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id="mw-content-subtitle"></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"> <script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script> <div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"> "Downwell" redirects here. For the video game, see <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwell_(video_game)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Downwell (video game)">Downwell (video game)</a>. </div> <p><b>Downwelling</b> is the downward movement of a fluid parcel and its properties (e.g., salinity, temperature, pH) within a larger fluid. It is closely related to <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Upwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Upwelling">upwelling</a>, the upward movement of fluid.</p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Coastal_Downwelling.png?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/17/Coastal_Downwelling.png/300px-Coastal_Downwelling.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/17/Coastal_Downwelling.png/450px-Coastal_Downwelling.png 1.5x,https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/17/Coastal_Downwelling.png/600px-Coastal_Downwelling.png 2x" data-file-width="1567" data-file-height="1059"></a> <figcaption> Schematic of coastal downwelling in the Northern Hemisphere. </figcaption> </figure> <p>While downwelling is most commonly used to describe an oceanic process, it's also used to describe a variety of Earth phenomena. This includes mantle dynamics, air movement, and movement in freshwater systems (e.g., large <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Lake?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Lake">lakes</a>). This article will focus on oceanic downwelling and its important implications for <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Thermohaline circulation">ocean circulation</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Biogeochemistry?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Biogeochemistry">biogeochemical</a> cycles. Two primary mechanisms transport water downward: <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Buoyancy?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Buoyancy">buoyancy</a> forcing and wind-driven <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ekman_transport?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ekman transport">Ekman transport</a> (i.e., Ekman pumping).<sup id="cite_ref-Elsevier,_AP-2011_1-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Elsevier,_AP-2011-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <p>Downwelling has important implications for <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Marine_life?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Marine life">marine life</a>. Surface water generally has a lower <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Nutrient?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Nutrient">nutrient</a> content compared to deep water due to <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Primary_production?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Primary production">primary production</a> using nutrients in the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Photic_zone?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Photic zone">photic zone</a>. Surface water is, however, high in oxygen compared to the deep ocean due to <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Photosynthesis?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Gas_exchange?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Gas exchange">air-sea gas exchange</a>. When water is moved downwards, oxygen is pumped below the surface, where it is used by decaying organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-Webb-2023_3-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Webb-2023-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Downwelling events are accompanied by low primary production in the surface ocean due to a lack of nutrient supply from below.<sup id="cite_ref-Webb-2023_3-1" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Webb-2023-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"> <input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"> <div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span> </div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Mechanisms"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Mechanisms</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Buoyancy"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Buoyancy</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Wind-driven_Ekman_transport"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Wind-driven Ekman transport</span></a></li> </ul></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Buoyancy-forced_downwelling"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Buoyancy-forced downwelling</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Wind-forced_downwelling"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Wind-forced downwelling</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Subtropical_gyres"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Subtropical gyres</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Coastal_downwelling"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Coastal downwelling</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Langmuir_circulation"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Langmuir circulation</span></a></li> </ul></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Association_with_other_ocean_features"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Association with other ocean features</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Eddies"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Eddies</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Fronts_and_filaments"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Fronts and filaments</span></a></li> </ul></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Variability"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Variability</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Effects_on_ocean_biogeochemistry"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Effects on ocean biogeochemistry</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#References"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Mechanisms">Mechanisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Downwelling&action=edit&section=1&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Mechanisms" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Buoyancy">Buoyancy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Downwelling&action=edit&section=2&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Buoyancy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Buoyancy?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Buoyancy">Buoyancy</a>-forced downwelling, often termed <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Convection?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Convection">convection</a>, is the deepening of a water parcel due to a change in the density of that parcel. Density changes in the surface ocean are primarily the result of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Evaporation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Precipitation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a>, heating, cooling, or the introduction and mixing of an alternate water or salinity source, such as river input or <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brine_rejection?