a Jehovah's witness (who refuse blood transfusions on religious grounds) was stabbed and without accepting life saving treatment died.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">e.g. <i>R v. Williams</i> [1992] Crim LR 198 where a hitchhiker who jumped from a car and died, apparently because the driver tried to steal his wallet, was a "daft" intervening act. c.f. <i>R v. Roberts</i> [1972] Crim LR 27, where a girl getting drunk jumped from a speeding car to avoid sexual advances and was injured and <i>R v. Majoram</i> [2000] Crim LR 372 where thugs kicked in the victims door scared him to jumping from the window. These actions were <b>foreseeable and therefore creating liability for injuries</b>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">per <a href="/wiki/Roy_Beldam" title="Roy Beldam">Beldam LJ</a>, <i>R v. Cheshire</i> [1991] 3 All ER 670; see also, <i>R v. Jordan</i> [1956] 40 Cr App R 152, where a stab victim recovering well in hospital was given an antibiotic. The victim was allergic, but he was given it the next day too, and died. The hospital's actions intervened and pardoned the defendant through condemning themselves instead.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>R v. Mohan</i> [1975] 2 All ER 193, intention defined as "a decision to bring about ... [the <i>actus reus</i>] no matter whether the accused desired that consequence of his act or not."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://archive.org/stream/cu31924024627675#page/n5/mode/2up">https://archive.org/stream/cu31924024627675#page/n5/mode/2up</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">c.f. <i>R v. Cunningham</i> [1957] 2 All ER 863, where the defendant did not realise, and was not liable; also <i>R v. G and Another</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200203/ldjudgmt/jd031016/g-1.htm">[2003] UKHL 50</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">previously in the U.K. under <i>Metropolitan Police Commissioner v. Caldwell</i> [1981] 1 All ER 961</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>R v. Woolin</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199798/ldjudgmt/jd980722/wool.htm">[1998] 4 All ER 103</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>R v. Latimer</i> (1886) 17 QBD 359; though for an entirely different offense, e.g. breaking a window, one cannot transfer malice, see <i>R v. Pembliton</i> (1874) LR 2 CCR 119</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerkins1982" class="citation book cs1">Perkins, Rollin M. (1982). <i>Criminal Law, 3rd ed</i>. The Foundation Press, Inc. pp. <span class="nowrap">15–</span>17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88277-067-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-88277-067-5"><bdi>0-88277-067-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Criminal+Law%2C+3rd+ed&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E15-%3C%2Fspan%3E17&rft.pub=The+Foundation+Press%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-88277-067-5&rft.aulast=Perkins&rft.aufirst=Rollin+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-un.org-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-un.org_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://legal.un.org/icc/statute/99_corr/cstatute.htm">"Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 April</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rome+Statute+of+the+International+Criminal+Court&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flegal.un.org%2Ficc%2Fstatute%2F99_corr%2Fcstatute.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminal_law&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSurendra_MalikSudeep_Malik2015" class="citation book cs1">Surendra Malik; Sudeep Malik (2015). <i>Supreme Court on Criminal Procedure Code and Criminal Trial</i>. Eastern Book Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-5145-223-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-5145-223-2"><bdi>978-93-5145-223-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Supreme+Court+on+Criminal+Procedure+Code+and+Criminal+Trial&rft.pub=Eastern+Book+Company&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-93-5145-223-2&rft.au=Surendra+Malik&rft.au=Sudeep+Malik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Supreme Court Cases Back Volume- Full Set From 1970 to 2014 and 1 Vol of 2015 Total 81 Volumes</i>. Eastern Book Company. 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Supreme+Court+Cases+Back+Volume-+Full+Set+From+1970+to+2014+and+1+Vol+of+2015+Total+81+Volumes&rft.pub=Eastern+Book+Company&rft.date=2015&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSurendra_MalikSudeep_Malik2015" class="citation book cs1">Surendra Malik; Sudeep Malik (2015). <i>Supreme Court on Preventive detention Laws (1950 to 2013) Containing case law on Over 50 central & state Statutes (In 2 Vol)</i>. Eastern Book Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-5028-947-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-5028-947-1"><bdi>978-93-5028-947-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Supreme+Court+on+Preventive+detention+Laws+%281950+to+2013%29+Containing+case+law+on+Over+50+central+%26+state+Statutes+%28In+2+Vol%29&rft.pub=Eastern+Book+Company&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-93-5028-947-1&rft.au=Surendra+Malik&rft.au=Sudeep+Malik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSurendra_MalikSudeep_Malik2015" class="citation book cs1">Surendra Malik; Sudeep Malik (2015). <i>Supreme Court on Death Sentence in Murder cases</i>. Eastern Book Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-5145-209-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-5145-209-6"><bdi>978-93-5145-209-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Supreme+Court+on+Death+Sentence+in+Murder+cases&rft.pub=Eastern+Book+Company&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-93-5145-209-6&rft.au=Surendra+Malik&rft.au=Sudeep+Malik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlok_Bhasin2015" class="citation book cs1">Alok Bhasin (2015). <i>Law relating to Sexual Harassment at work</i>. Eastern Book Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-5145-249-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-5145-249-2"><bdi>978-93-5145-249-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Law+relating+to+Sexual+Harassment+at+work&rft.pub=Eastern+Book+Company&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-93-5145-249-2&rft.au=Alok+Bhasin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSurendra_MalikSumeet_MalikSudeep_Malik2015" class="citation book cs1">Surendra Malik; Sumeet Malik; Sudeep Malik (2015). <i>Supreme Court Criminal Digest 2014</i>. Eastern Book Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-5145-207-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-5145-207-2"><bdi>978-93-5145-207-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Supreme+Court+Criminal+Digest+2014&rft.pub=Eastern+Book+Company&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-93-5145-207-2&rft.au=Surendra+Malik&rft.au=Sumeet+Malik&rft.au=Sudeep+Malik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Supreme Court Criminal Manual Coat Poacket edition in 2 Vol containing Cr.p.c, IPC & Evidence Act</i>. Eastern Book Company. 