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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the history of Roman civilisation in antiquity. For the history of the city of Rome, see <a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome" title="History of Rome">History of Rome</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Ancient Rome (disambiguation)">Ancient Rome (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style>In modern <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a>, ancient Rome is the <a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Roman</a> civilisation from the founding of the Italian city of <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> in the 8th century BC to the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">collapse</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> in the 5th century AD. It encompasses the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Roman Kingdom</a> (753–509 BC), the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> (509–27 BC), and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> (27 BC–476 AD) until the fall of the western empire.<a href="#cite_note-2">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[b]</a> <table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Ancient Rome</div><div class="ib-country-names">ROMA<a href="#cite_note-1">[a]</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">753 BC–476/480<a href="#endnote_lifespan">1</a> AD</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Motto: SENATVS·POPVLVSQVE·ROMANVS (commonly known as <a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">SPQR</a>)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Republic_Empire_map.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Roman_Republic_Empire_map.gif/250px-Roman_Republic_Empire_map.gif" decoding="async" width="250" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Roman_Republic_Empire_map.gif/375px-Roman_Republic_Empire_map.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Roman_Republic_Empire_map.gif/500px-Roman_Republic_Empire_map.gif 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="595"></a><div class="ib-country-map-caption">Territories of the Roman civilisation: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Status</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a> (753–509 BC)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a> (509–27 BC)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a> (27 BC–476 AD)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> (and others during the late Empire, notably <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics of Ancient Rome">Government</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li>Elective <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute monarchy</a> (753–509 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_government" title="Mixed government">Mixed</a> diarchic <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">constitutional republic</a> (509 BC–476 AD, only de jure after 27 BC)</li> <li>Elective absolute monarchy (27 BC–476 AD, de facto)</li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient history</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Founding of Rome</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">753 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">Overthrow</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tarquin_the_Proud" class="mw-redirect" title="Tarquin the Proud">Tarquin the Proud</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">509 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Octavian proclaimed <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">27 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Collapse of the Western Roman Empire</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">476/480<a href="#endnote_lifespan">1</a> AD</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div class="ib-country-fn"><ol class="ib-country-fn-num"> <li value="1"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><a href="#ref_lifespan">^</a> While the deposition of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Romulus_Augustulus" title="Romulus Augustulus">Romulus Augustulus</a> in 476 is the most commonly cited end date for the Western Roman Empire, the last Western Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Julius_Nepos" title="Julius Nepos">Julius Nepos</a>, was assassinated in 480, when the title and notion of a separate Western Empire were abolished. Another suggested end date is the reorganization of the Italian peninsula and abolition of separate Western Roman administrative institutions under Emperor <a href="/wiki/Justinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Justinian">Justinian</a> during the latter half of the 6th century.</li> </ol></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Ancient Rome began as an <a href="/wiki/Italic_peoples" title="Italic peoples">Italic</a> settlement, traditionally dated to 753 BC, beside the <a href="/wiki/River_Tiber" class="mw-redirect" title="River Tiber">River Tiber</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Peninsula">Italian Peninsula</a>. The settlement grew into the city and polity of Rome, and came to control its neighbours through a combination of treaties and military strength. It eventually controlled the Italian Peninsula, assimilating the <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greek</a> culture of southern <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Magna_Grecia" class="mw-redirect" title="Magna Grecia">Magna Grecia</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Etruscans" class="mw-redirect" title="Etruscans">Etruscan</a> culture, and then became the dominant power in the Mediterranean region and parts of Europe. At its height it controlled the <a href="/wiki/North_Africa_during_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="North Africa during Antiquity">North African</a> coast, <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, Southern Europe, and most of Western Europe, the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a>, and much of the Middle East, including <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, and parts of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabia</a>. That empire was among the <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest empires</a> in the ancient world, covering around 5 million square kilometres (1.9 million square miles) in AD 117,<a href="#cite_note-:0-4">[2]</a> with an estimated 50 to 90 million inhabitants, roughly 20% of the world's population at the time.<a href="#cite_note-5">[c]</a> The Roman state evolved from an elective monarchy to a <a href="/wiki/Classical_republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical republic">classical republic</a> and then to an increasingly <a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">autocratic</a> <a href="/wiki/Military_dictatorship" title="Military dictatorship">military dictatorship</a> during the Empire. Ancient Rome is often grouped into <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a> together with <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a>, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a>. Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern language, religion, society, technology, law, politics, government, warfare, art, literature, architecture, and engineering. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called <a href="/wiki/Res_publica" title="Res publica">res publica</a>, the inspiration for modern republics such as the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>.<a href="#cite_note-6">[3]</a> It achieved impressive <a href="/wiki/Roman_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman technology">technological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">architectural</a> feats, such as the empire-wide construction of <a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueducts" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman aqueducts">aqueducts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">roads</a>, as well as more grandiose monuments and facilities. <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History">1 History</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Early_Italy_and_the_founding_of_Rome">1.1 Early Italy and the founding of Rome</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Kingdom">1.2 Kingdom</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Republic">1.3 Republic</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="#Punic_Wars">1.3.1 Punic Wars</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Late_Republic">1.4 Late Republic</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="#Caesar_and_the_First_Triumvirate">1.4.1 Caesar and the First Triumvirate</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><a href="#Octavian_and_the_Second_Triumvirate">1.4.2 Octavian and the Second Triumvirate</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Empire_%E2%80%93_the_Principate">1.5 Empire – the Principate</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#Julio-Claudian_dynasty">1.5.1 Julio-Claudian dynasty</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="#Flavian_dynasty">1.5.2 Flavian dynasty</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12"><a href="#Nerva%E2%80%93Antonine_dynasty">1.5.3 Nerva–Antonine dynasty</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-13"><a href="#Severan_dynasty">1.5.4 Severan dynasty</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-14"><a href="#Crisis_of_the_Third_Century">1.5.5 Crisis of the Third Century</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Empire_%E2%80%93_The_Tetrarchy">1.6 Empire – The Tetrarchy</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-16"><a href="#Diocletian">1.6.1 Diocletian</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-17"><a href="#Constantine_and_Christianity">1.6.2 Constantine and Christianity</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire">1.7 Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#Society">2 Society</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Law">2.1 Law</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Class_structure">2.2 Class structure</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Education">2.3 Education</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Government">2.4 Government</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Military">2.5 Military</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-25"><a href="#Roman_navy">2.5.1 Roman navy</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Economy">2.6 Economy</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#Family">2.7 Family</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#Time_and_dates">2.8 Time and dates</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#Culture">3 Culture</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30"><a href="#Language">3.1 Language</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-31"><a href="#Religion">3.2 Religion</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-32"><a href="#Ethics_and_morality">3.3 Ethics and morality</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-33"><a href="#Art,_music_and_literature">3.4 Art, music and literature</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-34"><a href="#Literature_and_libraries">3.4.1 Literature and libraries</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-35"><a href="#Cuisine">3.5 Cuisine</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-36"><a href="#Fashion">3.6 Fashion</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-37"><a href="#Games_and_recreation">3.7 Games and recreation</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-38"><a href="#Technology">4 Technology</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-39"><a href="#Legacy">5 Legacy</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-40"><a href="#Historiography">6 Historiography</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-41"><a href="#Primary_and_secondary_sources">6.1 Primary and secondary sources</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-42"><a href="#See_also">7 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-43"><a href="#Notes">8 Notes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-44"><a href="#References">9 References</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-45"><a href="#Works_cited">9.1 Works cited</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-46"><a href="#Further_reading">10 Further reading</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-47"><a href="#External_links">11 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="History">History</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Italy_and_the_founding_of_Rome">Early Italy and the founding of Rome</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early Italy and the founding of Rome" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Founding of Rome</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:412px;max-width:412px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:223px;max-width:223px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:143px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Lupa_Capitolina,_Rome.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Capitoline Wolf" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Lupa_Capitolina%2C_Rome.jpg/221px-Lupa_Capitolina%2C_Rome.jpg" decoding="async" width="221" height="144" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="7489" data-file-height="4876"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 221px;height: 144px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Lupa_Capitolina%2C_Rome.jpg/221px-Lupa_Capitolina%2C_Rome.jpg" data-alt="Capitoline Wolf" data-width="221" data-height="144" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Lupa_Capitolina%2C_Rome.jpg/332px-Lupa_Capitolina%2C_Rome.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Lupa_Capitolina%2C_Rome.jpg/442px-Lupa_Capitolina%2C_Rome.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Capitoline_Wolf" title="Capitoline Wolf">Capitoline Wolf</a>, now illustrating the legend that a <a href="/wiki/She-wolf_(Roman_mythology)" title="She-wolf (Roman mythology)">she-wolf</a> suckled <a href="/wiki/Romulus_and_Remus" title="Romulus and Remus">Romulus and Remus</a> after <a href="/wiki/Rhea_Silvia" title="Rhea Silvia">their mother</a>'s imprisonment in <a href="/wiki/Alba_Longa" title="Alba Longa">Alba Longa</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:185px;max-width:185px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:143px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Rome_in_753_BC.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Rome 753 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Rome_in_753_BC.png/183px-Rome_in_753_BC.png" decoding="async" width="183" height="144" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1083" data-file-height="852"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 183px;height: 144px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Rome_in_753_BC.png/183px-Rome_in_753_BC.png" data-alt="Rome 753 BC" data-width="183" data-height="144" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Rome_in_753_BC.png/275px-Rome_in_753_BC.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Rome_in_753_BC.png/366px-Rome_in_753_BC.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Modern reconstruction of the marshy conditions of early Rome, along with a conjectural placement of the <a href="/wiki/Roma_Quadrata" class="mw-redirect" title="Roma Quadrata">early settlement</a> and <a href="/wiki/Murus_Romuli" title="Murus Romuli">its fortifications</a></div></div></div></div></div> Archaeological evidence of settlement around Rome starts to emerge <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1000 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright2012519-7">[4]</a> Large-scale organisation appears only <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 800 BC, with the first graves in the <a href="/wiki/Esquiline_Hill" title="Esquiline Hill">Esquiline Hill</a>'s necropolis, along with a <a href="/wiki/Murus_Romuli" title="Murus Romuli">clay and timber wall</a> on the bottom of the <a href="/wiki/Palatine_Hill" title="Palatine Hill">Palatine Hill</a> dating to the middle of the 8th century BC. Starting from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 650 BC, the Romans started to drain the valley between the <a href="/wiki/Capitoline_Hill" title="Capitoline Hill">Capitoline</a> and Palatine Hills, where today sits the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Forum" title="Roman Forum">Roman Forum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201229-8">[5]</a> By the sixth century BC, the Romans were constructing the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Jupiter_Optimus_Maximus" title="Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus">Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus</a> on the Capitoline and expanding to the <a href="/wiki/Forum_Boarium" title="Forum Boarium">Forum Boarium</a> located between the Capitoline and <a href="/wiki/Aventine_Hill" title="Aventine Hill">Aventine Hills</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201231-9">[6]</a> The Romans themselves had a <a href="/wiki/Founding_myth" class="mw-redirect" title="Founding myth">founding myth</a>, attributing their city to <a href="/wiki/Romulus_and_Remus" title="Romulus and Remus">Romulus and Remus</a>, offspring of Mars and a princess of the mythical city of <a href="/wiki/Alba_Longa" title="Alba Longa">Alba Longa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201231%E2%80%9332-10">[7]</a> The sons, sentenced to death, were rescued by a wolf and returned to restore the Alban king and found a city. After a dispute, Romulus killed Remus and became the city's sole founder. The area of his initial settlement on the Palatine Hill was later known as <a href="/wiki/Roma_Quadrata" class="mw-redirect" title="Roma Quadrata">Roma Quadrata</a> ("Square Rome"). The story dates at least to the third century BC, and the later Roman antiquarian <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Marcus Terentius Varro</a> placed the city's foundation to 753 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201232-11">[8]</a> Another legend, recorded by Greek historian <a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a>, says that Prince Aeneas led a group of Trojans on a sea voyage to found a new Troy after the <a href="/wiki/Trojan_War" title="Trojan War">Trojan War</a>. They landed on the banks of the <a href="/wiki/Tiber_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiber River">Tiber River</a> and a woman travelling with them, Roma, torched their ships to prevent them leaving again. They named the settlement after her.