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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Events generating constructive trusts</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Events_generating_constructive_trusts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Events generating constructive trusts subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Events_generating_constructive_trusts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Breach_of_fiduciary_duty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Breach_of_fiduciary_duty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Breach of fiduciary duty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Breach_of_fiduciary_duty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Property_interference" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Property_interference"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Property interference</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Property_interference-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unjust_enrichment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unjust_enrichment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Unjust enrichment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unjust_enrichment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Common_intention_constructive_trusts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Common_intention_constructive_trusts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Common intention constructive trusts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Common_intention_constructive_trusts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Actual,_inferred_and_imputed_intention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Actual,_inferred_and_imputed_intention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Actual, inferred and imputed intention</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Actual,_inferred_and_imputed_intention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Joint_venture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Joint_venture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Joint venture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Joint_venture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vendor_under_a_specifically_enforceable_contract_for_sale" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vendor_under_a_specifically_enforceable_contract_for_sale"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Vendor under a specifically enforceable contract for sale</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vendor_under_a_specifically_enforceable_contract_for_sale-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Voluntary_transactions_made_by_mistake" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Voluntary_transactions_made_by_mistake"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Voluntary transactions made by mistake</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Voluntary_transactions_made_by_mistake-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Usefulness_of_constructive_trusts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Usefulness_of_constructive_trusts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Usefulness of constructive trusts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Usefulness_of_constructive_trusts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1202158006">.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-heading{background:#aaddff;color:#000}.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-above{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-below{padding:0.4em;border-top:1px #aaa solid;font-weight:normal;font-size:smaller}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist law-sidebar"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Will_and_testament" title="Will and testament">Wills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trust_(law)" title="Trust (law)">trusts</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Administration_(probate_law)" title="Administration (probate law)">estates</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Shakespeare-Testament.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Shakespeare-Testament.jpg/180px-Shakespeare-Testament.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Shakespeare-Testament.jpg/270px-Shakespeare-Testament.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Shakespeare-Testament.jpg/360px-Shakespeare-Testament.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3677" data-file-height="4800" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> Part of the <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> series</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Will_and_testament" title="Will and testament">Wills</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history_of_wills" title="Legal history of wills">Legal history of wills</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joint_wills_and_mutual_wills" title="Joint wills and mutual wills">Joint wills and mutual wills</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Will_contract" title="Will contract">Will contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codicil_(will)" title="Codicil (will)">Codicil</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holographic_will" title="Holographic will">Holographic will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_will" title="Oral will">Oral will</a></li></ul> <hr /> <p><i>Sections</i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attestation_clause" title="Attestation clause">Attestation clause</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Residuary_estate" title="Residuary estate">Residuary clause</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Incorporation_by_reference" title="Incorporation by reference">Incorporation by reference</a></li></ul> <hr /> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Will_contest" title="Will contest">Contest</a></i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Testamentary_capacity" title="Testamentary capacity">Testamentary capacity</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Undue_influence" title="Undue influence">Undue influence</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Insane_delusion" title="Insane delusion">Insane delusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fraud" title="Fraud">Fraud</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/No-contest_clause" title="No-contest clause">No-contest clause</a></li></ul> <hr /> <p><i>Property