2015. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-5145-064-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-5145-064-1"><bdi>978-93-5145-064-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Supreme+Court+Criminal+Manual+Coat+Poacket+edition+in+2+Vol+containing+Cr.p.c%2C+IPC+%26+Evidence+Act&rft.pub=Eastern+Book+Company&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-93-5145-064-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Supreme Court Cases Criminal</i>. Eastern Book Company. 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Supreme+Court+Cases+Criminal&rft.pub=Eastern+Book+Company&rft.date=2015&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Civil & Criminal Practice Manual Pocket Edition</i>. Eastern Book Company. 2014. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-5145-089-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-5145-089-4"><bdi>978-93-5145-089-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Civil+%26+Criminal+Practice+Manual+Pocket+Edition&rft.pub=Eastern+Book+Company&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-93-5145-089-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFK.I.Vibhute2011" class="citation book cs1">K.I.Vibhute (2011). <i>Shamsul Huda's Principle of the Law of Crimes</i>. Eastern Book Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-5028-105-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-5028-105-5"><bdi>978-93-5028-105-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shamsul+Huda%27s+Principle+of+the+Law+of+Crimes&rft.pub=Eastern+Book+Company&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-93-5028-105-5&rft.au=K.I.Vibhute&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR.V.Kelkar's_(Revised_By_K.N.Chandrasekharan_Pillai)2014" class="citation book cs1">R.V.Kelkar's (Revised By K.N.Chandrasekharan Pillai) (2014). <i>R.V.Kelkar's Criminal Procedure</i>. Eastern Book Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-5145-101-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-5145-101-3"><bdi>978-93-5145-101-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=R.V.Kelkar%27s+Criminal+Procedure&rft.pub=Eastern+Book+Company&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-93-5145-101-3&rft.au=R.V.Kelkar%27s+%28Revised+By+K.N.Chandrasekharan+Pillai%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEBC2014" class="citation book cs1">EBC (2014). <i>Code of Criminal Procedure 1973 with Evidence Act 1872 - Coat Pocket Edition - Flexi Bound</i>. Eastern Book Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-5145-020-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-5145-020-7"><bdi>978-93-5145-020-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Code+of+Criminal+Procedure+1973+with+Evidence+Act+1872+-+Coat+Pocket+Edition+-+Flexi+Bound&rft.pub=Eastern+Book+Company&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-93-5145-020-7&rft.au=EBC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFk.n.chandrasekharan_pillai2011" class="citation book cs1">k.n.chandrasekharan pillai (2011). <i>General Principles of Criminal Law</i>. 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Eastern Book Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-5145-063-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-5145-063-4"><bdi>978-93-5145-063-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ahmad+Siddiquie%27s+Criminology+%26+penology&rft.pub=Eastern+Book+Company&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-93-5145-063-4&rft.au=Ahmad+Siddiques+Revised+By+S.M.A+Qadri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO.P.Srivastava's_Revised_By_R.N.Chaudhary2014" class="citation book cs1">O.P.Srivastava's Revised By R.N.Chaudhary (2014). <i>O.P.Srivastava's Principle of Criminal Law</i>. Eastern Book Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-5145-015-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-5145-015-3"><bdi>978-93-5145-015-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=O.P.Srivastava%27s+Principle+of+Criminal+Law&rft.pub=Eastern+Book+Company&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-93-5145-015-3&rft.au=O.P.Srivastava%27s+Revised+By+R.N.Chaudhary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBhavani_Lal2010" class="citation book cs1">Bhavani Lal (2010). <i>Extraordinary Trials from Law Courts</i>. Eastern Book Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-5028-013-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-5028-013-3"><bdi>978-93-5028-013-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Extraordinary+Trials+from+Law+Courts&rft.pub=Eastern+Book+Company&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-93-5028-013-3&rft.au=Bhavani+Lal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCraies1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Craies, William Feilden (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Criminal Law"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Criminal_Law">"Criminal Law" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. 