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Brine rejection">brine rejection</a>. Notably, convection is the driving force behind <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Thermohaline circulation">global thermohaline circulation</a>. For a water parcel to move downward, the density of that parcel must increase; therefore, evaporation, cooling, and brine rejection are the processes that control buoyancy-forced downwelling.<sup id="cite_ref-Elsevier,_AP-2011_1-1" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Elsevier,_AP-2011-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Wind-driven_Ekman_transport">Wind-driven Ekman transport</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Downwelling&action=edit&section=3&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Wind-driven Ekman transport" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ekman_transport?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ekman transport">Ekman transport</a> is the net mass transport of the ocean surface resulting from wind stress and the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Coriolis_force?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Coriolis force">Coriolis force</a>. As wind blows across the ocean surface, it causes a frictional force that drags the uppermost surface water along with it. Due to the Earth's rotation, these surface currents develop at 45° to the wind direction. However, compounding frictional forces cause the net transport across the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ekman_layer?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ekman layer">Ekman layer</a> to be 90° to the right of wind stress in the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Northern Hemisphere">Northern Hemisphere</a> and 90° to the left in the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Southern Hemisphere">Southern Hemisphere</a>. Ekman transport piles up water between the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Trade_winds?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Trade winds">trade winds</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Westerlies?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Westerlies">westerlies</a> in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ocean_gyre?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ocean gyre">subtropical gyres</a>, or near the shore during coastal downwelling.<sup id="cite_ref-www.sciencedirect.com_4-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-www.sciencedirect.com-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The increased mass of surface water creates high-pressure zones that push water downward. It can also create long convergence zones during sustained winds to create <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Langmuir_circulation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Langmuir circulation">Langmuir circulation</a>.</p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Buoyancy-forced_downwelling">Buoyancy-forced downwelling</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Downwelling&action=edit&section=4&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Buoyancy-forced downwelling" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <p><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Buoyancy?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Buoyancy">Buoyancy</a> is lost through cooling, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Evaporation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a>, and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brine_rejection?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Brine rejection">brine rejection</a> through <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sea_ice?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Sea ice">sea ice</a> formation. Buoyancy loss occurs on many spatial and temporal scales.</p> <p>In the open ocean, there are regions where cooling and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mixed_layer?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Mixed layer">mixed layer</a> deepening occurs at night, and the ocean re-stratifies during the day. On annual cycles, widespread cooling begins in the fall, and convective mixed layer deepening can reach hundreds of meters into the ocean interior. In comparison, the wind-driven mixed layer depth is limited to 150 m.</p> <p>Large evaporation events can cause <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Convection?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Convection">convection</a>; however, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Latent_heat?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Latent heat">latent heat</a> loss associated with evaporation is usually dominant and in the winter, this process drives <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a> deep water formation. In select locations - <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Greenland_Sea?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Greenland Sea">Greenland Sea</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Labrador_Sea?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Labrador Sea">Labrador Sea</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Weddell_Sea?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Weddell Sea">Weddell Sea</a>, and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ross_Sea?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ross Sea">Ross Sea</a> - deep convection (>1000 m) ventilates (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Oxygenation_(environmental)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxygenation (environmental)">oxygenates</a>) most of the deep water of the global ocean and drives the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Thermohaline circulation">thermohaline circulation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Elsevier,_AP-2011_1-2" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Elsevier,_AP-2011-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Wind-forced_downwelling">Wind-forced downwelling</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Downwelling&action=edit&section=5&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Wind-forced downwelling" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Oceanic_gyres.png?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Oceanic_gyres.png/320px-Oceanic_gyres.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="209" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1875" data-file-height="1225"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 320px;height: 209px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Oceanic_gyres.png/320px-Oceanic_gyres.png" data-width="320" data-height="209" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Oceanic_gyres.png/480px-Oceanic_gyres.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Oceanic_gyres.png/640px-Oceanic_gyres.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a> <figcaption> Map showing the five subtropical ocean gyres. </figcaption> </figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Subtropical_gyres">Subtropical gyres</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Downwelling&action=edit&section=6&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Subtropical gyres" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ocean_gyre?