disposition</i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lapse_and_anti-lapse" title="Lapse and anti-lapse">Lapse and anti-lapse</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ademption" title="Ademption">Ademption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abatement_of_debts_and_legacies" title="Abatement of debts and legacies">Abatement</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ademption_by_satisfaction" title="Ademption by satisfaction">Satisfaction of legacies</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_independent_significance" title="Acts of independent significance">Acts of independent significance</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elective_share" title="Elective share">Elective share</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pretermitted_heir" title="Pretermitted heir">Pretermitted heir</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Trust_(law)" title="Trust (law)">Trusts</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Express_trust" title="Express trust">Express</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resulting_trust" title="Resulting trust">Resulting</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Constructive</a></li></ul> <hr /> <p><i>Common types</i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bare_trust" title="Bare trust">Bare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discretionary_trust" title="Discretionary trust">Discretionary</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accumulation_and_maintenance_trust" title="Accumulation and maintenance trust">Accumulation and maintenance</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interest_in_possession_trust" title="Interest in possession trust">Interest in possession</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charitable_trust" title="Charitable trust">Charitable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purpose_trust" title="Purpose trust">Purpose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incentive_trust" title="Incentive trust">Incentive</a></li></ul> <hr /> <p><i>Other types</i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protective_trust" title="Protective trust">Protective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spendthrift_trust" title="Spendthrift trust">Spendthrift</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Life_insurance_trust" title="Life insurance trust">Life insurance</a></li> <li>Remainder</li></ul> <ul><li>Life interest</li></ul> <ul><li>Reversionary interest</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Testamentary_trust" title="Testamentary trust">Testamentary</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Honorary_trust" title="Honorary trust">Honorary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asset-protection_trust" title="Asset-protection trust">Asset-protection</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Special_needs_trust" title="Special needs trust">Special needs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supplemental_needs_trust" title="Supplemental needs trust">Supplemental needs</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <p><i>Governing doctrines</i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pour-over_will" title="Pour-over will">Pour-over will</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cy-pr%C3%A8s_doctrine" title="Cy-près doctrine">Cy-près doctrine</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hague_Trust_Convention" title="Hague Trust Convention">Hague Convention (conflict law)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trust_law_in_civil_law_jurisdictions" title="Trust law in civil law jurisdictions">Application in civil law</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dishonest_assistance" title="Dishonest assistance">Dishonest assistance</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Administration_(probate_law)" title="Administration (probate law)">Estate administration</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intestacy" title="Intestacy">Intestacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testator" title="Testator">Testator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probate" title="Probate">Probate</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Power_of_appointment" title="Power of appointment">Power of appointment</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simultaneous_death" title="Simultaneous death">Simultaneous death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slayer_rule" title="Slayer rule">Slayer rule</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laughing_heir" title="Laughing heir">Laughing heir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advancement_(inheritance)" title="Advancement (inheritance)">Advancement</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disclaimer_of_interest" title="Disclaimer of interest">Disclaimer of interest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inheritance_tax" title="Inheritance tax">Inheritance tax</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Related topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advance_healthcare_directive" title="Advance healthcare directive">Advance directive (Living will)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blind_trust" title="Blind trust">Blind trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_heirship" title="Forced heirship">Forced heirship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totten_trust" title="Totten trust">Totten trust</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Other <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> areas</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">Contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">Tort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">Criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_(law)" title="Evidence (law)">Evidence</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Wills,_trusts,_estates" title="Template:Wills, trusts, estates"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Wills,_trusts,_estates" title="Template talk:Wills, trusts, estates"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Wills,_trusts,_estates" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Wills, trusts, estates"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1202158006"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist law-sidebar"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Equity_(law)" title="Equity (law)">Equitable doctrines</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Microcosm_of_London_Plate_022_-_Court_of_Chancery,_Lincoln%27s_Inn_Hall_edited.