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Eastern Book Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7012-824-2" title="Special:BookSources/81-7012-824-2"><bdi>81-7012-824-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Criminal+Justice+a+Human+Right+Perspective+of+the+Criminal+Justice+Process+in+India&rft.pub=Eastern+Book+Company&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=81-7012-824-2&rft.au=K.I.Vibhute&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFP.L.Malik-_SCC_Editorial_Office2004" class="citation book cs1">P.L.Malik- SCC Editorial Office (2004). <i>2G Scam Cases, Introduction by Sudeep Malik</i>. Eastern Book Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-5028-681-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-5028-681-4"><bdi>978-93-5028-681-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=2G+Scam+Cases%2C+Introduction+by+Sudeep+Malik&rft.pub=Eastern+Book+Company&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-93-5028-681-4&rft.au=P.L.Malik-+SCC+Editorial+Office&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSumeet_Malik2014" class="citation book cs1">Sumeet Malik (2014). <i>P.L.Malik's Criminal Court Handbook</i>. Eastern Book Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-5028-997-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-5028-997-6"><bdi>978-93-5028-997-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=P.L.Malik%27s+Criminal+Court+Handbook&rft.pub=Eastern+Book+Company&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-93-5028-997-6&rft.au=Sumeet+Malik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Criminal Manual Coat Pocket Edition in 2 Vol. containing Cr.p.c, IPC & Evidence Act</i>. Eastern Book Company. 2014. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-5145-064-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-5145-064-1"><bdi>978-93-5145-064-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Criminal+Manual+Coat+Pocket+Edition+in+2+Vol.+containing+Cr.p.c%2C+IPC+%26+Evidence+Act&rft.pub=Eastern+Book+Company&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-93-5145-064-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR.L.Gupta1990" class="citation book cs1">R.L.Gupta (1990). <i>Law relating to identification & expert opinion (POD)</i>. Eastern Book Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7012-412-3" title="Special:BookSources/81-7012-412-3"><bdi>81-7012-412-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Law+relating+to+identification+%26+expert+opinion+%28POD%29&rft.pub=Eastern+Book+Company&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=81-7012-412-3&rft.au=R.L.Gupta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR.L.Gupta1990" class="citation book cs1">R.L.Gupta (1990). <i>Medico Legal Aspect of Sexual Offences</i>. Eastern Book Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medico+Legal+Aspect+of+Sexual+Offences&rft.pub=Eastern+Book+Company&rft.date=1990&rft.au=R.L.Gupta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR.V.Kelkar_Revised_by_K.N.CHndrshekharan_Pillai1990" class="citation book cs1">R.V.Kelkar Revised by K.N.CHndrshekharan Pillai (1990). <i>Lectures on Criminal Procedure- Including Probation & Juvenile Justice</i>. Eastern Book Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-5145-112-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-5145-112-9"><bdi>978-93-5145-112-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lectures+on+Criminal+Procedure-+Including+Probation+%26+Juvenile+Justice&rft.pub=Eastern+Book+Company&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-93-5145-112-9&rft.au=R.V.Kelkar+Revised+by+K.N.CHndrshekharan+Pillai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarmer,_Lindsay2000" class="citation journal cs1">Farmer, Lindsay (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070811195445/http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/lhr/18.2/farmer.html">"Reconstructing the English Codification Debate: The Criminal Law Commissioners, 1833–45"</a>. <i>Law and History Review</i>. <b>18</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">397–</span>426. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F744300">10.2307/744300</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/744300">744300</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143065820">143065820</a>. 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Eastern Book Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-5145-223-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-5145-223-2"><bdi>978-93-5145-223-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Supreme+Court+on+Criminal+Procedure+Code+and+Criminal+Trial&rft.pub=Eastern+Book+Company&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-93-5145-223-2&rft.au=Surendra+Malik&rft.au=Sudeep+Malik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Supreme Court Cases Criminal</i>. Eastern Book Company. 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Supreme+Court+Cases+Criminal&rft.pub=Eastern+Book+Company&rft.date=2015&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGross,_Hyman2005" class="citation book cs1">Gross, Hyman (2005). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/theoryofcriminal0000gros"><i>A Theory of Criminal Justice</i></a></span> (reissue ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-502349-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-502349-8"><bdi>0-19-502349-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Theory+of+Criminal+Justice&rft.edition=reissue&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-19-502349-8&rft.au=Gross%2C+Hyman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftheoryofcriminal0000gros&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall,_Jerome1960" class="citation book cs1">Hall, Jerome (1960). <i>General Principles of Criminal Law</i>. Lexis Law Pub. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-672-80035-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-672-80035-7"><bdi>0-672-80035-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=General+Principles+of+Criminal+Law&rft.pub=Lexis+Law+Pub&rft.date=1960&rft.isbn=0-672-80035-7&rft.au=Hall%2C+Jerome&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams,_Glanville1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Glanville_Williams" title="Glanville Williams">Williams, Glanville</a> (1983). <i>Textbook of Criminal Law</i>. Stevens & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-420-46860-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-420-46860-9"><bdi>0-420-46860-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Textbook+of+Criminal+Law&rft.pub=Stevens+%26+Sons&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-420-46860-9&rft.au=Williams%2C+Glanville&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarzilai2010" class="citation cs2">Barzilai, Gad (2010), <i>The Attorney General and the State Prosecutor-Is Institutional Separation Warrented?