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ocean gyre">Subtropical gyres</a> act on the largest scale that we observe downwelling. Winds to the north and south of each ocean basin blow opposite each other such that <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ekman_transport?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ekman transport">Ekman transport</a> moves water toward the basin's center. This movement piles up water, creating a high-pressure zone in the center of the gyre, low pressure on the borders, and deepens the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mixed_layer?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Mixed layer">mixed layer</a>. The water in this zone would diffuse outward if the planet weren't spinning. However, because of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Coriolis_force?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Coriolis force">Coriolis force</a>, the water rotates clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the southern, creating a gyre. While it spins, the rotating high-pressure zone forces water downward, resulting in downwelling.<sup id="cite_ref-www.sciencedirect.com_4-1" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-www.sciencedirect.com-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typical downwelling rates associated with ocean gyres are on the order of 10’s of meters per year.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Coastal_downwelling">Coastal downwelling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Downwelling&action=edit&section=7&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Coastal downwelling" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>Coastal downwelling occurs when winds blow parallel to the shore. With such winds, Ekman transport directs water movement towards or directly away from the shore. If Ekman transport moves water towards the shore, the shoreline acts as a barrier causing surface water to pile up onshore. The piled-up water is forced downwards, pumping warm, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Nutrient?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Nutrient">nutrient</a>-poor, oxygenated water below the mixed layer.<sup id="cite_ref-Webb-2023_3-2" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Webb-2023-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-www.sciencedirect.com_4-2" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-www.sciencedirect.com-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Langmuir_circulation">Langmuir circulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Downwelling&action=edit&section=8&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Langmuir circulation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Langmuir_circulation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Langmuir circulation">Langmuir circulation</a> develops from the wind, which, through Ekman transport, creates alternating zones of convergence and divergence at the ocean surface. In convergent zones, marked by long strips of floating debris accumulation, such as the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Great_Pacific_Garbage_Patch?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Great Pacific Garbage Patch">Great Pacific Garbage Patch</a>, coherent vortices transport surface waters to the base of the mixed layer develop. Also, direct wind stirring and current <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Shear_stress?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Shear stress">shear</a> at the base of the mixed layer can create instabilities and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Turbulence?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Turbulence">turbulence</a> that further mix properties within and at the base.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Association_with_other_ocean_features">Association with other ocean features</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Downwelling&action=edit&section=9&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Association with other ocean features" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Eddies">Eddies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Downwelling&action=edit&section=10&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Eddies" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Anti-cyclonic_warm_core_eddy.png?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Anti-cyclonic_warm_core_eddy.png/220px-Anti-cyclonic_warm_core_eddy.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1028" data-file-height="774"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 166px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Anti-cyclonic_warm_core_eddy.png/220px-Anti-cyclonic_warm_core_eddy.png" data-width="220" data-height="166" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Anti-cyclonic_warm_core_eddy.png/330px-Anti-cyclonic_warm_core_eddy.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Anti-cyclonic_warm_core_eddy.png/440px-Anti-cyclonic_warm_core_eddy.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a> <figcaption> Warm-core eddy in the Northern Hemisphere. Shown are the clockwise rotation of waters, depressed isopycnals, and low productivity at the eddy's center. </figcaption> </figure> <p>Meso- (>10-100's km) and submesoscale (<1-10 km) <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eddies?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Eddies">eddies</a> are ubiquitous features of the upper ocean. Eddies have either a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cyclonic_rotation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cyclonic rotation">cyclonic</a> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cold_core_ring?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cold core ring">cold-core</a>) or <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Anticyclonic_rotation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Anticyclonic rotation">anticyclonic</a> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Warm_core_ring?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Warm core ring">warm-core</a>) rotation. Warm-core eddies are characterized by <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Anticyclonic_rotation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Anticyclonic rotation">anticyclonic</a> rotation that directs surface waters inward, creating high sea surface temperature and height.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The high central hydrostatic pressure maintained by this rotation causes the downwelling of water and the depression of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Isopycnal?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Isopycnal">isopycnals</a> - surfaces of constant density (see <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eddy_pumping?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Eddy pumping">Eddy pumping</a>) at scales of hundreds of meters per year.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The typical result is a deeper surface layer of warm water often characterized by low <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Primary_production?