<a href="#cite_note-12">[9]</a> The Roman poet <a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a> recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the <a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a>. <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_0mi10ll877kj11ambtmde3tf4tfo4tv"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" coords="528,49,641,70" title="Byzantine Empire" alt="Byzantine Empire"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" coords="318,29,388,50" title="Roman Empire" alt="Roman Empire"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" coords="188,29,269,50" title="Roman Republic" alt="Roman Republic"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" coords="78,29,153,50" title="Roman Kingdom" alt="Roman Kingdom"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" coords="375,9,488,30" title="Western Roman Empire" alt="Western Roman Empire"></map><img usemap="#timeline_0mi10ll877kj11ambtmde3tf4tfo4tv" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/0mi10ll877kj11ambtmde3tf4tfo4tv.png"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kingdom">Kingdom</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Kingdom" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Roman Kingdom</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Danseurs_et_musiciens,_tombe_des_l%C3%A9opards.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Danseurs_et_musiciens%2C_tombe_des_l%C3%A9opards.jpg/200px-Danseurs_et_musiciens%2C_tombe_des_l%C3%A9opards.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="111" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2892" data-file-height="1603"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 200px;height: 111px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Danseurs_et_musiciens%2C_tombe_des_l%C3%A9opards.jpg/200px-Danseurs_et_musiciens%2C_tombe_des_l%C3%A9opards.jpg" data-width="200" data-height="111" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Danseurs_et_musiciens%2C_tombe_des_l%C3%A9opards.jpg/300px-Danseurs_et_musiciens%2C_tombe_des_l%C3%A9opards.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Danseurs_et_musiciens%2C_tombe_des_l%C3%A9opards.jpg/400px-Danseurs_et_musiciens%2C_tombe_des_l%C3%A9opards.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Etruscan Civilization">Etruscan</a> <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_art" title="Etruscan art">painting</a> of dancer and musicians from the <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_the_Leopards" title="Tomb of the Leopards">Tomb of the Leopards</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tarquinia" title="Tarquinia">Tarquinia</a></figcaption></figure> Literary and archaeological evidence is clear on there having been kings in Rome, attested in fragmentary 6th century BC texts.<a href="#cite_note-13">[10]</a> Long after the abolition of the Roman monarchy, a vestigial rex sacrorum was retained to exercise the monarch's former priestly functions. The Romans believed that their monarchy was elective, with seven legendary kings who were largely unrelated by blood.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201236-14">[11]</a> Evidence of Roman expansion is clear in the sixth century BC; by its end, Rome controlled a territory of some 780 square kilometres (300 square miles) with a population perhaps as high as 35,000.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201236-14">[11]</a> A palace, the <a href="/wiki/Regia" title="Regia">Regia</a>, was constructed <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 625 BC;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201236-14">[11]</a> the Romans attributed the creation of their first popular organisations and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a> to the regal period as well.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201237-15">[12]</a> Rome also started to extend its control over its Latin neighbours. While later Roman stories like the <a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a> asserted that all Latins descended from the character <a href="/wiki/Aeneas" title="Aeneas">Aeneas</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201239-16">[13]</a> a common culture is attested to archaeologically.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201240-17">[14]</a> Attested to reciprocal rights of marriage and citizenship between Latin cities—the <a href="/wiki/Jus_Latii" class="mw-redirect" title="Jus Latii">Jus Latii</a>—along with shared religious festivals, further indicate a shared culture. By the end of the 6th century, most of this area had become dominated by the Romans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201242-18">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Republic">Republic</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Republic" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:412px;max-width:412px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:181px;max-width:181px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:268px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Capitoline_Brutus_Musei_Capitolini_MC1183_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Capitoline Brutus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Capitoline_Brutus_Musei_Capitolini_MC1183_02.jpg/179px-Capitoline_Brutus_Musei_Capitolini_MC1183_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="179" height="269" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1300" data-file-height="1950"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 179px;height: 269px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Capitoline_Brutus_Musei_Capitolini_MC1183_02.jpg/179px-Capitoline_Brutus_Musei_Capitolini_MC1183_02.jpg" data-alt="Capitoline Brutus" data-width="179" data-height="269" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Capitoline_Brutus_Musei_Capitolini_MC1183_02.jpg/269px-Capitoline_Brutus_Musei_Capitolini_MC1183_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Capitoline_Brutus_Musei_Capitolini_MC1183_02.jpg/358px-Capitoline_Brutus_Musei_Capitolini_MC1183_02.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Capitoline_Brutus" title="Capitoline Brutus">Capitoline Brutus</a>, a bust traditionally identified as <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Junius_Brutus" title="Lucius Junius Brutus">L. Junius Brutus</a>, one of the founders of the Republic</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:227px;max-width:227px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:268px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Italy_400bC_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Italy in 400 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Italy_400bC_en.svg/225px-Italy_400bC_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="225" height="268" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="747" data-file-height="890"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 225px;height: 268px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Italy_400bC_en.svg/225px-Italy_400bC_en.svg.png" data-alt="Italy in 400 BC" data-width="225" data-height="268" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Italy_400bC_en.svg/338px-Italy_400bC_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Italy_400bC_en.svg/450px-Italy_400bC_en.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Italy in 400 BC, just prior to the <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celtic</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Gallic_wars" title="Roman–Gallic wars">invasion</a> under <a href="/wiki/Brennus_(leader_of_the_Senones)" title="Brennus (leader of the Senones)">Brennus</a></div></div></div></div></div> By the end of the sixth century, Rome and many of its Italian neighbours entered a period of turbulence. Archaeological evidence implies some degree of large-scale warfare.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201243-19">[16]</a> According to tradition and later writers such as <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> was established <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 509 BC,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECornell1995215_et_seq-20">[17]</a> when the last of the seven kings of Rome, <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Tarquinius_Superbus" title="Lucius Tarquinius Superbus">Tarquin the Proud</a>, was <a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">deposed</a> and a system based on annually elected <a href="/wiki/Roman_Magistrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Magistrate">magistrates</a> and various representative assemblies was established.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatyszak200343%E2%80%9344-21">[18]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">constitution</a> set a series of <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">checks and balances</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a>. The most important magistrates were the two <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consuls</a>, who together exercised executive authority such as <a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">imperium</a>, or military command.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199841%E2%80%9342-22">[19]</a> The consuls had to work with the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a>, which was initially an advisory council of the ranking nobility, or <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">patricians</a>, but grew in size and power.<a href="#cite_note-23">[20]</a> Other magistrates of the Republic include <a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">tribunes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">quaestors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">aediles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">praetors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">censors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lacus-24">[21]</a> The magistracies were originally restricted to <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">patricians</a>, but were later opened to common people, or <a href="/wiki/Plebs" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebs">plebeians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-25">[22]</a> Republican voting assemblies included the <a href="/wiki/Comitia_centuriata" class="mw-redirect" title="Comitia centuriata">comitia centuriata</a> (centuriate assembly), which voted on matters of war and peace and elected men to the most important offices, and the <a href="/wiki/Comitia_tributa" class="mw-redirect" title="Comitia tributa">comitia tributa</a> (tribal assembly), which elected less important offices.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199839-26">[23]</a> In the 4th century BC, Rome had come under attack by the <a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a>, who now extended their power in the Italian peninsula beyond the <a href="/wiki/Po_Valley" title="Po Valley">Po Valley</a> and through Etruria. On 16 July 390 BC, a Gallic army under the leadership of tribal chieftain <a href="/wiki/Brennus_(4th_century_BC)" class="mw-redirect" title="Brennus (4th century BC)">Brennus</a>, defeated the Romans at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Allia" title="Battle of the Allia">Battle of the Allia</a> and marched to Rome. The Gauls looted and burned the city, then laid siege to the Capitoline Hill, where some Romans had barricaded themselves, for seven months. The Gauls then agreed to give the Romans peace in exchange for 1000 pounds of gold.<a href="#cite_note-27">[24]</a> According to later legend, the Roman supervising the weighing noticed that the Gauls were using false scales. The Romans then took up arms and defeated the Gauls. Their victorious general <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Furius_Camillus" title="Marcus Furius Camillus">Camillus</a> remarked "With iron, not with gold, Rome buys her freedom."<a href="#cite_note-28">[25]</a> The Romans <a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman conquest of Italy">gradually subdued</a> the other peoples on the Italian peninsula, including the <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaywood1971%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailsancientworld0000unsepage350_350%5D%E2%80%93358-29">[26]</a> The last threat to Roman <a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">hegemony</a> in Italy came when <a href="/wiki/Taranto" title="Taranto">Tarentum</a>, a major <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> colony, enlisted the aid of <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhus_of_Epirus" title="Pyrrhus of Epirus">Pyrrhus of Epirus</a> in 281 BC, but this effort failed as well.<a href="#cite_note-30">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaywood1971%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailsancientworld0000unsepage350_350%5D%E2%80%93358-29">[26]</a> The Romans secured their conquests by founding <a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">Roman colonies</a> in strategic areas, thereby establishing stable control over the region.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaywood1971%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailsancientworld0000unsepage350_350%5D%E2%80%93358-29">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Punic_Wars">Punic Wars</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Punic Wars" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars">Punic Wars</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_the_Iberian_Peninsula" title="Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula">Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Domain_changes_during_the_Punic_Wars.gif" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Domain_changes_during_the_Punic_Wars.gif/420px-Domain_changes_during_the_Punic_Wars.gif" decoding="async" width="420" height="315" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 420px;height: 315px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Domain_changes_during_the_Punic_Wars.gif/420px-Domain_changes_during_the_Punic_Wars.gif" data-width="420" data-height="315" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Domain_changes_during_the_Punic_Wars.gif/630px-Domain_changes_during_the_Punic_Wars.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Domain_changes_during_the_Punic_Wars.gif 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Territorial changes over the course of the <a href="/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars">Punic Wars</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> Roman possessions and close allies</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> <a href="/wiki/Carthaginian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Carthaginian Empire">Carthaginian Empire</a> and close allies </div></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RUSSELL(1854)_p182_Siege_of_Numantia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/RUSSELL%281854%29_p182_Siege_of_Numantia.jpg/200px-RUSSELL%281854%29_p182_Siege_of_Numantia.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="152" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1297" data-file-height="986"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 200px;height: 152px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/RUSSELL%281854%29_p182_Siege_of_Numantia.jpg/200px-RUSSELL%281854%29_p182_Siege_of_Numantia.jpg" data-width="200" data-height="152" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/RUSSELL%281854%29_p182_Siege_of_Numantia.jpg/300px-RUSSELL%281854%29_p182_Siege_of_Numantia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/RUSSELL%281854%29_p182_Siege_of_Numantia.jpg/400px-RUSSELL%281854%29_p182_Siege_of_Numantia.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The Roman siege of the <a href="/wiki/Celtiberians" title="Celtiberians">Celtiberian</a> stronghold of <a href="/wiki/Numantia" title="Numantia">Numantia</a> in Spain in 133 BC<a href="#cite_note-31">[28]</a></figcaption></figure> In the 3rd century BC Rome faced a new and formidable opponent: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthage</a>, the other major power in the Western Mediterranean.<a href="#cite_note-32">[29]</a> The <a href="/wiki/First_Punic_War" title="First Punic War">First Punic War</a> began in 264 BC, when the city of <a href="/wiki/Messina" title="Messina">Messana</a> asked for Carthage's help in their conflicts with <a href="/wiki/Hiero_II_of_Syracuse" title="Hiero II of Syracuse">Hiero II of Syracuse</a>. After the Carthaginian intercession, Messana asked Rome to expel the Carthaginians. Rome entered this war because <a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_Sicily" title="Syracuse, Sicily">Syracuse</a> and Messana were too close to the newly conquered Greek cities of Southern Italy and Carthage was now able to make an offensive through Roman territory; along with this, Rome could extend its domain over <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[30]</a> Carthage was a maritime power, and the Roman lack of ships and naval experience made the path to the victory a long and difficult one for the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>. Despite this, after more than 20 years of war, Rome defeated Carthage and a peace treaty was signed. Among the reasons for the <a href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second Punic War</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[31]</a> was the subsequent war reparations Carthage acquiesced to at the end of the First Punic War.