</i>, The Israel Democracy Institute</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Attorney+General+and+the+State+Prosecutor-Is+Institutional+Separation+Warrented%3F&rft.pub=The+Israel+Democracy+Institute&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Barzilai&rft.aufirst=Gad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHart,_H.L.A.1968" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/H.L.A._Hart" class="mw-redirect" title="H.L.A. Hart">Hart, H.L.A.</a> (1968). <i>Punishment and Responsibility</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-825181-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-825181-5"><bdi>0-19-825181-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Punishment+and+Responsibility&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=0-19-825181-5&rft.au=Hart%2C+H.L.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarwood,_Sterling2000" class="citation book cs1">Harwood, Sterling (2000). "Is Mercy Inherently Unjust?". <i>Crime and Punishment: Philosophic Explorations</i>. Wadsworth Publishing Co., formerly Jones & Bartlett Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86720-955-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-86720-955-0"><bdi>0-86720-955-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Is+Mercy+Inherently+Unjust%3F&rft.btitle=Crime+and+Punishment%3A+Philosophic+Explorations&rft.pub=Wadsworth+Publishing+Co.%2C+formerly+Jones+%26+Bartlett+Publishers&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-86720-955-0&rft.au=Harwood%2C+Sterling&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurphy,_Jeffrie1990" class="citation book cs1">Murphy, Jeffrie (1990). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/forgivenessmercy00murp"><i>Forgiveness and Mercy</i></a></span>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-39567-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-39567-4"><bdi>0-521-39567-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forgiveness+and+Mercy&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-521-39567-4&rft.au=Murphy%2C+Jeffrie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fforgivenessmercy00murp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith,_K._J._M.1998" class="citation book cs1">Smith, K. J. M. (1998). <i>Lawyers, Legislators and Theorists: Developments in English Criminal Jurisprudence, 1800–1957</i>. Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-825723-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-825723-6"><bdi>0-19-825723-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lawyers%2C+Legislators+and+Theorists%3A+Developments+in+English+Criminal+Jurisprudence%2C+1800%E2%80%931957&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-19-825723-6&rft.au=Smith%2C+K.+J.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_den_Haag,_Ernest1978" class="citation book cs1">van den Haag, Ernest (1978). <i>Punishing Criminals: Concerning a Very Old and Painful Question</i>. Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8191-8172-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8191-8172-2"><bdi>0-8191-8172-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Punishing+Criminals%3A+Concerning+a+Very+Old+and+Painful+Question&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-8191-8172-2&rft.au=van+den+Haag%2C+Ernest&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrmerod,_David2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Ormerod" title="David Ormerod">Ormerod, David</a> (2005). <i>Smith and Hogan: Criminal Law</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-406-97730-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-406-97730-5"><bdi>0-406-97730-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Smith+and+Hogan%3A+Criminal+Law&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-406-97730-5&rft.au=Ormerod%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminal+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cirp.org/library/legal/UKlaw/rvbrown1993/">R v Brown (1994) 1 AC 212</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminal_law&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span 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class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Criminal+law">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Criminal+law&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/40px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/60px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/80px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiversity has learning resources about <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Criminal_law" class="extiw" title="v:Special:Search/Criminal law">Criminal law</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/criminal-law/">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Theories of Criminal Law</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://criminal.findlaw.com/">Findlaw.com Criminal Law Center</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/criminal_law">Cornell Institute</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://infocrim.org">Max Planck Information System for Comparative Criminal Law</a> Country reports on criminal law covering 25 legal systems</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_measures_court" class="mw-redirect" title="Compulsory measures court">Compulsory measures court</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output 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class="mw-redirect" title="Pretextual stop">Pretextual stop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probable_cause" title="Probable cause">Probable cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reasonable_suspicion" title="Reasonable suspicion">Reasonable suspicion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_silence" title="Right to silence">Right to silence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Search_and_seizure" title="Search and seizure">Search and seizure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Search_of_persons" title="Search of persons">Search of persons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Search_warrant" title="Search warrant">Search warrant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suspect" title="Suspect">Suspect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terry_stop" title="Terry stop">Terry stop</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span 