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Primary production">primary production</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <p>Warm-core eddies play multiple important roles in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Biogeochemical cycle">biogeochemical cycling</a> and air-sea interactions. For example, these eddies are seen to decrease ice formation in the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Southern_Ocean?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Southern Ocean">Southern Ocean</a> due to their high sea surface temperatures.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has also been observed that air-sea fluxes of carbon dioxide decrease at the center of these eddies and that temperature was the leading cause of this inhibited flux.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Warm-core eddies transport oxygen into the ocean interior (below the photic zone) which supports <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cellular_respiration?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cellular respiration">respiration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although compounds such as oxygen are transported into the deep ocean, there is an observed decrease in carbon export in warm-core eddies due to intensified stratification at their center.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such stratification inhibits the mixing of nutrient-rich waters to the surface where they could fuel primary production. In this case, since primary production stays low, carbon export potential remains low.</p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Fronts_and_filaments">Fronts and filaments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Downwelling&action=edit&section=11&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Fronts and filaments" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Front_(oceanography)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Front (oceanography)">Ocean fronts</a> are formed by the horizontal convergence of dissimilar water masses. They can develop at regions of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fresh_water?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Fresh water">freshwater</a> input marked by horizontal density gradients due to salinity and temperature differences or the stretching and elongation of rotating flows.<sup id="cite_ref-Thomas-2008_15-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Thomas-2008-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <p>Submesoscale fronts and filaments are formed by ocean current interactions and flow instabilities. They are regions that connect the surface layer and the ocean interior.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These regions are characterized by horizontal <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Buoyancy?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Buoyancy">buoyancy</a> gradients < 10 km in scale, caused by sloping isopycnals. Two primary mechanisms transport surface waters to depth: the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Adiabatic_process?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Adiabatic process">adiabatic</a> tilting and relaxation of these isopycnals, and along-isopycnal flow or subduction.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These mechanisms can transport surface properties, such as <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Heat?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Heat">heat</a>, below the mixed layer and assist in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Carbon_sequestration?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a> through the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Biological_pump?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Biological pump">biological pump</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Computer_simulation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Computer simulation">Numerical models</a> predict vertical velocities at submesoscale fronts on the order of 100 m/day.<sup id="cite_ref-Thomas-2008_15-1" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Thomas-2008-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, vertical velocities over 1000 m/day have been observed using ocean <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Float_(nautical)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Float (nautical)">floats.</a><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These observations are rare because ship-based sensors do not have sufficient accuracy to measure vertical velocities.</p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Variability">Variability</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Downwelling&action=edit&section=12&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Variability" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <p>Downwelling trends differ between <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Latitude?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Latitude">latitudes</a> and can be associated with variations in wind strength and changing <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Season?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Season">seasons</a>. In some areas, coastal downwelling is a seasonal event pushing <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Nutrient?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Nutrient">nutrient</a>-depleted waters towards the shore. The relaxation or reversal of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Upwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Upwelling">upwelling</a>-favorable winds creates periods of downwelling as waters pile up along the coast.<sup id="cite_ref-oceanmotion.org_20-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-oceanmotion.org-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <p>Temperature differences and wind patterns are seasonal in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Temperate_climate?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Temperate climate">temperate</a> latitudes, creating highly variable upwelling and downwelling conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-oceanmotion.org_20-1" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-oceanmotion.org-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in fall and winter along the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pacific_Northwest?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Pacific Northwest">Pacific Northwest</a> coast in the United States, southerly winds in the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Gulf_of_Alaska?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Gulf of Alaska">Gulf of Alaska</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/California_Current?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="California Current">California Current</a> system create downwelling-favorable conditions, transporting offshore water from the south and west towards the coast. These downwelling events tend to last for days and can be associated with winter storms and contribute to low levels of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Primary_production?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Primary production">primary production</a> observed during fall and winter.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, during the "spring transition" at the end of the downwelling season and the beginning of the upwelling season is marked by the presence of cold, nutrient-rich, upwelled water at the coast, which stimulates high levels of primary production.