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Microcosm_of_London_Plate_022_-_Court_of_Chancery%2C_Lincoln%27s_Inn_Hall_edited.jpg/150px-Microcosm_of_London_Plate_022_-_Court_of_Chancery%2C_Lincoln%27s_Inn_Hall_edited.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Microcosm_of_London_Plate_022_-_Court_of_Chancery%2C_Lincoln%27s_Inn_Hall_edited.jpg/225px-Microcosm_of_London_Plate_022_-_Court_of_Chancery%2C_Lincoln%27s_Inn_Hall_edited.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Microcosm_of_London_Plate_022_-_Court_of_Chancery%2C_Lincoln%27s_Inn_Hall_edited.jpg/300px-Microcosm_of_London_Plate_022_-_Court_of_Chancery%2C_Lincoln%27s_Inn_Hall_edited.jpg 2x" data-file-width="841" data-file-height="631" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Doctrines</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equitable_conversion" title="Equitable conversion">Equitable conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estoppel" title="Estoppel">Estoppel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotchpot" title="Hotchpot">Hotchpot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowing_receipt" title="Knowing receipt">Knowing receipt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laches_(equity)" title="Laches (equity)">Laches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_marshalling" title="Doctrine of marshalling">Marshalling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unconscionability" title="Unconscionability">Unconscionability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undue_influence" title="Undue influence">Undue influence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subrogation" title="Subrogation">Subrogation</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Defences</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bona_fide_purchaser" title="Bona fide purchaser">Bona fide purchaser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clean_hands" title="Clean hands">Clean hands</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Equitable_remedies" class="mw-redirect" title="Equitable remedies">Equitable remedies</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Account_of_profits" title="Account of profits">Account of profits</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Constructive trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaratory_relief" class="mw-redirect" title="Declaratory relief">Declaratory relief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Injunction" title="Injunction">Injunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rectification_(law)" title="Rectification (law)">Rectification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rescission_(contract_law)" title="Rescission (contract law)">Rescission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specific_performance" title="Specific performance">Specific performance</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Related</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Court_of_Chancery" title="Court of Chancery">Court of Chancery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equitable_interest" title="Equitable interest">Equitable interest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_equity_and_trusts" title="History of equity and trusts">History of equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxims_of_equity" title="Maxims of equity">Maxims of equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tracing_(law)" title="Tracing (law)">Tracing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Trust law">Trust law</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Equitable_doctrines" title="Template:Equitable doctrines"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Equitable_doctrines" title="Template talk:Equitable doctrines"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Equitable_doctrines" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Equitable doctrines"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Trust_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Trust law">trust law</a>, a <b>constructive trust</b> is an <a href="/wiki/Equitable_remedy" title="Equitable remedy">equitable remedy</a> imposed by a <a href="/wiki/Court" title="Court">court</a> to benefit a <a href="/wiki/Party_(law)" title="Party (law)">party</a> that has been wrongfully deprived of its rights due to either a person obtaining or holding a legal <a href="/wiki/Property_right" class="mw-redirect" title="Property right">property right</a> which they should not possess due to <a href="/wiki/Unjust_enrichment" class="mw-redirect" title="Unjust enrichment">unjust enrichment</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tortious_interference" title="Tortious interference">interference</a>, or due to a breach of <a href="/wiki/Fiduciary_duty" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiduciary duty">fiduciary duty</a>, which is intercausative with unjust enrichment and/or property interference.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a type of <a href="/wiki/Implied_trust" title="Implied trust">implied trust</a> (<i>i.e.</i>, it is created by conduct, not explicitly by a <a href="/wiki/Settlor" title="Settlor">settlor</a>). </p><p>In the United States (in contrast to England), a constructive trust remedy generally does not recognize or create any continuing <a href="/wiki/Fiduciary" title="Fiduciary">fiduciary</a> relationship — that is, a constructive trust is not actually a trust except in name. Rather, it is a <a href="/wiki/Legal_fiction" title="Legal fiction">fiction</a> declaring that the plaintiff has <a href="/wiki/Equitable_interest" title="Equitable interest">equitable title</a> to the property at issue, and ordering the defendant to transfer legal ownership and possession to the plaintiff.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, in some states the <a href="/wiki/Slayer_rule" title="Slayer rule">slayer rule</a> is implemented in the form of a constructive trust. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constructive_trust&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Constructive trusts are imposed by operation of law. They are also referred to as implied trusts. They are not subject to formality requirements.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike a resulting trust, which also arises by operation of law, a constructive trust does not give effect to the imputed/presumed intention of the parties.