<a href="#cite_note-35">[32]</a> The war began with the audacious invasion of Hispania by <a href="/wiki/Hannibal" title="Hannibal">Hannibal</a>, who marched through <a href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Hispania</a> to the Italian <a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a>. Hannibal's invasion lasted over 16 years, ravaging Italy, but ultimately Carthage was defeated in the decisive <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zama" title="Battle of Zama">Battle of Zama</a> in October 202 BC. More than a half century after these events, Carthage was left humiliated and the Republic's focus was now directed towards the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</a> kingdoms of Greece and <a href="/wiki/Celtiberian_Wars" title="Celtiberian Wars">revolts in Hispania</a>. However, Carthage, having paid the war indemnity, felt that its commitments and submission to Rome had ceased, a vision not shared by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Third_Punic_War" title="Third Punic War">Third Punic War</a> began when Rome declared war against Carthage in 149 BC. Carthage resisted well at the first strike but could not withstand the attack of <a href="/wiki/Scipio_Aemilianus" title="Scipio Aemilianus">Scipio Aemilianus</a>, who entirely destroyed the city, enslaved all the citizens and gained control of that region, which became the province of <a href="/wiki/Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Africa</a>. All these wars resulted in Rome's first overseas conquests (Sicily, Hispania and Africa) and the rise of Rome as a significant imperial power.<a href="#cite_note-36">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_Republic">Late Republic</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Late Republic" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> After defeating the <a href="/wiki/Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedon">Macedonian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empires</a> in the 2nd century BC, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a> became the dominant people of the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-37">[34]</a> The conquest of the Hellenistic kingdoms brought the Roman and Greek cultures in closer contact and the Roman elite, once rural, became cosmopolitan. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:155px;max-width:155px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:205px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Marius_and_the_Ambassadors_of_the_Cimbri.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Gaius Marius" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Marius_and_the_Ambassadors_of_the_Cimbri.jpg/153px-Marius_and_the_Ambassadors_of_the_Cimbri.jpg" decoding="async" width="153" height="206" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1641" data-file-height="2209"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 153px;height: 206px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Marius_and_the_Ambassadors_of_the_Cimbri.jpg/153px-Marius_and_the_Ambassadors_of_the_Cimbri.jpg" data-alt="Gaius Marius" data-width="153" data-height="206" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Marius_and_the_Ambassadors_of_the_Cimbri.jpg/230px-Marius_and_the_Ambassadors_of_the_Cimbri.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Marius_and_the_Ambassadors_of_the_Cimbri.jpg/306px-Marius_and_the_Ambassadors_of_the_Cimbri.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Marius" title="Gaius Marius">Gaius Marius</a>, a general who dramatically reformed the <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">Roman military</a> and was repeatedly elected <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consul</a> to handle invasions of the <a href="/wiki/Cimbri" title="Cimbri">Cimbri</a> and <a href="/wiki/Teutones" class="mw-redirect" title="Teutones">Teutones</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:233px;max-width:233px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:205px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Q._Pompeius_Rufus,_denarius,_54_BC,_RRC_434-1_(Sulla_only).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="L. Cornelius Sulla" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Q._Pompeius_Rufus%2C_denarius%2C_54_BC%2C_RRC_434-1_%28Sulla_only%29.jpg/231px-Q._Pompeius_Rufus%2C_denarius%2C_54_BC%2C_RRC_434-1_%28Sulla_only%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="231" height="205" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="399" data-file-height="354"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 231px;height: 205px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Q._Pompeius_Rufus%2C_denarius%2C_54_BC%2C_RRC_434-1_%28Sulla_only%29.jpg/231px-Q._Pompeius_Rufus%2C_denarius%2C_54_BC%2C_RRC_434-1_%28Sulla_only%29.jpg" data-alt="L. Cornelius Sulla" data-width="231" data-height="205" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Q._Pompeius_Rufus%2C_denarius%2C_54_BC%2C_RRC_434-1_%28Sulla_only%29.jpg/347px-Q._Pompeius_Rufus%2C_denarius%2C_54_BC%2C_RRC_434-1_%28Sulla_only%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Q._Pompeius_Rufus%2C_denarius%2C_54_BC%2C_RRC_434-1_%28Sulla_only%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Cornelius_Sulla" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Cornelius Sulla">L. Cornelius Sulla</a>, leader of the rival <a href="/wiki/Optimates" class="mw-redirect" title="Optimates">optimate party</a>, who ultimately marched on Rome twice, established himself as <a href="/wiki/Dictator_(Rome)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dictator (Rome)">dictator</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulla%27s_proscription" title="Sulla's proscription">massacring opponents</a> and <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_reforms_of_Sulla" title="Constitutional reforms of Sulla">attempting to restore the prerogatives</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Patricians_(Rome)" class="mw-redirect" title="Patricians (Rome)">Patricians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a></div></div></div></div></div> Foreign dominance led to internal strife. Senators became rich at the <a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">provinces</a>' expense; soldiers, who were mostly small-scale farmers, were away from home longer and could not maintain their land; and the increased reliance on foreign <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_antiquity" title="Slavery in antiquity">slaves</a> and the growth of <a href="/wiki/Latifundia" class="mw-redirect" title="Latifundia">latifundia</a> reduced the availability of paid work.<a href="#cite_note-38">[35]</a> Income from war booty, <a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">mercantilism</a> in the new provinces, and <a href="/wiki/Tax_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Tax farming">tax farming</a> created new economic opportunities for the wealthy, forming a new class of merchants, called the <a href="/wiki/Equestrian_order" class="mw-redirect" title="Equestrian order">equestrians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Liviuseques-39">[36]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Lex_Claudia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lex Claudia">lex Claudia</a> forbade members of the Senate from engaging in commerce, so while the equestrians could theoretically join the Senate, they were severely restricted in political power.<a href="#cite_note-Liviuseques-39">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199838-40">[37]</a> The Senate squabbled perpetually, repeatedly blocked important <a href="/wiki/Land_reform" title="Land reform">land reforms</a> and refused to give the equestrian class a larger say in the government. Violent gangs of the urban unemployed, controlled by rival Senators, intimidated the electorate through violence. The situation came to a head in the late 2nd century BC under the <a href="/wiki/Gracchi" class="mw-redirect" title="Gracchi">Gracchi</a> brothers, a pair of <a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">tribunes</a> who attempted to pass land reform legislation that would redistribute the major patrician landholdings among the plebeians. Both brothers were killed and the Senate passed reforms reversing the Gracchi brother's actions.<a href="#cite_note-41">[38]</a> This led to the growing divide of the plebeian groups (<a href="/wiki/Populares" class="mw-redirect" title="Populares">populares</a>) and equestrian classes (<a href="/wiki/Optimates" class="mw-redirect" title="Optimates">optimates</a>). <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Marius" title="Gaius Marius">Gaius Marius</a> soon became a leader of the Republic, holding the first of his seven consulships (an unprecedented number) in 107 BC by arguing that his former patron <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Caecilius_Metellus_Numidicus" title="Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus">Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus</a> was not able to defeat and capture the Numidian king <a href="/wiki/Jugurtha" title="Jugurtha">Jugurtha</a>. Marius then started his military reform: in his recruitment to fight Jugurtha, he levied the very poor (an innovation), and many landless men entered the army. Marius was elected for five consecutive consulships from 104 to 100 BC, as Rome needed a military leader to defeat the <a href="/wiki/Cimbri" title="Cimbri">Cimbri</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Teutones" class="mw-redirect" title="Teutones">Teutones</a>, who were threatening Rome. After Marius's retirement, Rome had a brief peace, during which the Italian socii ("allies" in Latin) requested Roman citizenship and voting rights. The reformist <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Livius_Drusus_(tribune)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Livius Drusus (tribune)">Marcus Livius Drusus</a> supported their legal process but was assassinated, and the socii revolted against the Romans in the <a href="/wiki/Social_War_(91-88_BC)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social War (91-88 BC)">Social War</a>. At one point both consuls were killed; Marius was appointed to command the army together with <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Julius_Caesar_(consul_90_BC)" title="Lucius Julius Caesar (consul 90 BC)">Lucius Julius Caesar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Cornelius_Sulla" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Cornelius Sulla">Lucius Cornelius Sulla</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHdP-EBp760-42">[39]</a> By the end of the Social War, Marius and Sulla were the premier military men in Rome and their partisans were in conflict, both sides jostling for power. In 88 BC, Sulla was elected for his first consulship and his first assignment was to defeat <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_VI" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithridates VI">Mithridates VI</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pontus_(region)" title="Pontus (region)">Pontus</a>, whose intentions were to conquer the Eastern part of the Roman territories. However, Marius's partisans managed his installation to the military command, defying Sulla and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a>. To consolidate his own power, Sulla conducted a surprising and illegal action: he marched to Rome with his legions, killing all those who showed support to Marius's cause. In the following year, 87 BC, Marius, who had fled at Sulla's march, returned to Rome while Sulla was campaigning in Greece. He seized power along with the consul <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Cornelius_Cinna" title="Lucius Cornelius Cinna">Lucius Cornelius Cinna</a> and killed the other consul, <a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Octavius_(consul_87_BC)" title="Gnaeus Octavius (consul 87 BC)">Gnaeus Octavius</a>, achieving his seventh consulship. Marius and Cinna revenged their partisans by conducting a massacre.<a href="#cite_note-WHdP-EBp760-42">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[40]</a> Marius died in 86 BC, due to age and poor health, just a few months after seizing power. Cinna exercised absolute power until his death in 84 BC. After returning from his Eastern campaigns, Sulla had a free path to reestablish his own power. In 83 BC he made his <a href="/wiki/Sulla%27s_civil_war" title="Sulla's civil war">second march on Rome</a> and began a time of terror: thousands of nobles, knights and senators were executed. Sulla held two <a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">dictatorships</a> and one more consulship, which began the crisis and decline of Roman Republic.<a href="#cite_note-WHdP-EBp760-42">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Caesar_and_the_First_Triumvirate">Caesar and the First Triumvirate</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Caesar and the First Triumvirate" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Landing_of_the_Romans_on_the_Coast_of_Kent.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Landing_of_the_Romans_on_the_Coast_of_Kent.jpg/220px-Landing_of_the_Romans_on_the_Coast_of_Kent.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="260" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="491" data-file-height="580"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 260px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Landing_of_the_Romans_on_the_Coast_of_Kent.jpg/220px-Landing_of_the_Romans_on_the_Coast_of_Kent.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="260" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Landing_of_the_Romans_on_the_Coast_of_Kent.jpg/330px-Landing_of_the_Romans_on_the_Coast_of_Kent.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Landing_of_the_Romans_on_the_Coast_of_Kent.jpg/440px-Landing_of_the_Romans_on_the_Coast_of_Kent.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Landing of the Romans in <a href="/wiki/Kent" title="Kent">Kent</a>, 55 BC: Caesar with 100 ships and two legions made an opposed landing, probably near <a href="/wiki/Deal,_Kent" title="Deal, Kent">Deal</a>. After pressing a little way inland against fierce opposition and losing ships in a storm, he retired back across the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">English Channel</a> to Gaul from what was a reconnaissance in force, only to return the following year for a more serious <a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_invasions_of_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesar's invasions of Britain">invasion</a>.</figcaption></figure> In the mid-1st century BC, Roman politics were restless. Political divisions in Rome split into one of two groups, <a href="/wiki/Populares" class="mw-redirect" title="Populares">populares</a> (who hoped for the support of the people) and <a href="/wiki/Optimates" class="mw-redirect" title="Optimates">optimates</a> (the "best", who wanted to maintain exclusive aristocratic control). Sulla overthrew all populist leaders and his constitutional reforms removed powers (such as those of the <a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">tribune of the plebs</a>) that had supported populist approaches. Meanwhile, social and economic stresses continued to build; Rome had become a metropolis with a super-rich aristocracy, debt-ridden aspirants, and a large proletariat often of impoverished farmers. The latter groups supported the <a href="/wiki/Catilinarian_conspiracy" title="Catilinarian conspiracy">Catilinarian conspiracy</a>—a resounding failure since the consul <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Tullius_Cicero" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Tullius Cicero">Marcus Tullius Cicero</a> quickly arrested and executed the main leaders. <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Gaius Julius Caesar</a> reconciled the two most powerful men in Rome: <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Licinius_Crassus" title="Marcus Licinius Crassus">Marcus Licinius Crassus</a>, who had financed much of his earlier career, and Crassus' rival, <a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Pompeius_Magnus" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus">Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus</a> (anglicised as Pompey), to whom he married <a href="/wiki/Julia_(daughter_of_Julius_Caesar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Julia (daughter of Julius Caesar)">his daughter</a>. He formed them into a new informal alliance including himself, the <a href="/wiki/First_Triumvirate" title="First Triumvirate">First Triumvirate</a> ("three men"). Caesar's daughter died in childbirth in 54 BC, and in 53 BC, Crassus invaded <a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthia</a> and was killed in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carrhae" title="Battle of Carrhae">Battle of Carrhae</a>; the Triumvirate disintegrated. Caesar <a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars" title="Gallic Wars">conquered Gaul</a>, obtained immense wealth, respect in Rome and the loyalty of battle-hardened legions. He became a threat to Pompey and was loathed by many optimates. Confident that Caesar could be stopped by legal means, Pompey's party tried to strip Caesar of his legions, a prelude to Caesar's trial, impoverishment, and exile. To avoid this fate, Caesar <a href="/wiki/Crossing_the_Rubicon" title="Crossing the Rubicon">crossed the Rubicon</a> River and invaded Rome in 49 BC. The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pharsalus" title="Battle of Pharsalus">Battle of Pharsalus</a> was a brilliant victory for Caesar and in this and other campaigns, he destroyed all of the optimates leaders: <a href="/wiki/Metellus_Scipio" class="mw-redirect" title="Metellus Scipio">Metellus Scipio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cato_the_Younger" title="Cato the Younger">Cato the Younger</a>, and Pompey's son, <a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Pompeius_(son_of_Pompey_the_Great)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnaeus Pompeius (son of Pompey the Great)">Gnaeus Pompeius</a>. Pompey was murdered in Egypt in 48 BC. Caesar was now pre-eminent over Rome: in five years he held four consulships, two ordinary dictatorships, and two special dictatorships, one for perpetuity. He was murdered in 44 BC, on the <a href="/wiki/Ides_of_March" title="Ides of March">Ides of March</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Liberatores" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberatores">Liberatores</a>.