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast to seasonally variable temperate regions, downwelling is relatively steady at the poles as cold air decreases the temperature of salty water transported by <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ocean_gyre?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ocean gyre">gyres</a> from the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Tropics?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Tropics">tropics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <p>During the neutral and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/La_Ni%C3%B1a?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="La Niña">La Niña</a> phases of the El Niño Southern Oscillation (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="El Niño–Southern Oscillation">ENSO</a>), steady easterly <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Trade_winds?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Trade winds">trade winds</a> in equatorial regions can cause water to pile up in the western Pacific. A weakening of these trade winds can create downwelling <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Kelvin_wave?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Kelvin wave">Kelvin waves</a>, which propagate along the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Equator?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Equator">equator</a> in the eastern Pacific.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Series of Kelvin waves associated with anomalously warm sea surface temperatures in the eastern Pacific can be a predecessor to an <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="El Niño">El Niño</a> event.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the El Niño phase of ENSO, the disruption of trade winds causes ocean water to pile up off the western coast of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/South_America?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="South America">South America</a>. This shift is associated with a decrease in upwelling and may enhance coastal downwelling.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Effects_on_ocean_biogeochemistry">Effects on ocean biogeochemistry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Downwelling&action=edit&section=13&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Effects on ocean biogeochemistry" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <p><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycling</a> related to downwelling is constrained by the location and frequency at which this process occurs. The majority of downwelling, as described above, occurs in polar regions as deep and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Bottom_water?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Bottom water">bottom water</a> formation or in the center of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ocean_gyre?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ocean gyre">subtropical gyres</a>. Bottom and deep water formation in the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Southern_Ocean?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Southern Ocean">Southern Ocean</a> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Weddell_Sea?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Weddell Sea">Weddell Sea</a>) and North <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Greenland_Sea?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Greenland Sea">Greenland</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Labrador_Sea?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Labrador Sea">Labrador</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Norwegian_Sea?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Norwegian Sea">Norwegian</a>, and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Seas</a>) is a major contributor towards the removal and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Carbon_sequestration?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Carbon sequestration">sequestration</a> of anthropogenic <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Carbon_dioxide?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Dissolved_organic_carbon?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Dissolved organic carbon">dissolved organic carbon</a> (DOC), and dissolved oxygen.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Emerson-2008_29-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Emerson-2008-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dissolved gas <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Solubility?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Solubility">solubility</a> is greater in cold water allowing for increased gas concentrations.<sup id="cite_ref-Emerson-2008_29-1" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Emerson-2008-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <p>The Southern Ocean alone has been shown to be the most important high-latitude region controlling pre-industrial atmospheric carbon dioxide by <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/General_circulation_model?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="General circulation model">general circulation model</a> simulations. Circulation of water into the Antarctic deep-water formation region is one of the main factors drawing carbon dioxide into the surface oceans. The other is the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Biological_pump?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Biological pump">biological pump</a>, which is typically limited by <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Iron?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Iron">iron</a> in the Southern Ocean in areas with high <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Nutrient?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Nutrient">nutrients</a> and low <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Chlorophyll?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Chlorophyll">chlorophyll</a> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/High-nutrient,_low-chlorophyll_regions?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="High-nutrient, low-chlorophyll regions">HNLC</a>). DOC can become entrained during bottom and deep water formation which is a large portion of biogenic carbon export. It is thought that the export of DOC is up to 30% of the biogenic carbon that makes it into the deep ocean. The intensity of the DOC flux to depth relies on the strength of winter convection, which also affects the microbial food web, causing variations in the DOC exported to depth. Dissolved oxygen is also downwelled at bottom and deep water formation sites, contributing to elevated dissolved oxygen concentrations below 1000 meters.</p> <p>Subtropical gyres are typically limited in macro and micro nutrients such as <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Nitrogen?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Phosphorus?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a>, and iron; resulting in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Photosynthetic_picoplankton?