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Instead, constructive trusts are largely said to be triggered by unconscionability. This is the idea that a defendant would be unjustly enriched if they were allowed to keep property for themselves. The main issue with this argument is that we would have to have a really broad approach to unjust enrichment in order for a constructive trust to come under that underpinning concept in order for us to understand constructive trust.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This statement is incoherent and without any basis in law or fact. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Events_generating_constructive_trusts">Events generating constructive trusts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constructive_trust&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Events generating constructive trusts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Breach_of_fiduciary_duty">Breach of fiduciary duty</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constructive_trust&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Breach of fiduciary duty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a constructive trust the <a href="/wiki/Defendant" title="Defendant">defendant</a> breaches a duty owed to the <a href="/wiki/Plaintiff" title="Plaintiff">plaintiff</a>. The most common such breach is a breach of <a href="/wiki/Fiduciary_duty" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiduciary duty">fiduciary duty</a>, such as when an <a href="/wiki/Agent_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Agent (law)">agent</a> wrongfully obtains or holds property owned by a <a href="/wiki/Principal_(commercial_law)" title="Principal (commercial law)">principal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kubasek_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kubasek-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A controversial example is the case of <i><a href="/wiki/Attorney_General_for_Hong_Kong_v_Reid" title="Attorney General for Hong Kong v Reid">Attorney General for Hong Kong v Reid</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which a senior <a href="/wiki/Prosecutor" title="Prosecutor">prosecutor</a> took bribes not to prosecute certain offenders. With the bribe money, he purchased property in <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>. His employer, the <a href="/wiki/Secretary_for_Justice_(Hong_Kong)" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretary for Justice (Hong Kong)">Attorney-General</a>, sought a declaration that the property was held on constructive trust for it, on the basis of breach of fiduciary duty. The <a href="/wiki/Privy_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Privy Council">Privy Council</a> awarded a constructive trust. The case is different from <i><a href="/wiki/Regal_(Hastings)_Ltd_v_Gulliver" title="Regal (Hastings) Ltd v Gulliver">Regal (Hastings) Ltd v Gulliver</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because there was no interference with a profit-making opportunity that properly belonged to the prosecutor.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Being a Privy Council decision, <i>Reid</i> did not overrule the previous decision of the <a href="/wiki/Court_of_Appeal_of_England_and_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Court of Appeal of England and Wales">Court of Appeal of England and Wales</a> in <i>Lister v Stubbs</i><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which held the opposite, partially because a trust is a very strong remedy that gives proprietary rights to the claimant not enjoyed by the defendant's other creditors. In the event of the defendant's insolvency, the trust assets are untouchable by the general creditors. Supporters of <i>Lister</i> suggested that there was no good reason to put the victim of wrongdoing ahead of other creditors of the estate. There was a tension in English law between <i>Lister</i> and <i>Reid</i> which was highlighted in <i><a href="/wiki/Sinclair_Investments_(UK)_Ltd_v_Versailles_Trade_Finance_Ltd" title="Sinclair Investments (UK) Ltd v Versailles Trade Finance Ltd">Sinclair Investments (UK) Ltd v Versailles Trade Finance Ltd</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United Kingdom Supreme Court">United Kingdom Supreme Court</a> subsequently overruled <i>Sinclair</i> in <i><a href="/wiki/FHR_European_Ventures_LLP_v_Cedar_Capital_Partners_LLC" title="FHR European Ventures LLP v Cedar Capital Partners LLC">FHR European Ventures LLP v Cedar Capital Partners LLC</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> holding that <i>Lister</i> was no longer good law. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Property_interference">Property interference</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constructive_trust&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Property interference"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Foskett_v_McKeown" title="Foskett v McKeown">Foskett v McKeown</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a trustee used <a href="/wiki/Trust_money" title="Trust money">trust money</a> together with some of his own money to purchase a <a href="/wiki/Life_insurance" title="Life insurance">life insurance</a> policy. Then he committed suicide. The insurance company paid out to his family. The defrauded beneficiaries of the trust sought a declaration that the proceeds were held on constructive trust for them. The <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a> said that the beneficiaries could choose between either: (a) a constructive trust over the proceeds for the proportion of the life insurance payout purchased with their money; or (b) an <a href="/wiki/Equitable_lien" class="mw-redirect" title="Equitable lien">equitable lien</a> over the fund for the repayment of that amount. </p><p>There is controversy as to what the true basis is of this trust. The House of Lords said that it was to vindicate the plaintiffs' original proprietary rights. However, this reasoning has been criticized as tautologous by some scholars who suggest the better basis is unjust enrichment (see below). This is because there must be a reason why a new property right is created (i.e. the trust) and that must be because otherwise the family would be unjustly enriched by receiving the proceeds of the insurance policy purchased with the beneficiaries' money. "Interference with the plaintiff's property" can justify why the plaintiff can get its property back from a thief, but it cannot explain why new rights are generated in property for which the plaintiff's original property is swapped. </p><p>In <i>Foskett v McKeown</i>, the plaintiff's original property was an interest in the trust fund. The remedy they obtained was a constructive trust over an insurance payout. It is not obvious why such a new right should be awarded without saying it is to reverse the family's unjust enrichment.