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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adversarial_system" title="Adversarial system">Adversarial system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bail" title="Bail">Bail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_of_attainder" title="Bill of attainder">Bill of attainder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_jurisdiction" title="Criminal jurisdiction">Criminal jurisdiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deferred_prosecution" title="Deferred prosecution">Deferred prosecution agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ex_post_facto_law" title="Ex post facto law"><i>Ex post facto</i> law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extradition" title="Extradition">Extradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_jury" title="Grand jury">Grand jury</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Habeas_corpus" title="Habeas corpus">Habeas corpus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indictment" title="Indictment">Indictment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisitorial_system" title="Inquisitorial system">Inquisitorial system</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nolle_prosequi" title="Nolle prosequi">Nolle prosequi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precognition_(Scots_law)" title="Precognition (Scots law)">Precognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preliminary_hearing" title="Preliminary hearing">Preliminary hearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statute_of_limitations" title="Statute of limitations">Statute of limitations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Charges and pleas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alford_plea" title="Alford plea">Alford plea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arraignment" title="Arraignment">Arraignment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indictment" title="Indictment">Indictment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_(formal_criminal_charge)" title="Information (formal criminal charge)">Information</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nolo_contendere" title="Nolo contendere">Nolo contendere</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peremptory_plea" title="Peremptory plea">Peremptory plea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plea" title="Plea">Plea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plea_bargain" title="Plea bargain">Plea bargain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presentence_investigation_report" title="Presentence investigation report">Presentence investigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_defenses" title="Criminal defenses">Criminal defenses</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_(law)" title="Evidence (law)">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_law_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Evidence law in the United States">Evidence law in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_abuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal abuse">Legal abuse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Criminal_procedure" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Criminal procedure">Wiktionary</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Criminal_procedure" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Special:Search/Criminal procedure">Wikibooks</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Crime" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:Crime">Wikiquote</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Category:Crime" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Category:Crime">WikiSource</a></li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Criminal_law" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Criminal law">Wikimedia Commons</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Category:Crime_and_law" class="extiw" title="wikinews:Category:Crime and law">Wikinews</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Crime" class="extiw" title="wikiversity:Crime">Wikiversity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Law519" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Law" title="Template:Law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Law" title="Template talk:Law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Law519" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Core subjects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_law" title="Administrative law">Administrative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_civil_law_(common_law)" title="Outline of civil law (common law)">Civil law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law" title="Constitutional law">Constitutional law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">Contract</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Criminal law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">Crime</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deed" title="Deed">Deed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_doctrine" title="Legal doctrine">Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equity_(law)" title="Equity (law)">Equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_(law)" title="Evidence (law)">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_obligations" title="Law of obligations">Law of obligations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">Private law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_law" title="Procedural law">Procedure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_procedure" title="Civil procedure">Civil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_procedure" title="Criminal procedure">Criminal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_law" title="Public law">Public law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punishment" title="Punishment">Punishment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corporal_punishment" title="Corporal punishment">Corporal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restitution_and_unjust_enrichment" title="Restitution and unjust enrichment">Restitution and unjust enrichment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">Tort</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_law" title="Abortion law">Abortion