<a href="#cite_note-44">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Octavian_and_the_Second_Triumvirate">Octavian and the Second Triumvirate</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Octavian and the Second Triumvirate" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Caesar's assassination caused political and social turmoil in Rome; the city was ruled by his friend and colleague, <a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Marcus Antonius</a>. Soon afterward, <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Octavius</a>, whom Caesar adopted through his will, arrived in Rome. Octavian (historians regard Octavius as Octavian due to the <a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">Roman naming conventions</a>) tried to align himself with the Caesarian faction. In 43 BC, along with Antony and <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aemilius_Lepidus_(triumvir)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)">Marcus Aemilius Lepidus</a>, Caesar's best friend,<a href="#cite_note-45">[42]</a> he legally established the <a href="/wiki/Second_Triumvirate" title="Second Triumvirate">Second Triumvirate</a>. Upon its formation, 130–300 senators were executed, and their property was confiscated, due to their supposed support for the <a href="/wiki/Liberatores" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberatores">Liberatores</a>.<a href="#cite_note-46">[43]</a> In 42 BC, the Senate <a href="/wiki/Imperial_cult_(ancient_Rome)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial cult (ancient Rome)">deified</a> Caesar as <a href="/wiki/Divus_Iulius" class="mw-redirect" title="Divus Iulius">Divus Iulius</a>; Octavian thus became <a href="/wiki/Divi_filius" title="Divi filius">Divi filius</a>,<a href="#cite_note-47">[44]</a> the son of the deified. In the same year, Octavian and Antony defeated both Caesar's assassins and the leaders of the Liberatores, <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Junius_Brutus" title="Marcus Junius Brutus">Marcus Junius Brutus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Cassius_Longinus" title="Gaius Cassius Longinus">Gaius Cassius Longinus</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Philippi" title="Battle of Philippi">Battle of Philippi</a>. The Second Triumvirate was marked by the <a href="/wiki/Proscription" title="Proscription">proscriptions</a> of many senators and equites: after a revolt led by Antony's brother <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Antonius_(brother_of_Mark_Antony)" title="Lucius Antonius (brother of Mark Antony)">Lucius Antonius</a>, more than 300 senators and equites involved were executed, although Lucius was spared.<a href="#cite_note-48">[45]</a> The Triumvirate divided the Empire among the triumvirs: Lepidus was given charge of <a href="/wiki/Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Africa</a>, Antony, the eastern provinces, and Octavian remained in <a href="/wiki/Italy_(Roman_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italy (Roman Empire)">Italia</a> and controlled <a href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Hispania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>. The Second Triumvirate expired in 38 BC but was renewed for five more years. However, the relationship between Octavian and Antony had deteriorated, and Lepidus was forced to retire in 36 BC after betraying Octavian in <a href="/wiki/Bellum_Siculum" title="Bellum Siculum">Sicily</a>. By the end of the Triumvirate, Antony was living in <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Egypt">Ptolemaic Egypt</a>, ruled by his lover, <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_VII" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra VII">Cleopatra VII</a>. Antony's affair with Cleopatra was seen as an act of treason, since she was queen of another country. Additionally, Antony adopted a lifestyle considered too extravagant and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</a> for a Roman statesman.<a href="#cite_note-49">[46]</a> Following Antony's <a href="/wiki/Donations_of_Alexandria" title="Donations of Alexandria">Donations of Alexandria</a>, which <a href="/wiki/Reign_of_Cleopatra_VII" class="mw-redirect" title="Reign of Cleopatra VII">gave to Cleopatra</a> the title of "<a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Kings" class="mw-redirect" title="Queen of Kings">Queen of Kings</a>", and to Antony's and Cleopatra's children the regal titles to the newly conquered Eastern territories, <a href="/wiki/War_of_Actium" title="War of Actium">war between Octavian and Antony broke out</a>. Octavian annihilated Egyptian forces in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">Battle of Actium</a> in 31 BC. <a href="/wiki/Death_of_Cleopatra" title="Death of Cleopatra">Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide</a>. Now Egypt was conquered by the Roman Empire. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Empire_–_the_Principate">Empire – the Principate</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Empire – the Principate" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Augustus_of_Prima_Porta_(inv._2290).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Augustus_of_Prima_Porta_%28inv._2290%29.jpg/170px-Augustus_of_Prima_Porta_%28inv._2290%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="272" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2813" data-file-height="4500"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 272px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Augustus_of_Prima_Porta_%28inv._2290%29.jpg/170px-Augustus_of_Prima_Porta_%28inv._2290%29.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="272" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Augustus_of_Prima_Porta_%28inv._2290%29.jpg/255px-Augustus_of_Prima_Porta_%28inv._2290%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Augustus_of_Prima_Porta_%28inv._2290%29.jpg/340px-Augustus_of_Prima_Porta_%28inv._2290%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Augustus_of_Prima_Porta" title="Augustus of Prima Porta">Augustus of Prima Porta</a>, 1st century AD, depicting <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Roman emperor</a></figcaption></figure> In 27 BC and at the age of 36, Octavian was the sole Roman leader. In that year, he took the name <a href="/wiki/Augustus_(honorific)" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustus (honorific)">Augustus</a>. That event is usually taken by historians as the beginning of Roman Empire. Officially, the government was republican, but Augustus assumed absolute powers.<a href="#cite_note-50">[47]</a> His <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_reforms_of_Augustus" title="Constitutional reforms of Augustus">reform of the government</a> brought about a two-century period colloquially referred to by Romans as the <a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Julio-Claudian_dynasty">Julio-Claudian dynasty</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Julio-Claudian dynasty" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The <a href="/wiki/Julio-Claudian_dynasty" title="Julio-Claudian dynasty">Julio-Claudian dynasty</a> was established by <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>. The emperors of this dynasty were Augustus, <a href="/wiki/Tiberius" title="Tiberius">Tiberius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caligula" title="Caligula">Caligula</a>, <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a>. The Julio-Claudians started the destruction of republican values, but on the other hand, they boosted Rome's status as the central power in the Mediterranean region.<a href="#cite_note-51">[48]</a> While Caligula and Nero are usually remembered in popular culture as dysfunctional emperors, Augustus and Claudius are remembered as successful in politics and the military. This dynasty instituted imperial tradition in Rome<a href="#cite_note-52">[49]</a> and frustrated any attempt to reestablish a Republic.<a href="#cite_note-53">[50]</a> Augustus (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 27 BC – AD 14) gathered almost all the republican powers under his official title, <a href="/wiki/Princeps" title="Princeps">princeps</a>, and diminished the political influence of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">senatorial class</a> by boosting the <a href="/wiki/Equestrian_class" class="mw-redirect" title="Equestrian class">equestrian class</a>. The senators lost their right to rule certain provinces, like Egypt, since the governor of that province was directly nominated by the emperor. The creation of the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_Guard" title="Praetorian Guard">Praetorian Guard</a> and his reforms in the military, creating a <a href="/wiki/Standing_army" title="Standing army">standing army</a> with a fixed size of 28 legions, ensured his total control over the army.<a href="#cite_note-54">[51]</a> Compared with the Second Triumvirate's epoch, Augustus' reign as princeps was very peaceful, which led the people and the nobles of Rome to support Augustus, increasing his strength in political affairs.<a href="#cite_note-55">[52]</a> His generals were responsible for the field command, gaining such commanders as <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Vipsanius_Agrippa" title="Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa">Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nero_Claudius_Drusus" title="Nero Claudius Drusus">Nero Claudius Drusus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germanicus" title="Germanicus">Germanicus</a> much respect from the populace and the legions. Augustus intended to extend the Roman Empire to the whole known world, and in his reign, Rome conquered <a href="/wiki/Cantabrian_Wars" title="Cantabrian Wars">Cantabria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aquitania" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquitania">Aquitania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Raetia" title="Raetia">Raetia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Illyricum_(Roman_province)" title="Illyricum (Roman province)">Illyricum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pannonia" title="Pannonia">Pannonia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-56">[53]</a> Under Augustus' reign, Roman literature grew steadily in what is known as the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Latin_Literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden Age of Latin Literature">Golden Age of Latin Literature</a>. Poets like <a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Varius_Rufus" title="Lucius Varius Rufus">Rufus</a> developed a rich literature, and were close friends of Augustus. Along with <a href="/wiki/Maecenas" class="mw-redirect" title="Maecenas">Maecenas</a>, he sponsored patriotic poems, such as Virgil's epic <a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a> and historiographical works like those of <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>. Augustus continued the changes to the calendar promoted by <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a>, and the month of August is named after him.<a href="#cite_note-57">[54]</a> Augustus brought a peaceful and thriving era to Rome, known as <a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Impero_romano_sotto_Ottaviano_Augusto_30aC_-_6dC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Impero_romano_sotto_Ottaviano_Augusto_30aC_-_6dC.jpg/330px-Impero_romano_sotto_Ottaviano_Augusto_30aC_-_6dC.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="229" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1704" data-file-height="1181"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 330px;height: 229px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Impero_romano_sotto_Ottaviano_Augusto_30aC_-_6dC.jpg/330px-Impero_romano_sotto_Ottaviano_Augusto_30aC_-_6dC.jpg" data-width="330" data-height="229" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Impero_romano_sotto_Ottaviano_Augusto_30aC_-_6dC.jpg/495px-Impero_romano_sotto_Ottaviano_Augusto_30aC_-_6dC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Impero_romano_sotto_Ottaviano_Augusto_30aC_-_6dC.jpg/660px-Impero_romano_sotto_Ottaviano_Augusto_30aC_-_6dC.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Extent of the Roman Empire under Augustus. The yellow legend represents the extent of the Republic in 31 BC, the shades of green represent gradually conquered territories under the reign of Augustus, and pink areas on the map represent <a href="/wiki/Client_state" title="Client state">client states</a>; areas under Roman control shown here were subject to change even during Augustus' reign, especially in <a href="/wiki/Germania" title="Germania">Germania</a>.</figcaption></figure> The Julio-Claudians continued to rule Rome after Augustus' death in 14 AD and remained in power until the death of Nero in 68 AD.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage140_140%5D-58">[55]</a> Influenced by his wife, <a href="/wiki/Livia_Drusilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Livia Drusilla">Livia Drusilla</a>, Augustus appointed her son from another marriage, <a href="/wiki/Tiberius" title="Tiberius">Tiberius</a>, as his heir.<a href="#cite_note-59">[56]</a> The Senate agreed with the succession, and granted to Tiberius the same titles and honours once granted to Augustus: the title of princeps and <a href="/wiki/Pater_patriae" class="mw-redirect" title="Pater patriae">Pater patriae</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Civic_Crown" title="Civic Crown">Civic Crown</a>. However, Tiberius was not an enthusiast for political affairs: after agreement with the Senate, he retired to <a href="/wiki/Capri" title="Capri">Capri</a> in 26 AD,<a href="#cite_note-60">[57]</a> and left control of the city of Rome in the hands of the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefect" title="Praetorian prefect">praetorian prefect</a> <a href="/wiki/Sejanus" title="Sejanus">Sejanus</a> (until 31 AD) and <a href="/wiki/Naevius_Sutorius_Macro" title="Naevius Sutorius Macro">Macro</a> (from 31 to 37 AD). Tiberius died (or was killed)<a href="#cite_note-tarver1902-61">[58]</a> in 37 AD. The male line of the Julio-Claudians was limited to Tiberius' nephew <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a>, his grandson <a href="/wiki/Tiberius_Gemellus" title="Tiberius Gemellus">Tiberius Gemellus</a> and his grand-nephew <a href="/wiki/Caligula" title="Caligula">Caligula</a>. As Gemellus was still a child, Caligula was chosen to rule the empire. He was a popular leader in the first half of his reign, but became a crude and insane tyrant in his years controlling government.<a href="#cite_note-62">[59]</a> The Praetorian Guard murdered Caligula four years after the death of Tiberius,<a href="#cite_note-63">[60]</a> and, with belated support from the senators, proclaimed his uncle <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a> as the new emperor.<a href="#cite_note-64">[61]</a> Claudius was not as authoritarian as Tiberius and Caligula. Claudius conquered <a href="/wiki/Lycia" title="Lycia">Lycia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Thrace" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Thrace">Thrace</a>; his most important deed was the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Britain" title="Roman conquest of Britain">conquest of Britannia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-65">[62]</a> Claudius was poisoned by his wife, <a href="/wiki/Agrippina_the_Younger" title="Agrippina the Younger">Agrippina the Younger</a> in 54 AD.<a href="#cite_note-66">[63]</a> His heir was <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a>, son of Agrippina and her former husband, since Claudius' son <a href="/wiki/Britannicus" title="Britannicus">Britannicus</a> had not reached manhood upon his father's death. Nero sent his general, <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Suetonius_Paulinus" title="Gaius Suetonius Paulinus">Suetonius Paulinus</a>, to invade modern-day <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a>, where he encountered stiff resistance. The <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Britons" title="Celtic Britons">Celts</a> there were independent, tough, resistant to tax collectors, and fought Paulinus as he battled his way across from east to west. It took him a long time to reach the north west coast, and in 60 AD he finally crossed the <a href="/wiki/Menai_Strait" title="Menai Strait">Menai Strait</a> to the sacred island of Mona (<a href="/wiki/Anglesey" title="Anglesey">Anglesey</a>), the last stronghold of the <a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">druids</a>.<a href="#cite_note-67">[64]</a> His soldiers <a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Anglesey" title="Roman conquest of Anglesey">attacked the island</a> and massacred the druids: men, women and children,<a href="#cite_note-68">[65]</a> destroyed the shrine and the <a href="/wiki/Sacred_grove" title="Sacred grove">sacred groves</a> and threw many of the sacred standing stones into the sea. While Paulinus and his troops were massacring druids in Mona, the tribes of modern-day <a href="/wiki/East_Anglia" title="East Anglia">East Anglia</a> staged a revolt led by queen <a href="/wiki/Boudica" title="Boudica">Boadicea</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Iceni" title="Iceni">Iceni</a>.<a href="#cite_note-69">[66]</a> The rebels sacked and burned <a href="/wiki/Camulodunum" title="Camulodunum">Camulodunum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Verulamium" title="Verulamium">Verulamium</a> (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Colchester" title="Colchester">Colchester</a>, London and <a href="/wiki/St_Albans" title="St Albans">St Albans</a> respectively) before they were <a href="/wiki/Defeat_of_Boudica" class="mw-redirect" title="Defeat of Boudica">crushed by Paulinus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-70">[67]</a> Boadicea, like <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra</a> before her, committed suicide to avoid the disgrace of being paraded in triumph in Rome.<a href="#cite_note-71">[68]</a> Nero is widely known as the first persecutor of <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a> and for the <a href="/wiki/Great_Fire_of_Rome" title="Great Fire of Rome">Great Fire of Rome</a>, rumoured to have been started by the emperor himself.