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unjust_enrichment">Unjust enrichment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constructive_trust&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Unjust enrichment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Chase_Manhattan_Bank_NA_v_Israel-British_Bank_(London)_Ltd" title="Chase Manhattan Bank NA v Israel-British Bank (London) Ltd">Chase Manhattan Bank NA v Israel-British Bank (London) Ltd</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> one bank paid another bank a large sum of money by mistake (note that the recipient bank did not do anything wrong – it just received money not owed to it). <a href="/wiki/Irvine_Goulding" title="Irvine Goulding">Goulding J</a> held that the money was held on (constructive) trust for the first bank. The reasoning, in this case, has been doubted, and in <i><a href="/wiki/Westdeutsche_Landesbank_Girozentrale_v_Islington_London_Borough_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Westdeutsche Landesbank Girozentrale v Islington London Borough Council">Westdeutsche Landesbank Girozentrale v Islington London Borough Council</a></i> the House of Lords distanced itself from the idea that unjust enrichment raises trusts in the claimant's favour. This remains an area of intense controversy. </p><p>These type of trusts are called '"institutional" constructive trusts'. They arise the moment the relevant conduct (breach of duty, unjust enrichment etc.) occurs. They can be contrasted with '"remedial" constructive trusts', which arise on the date of judgment as a remedy awarded by the court to do justice in the particular case. </p><p>An example is the Australian case <i><a href="/wiki/Muschinski_v_Dodds" title="Muschinski v Dodds">Muschinski v Dodds</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</a> couple lived in a house owned by the man. They agreed to make improvements to the property by building a pottery shed for the woman to do arts and crafts work in. The woman paid for part of this. They then broke up. The <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court</a> held that the man held the property on constructive trust for himself and the woman in the proportions in which they had contributed to the improvements to the land. This trust did not arise the moment the woman commenced improvements – that conduct did not involve a breach of duty or an unjust enrichment etc. The trust arose at the date of judgment, to do justice in the case. </p><p>In <i>Bathurst City Council v PWC Properties</i>, the High Court that as constructive trusts are the most severe remedy in cases of breach of fiduciary duty, they should only be imposed when other remedies are inappropriate in providing relief. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Common_intention_constructive_trusts">Common intention constructive trusts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constructive_trust&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Common intention constructive trusts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Common intention constructive trusts were developed to fulfil the reasonable expectations of parties to family property disputes. Equity follows the law, the legal ownership will generally be regarded as the equitable ownership. However, where there are the cohabitants, the other cohabitant (the one who doesn't have title) may consider they have acquired a beneficial ownership interest through their contributions to the family or improvement of the property.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To advance a common intention constructive trust theory, it must be shown that: </p> <ul><li>there is an agreement or common intention between the legal owner, on the one hand, and the claimant, on the other, that the owner intended that the claimant have a beneficial interest in the property; and</li> <li>the claimant acted in detrimental reliance on that agreement or common intention.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The question of quantum must also be addressed. There is a presumption of equal sharing which can be rebutted if there was common intention to hold the property in different proportions. Following <i><a href="/wiki/Stack_v_Dowden" title="Stack v Dowden">Stack v Dowden</a></i> equity will look at the entire course of dealing and distribute ownership in the appropriate proportions.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-JonesKernott_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JonesKernott-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Actual,_inferred_and_imputed_intention"><span id="Actual.2C_inferred_and_imputed_intention"></span>Actual, inferred and imputed intention</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constructive_trust&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Actual, inferred and imputed intention"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>If there is no evidence of actual intention, the courts will search of inferred or imputed intention. In <i><a href="/wiki/Jones_v_Kernott" title="Jones v Kernott">Jones v Kernott</a></i> the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Supreme Court of the United Kingdom">Supreme Court</a> inferred intention to the parties.<sup id="cite_ref-JonesKernott_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JonesKernott-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, imputed intention involves a lot more judicial discretion, whereas inferred intention is still supposed to be based on the conduct between the parties. This kind of trust is based on bargain between the claimant and the defendant, as opposed to aspects such as proprietary rights which are based on the word of the defendant to the claimant leading to their reliance on the word hence leading to detriment suffered by the claimant. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Joint_venture">Joint venture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constructive_trust&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Joint venture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The focus here is the joint venture between the claimant and the defendant. For there to be a joint venture it would be unconscionable for the defendant to deny the other party's beneficial interest in the property.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The three main requirements for a joint venture constructive trust are; (1) an arrangement or understanding between the parties; (2) reliance on that arrangement or understanding; and (3) an inconsistent act.