law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_law" title="Agricultural law">Agricultural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_law" title="Aviation law">Aviation law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amnesty_law" title="Amnesty law">Amnesty law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bank regulation">Banking law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bankruptcy" title="Bankruptcy">Bankruptcy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_law" title="Commercial law">Commercial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_law" title="Competition law">Competition law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_laws" title="Conflict of laws">Conflict of laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_law" title="Construction law">Construction law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_protection" title="Consumer protection">Consumer protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_law" title="Corporate law">Corporate law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IT_law" class="mw-redirect" title="IT law">Cyberlaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy" title="Drug policy">Drugs law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_law" title="Election law">Election law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_law" title="Energy law">Energy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment_law" title="Entertainment law">Entertainment law</a> (Media law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_law" title="Environmental law">Environmental law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_law" title="Family law">Family law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_law" title="Financial law">Financial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_regulation" title="Financial regulation">Financial regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_law" title="Health law">Health law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_law" title="Immigration law">Immigration law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">International criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_human_rights_law" title="International human rights law">International human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_international_law" title="Slavery in international law">International slavery laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_trade_law" title="International trade law">International trade law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurimetrics" title="Jurimetrics">Jurimetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_law" title="Labour law">Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landlord%E2%80%93tenant_law" title="Landlord–tenant law">Landlord–tenant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_war" title="Law of war">Law of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_archaeology" title="Legal archaeology">Legal archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_fiction" title="Legal fiction">Legal fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_law" title="Admiralty law">Maritime law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_law" title="Marriage law">Marriage law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_justice" title="Military justice">Military law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality_law" title="Nationality law">Nationality law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probate" title="Probate">Probate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">Estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_and_testament" title="Will and testament">Will and testament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_liability" title="Product liability">Product liability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">Public international law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugee_law" title="Refugee law">Refugee law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reparation_(legal)" title="Reparation (legal)">Reparations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_law" title="Space law">Space law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_law_in_the_United_States" title="Sports law in the United States">Sports law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_emergency" title="State of emergency">State of emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_law" title="Tax law">Tax law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_law" title="Transport law">Transport law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(law)" title="Trust (law)">Trust law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unenforced_law" title="Unenforced law">Unenforced law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sources_of_law" title="Sources of law">Sources of law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charter" title="Charter">Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_law" title="Code of law">Legal code</a> / <a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Custom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_law" title="Divine law">Divine law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" class="mw-redirect" title="Legitimacy (political)">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letters_patent" title="Letters patent">Letters patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man-made_law" title="Man-made law">Man-made law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural and legal rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_law" title="Case law">Case law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Precedent" title="Precedent">Precedent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_report" title="Law report">Law reports</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_treatise" title="Legal treatise">Legal treatise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lawmaking" title="Lawmaking">Law making</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Referendum" title="Referendum">Ballot measure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">Codification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decree" title="Decree">Decree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edict" title="Edict">Edict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_order_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Executive