<a href="#cite_note-72">[69]</a> A conspiracy against Nero in 65 AD under <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Calpurnius_Piso_(conspirator)" title="Gaius Calpurnius Piso (conspirator)">Calpurnius Piso</a> failed, but in 68 AD the armies under <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Vindex" title="Gaius Julius Vindex">Julius Vindex</a> in Gaul and <a href="/wiki/Galba" title="Galba">Servius Sulpicius Galba</a> in modern-day Spain revolted. Deserted by the Praetorian Guards and condemned to death by the senate, Nero killed himself.<a href="#cite_note-73">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Flavian_dynasty">Flavian dynasty</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Flavian dynasty" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vespasianus01_pushkin_edit.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Vespasianus01_pushkin_edit.png/170px-Vespasianus01_pushkin_edit.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="215" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="960"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 215px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Vespasianus01_pushkin_edit.png/170px-Vespasianus01_pushkin_edit.png" data-width="170" data-height="215" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Vespasianus01_pushkin_edit.png/255px-Vespasianus01_pushkin_edit.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Vespasianus01_pushkin_edit.png/340px-Vespasianus01_pushkin_edit.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Bust of <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a>, founder of the <a href="/wiki/Flavian_dynasty" title="Flavian dynasty">Flavian dynasty</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Flavian_dynasty" title="Flavian dynasty">Flavians</a> were the second dynasty to rule Rome.<a href="#cite_note-suetonius-74">[71]</a> By 68 AD, the year of Nero's death, there was no chance of a return to the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>, and so a new emperor had to arise. After the turmoil in the <a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Four_Emperors" title="Year of the Four Emperors">Year of the Four Emperors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Titus Flavius Vespasianus</a> (anglicised as Vespasian) took control of the empire and established a new dynasty. Under the Flavians, Rome continued its expansion, and the state remained secure.<a href="#cite_note-75">[72]</a> Under Trajan, the Roman Empire reached the peak of its territorial expansion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScarre1995-76">[73]</a> Rome's dominion now spanned 5.0 million square kilometres (1.9 million square miles).<a href="#cite_note-:0-4">[2]</a> The most significant <a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">military campaign</a> undertaken during the Flavian period was the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(70_CE)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)">siege and destruction</a> of <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> in 70 AD by <a href="/wiki/Titus" title="Titus">Titus</a>. The destruction of the city was the culmination of the Roman campaign in <a href="/wiki/Judea_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Judea (Roman province)">Judea</a> following the Jewish uprising of 66 AD. The Second Temple was completely demolished, after which Titus' soldiers proclaimed him <a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">imperator</a> in honour of the victory. Jerusalem was sacked and much of the population killed or dispersed. <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a> claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during the siege, of whom a majority were Jewish.<a href="#cite_note-77">[74]</a> 97,000 were captured and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">enslaved</a>. Many fled to areas around the Mediterranean. Vespasian was a general under <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a> and fought as a commander in the <a href="/wiki/First_Jewish-Roman_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Jewish-Roman War">First Jewish-Roman War</a>. Following the turmoil of the <a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Four_Emperors" title="Year of the Four Emperors">Year of the Four Emperors</a>, in 69 AD, four emperors were enthroned in turn: <a href="/wiki/Galba" title="Galba">Galba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Otho" title="Otho">Otho</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vitellius" title="Vitellius">Vitellius</a>, and, lastly, Vespasian, who crushed Vitellius' forces and became emperor.<a href="#cite_note-Suetonius_Vespasian-78">[75]</a> He reconstructed many buildings which were uncompleted, like a statue of <a href="/wiki/Apollo" title="Apollo">Apollo</a> and the temple of <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Divus Claudius</a> ("the deified Claudius"), both initiated by Nero. Buildings destroyed by the <a href="/wiki/Great_Fire_of_Rome" title="Great Fire of Rome">Great Fire of Rome</a> were rebuilt, and he revitalised the <a href="/wiki/Capitoline_Hill" title="Capitoline Hill">Capitol</a>. Vespasian started the construction of the Flavian Amphitheater, commonly known as the <a href="/wiki/Colosseum" title="Colosseum">Colosseum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Suetonius_Vespasian-78">[75]</a> The historians <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> wrote their works during Vespasian's reign. Vespasian was Josephus' sponsor and Pliny dedicated his <a href="/wiki/Naturalis_Historia" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalis Historia">Naturalis Historia</a> to Titus, son of Vespasian. Vespasian sent legions to defend the eastern frontier in <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a>, extended the occupation in Britannia (modern-day England, Wales and southern <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>) and reformed the tax system. He died in 79 AD. Titus became emperor in 79. He finished the Flavian Amphitheater, using war spoils from the First Jewish-Roman War, and hosted victory games that lasted for a hundred days. These games included <a href="/wiki/Gladiator" title="Gladiator">gladiatorial combats</a>, horse races and a sensational mock naval battle on the flooded grounds of the Colosseum.<a href="#cite_note-79">[76]</a> Titus died of fever in 81 AD, and was succeeded by his brother <a href="/wiki/Domitian" title="Domitian">Domitian</a>. As emperor, Domitian showed the characteristics of a <a href="/wiki/Tyrant" title="Tyrant">tyrant</a>.<a href="#cite_note-80">[77]</a> He ruled for fifteen years, during which time he acquired a reputation for self-promotion as a living god. He constructed at least two temples in honour of Jupiter, the supreme deity in <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman religion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-81">[78]</a> He was murdered following a plot within his own household. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nerva–Antonine_dynasty">Nerva–Antonine dynasty</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Nerva–Antonine dynasty" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RomanEmpireTrajan117AD.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/RomanEmpireTrajan117AD.png/220px-RomanEmpireTrajan117AD.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="791" data-file-height="489"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 136px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/RomanEmpireTrajan117AD.png/220px-RomanEmpireTrajan117AD.png" data-width="220" data-height="136" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/RomanEmpireTrajan117AD.png/330px-RomanEmpireTrajan117AD.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/RomanEmpireTrajan117AD.png/440px-RomanEmpireTrajan117AD.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> reached its greatest extent under <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a> in AD 117</figcaption></figure> Following Domitian's murder, the Senate rapidly appointed Nerva as Emperor. Nerva had noble ancestry, and he had served as an advisor to Nero and the Flavians. His rule restored many of the traditional liberties of Rome's upper classes, which Domitian had over-ridden.<a href="#cite_note-82">[79]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Nerva%E2%80%93Antonine_dynasty" title="Nerva–Antonine dynasty">Nerva–Antonine dynasty</a> from 96 AD to 192 AD included the "five good emperors" <a href="/wiki/Nerva" title="Nerva">Nerva</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antoninus_Pius" title="Antoninus Pius">Antoninus Pius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a>. Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius were part of Italic families settled in Roman colonies outside of Italy: the families of Trajan and Hadrian had settled in <a href="/wiki/Italica" title="Italica">Italica</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hispania_Baetica" title="Hispania Baetica">Hispania Baetica</a>), that of Antoninus Pius in <a href="/wiki/N%C3%AEmes" title="Nîmes">Colonia Agusta Nemausensis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gallia_Narbonensis" title="Gallia Narbonensis">Gallia Narbonensis</a>), and that of Marcus Aurelius in <a href="/wiki/Espejo,_Spain" title="Espejo, Spain">Colonia Claritas Iulia Ucubi</a> (Hispania Baetica). The Nerva-Antonine dynasty came to an end with <a href="/wiki/Commodus" title="Commodus">Commodus</a>, son of Marcus Aurelius.<a href="#cite_note-83">[80]</a> Nerva abdicated and died in 98 AD, and was succeeded by the general <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a>. Trajan is credited with the restoration of traditional privileges and rights of commoner and senatorial classes, which later Roman historians claim to have been eroded during Domitian's autocracy.<a href="#cite_note-84">[81]</a> Trajan fought three <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Dacian_Wars" title="Trajan's Dacian Wars">Dacian wars</a>, winning territories roughly equivalent to modern-day <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moldova" title="Moldova">Moldova</a>. He undertook an ambitious public building program in Rome, including <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Forum" title="Trajan's Forum">Trajan's Forum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Market" title="Trajan's Market">Trajan's Market</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Column" title="Trajan's Column">Trajan's Column</a>, with the architect <a href="/wiki/Apollodorus_of_Damascus" title="Apollodorus of Damascus">Apollodorus of Damascus</a>. He remodelled the <a href="/wiki/Pantheon,_Rome" title="Pantheon, Rome">Pantheon</a> and extended the <a href="/wiki/Circus_Maximus" title="Circus Maximus">Circus Maximus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-85">[82]</a> When <a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthia</a> appointed a king for <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Armenia</a> without consulting Rome, Trajan declared <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Parthian_campaign" title="Trajan's Parthian campaign">war on Parthia</a> and deposed the king of Armenia. In 115 he took the Northern Mesopotamian cities of <a href="/wiki/Nusaybin" title="Nusaybin">Nisibis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Suru%C3%A7" title="Suruç">Batnae</a>, organised a province of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Mesopotamia</a> (116), and issued coins that claimed Armenia and Mesopotamia were under the authority of the Roman people.<a href="#cite_note-86">[83]</a> In that same year, he captured <a href="/wiki/Seleucia" title="Seleucia">Seleucia</a> and the Parthian capital <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a> (near modern <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>).<a href="#cite_note-87">[84]</a> After defeating a Parthian revolt and a <a href="/wiki/Kitos_War" title="Kitos War">Jewish revolt</a>, he withdrew due to health issues, and in 117, he died of <a href="/wiki/Edema" title="Edema">edema</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hadrians_Wall_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Hadrians_Wall_map.png/220px-Hadrians_Wall_map.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="274" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="995"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 274px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Hadrians_Wall_map.png/220px-Hadrians_Wall_map.png" data-width="220" data-height="274" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Hadrians_Wall_map.png/330px-Hadrians_Wall_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Hadrians_Wall_map.png/440px-Hadrians_Wall_map.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Map showing the location of <a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Antonine_Wall" title="Antonine Wall">Antonine Wall</a> in Scotland and Northern England</figcaption></figure> Trajan's successor Hadrian withdrew all the troops stationed in Parthia, Armenia and Mesopotamia (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>), abandoning Trajan's conquests. Hadrian's army crushed a revolt in <a href="/wiki/Mauretania" title="Mauretania">Mauretania</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba revolt</a> in Judea. This was the last large-scale Jewish revolt against the Romans, and was suppressed with massive repercussions in Judea. Hundreds of thousands of Jews were killed. Hadrian renamed the province of Judea "<a href="/wiki/Syria_Palaestina" title="Syria Palaestina">Provincia Syria Palaestina</a>", after one of Judea's most hated enemies.<a href="#cite_note-88">[85]</a> He constructed fortifications and walls, like the celebrated <a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a> which separated Roman Britannia and the tribes of modern-day Scotland. Hadrian promoted culture, especially the Greek. He forbade <a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">torture</a> and humanised the laws. His many building projects included aqueducts, baths, libraries and theatres; additionally, he travelled nearly every province in the Empire to review military and infrastructural conditions.<a href="#cite_note-89">[86]</a> Following Hadrian's death in 138 AD, his successor <a href="/wiki/Antoninus_Pius" title="Antoninus Pius">Antoninus Pius</a> built temples, theatres, and mausoleums, promoted the arts and sciences, and bestowed honours and financial rewards upon the teachers of <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>. On becoming emperor, Antoninus made few initial changes, leaving intact as far as possible the arrangements instituted by his predecessor. Antoninus expanded Roman Britannia by invading what is now southern Scotland and building the <a href="/wiki/Antonine_Wall" title="Antonine Wall">Antonine Wall</a>.<a href="#cite_note-90">[87]</a> He also continued Hadrian's policy of humanising the laws. He died in 161 AD. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20190406-DSC5193_Panteon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/20190406-DSC5193_Panteon.jpg/220px-20190406-DSC5193_Panteon.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 147px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/20190406-DSC5193_Panteon.jpg/220px-20190406-DSC5193_Panteon.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/20190406-DSC5193_Panteon.jpg/330px-20190406-DSC5193_Panteon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/20190406-DSC5193_Panteon.jpg/440px-20190406-DSC5193_Panteon.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Pantheon,_Rome" title="Pantheon, Rome">Pantheon, Rome</a>, built during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a>, which still contains the largest unreinforced concrete <a href="/wiki/Dome" title="Dome">dome</a> in the world</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a>, known as the Philosopher, was the last of the <a href="/wiki/Five_Good_Emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Good Emperors">Five Good Emperors</a>. He was a stoic philosopher and wrote the <a href="/wiki/Meditations" title="Meditations">Meditations</a>. He defeated barbarian tribes in the <a href="/wiki/Marcomannic_Wars" title="Marcomannic Wars">Marcomannic Wars</a> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Dio_LXXII-91">[88]</a> His co-emperor, <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Verus" title="Lucius Verus">Lucius Verus</a>, died in 169 AD, probably from the <a href="/wiki/Antonine_Plague" title="Antonine Plague">Antonine Plague</a>, a pandemic that killed nearly five million people through the Empire in 165–180 AD.<a href="#cite_note-92">[89]</a> From Nerva to Marcus Aurelius, the empire achieved an unprecedented status. The powerful influence of laws and manners had gradually cemented the union of the provinces. All the citizens enjoyed and abused the advantages of wealth. The image of a free constitution was preserved with decent reverence. The Roman senate appeared to possess the sovereign authority, and devolved on the emperors all the executive powers of government. Gibbon declared the rule of these "Five Good Emperors" the golden era of the Empire.<a href="#cite_note-93">[90]</a> During this time, Rome reached its greatest territorial extent.<a href="#cite_note-94">[91]</a> <a href="/wiki/Commodus" title="Commodus">Commodus</a>, son of Marcus Aurelius, became emperor after his father's death. He is not counted as one of the Five Good Emperors, due to his direct kinship with the latter emperor; in addition, he was militarily passive. <a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a> identifies his reign as the beginning of Roman <a href="/wiki/Decadence" title="Decadence">decadence</a>: "(Rome has transformed) from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust."<a href="#cite_note-Dio_LXXII-91">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Severan_dynasty">Severan dynasty</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Severan dynasty" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Commodus was killed by a conspiracy involving <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aemilius_Laetus" title="Quintus Aemilius Laetus">Quintus Aemilius Laetus</a> and his wife Marcia in late 192 AD. The following year is known as the <a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Five_Emperors" title="Year of the Five Emperors">Year of the Five Emperors</a>, during which <a href="/wiki/Helvius_Pertinax" class="mw-redirect" title="Helvius Pertinax">Helvius Pertinax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Didius_Julianus" title="Didius Julianus">Didius Julianus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pescennius_Niger" title="Pescennius Niger">Pescennius Niger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clodius_Albinus" title="Clodius Albinus">Clodius Albinus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a> held the imperial dignity. Pertinax, a member of the senate who had been one of Marcus Aurelius's right-hand men, was the choice of Laetus, and he ruled vigorously and judiciously. Laetus soon became jealous and instigated Pertinax's murder by the Praetorian Guard, who then auctioned the empire to the highest bidder, Didius Julianus, for 25,000 sesterces per man.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECary1967704-95">[92]</a> The people of Rome were appalled and appealed to the frontier legions to save them. The legions of three frontier provinces—<a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Britannia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pannonia_Superior" title="Pannonia Superior">Pannonia Superior</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Syria</a>—resented being excluded from the "<a href="/wiki/Donativum" title="Donativum">donative</a>" and replied by declaring their individual generals to be emperor. Lucius Septimius Severus Geta, the Pannonian commander, bribed the opposing forces, pardoned the Praetorian Guards and installed himself as emperor. He and his successors governed with the legions' support. The changes on <a href="/wiki/Coin" title="Coin">coinage</a> and military expenditures were the root of the financial crisis that marked the <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Septimusseverustondo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Septimusseverustondo.jpg/200px-Septimusseverustondo.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="202" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="748" data-file-height="756"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 200px;height: 202px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Septimusseverustondo.jpg/200px-Septimusseverustondo.jpg" data-width="200" data-height="202" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Septimusseverustondo.jpg/300px-Septimusseverustondo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Septimusseverustondo.jpg/400px-Septimusseverustondo.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Severan_Tondo" title="Severan Tondo">Severan Tondo</a>, c. 199, Severus, Julia Domna, Caracalla and Geta, whose face is erased</figcaption></figure> Severus was enthroned after invading Rome and having <a href="/wiki/Didius_Julianus" title="Didius Julianus">Didius Julianus</a> killed. Severus attempted to revive totalitarianism and, addressing the Roman people and Senate, praised the severity and cruelty of Marius and Sulla, which worried the senators.<a href="#cite_note-96">[93]</a> When <a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthia</a> invaded Roman territory, Severus successfully waged war against that country. Notwithstanding this military success, Severus failed in invading <a href="/wiki/Hatra" title="Hatra">Hatra</a>, a rich Arabian city. Severus killed his legate, who was gaining respect from the legions; and his soldiers fell victim to famine. After this disastrous campaign, he withdrew.<a href="#cite_note-97">[94]</a> Severus also intended to vanquish the whole of Britannia. To achieve this, he <a href="/wiki/Roman_invasion_of_Caledonia_208%E2%80%93210" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman invasion of Caledonia 208–210">waged war</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Caledonians" title="Caledonians">Caledonians</a>. However, he became ill and died in 211 AD. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caracalla_Musei_Capitolini_MC2310.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Caracalla_Musei_Capitolini_MC2310.jpg/170px-Caracalla_Musei_Capitolini_MC2310.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2450" data-file-height="3675"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 255px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Caracalla_Musei_Capitolini_MC2310.jpg/170px-Caracalla_Musei_Capitolini_MC2310.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="255" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Caracalla_Musei_Capitolini_MC2310.jpg/255px-Caracalla_Musei_Capitolini_MC2310.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Caracalla_Musei_Capitolini_MC2310.jpg/340px-Caracalla_Musei_Capitolini_MC2310.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Bust of <a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Capitoline_Museums" title="Capitoline Museums">Capitoline Museums</a>, Rome</figcaption></figure> His sons <a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a> and <a href="/wiki/Publius_Septimius_Geta" class="mw-redirect" title="Publius Septimius Geta">Geta</a> were made emperors. Caracalla had his brother, a youth, assassinated in his mother's arms, and may have murdered 20,000 of Geta's followers. Like his father, Caracalla was warlike. He continued Severus' policy and gained respect from the legions. Knowing that the citizens of <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> disliked him and were denigrating his character, Caracalla served a banquet for its notable citizens, after which his soldiers killed all the guests. From the security of the temple of Sarapis, he then directed an indiscriminate slaughter of Alexandria's people.<a href="#cite_note-98">[95]</a> In 212, he issued the <a href="/wiki/Constitutio_Antoniniana" title="Constitutio Antoniniana">Edict of Caracalla</a>, giving full Roman citizenship to all free men living in the Empire, with the exception of the dediticii, people who had become subject to Rome through surrender in war, and freed slaves.<a href="#cite_note-dediticii-99">[96]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mary_Beard_(classicist)" title="Mary Beard (classicist)">Mary Beard</a> points to the edict as a fundamental turning point, after which Rome was "effectively a new state masquerading under an old name".<a href="#cite_note-100">[97]</a> <a href="/wiki/Macrinus" title="Macrinus">Macrinus</a> conspired to have Caracalla assassinated by one of his soldiers during a pilgrimage to the Temple of the Moon in Carrhae, in 217 AD. Macrinus assumed power, but soon removed himself from Rome to the east and Antioch. His brief reign ended in 218, when the youngster Bassianus, high priest of the temple of the Sun at Emesa, and supposedly illegitimate son of Caracalla, was declared Emperor by the disaffected soldiers of Macrinus. He adopted the name of Antoninus but history has named him after his Sun god <a href="/wiki/Elagabalus" title="Elagabalus">Elagabalus</a>, represented on Earth in the form of a large black stone. An incompetent and lascivious ruler,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaywood1971%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailsancientworld0000unsepage376_376%5D%E2%80%93393-101">[98]</a> Elagabalus adopted his cousin <a href="/wiki/Severus_Alexander" title="Severus Alexander">Severus Alexander</a>, as Caesar, but subsequently grew jealous and attempted to assassinate him. However, the Praetorian guard preferred Alexander, murdered Elagabalus, dragged his mutilated corpse through the streets of Rome, and threw it into the Tiber. Severus Alexander then succeeded him. Alexander waged war against many foes, including the revitalised <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a> and also the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a>, who invaded Gaul. His losses generated dissatisfaction among his soldiers, and some of them murdered him during his Germanic campaign in 235 AD.<a href="#cite_note-102">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Crisis_of_the_Third_Century">Crisis of the Third Century</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Crisis of the Third Century" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg/350px-Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="207" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2050" data-file-height="1213"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 350px;height: 207px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg/350px-Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg.png" data-width="350" data-height="207" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg/525px-Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg/700px-Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The Roman Empire suffered internal schisms, forming the <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Gallic_Empire" title="Gallic Empire">Gallic Empire</a></figcaption></figure> A disastrous scenario emerged after the death of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Severus" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Severus">Alexander Severus</a>: the Roman state was plagued by civil wars, external <a href="/wiki/Invasion" title="Invasion">invasions</a>, political chaos, <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Cyprian" title="Plague of Cyprian">pandemics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Economic_collapse" title="Economic collapse">economic depression</a>.<a href="#cite_note-103">[100]</a> The old Roman values had fallen, and <a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a> and Christianity had begun to spread through the populace. Emperors were no longer men linked with nobility; they usually were born in lower-classes of distant parts of the Empire. These men rose to prominence through military ranks, and became emperors through civil wars. There were 26 emperors in a 49-year period, a signal of political instability. <a href="/wiki/Maximinus_Thrax" title="Maximinus Thrax">Maximinus Thrax</a> was the first ruler of that time, governing for just three years. Others ruled just for a few months, like <a href="/wiki/Gordian_I" title="Gordian I">Gordian I</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gordian_II" title="Gordian II">Gordian II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Balbinus" title="Balbinus">Balbinus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hostilian" title="Hostilian">Hostilian</a>. The population and the frontiers were abandoned, since the emperors were mostly concerned with defeating rivals and establishing their power. The economy also suffered: massive military expenditures from the <a href="/wiki/Severan_dynasty" title="Severan dynasty">Severi</a> caused a devaluation of Roman coins. <a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation" title="Hyperinflation">Hyperinflation</a> came at this time as well. The <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Cyprian" title="Plague of Cyprian">Plague of Cyprian</a> broke out in 250 and killed a huge portion of the population.<a href="#cite_note-Gibbon10-104">[101]</a> In 260 AD, the provinces of <a href="/wiki/Syria_Palaestina" title="Syria Palaestina">Syria Palaestina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aegyptus_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aegyptus (Roman province)">Egypt</a> separated from the rest of the Roman state to form the <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a>, ruled by Queen <a href="/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia">Zenobia</a> and centered on <a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Palmyra</a>. In that same year the <a href="/wiki/Gallic_Empire" title="Gallic Empire">Gallic Empire</a> was created by <a href="/wiki/Postumus" title="Postumus">Postumus</a>, retaining Britannia and Gaul.<a href="#cite_note-105">[102]</a> These countries separated from Rome after the capture of emperor <a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Sassanid" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid">Sassanids</a> of <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a>, the first Roman ruler to be captured by his enemies; it was a humiliating fact for the Romans.<a href="#cite_note-Gibbon10-104">[101]</a> The crisis began to recede during the reigns of <a href="/wiki/Claudius_Gothicus" title="Claudius Gothicus">Claudius Gothicus</a> (268–270), who <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naissus" title="Battle of Naissus">defeated</a> the <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Gothic</a> invaders, and <a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a> (271–275), who reconquered both the Gallic and Palmyrene Empires.<a href="#cite_note-106">[103]</a> The crisis was overcome during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Empire_–_The_Tetrarchy">Empire – The Tetrarchy</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Empire – The Tetrarchy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarchy</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Diocletian">Diocletian</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Diocletian" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DiocletianusFollis-transparent.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/DiocletianusFollis-transparent.png/220px-DiocletianusFollis-transparent.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="229" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="253" data-file-height="263"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 229px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/DiocletianusFollis-transparent.png/220px-DiocletianusFollis-transparent.png" data-width="220" data-height="229" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/DiocletianusFollis-transparent.png 1.5x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A Roman <a href="/wiki/Follis" title="Follis">follis</a> depicting the profile of <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a></figcaption></figure> In 284 AD, Diocletian was hailed as Imperator by the eastern army. Diocletian healed the empire from the crisis, by political and economic shifts. A new form of government was established: the <a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarchy</a>. The Empire was divided among four emperors, two in the West and two in the East. The first tetrarchs were Diocletian (in the East), <a href="/wiki/Maximian" title="Maximian">Maximian</a> (in the West), and two junior emperors, <a href="/wiki/Galerius" title="Galerius">Galerius</a> (in the East) and <a href="/wiki/Constantius_Chlorus" title="Constantius Chlorus">Flavius Constantius</a> (in the West). To adjust the economy, Diocletian made several tax reforms.<a href="#cite_note-107">[104]</a> Diocletian expelled the Persians who plundered Syria and conquered some barbarian tribes with Maximian. He adopted many behaviours of Eastern monarchs. Anyone in the presence of the emperor had now to prostrate himself—a common act in the East, but never practised in Rome before.<a href="#cite_note-108">[105]</a> Diocletian did not use a disguised form of Republic, as the other emperors since <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> had done.<a href="#cite_note-109">[106]</a> Between 290 and 330, half a dozen new capitals had been established by the members of the Tetrarchy, officially or not: Antioch, Nicomedia, Thessalonike, Sirmium, Milan, and Trier.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWard-Perkins1994-110">[107]</a> Diocletian was also responsible for a significant Christian persecution. In 303 he and <a href="/wiki/Galerius" title="Galerius">Galerius</a> started the persecution and ordered the destruction of all the Christian churches and scripts and forbade Christian worship.<a href="#cite_note-111">[108]</a> Diocletian abdicated in 305 AD together with Maximian, thus, he was the first Roman emperor to resign. His reign ended the traditional form of imperial rule, the <a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a> (from <a href="/wiki/Princeps" title="Princeps">princeps</a>) and started the Tetrarchy. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trier_Konstantinbasilika_BW_2017-06-16_14-07-56.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Trier_Konstantinbasilika_BW_2017-06-16_14-07-56.jpg/220px-Trier_Konstantinbasilika_BW_2017-06-16_14-07-56.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="5468" data-file-height="3824"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 154px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Trier_Konstantinbasilika_BW_2017-06-16_14-07-56.jpg/220px-Trier_Konstantinbasilika_BW_2017-06-16_14-07-56.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="154" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Trier_Konstantinbasilika_BW_2017-06-16_14-07-56.jpg/330px-Trier_Konstantinbasilika_BW_2017-06-16_14-07-56.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Trier_Konstantinbasilika_BW_2017-06-16_14-07-56.jpg/440px-Trier_Konstantinbasilika_BW_2017-06-16_14-07-56.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Aula_Palatina" title="Aula Palatina">Aula Palatina</a> of <a href="/wiki/Trier" title="Trier">Trier</a>, Germany (then part of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Roman province</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gallia_Belgica" title="Gallia Belgica">Gallia Belgica</a>), a <a href="/wiki/State_church_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="State church of the Roman Empire">Christian</a> <a href="/wiki/Basilica" title="Basilica">basilica</a> built during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine I</a> (r. 306–337 AD)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Constantine_and_Christianity">Constantine and Christianity</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Constantine and Christianity" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine</a> assumed the empire as a tetrarch in 306. He conducted many wars against the other tetrarchs. Firstly he defeated <a href="/wiki/Maxentius" title="Maxentius">Maxentius</a> in 312. In 313, he issued the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Milan" title="Edict of Milan">Edict of Milan</a>, which granted liberty for Christians to profess their religion.