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vendor_under_a_specifically_enforceable_contract_for_sale">Vendor under a specifically enforceable contract for sale</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constructive_trust&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Vendor under a specifically enforceable contract for sale"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The seller holds land on a constructive trust for the purchaser.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this is limited. In <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rayner_v_Preston&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rayner v Preston (page does not exist)">Rayner v Preston</a></i> the claimant had purchased a property from the defendant, but the house was then destroyed in the fire before they could move in. The defendant received a big payout from the insurance company and refused to give that money to the claimant. It was held that the claimant was not entitled to the payout because it was not the trust property, and because of the nature of the dispute, the trustee only had a low standard of care, particularly when you compare it to an express trustee.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The purchaser also cannot transfer their beneficial interest before receiving legal title.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Voluntary_transactions_made_by_mistake">Voluntary transactions made by mistake</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constructive_trust&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Voluntary transactions made by mistake"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The court can set aside a gift or disposition where the transfer was made by mistake. The property must have been transferred by deed not an oral agreement.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Usefulness_of_constructive_trusts">Usefulness of constructive trusts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constructive_trust&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Usefulness of constructive trusts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1202158006"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist law-sidebar"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Legal_remedy" title="Legal remedy">Judicial remedies</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Legal remedies (<a href="/wiki/Damages" title="Damages">Damages</a>)</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Punitive_damages" title="Punitive damages">Punitive damages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incidental_damages" title="Incidental damages">Incidental damages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequential_damages" title="Consequential damages">Consequential damages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquidated_damages" title="Liquidated damages">Liquidated damages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reliance_damages" title="Reliance damages">Reliance damages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_damages" title="Statutory damages">Statutory damages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treble_damages" title="Treble damages">Treble damages</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Equitable_remedy" title="Equitable remedy">Equitable remedies</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Injunction" title="Injunction">Injunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specific_performance" title="Specific performance">Specific performance</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Constructive trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Account_of_profits" title="Account of profits">Account of profits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rescission_(contract_law)" title="Rescission (contract law)">Rescission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rectification_(law)" title="Rectification (law)">Rectification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subrogation" title="Subrogation">Subrogation</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Related issues</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adequate_remedy" title="Adequate remedy">Adequate remedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_of_remedies" title="Election of remedies">Election of remedies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_remedy" title="Provisional remedy">Provisional remedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tracing_(law)" title="Tracing (law)">Tracing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court_costs" title="Court costs">Court costs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaratory_judgment" title="Declaratory judgment">Declaratory relief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restitution_and_unjust_enrichment" title="Restitution and unjust enrichment">Restitution</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Judicial_remedies" title="Template:Judicial remedies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Judicial_remedies" title="Template talk:Judicial remedies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Judicial_remedies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Judicial remedies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>For example, if the defendant steals $100,000 from the plaintiff and uses that money to buy a house, the court can trace the house back to the plaintiff's money and deem the house to be held in trust for the plaintiff. The defendant must then convey title to the house to the plaintiff, even if rising property values had appreciated the value of the house to $120,000 by the time the transaction occurred. If the value of the house had instead <i>depreciated</i> to $80,000, the plaintiff could demand a remedy at law (money damages equal to the amount stolen) instead of an equitable remedy. </p><p>The situation would be different if the defendant had mixed his own property with that of the plaintiff, for example, adding $50,000 of his own money to the $100,000 stolen from the plaintiff and buying a $150,000 house or using plaintiff's $100,000 to add a room to defendant's existing house. The constructive trust would still be available but in proportion to the contributions, not wholly in the claimant's favour. Alternatively, the claimant could elect for an equitable lien instead, which is like a mortgage over the asset to secure repayment. </p><p>Because a constructive trust is an <a href="/wiki/Equitable_remedy" title="Equitable remedy">equitable device</a>, the defendant can raise