order (disambiguation)">Executive order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation" title="Proclamation">Proclamation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislation" title="Legislation">Legislation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_and_secondary_legislation" title="Primary and secondary legislation">Delegated legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rulemaking" title="Rulemaking">Rulemaking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promulgation" title="Promulgation">Promulgation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratification" title="Ratification">Ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repeal" title="Repeal">Repeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">Treaty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concordat" title="Concordat">Concordat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">Statute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_parliament" title="Act of parliament">Act of parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress" title="Act of Congress">Act of Congress</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_structure_doctrine" title="Basic structure doctrine">Basic structure doctrine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">Legal systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">Civil law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_law" title="Chinese law">Chinese law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_pluralism" title="Legal pluralism">Legal pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_law" title="Religious law">Religious law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">Canon law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Canon law of the Catholic Church">Catholic canon law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_law" title="Hindu law">Hindu law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_law" title="Jain law">Jain law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Jewish law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parsi_law" title="Parsi law">Parsi law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_law" title="Byzantine law">Byzantine law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_law" title="Socialist law">Socialist law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xeer" title="Xeer">Xeer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yassa" title="Yassa">Yassa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Legal theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_law" title="Anarchist law">Anarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_theory" title="Contract theory">Contract theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_law" title="Comparative law">Comparative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressive_function_of_law" title="Expressive function of law">Expressive function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_legal_theory" title="Feminist legal theory">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law and economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_formalism" title="Legal formalism">Legal formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_theories_of_law" title="Libertarian theories of law">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_legal_theories" title="International legal theories">International legal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legality" title="Legality">Principle of legality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_typicality" title="Principle of typicality">Principle of typicality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudolaw" title="Pseudolaw">Pseudolaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_man" title="Rule of man">Rule of man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adjudication" title="Adjudication">Adjudication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administration_of_justice" title="Administration of justice">Administration of justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">Criminal justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court-martial" title="Court-martial">Court-martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispute_resolution" title="Dispute resolution">Dispute resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawsuit" title="Lawsuit">Lawsuit/Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_opinion" title="Legal opinion">Legal opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_remedy" title="Legal remedy">Legal remedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judge" title="Judge">Judge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace" title="Justice of the peace">Justice of the peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magistrate" title="Magistrate">Magistrate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judgment_(law)" title="Judgment (law)">Judgment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_interpretation" title="Judicial interpretation">Judicial interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">Judicial review</a></li> <li><a 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</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_legal_profession" title="History of the legal profession">History of the legal profession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_American_legal_profession" title="History of the American legal profession">History of the American legal profession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_law" title="Women in law">Women in law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/30px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" 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/></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Category:Law" title="Category:Law">Category</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_law_articles" title="Index of law articles">Index</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_law" title="Outline of law">Outline</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p><br /> </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q146491#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2651" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div 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