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Photosynthetic picoplankton">picophytoplankton</a> communities that have low nutrient requirements. This is in part due to consistent downwelling, which transports nutrients away from the photic zone. These <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Oligotroph?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Oligotroph">oligotrophic</a> areas are thought to be sustained by rapid <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Nutrient_cycle?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Nutrient cycle">nutrient cycling</a> which could leave little carbon remaining that could be sequestered. The dynamics of picophytoplankton's role in carbon cycling in subtropical gyres is poorly understood and is being actively researched.</p> <p>Areas with the highest primary productivity play significant roles in biogeochemical cycling of carbon and nitrogen. Downwelling can either alleviate or induce anoxic conditions, depending on the initial conditions and location. Sustained periods of upwelling can cause deoxygenation which is relieved by a downwelling event transporting dissolved oxygen back down to depths. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Anoxic_waters?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Anoxic waters">Anoxic</a> conditions can also result from persistent downwelling after an <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Algal_bloom?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Algal bloom">algal bloom</a> of high-biomass <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Dinoflagellate?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Dinoflagellate">dinoflagellates</a>. The accumulation of dinoflagellates and other forms of biomass nearshore due to downwelling will eventually cause nutrient depletion and mortality of organisms. As the biomass decays, oxygen becomes depleted by <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Heterotroph?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Heterotroph">heterotrophic</a> bacteria, inducing anoxic conditions.</p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Downwelling&action=edit&section=14&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Elsevier,_AP-2011-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Elsevier,_AP-2011_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Elsevier,_AP-2011_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Elsevier,_AP-2011_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFTalleyPickardEmerySwift2011" class="citation book cs1">Talley, Lynne D.; Pickard, George L.; Emery, William J.; Swift, James H., eds. (2011). <i>Descriptive physical oceanography: an introduction</i> (6th ed.). Amsterdam Heidelberg: Elsevier, AP. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-4552-2?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-4552-2"><bdi>978-0-7506-4552-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Descriptive+physical+oceanography%3A+an+introduction&rft.place=Amsterdam+Heidelberg&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Elsevier%2C+AP&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-7506-4552-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADownwelling" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Downwelling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrice1987" class="citation journal cs1">Price, James (December 11, 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.238.4833.1534">"Wind-Driven Ocean Currents and Ekman Transport"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>238</b> (4833): 1534–1538. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1987Sci...238.1534P">1987Sci...238.1534P</a>. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Doi_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://doi.org/10.1126%252Fscience.238.4833.1534">10.1126/science.238.4833.1534</a>. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/PMID_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17784291">17784291</a>. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:45511024">45511024</a>.</cite><span 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Cambridge. pp. 205–206. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83313-4?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83313-4"><bdi>978-0-521-83313-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chemical+Oceanography+and+the+Marine+Carbon+Cycle&rft.pages=205-206&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Cambridge&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-521-83313-4&rft.aulast=Emerson&rft.aufirst=Steven+R.&rft.au=Hedges%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADownwelling" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> </ol> </div> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Downwelling&action=edit&section=15&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <p><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://oceanmotion.org/html/background/upwelling-and-downwelling.htm">Wind-Driven Surface Currents: Upwelling and Downwelling Background</a></p> <div class="navbox-styles"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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class="post-content footer-content"> <div id="mw-data-after-content"> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D8%25AA%25D9%258A%25D8%25A7%25D8%25B1_%25D9%2587%25D8%25A7%25D8%25A8%25D8%25B7" title="تيار هابط – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تيار هابط" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pealisvee_sukeldumine" title="Pealisvee sukeldumine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Pealisvee sukeldumine" 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mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downwelling" title="Downwelling – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Downwelling" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downwelling" title="Downwelling – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Downwelling" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daunvelings" title="Daunvelings – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Daunvelings" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junam_air" title="Junam air – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Junam air" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nedstr%25C3%25B8mning" title="Nedstrømning – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Nedstrømning" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nedvelling" title="Nedvelling – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Nedvelling" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downwelling" title="Downwelling – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Downwelling" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subsid%25C3%25AAncia_(oceanografia)" title="Subsidência (oceanografia) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Subsidência (oceanografia)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%2594%25D0%25B0%25D1%2583%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B2%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BB%25D0%25BB%25D0%25B8%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B3" title="Даунвеллинг – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Даунвеллинг" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E4%25B8%258B%25E6%25B2%2589%25E6%25B5%2581" title="下沉流 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="下沉流" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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