all of the available equitable defenses against it, including <a href="/wiki/Unclean_hands" class="mw-redirect" title="Unclean hands">unclean hands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laches_(equity)" title="Laches (equity)">laches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Detrimental_reliance" class="mw-redirect" title="Detrimental reliance">detrimental reliance</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Undue_hardship" title="Undue hardship">undue hardship</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constructive_trust&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_trusts_in_English_law" title="Constructive trusts in English law">Constructive trusts in English law</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constructive_trust&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Restitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Restitution">Restitution</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.west.net/~smith/resti.htm">Law School Help</a>, Retrieved on May 12, 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFVirgo2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Graham_Virgo" title="Graham Virgo">Virgo, Graham</a> (2006). <i>The Principles of the Law of Restitution 2nd edn</i>. Oxford Clarendon Press. pp. 606–607.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Principles+of+the+Law+of+Restitution+2nd+edn&rft.pages=606-607&rft.pub=Oxford+Clarendon+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Virgo&rft.aufirst=Graham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstructive+trust" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Restatement (Third) of Restitution and Unjust Enrichment</i> § 55 cmt. b (2010) (“[E]very judicial order recognizing that ‘B holds X in constructive trust for A’ may be seen to comprise, in effect, two remedial components. The first of these is a declaration that B’s legal title to X is subject to A’s superior equitable claim. The second is a mandatory injunction directing B to surrender X to A or to take equivalent steps.”).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Geo5/15-16/20/section/53">"Law of Property Act, Section 53(2)"</a>. <i>legislation.gov.uk</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=legislation.gov.uk&rft.atitle=Law+of+Property+Act%2C+Section+53%282%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.legislation.gov.uk%2Fukpga%2FGeo5%2F15-16%2F20%2Fsection%2F53&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstructive+trust" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Air_Jamaica_v_Charlton" class="mw-redirect" title="Air Jamaica v Charlton">Air Jamaica v Charlton</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKPC/1999/20.html">[1999] UKPC 20</a>, [1999] 1 WLR 1399 (28 April 1999), <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Committee_of_the_Privy_Council" title="Judicial Committee of the Privy Council">Privy Council</a> (on appeal from Jamaica)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Westdeutsche_Landesbank_Girozentrale_v_Islington_LBC" title="Westdeutsche Landesbank Girozentrale v Islington LBC">Westdeutsche Landesbank Girozentrale v Islington LBC</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/1996/12.html">[1996] UKHL 12</a>, [1996] 2 WLR 802, [1996] AC 669, [1996] 2 All ER 961, [1996] 5 Bank LR 341 (22 May 1996), <a href="/wiki/Judicial_functions_of_the_House_of_Lords" title="Judicial functions of the House of Lords">House of Lords</a> (UK)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kubasek-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kubasek_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKubasekBrowneHeronDhooge2016" class="citation book cs1">Kubasek, Nancy; Browne, M. Neil; Heron, Daniel; Dhooge, Lucien; Barkacs, Linda (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/0073524972/information_center_view0/table_of_contents.html"><i>Dynamic Business Law: The Essentials</i></a> (3d ed.). McGraw-Hill. p. 422. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781259415654" title="Special:BookSources/9781259415654"><bdi>9781259415654</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dynamic+Business+Law%3A+The+Essentials&rft.pages=422&rft.edition=3d&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781259415654&rft.aulast=Kubasek&rft.aufirst=Nancy&rft.au=Browne%2C+M.+Neil&rft.au=Heron%2C+Daniel&rft.au=Dhooge%2C+Lucien&rft.au=Barkacs%2C+Linda&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhighered.mheducation.com%2Fsites%2F0073524972%2Finformation_center_view0%2Ftable_of_contents.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstructive+trust" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Attorney_General_for_Hong_Kong_v_Reid" title="Attorney General for Hong Kong v Reid">Attorney General for Hong Kong v Reid</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKPC/1993/2.html">[1993] UKPC 2</a>, [1994] 1 All ER 1, [1994] 1 AC 324, [1993] 3 WLR 1143 (1 November 1993), <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Committee_of_the_Privy_Council" title="Judicial Committee of the Privy Council">Privy Council</a> (on appeal from New Zealand)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Regal_(Hastings)_Ltd_v_Gulliver" title="Regal (Hastings) Ltd v Gulliver">Regal (Hastings) Ltd v Gulliver</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/1942/1.html">[1942] UKHL 1</a>, [1942] 1 All ER 378, [1967] 2 AC 134 (20 February 1942), <a href="/wiki/Judicial_functions_of_the_House_of_Lords" title="Judicial functions of the House of Lords">House of Lords</a> (UK)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lacba.org/docs/default-source/section-documents/remedies-law-section/remedies-newsletter/article-re-constructive-trust.pdf">"The Constructive Trust: A Remedy for Collecting After Embezzlement"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Ellen Kaufman Wolf and Scott Antoine, Wolf Group L.A</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ellen+Kaufman+Wolf+and+Scott+Antoine%2C+Wolf+Group+L.A.&rft.atitle=The+Constructive+Trust%3A+A+Remedy+for+Collecting+After+Embezzlement&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lacba.org%2Fdocs%2Fdefault-source%2Fsection-documents%2Fremedies-law-section%2Fremedies-newsletter%2Farticle-re-constructive-trust.