<a href="#cite_note-112">[109]</a> Constantine was converted to Christianity, enforcing the Christian faith. He began the Christianization of the Empire and of Europe—a process concluded by the Catholic Church in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. He was defeated by the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Alamanni" class="mw-redirect" title="Alamanni">Alamanni</a> during 306–308. In 324 he defeated another tetrarch, <a href="/wiki/Licinius" title="Licinius">Licinius</a>, and controlled all the empire, as it was before <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a>. To celebrate his victories and Christianity's relevance, he rebuilt <a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</a> and renamed it Nova Roma ("New Rome"); but the city soon gained the informal name of <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> ("City of Constantine").<a href="#cite_note-113">[110]</a> The reign of <a href="/wiki/Julian_the_Apostate" class="mw-redirect" title="Julian the Apostate">Julian</a>, who under the influence of his adviser <a href="/wiki/Mardonius_(philosopher)" title="Mardonius (philosopher)">Mardonius</a> attempted to restore <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Classical Roman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic religion</a>, only briefly interrupted the succession of Christian emperors. Constantinople served as a new capital for the Empire. In fact, Rome had lost its central importance since the Crisis of the Third Century—<a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a> was the western capital from 286 to 330, until the reign of <a href="/wiki/Honorius_(emperor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Honorius (emperor)">Honorius</a>, when <a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a> was made capital, in the 5th century.<a href="#cite_note-114">[111]</a> Constantine's administrative and monetary reforms, that reunited the Empire under one emperor, and rebuilt the city of Byzantium, as Constantinopolis Nova Roma, changed the high period of the <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">ancient world</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Fall of the Western Roman Empire" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></div> In the late 4th and 5th centuries the Western Empire entered a critical stage which terminated with the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall of the Western Roman Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage155_155%5D-115">[112]</a> Under the last emperors of the <a href="/wiki/Constantinian_dynasty" title="Constantinian dynasty">Constantinian dynasty</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Valentinianic_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Valentinianic dynasty">Valentinianic dynasty</a>, Rome lost decisive battles against the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic</a> <a href="/wiki/Barbarian" title="Barbarian">barbarians</a>: in 363, emperor <a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian the Apostate</a> was killed in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Samarra" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Samarra">Battle of Samarra</a>, against the Persians and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Adrianople" title="Battle of Adrianople">Battle of Adrianople</a> cost the life of emperor <a href="/wiki/Valens" title="Valens">Valens</a> (364–378); the victorious <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a> were never expelled from the Empire nor assimilated.<a href="#cite_note-116">[113]</a> The next emperor, <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a> (379–395), gave even more force to the Christian faith, and after his death, the Empire was divided into the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a>, ruled by <a href="/wiki/Arcadius" title="Arcadius">Arcadius</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a>, commanded by <a href="/wiki/Honorius_(emperor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Honorius (emperor)">Honorius</a>, both of which were Theodosius' sons.<a href="#cite_note-117">[114]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:493px;max-width:493px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:253px;max-width:253px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:177px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png/251px-Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png" decoding="async" width="251" height="178" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1954" data-file-height="1382"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 251px;height: 178px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png/251px-Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png" data-alt="" data-width="251" data-height="178" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png/377px-Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png/502px-Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:132px;max-width:132px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:177px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Alaric_entering_Athens.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Alaric_entering_Athens.jpg/130px-Alaric_entering_Athens.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="178" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1171" data-file-height="1600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 130px;height: 178px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Alaric_entering_Athens.jpg/130px-Alaric_entering_Athens.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="130" data-height="178" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Alaric_entering_Athens.jpg/195px-Alaric_entering_Athens.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Alaric_entering_Athens.jpg/260px-Alaric_entering_Athens.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:102px;max-width:102px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:177px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Sack_of_Rome_by_the_Visigoths_on_24_August_410_by_JN_Sylvestre_1890.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Sack_of_Rome_by_the_Visigoths_on_24_August_410_by_JN_Sylvestre_1890.jpg/100px-Sack_of_Rome_by_the_Visigoths_on_24_August_410_by_JN_Sylvestre_1890.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="178" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="841" data-file-height="1498"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 100px;height: 178px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Sack_of_Rome_by_the_Visigoths_on_24_August_410_by_JN_Sylvestre_1890.jpg/100px-Sack_of_Rome_by_the_Visigoths_on_24_August_410_by_JN_Sylvestre_1890.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="100" data-height="178" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Sack_of_Rome_by_the_Visigoths_on_24_August_410_by_JN_Sylvestre_1890.jpg/150px-Sack_of_Rome_by_the_Visigoths_on_24_August_410_by_JN_Sylvestre_1890.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Sack_of_Rome_by_the_Visigoths_on_24_August_410_by_JN_Sylvestre_1890.jpg/200px-Sack_of_Rome_by_the_Visigoths_on_24_August_410_by_JN_Sylvestre_1890.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Ending <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">invasions</a> on Roman Empire between AD 100–500. <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a> entering <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>. The Sack of Rome by the Barbarians in 410 by <a href="/wiki/Joseph-No%C3%ABl_Sylvestre" title="Joseph-Noël Sylvestre">Joseph-Noël Sylvestre</a>.</div></div></div></div> The situation became more critical in 408, after the death of <a href="/wiki/Stilicho" title="Stilicho">Stilicho</a>, a general who tried to reunite the Empire and repel barbarian invasion in the early years of the 5th century. The professional field army collapsed. In 410, the <a href="/wiki/Theodosian_dynasty" title="Theodosian dynasty">Theodosian dynasty</a> saw the <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(410)" title="Sack of Rome (410)">Visigoths sack Rome</a>.<a href="#cite_note-118">[115]</a> During the 5th century, the Western Empire experienced a significant reduction of its territory. The <a href="/wiki/Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a> conquered <a href="/wiki/Vandal_Kingdom" title="Vandal Kingdom">North Africa</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a> claimed the southern part of <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gallaecia" title="Gallaecia">Gallaecia</a> was taken by the <a href="/wiki/Suebi" title="Suebi">Suebi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Britannia</a> was abandoned by the central government, and the Empire suffered further from the invasions of <a href="/wiki/Attila" title="Attila">Attila</a>, chief of the <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a>.<a href="#cite_note-119">[116]</a> General <a href="/wiki/Orestes_(father_of_Romulus_Augustulus)" title="Orestes (father of Romulus Augustulus)">Orestes</a> refused to meet the demands of the barbarian "allies" who now formed the army, and tried to expel them from Italy. Unhappy with this, their chieftain <a href="/wiki/Odoacer" title="Odoacer">Odoacer</a> defeated and killed Orestes, invaded <a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a> and dethroned <a href="/wiki/Romulus_Augustulus" title="Romulus Augustulus">Romulus Augustus</a>, son of Orestes. This event of 476, usually marks the end of <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a> and beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-120">[117]</a> The Roman noble and former emperor <a href="/wiki/Julius_Nepos" title="Julius Nepos">Julius Nepos</a> continued to rule as emperor from <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia_(Roman_province)" title="Dalmatia (Roman province)">Dalmatia</a> even after the deposition of Romulus Augustus until his death in 480. Some historians consider him to be the last emperor of the Western Empire instead of Romulus Augustus.<a href="#cite_note-121">[118]</a> After 1200 years of independence and nearly 700 years as a great power, the rule of Rome in the West ended.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1944670-122">[119]</a> Various reasons for Rome's fall have been proposed, including loss of Republicanism, moral decay, military tyranny, class war, slavery, economic stagnation, environmental change, disease, the decline of the Roman race, as well as the inevitable ebb and flow that all civilisations experience. The Eastern Empire survived for almost 1000 years after the fall of its <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western counterpart</a> and became the most stable Christian <a href="/wiki/Realm" title="Realm">realm</a> during the Middle Ages. During the 6th century, <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian</a> reconquered the Italian peninsula <a href="/wiki/Gothic_War_(535%E2%80%93554)" title="Gothic War (535–554)">from the Ostrogoths</a>, North Africa <a href="/wiki/Vandalic_War" title="Vandalic War">from the Vandals</a>, and southern Hispania <a href="/wiki/Spania#Conquest_and_foundation" title="Spania">from the Visigoths</a>. But within a few years of Justinian's death, Byzantine possessions in Italy were greatly reduced by the <a href="/wiki/Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombards</a> who settled in the peninsula.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage347_347%5D-123">[120]</a> In the east, partially due to the weakening effect of the <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Justinian" title="Plague of Justinian">Plague of Justinian</a> as well as a series of mutually <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars" title="Roman–Persian Wars">destructive wars</a> against the Persian Sassanian Empire, the Byzantines were threatened by the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">rise of Islam</a>. Its followers rapidly brought about the <a href="/wiki/Arab_conquest_of_the_Levant" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab conquest of the Levant">conquest of the Levant</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Maghreb" title="Muslim conquest of the Maghreb">conquest of North Africa</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Egypt">conquest of Egypt</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_wars" title="Arab–Byzantine wars">Arab–Byzantine wars</a>, and soon presented a direct <a href="/wiki/List_of_sieges_of_Constantinople" title="List of sieges of Constantinople">threat to Constantinople</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hooker'sByzantinepage-124">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[122]</a> In the following century, the Arabs <a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_southern_Italy" title="History of Islam in southern Italy">captured southern Italy and Sicily</a>.<a href="#cite_note-126">[123]</a> In the west, Slavic populations penetrated deep into the Balkans. The Byzantine Romans, however, managed to stop further Islamic expansion into their lands during the 8th century and, beginning in the 9th century, reclaimed parts of the conquered lands.<a href="#cite_note-Hooker'sByzantinepage-124">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage349_349%5D-127">[124]</a> In 1000 AD, the Eastern Empire was at its height: <a href="/wiki/Basil_II" title="Basil II">Basil II</a> reconquered <a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">Bulgaria</a> and Armenia, and culture and trade flourished.<a href="#cite_note-128">[125]</a> However, soon after, this expansion was abruptly stopped in 1071 with the Byzantine defeat in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manzikert" title="Battle of Manzikert">Battle of Manzikert</a>. The aftermath of this battle sent the empire into a protracted period of decline. Two decades of internal strife and <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic</a> invasions ultimately led Emperor <a href="/wiki/Alexios_I_Komnenos" title="Alexios I Komnenos">Alexios I Komnenos</a> to send a call for help to the Western European kingdoms in 1095.<a href="#cite_note-Hooker'sByzantinepage-124">[121]</a> The West responded with the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a>, eventually resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(1204)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Constantinople (1204)">Sack of Constantinople</a> by participants of the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusade</a>. The conquest of Constantinople in 1204 fragmented what remained of the Empire into successor states; the ultimate victor was the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Empire of Nicaea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-129">[126]</a> After the recapture of Constantinople by Imperial forces, the Empire was little more than a Greek state confined to the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean</a> coast. The Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire collapsed when <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_the_Conqueror" class="mw-redirect" title="Mehmed the Conqueror">Mehmed the Conqueror</a> <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">conquered Constantinople</a> on 29 May 1453.<a href="#cite_note-130">[127]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Society">Society</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Society" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Foro_romano_dal_campidoglio_04.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Foro_romano_dal_campidoglio_04.JPG/170px-Foro_romano_dal_campidoglio_04.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2112" data-file-height="2816"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 227px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Foro_romano_dal_campidoglio_04.JPG/170px-Foro_romano_dal_campidoglio_04.JPG" data-width="170" data-height="227" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Foro_romano_dal_campidoglio_04.JPG/255px-Foro_romano_dal_campidoglio_04.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Foro_romano_dal_campidoglio_04.JPG/340px-Foro_romano_dal_campidoglio_04.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Forum" title="Roman Forum">Roman Forum</a>, the political, economic, cultural, and religious center of the city during the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a></figcaption></figure> The imperial city of Rome was the largest urban center in the empire, with a population variously estimated from 450,000 to close to one million.<a href="#cite_note-131">[128]</a> Around 20 per cent of the population under jurisdiction of ancient Rome (25–40%, depending on the standards used, in Roman Italy)<a href="#cite_note-132">[129]</a> lived in innumerable urban centers, with population of 10,000 and more and several <a href="/wiki/Military_settlement" title="Military settlement">military settlements</a>, a very high rate of urbanisation by pre-industrial standards. Most of those centers had a <a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">forum</a>, temples, and other buildings similar to Rome's. The average life expectancy in the Middle Empire was about 26–28 years.<a href="#cite_note-133">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Law">Law</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Law" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a></div> The roots of the legal principles and practices of the <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Rome" title="Outline of ancient Rome">ancient Romans</a> may be traced to the <a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Law of the Twelve Tables</a> promulgated in 449 BC and to the codification of law issued by order of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> around 530 AD (see <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Corpus Juris Civilis</a>). Roman law as preserved in Justinian's codes continued into the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Roman Empire</a>, and formed the basis of similar codifications in continental Western Europe. Roman law continued, in a broader sense, to be applied throughout most of Europe until the end of the 17th century. The major divisions of the law of ancient Rome, as contained within the Justinian and Theodosian law codes, consisted of Jus civile, <a href="/wiki/Jus_gentium" title="Jus gentium">Jus gentium</a>, and Jus naturale. The Jus civile ("Citizen Law") was the body of common laws that applied to Roman citizens.