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstructive+trust" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Lister v Stubbs</i> (1890) 45 Ch D 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Sinclair_Investments_(UK)_Ltd_v_Versailles_Trade_Finance_Ltd" title="Sinclair Investments (UK) Ltd v Versailles Trade Finance Ltd">Sinclair Investments (UK) Ltd v Versailles Trade Finance Ltd</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWHC/Ch/2010/1614.html">[2010] EWHC 1614 (Ch)</a>, [2011] 1 BCLC 202, [2011] WTLR 839 (30 June 2010), <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Justice" title="High Court of Justice">High Court</a> (England and Wales)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/FHR_European_Ventures_LLP_v_Cedar_Capital_Partners_LLC" title="FHR European Ventures LLP v Cedar Capital Partners LLC">FHR European Ventures LLP v Cedar Capital Partners LLC</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2014/45.html">[2014] UKSC 45</a>, [2014] WLR(D) 317, [2014] WTLR 1135, [2014] 3 WLR 535, [2015] AC 250, [2014] 2 BCLC 145, [2014] 4 All ER 79, [2015] 1 P &CR DG1, [2014] Lloyd's Rep FC 617, [2014] 2 Lloyd's Rep 471, [2014] 2 All ER (Comm) 425 (16 July 2014), <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Supreme Court of the United Kingdom">Supreme Court</a> (UK)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Foskett_v_McKeown" title="Foskett v McKeown">Foskett v McKeown and Others</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/2000/29.html">[2000] UKHL 29</a>, [2000] 2 WLR 1299, (1999-2000) 2 ITELR 711, [2000] WTLR 667, [2001] 1 AC 102, [2000] Lloyd's Rep IR 627, [2000] 3 All ER 97 (18 May 2000), <a href="/wiki/Judicial_functions_of_the_House_of_Lords" title="Judicial functions of the House of Lords">House of Lords</a> (UK)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/constructive_trust">"Constructive Trust"</a>. <i>LII / Legal Information Institute</i>. Cornell University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 August</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LII+%2F+Legal+Information+Institute&rft.atitle=Constructive+Trust&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fwex%2Fconstructive_trust&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstructive+trust" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Chase_Manhattan_Bank_NA_v_Israel-British_Bank_(London)_Ltd" title="Chase Manhattan Bank NA v Israel-British Bank (London) Ltd">Chase Manhattan Bank NA v Israel-British Bank (London) Ltd</a></i> [1980] 2 WLR 202.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Muschinski_v_Dodds" title="Muschinski v Dodds">Muschinski v Dodds</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1985/78.html">[1985] HCA 78</a>, (1985) 160 CLR 583, <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court</a> (Australia)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeung2019" class="citation journal cs1">Leung, Yee Ching (13 June 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.sas.ac.uk/lawreview/article/view/4962">"Rethinking the Common Intention Constructive Trusts in Stack v Dowden and Jones v Kernott – should the Resulting Trusts be preferred?"</a>. <i>IALS Student Law Review</i>. <b>6</b> (1). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.14296%2Fislr.v6i1.4962">10.14296/islr.v6i1.4962</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2053-7646">2053-7646</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IALS+Student+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Rethinking+the+Common+Intention+Constructive+Trusts+in+Stack+v+Dowden+and+Jones+v+Kernott+%E2%80%93+should+the+Resulting+Trusts+be+preferred%3F&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2019-06-13&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.14296%2Fislr.v6i1.4962&rft.issn=2053-7646&rft.aulast=Leung&rft.aufirst=Yee+Ching&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sas.ac.uk%2Flawreview%2Farticle%2Fview%2F4962&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstructive+trust" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHepburn2001" class="citation book cs1">Hepburn, Samantha (2001). <i>Principles of property law</i>. Cavendish principles series (2nd ed.). Sydney: Cavendish. p. 97. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-876905-08-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-876905-08-8"><bdi>978-1-876905-08-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+property+law&rft.place=Sydney&rft.series=Cavendish+principles+series&rft.pages=97&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cavendish&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-876905-08-8&rft.aulast=Hepburn&rft.aufirst=Samantha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstructive+trust" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Stack_v_Dowden" title="Stack v Dowden">Stack v Dowden</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/2007/17.html">[2007] UKHL 17</a>, [2007] Fam Law 593, [2007] 18 EG 153, (2006-07) 9 ITELR 815, [2007] 2 FCR 280, [2007] 2 AC 432, [2007] 2 All ER 929, [2007] WTLR 1053, [2007] BPIR 913, [2007] 1 FLR 1858, [2007] 2 WLR 831 (25 April 2007), <a href="/wiki/Judicial_functions_of_the_House_of_Lords" title="Judicial functions of the House of Lords">House of Lords</a> (UK)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JonesKernott-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JonesKernott_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JonesKernott_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Jones_v_Kernott" title="Jones v Kernott">Jones v Kernott</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2011/53.html">[2011] UKSC 53</a>, [2012] 1 FLR 45, [2012] 1 AC 776, [2011] NPC 116, [2011] BPIR 1653, 14 ITELR 491, [2012] WTLR 125, [2011] 46 EG 104, [2011] Fam Law 1338, [2012] HLR 14, [2011] 3 FCR 495, [2012] 1 All ER 1265, [2011] 3 WLR 1121 (9 November 2011), <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Supreme Court of the United Kingdom">Supreme Court</a> (UK)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Pallant v Morgan</i> [1953] Ch 43, 48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Lonrho Plc. v Fayed and Others (No.2)</i> [1992] 1 WLR, 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Lysaght v Edwards</i> (1876) 2 Ch D 499.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Rayner v Preston</i> (1881) 18 Ch D 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Scott v Southern Pacific Mortgages Ltd & Ors</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2014/52.html">[2014] UKSC 52</a>, [2014] HLR 48, [2014] 3 WLR 1163, [2014] WLR(D) 447, [2015] 1 AC 385, [2015] 1 All ER 277 (22 October 2014), <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Supreme Court of the United Kingdom">Supreme Court</a> (UK)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Lady Hood of Avalon v Mackinnon</i> [1909] 1 Ch 476, 484.</span> </li> </ol></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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