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199846-135">[132]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Praetor_urbanus" class="mw-redirect" title="Praetor urbanus">praetores urbani</a> (sg. Praetor Urbanus) were the people who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens. The Jus gentium ("Law of nations") was the body of common laws that applied to foreigners, and their dealings with Roman citizens.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage146_146%5D-136">[133]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Praetor_peregrinus" class="mw-redirect" title="Praetor peregrinus">praetores peregrini</a> (sg. Praetor Peregrinus) were the people who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens and foreigners. Jus naturale encompassed natural law, the body of laws that were considered common to all beings. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Class_structure">Class structure</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Class structure" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Social class in ancient Rome</a> and <a href="/wiki/Status_in_Roman_legal_system" title="Status in Roman legal system">Status in Roman legal system</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arringatore_04.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Arringatore_04.JPG/170px-Arringatore_04.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="254" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1599" data-file-height="2389"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 254px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Arringatore_04.JPG/170px-Arringatore_04.JPG" data-width="170" data-height="254" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Arringatore_04.JPG/255px-Arringatore_04.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Arringatore_04.JPG/340px-Arringatore_04.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/The_Orator" title="The Orator">The Orator</a>, c. 100 BC, from the <a href="/wiki/National_Archaeological_Museum_of_Florence" class="mw-redirect" title="National Archaeological Museum of Florence">National Archaeological Museum of Florence</a>, Italy, an Etrusco-Roman bronze statue depicting Aule Metele (Latin: Aulus Metellus), an Etruscan man wearing a Roman <a href="/wiki/Toga" title="Toga">toga</a> while engaged in <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a>; the statue features an inscription in the <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_language" title="Etruscan language">Etruscan language</a></figcaption></figure> Roman society is largely viewed as <a href="/wiki/Social_hierarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Social hierarchy">hierarchical</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_antiquity" title="Slavery in antiquity">slaves</a> (servi) at the bottom, <a href="/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">freedmen</a> (liberti) above them, and free-born citizens (cives) at the top. Free citizens were subdivided by class. The broadest, and earliest, division was between the <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">patricians</a>, who could trace their ancestry to one of the 100 <a href="/wiki/Patriarch" title="Patriarch">patriarchs</a> at the founding of the city, and the <a href="/wiki/Plebs" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebs">plebeians</a>, who could not. This became less important in the later Republic, as some plebeian families became wealthy and entered politics, and some patrician families fell economically. Anyone, patrician or plebeian, who could count a consul as his ancestor was a <a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">noble</a> (nobilis); a man who was the first of his family to hold the consulship, such as <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Marius" title="Gaius Marius">Marius</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, was known as a <a href="/wiki/Novus_homo" title="Novus homo">novus homo</a> ("new man") and ennobled his descendants. Patrician ancestry, however, still conferred considerable prestige, and many religious offices remained restricted to patricians. A <a href="/wiki/Class_division" class="mw-redirect" title="Class division">class division</a> originally based on military service became more important. Membership of these classes was determined periodically by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">censors</a>, according to property. The wealthiest were the Senatorial class, who dominated politics and command of the army. Next came the <a href="/wiki/Equestrian_order" class="mw-redirect" title="Equestrian order">equestrians</a> (<a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">equites</a>, sometimes translated "knights"), originally those who could afford a warhorse, and who formed a powerful mercantile class. Several further classes, originally based on the military equipment their members could afford, followed, with the proletarii, citizens who had no property other than their children, at the bottom. Before the reforms of Marius they were ineligible for military service and are often described as being just above freed slaves in wealth and prestige. Voting power in the Republic depended on class. Citizens were enrolled in voting "tribes", but the tribes of the richer classes had fewer members than the poorer ones, all the proletarii being enrolled in a single tribe. Voting was done in class order, from top down, and stopped as soon as most of the tribes had been reached, so the poorer classes were often unable to cast their votes. <a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Rome" title="Women in ancient Rome">Women in ancient Rome</a> shared some basic rights with their male counterparts, but were not fully regarded as citizens and were thus not allowed to vote or take part in politics. At the same time the limited rights of women were gradually expanded (due to <a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">emancipation</a>) and women reached freedom from <a href="/wiki/Pater_familias" title="Pater familias">pater familias</a>, gained property rights and even had more juridical rights than their husbands, but still no voting rights, and were absent from politics.<a href="#cite_note-137">[134]</a> Allied foreign cities were often given the <a href="/wiki/Latin_Rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin Rights">Latin Rights</a>, an intermediary level between full citizens and foreigners (peregrini), which gave their citizens rights under <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> and allowed their leading magistrates to become full Roman citizens. While there were varying degrees of Latin rights, the main division was between those cum suffragio ("with vote"; enrolled in a <a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe#The_Servian_tribes" title="Roman tribe">Roman tribe</a> and able to take part in the comitia tributa) and sine suffragio ("without vote"; could not take part in Roman politics). Most of Rome's Italian allies were given full citizenship after the <a href="/wiki/Social_War_(91%E2%80%9388_BC)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social War (91–88 BC)">Social War</a> of 91–88 BC, and full <a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Roman citizenship</a> was extended to all free-born men in the Empire by <a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a> in 212, with the exception of the dediticii, people who had become subject to Rome through surrender in war, and freed slaves.<a href="#cite_note-dediticii-99">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Education" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Rome" title="Education in ancient Rome">Education in ancient Rome</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Busto_maschile.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Busto_maschile.JPG/220px-Busto_maschile.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1672" data-file-height="1663"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 219px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Busto_maschile.JPG/220px-Busto_maschile.JPG" data-width="220" data-height="219" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Busto_maschile.JPG/330px-Busto_maschile.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Busto_maschile.JPG/440px-Busto_maschile.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Roman_portraiture" title="Roman portraiture">Roman portraiture</a> fresco of a young man with a <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a> <a href="/wiki/Scroll" title="Scroll">scroll</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Herculaneum" title="Herculaneum">Herculaneum</a>, 1st century AD</figcaption></figure> In the early Republic, there were no public schools, so boys were taught to read and write by their parents, or by educated <a href="/wiki/List_of_slaves" title="List of slaves">slaves</a>, called <a href="/wiki/Paedagogi" class="mw-redirect" title="Paedagogi">paedagogi</a>, usually of Greek origin.<a href="#cite_note-Lecture_13-138">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211-139">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWerner197831-140">[137]</a> The primary aim of education during this period was to train young men in agriculture, warfare, <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Roman traditions</a>, and public affairs.<a href="#cite_note-Lecture_13-138">[135]</a> Young boys learned much about civic life by accompanying their fathers to religious and political functions, including the Senate for the sons of nobles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211-139">[136]</a> The sons of nobles were apprenticed to a prominent <a href="/wiki/Politician" title="Politician">political figure</a> at the age of 16, and campaigned with the army from the age of 17.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211-139">[136]</a> Educational practices were modified after the conquest of the Hellenistic kingdoms in the 3rd century BC and the resulting Greek influence, although Roman educational practices were still much different from Greek ones.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211-139">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage143_143%5D-141">[138]</a> If their parents could afford it, boys and some girls at the age of 7 were sent to a private school outside the home called a <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ludus" class="extiw" title="wikt:ludus">ludus</a>, where a teacher (called a litterator or a <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/magister" class="extiw" title="wikt:magister">magister ludi</a>, and often of Greek origin) taught them basic reading, writing, arithmetic, and sometimes Greek, until the age of 11.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211-139">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWerner197831-140">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-TexEd-142">[139]</a> Beginning at age 12, students went to secondary schools, where the teacher (now called a grammaticus) taught them about <a href="/wiki/Greek_literature" title="Greek literature">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Roman literature</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211-139">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-TexEd-142">[139]</a> At the age of 16, some students went on to <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a> school (where the teacher, usually Greek, was called a <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/rhetor" class="extiw" title="wikt:rhetor">rhetor</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211-139">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-TexEd-142">[139]</a> Education at this level prepared students for legal careers, and required that the students memorise the laws of Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211-139">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Government">Government</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Government" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Roman Constitution</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Constitution" title="History of the Roman Constitution">History of the Roman Constitution</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_citizenship#Roman_conceptions_of_citizenship" title="History of citizenship">History of citizenship § Roman conceptions of citizenship</a></div> Initially, Rome was ruled by <a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">kings</a>, who were elected from each of Rome's major tribes in turn.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatyszak200316%E2%80%9342-143">[140]</a> The exact nature of the king's power is uncertain. He may have held near-absolute power, or may have merely been the chief executive of the <a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">Senate and the people</a>. In military matters, the king's authority (<a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a>) was likely absolute. He was also the head of the <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">state religion</a>. In addition to the authority of the King, there were three administrative assemblies: the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a>, which acted as an advisory body for the King; the <a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Comitia Curiata</a>, which could endorse and ratify laws suggested by the King; and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Comitia Calata</a>, which was an assembly of the priestly college that could assemble the people to bear witness to certain acts, hear proclamations, and declare the <a href="/wiki/Festival" title="Festival">feast</a> and holiday schedule for the next month. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari.png/250px-Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="163" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2072" data-file-height="1349"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 163px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari.png/250px-Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari.png" data-width="250" data-height="163" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari.png/375px-Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari.png/500px-Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Representation of a sitting of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a>: <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> attacks <a href="/wiki/Catiline" title="Catiline">Catilina</a>, from a 19th-century fresco by <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Maccari" title="Cesare Maccari">Cesare Maccari</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Madama,_Rome" title="Palazzo Madama, Rome">Palazzo Madama</a>, home to Italy's Senate</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Class_struggle" class="mw-redirect" title="Class struggle">class struggles</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> resulted in an unusual mixture of democracy and <a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">oligarchy</a>. The word republic comes from the Latin <a href="/wiki/Res_publica" title="Res publica">res publica</a>, which literally translates to "public business". <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_laws" title="List of Roman laws">Roman laws</a> traditionally could only be passed by a vote of the Popular assembly (<a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Comitia Tributa</a>). Likewise, candidates for public positions had to run for election by the people. However, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a> represented an oligarchic institution, which acted as an advisory body. In the Republic, the Senate held actual authority (<a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">auctoritas</a>), but no real legislative power; it was technically only an advisory council. However, as the Senators were individually very influential, it was difficult to accomplish anything against the collective will of the Senate. New senators were chosen from among the most accomplished <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">patricians</a> by <a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">censors</a> (Censura), who could also remove a senator from his office if he was found "morally corrupt". Later, under the reforms of the dictator <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Cornelius_Sulla" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Cornelius Sulla">Sulla</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">quaestors</a> were made automatic members of the Senate, though most of his reforms did not survive. The Republic had no fixed <a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">bureaucracy</a>, and collected taxes through the practice of <a href="/wiki/Tax_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Tax farming">tax farming</a>. Government positions such as quaestor, <a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">aedile</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Prefect" title="Prefect">praefect</a> were funded by the office-holder. To prevent any citizen from gaining too much power, new <a href="/wiki/Magistrate" title="Magistrate">magistrates</a> were elected annually and had to share power with a colleague. For example, under normal conditions, the highest authority was held by two consuls. In an emergency, a temporary <a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">dictator</a> could be appointed. Throughout the Republic, the administrative system was revised several times to comply with new demands. In the end, it proved inefficient for controlling the ever-expanding dominion of Rome, contributing to the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. In the early Empire, the pretense of a republican form of government was maintained. The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Emperor">Roman Emperor</a> was portrayed as only a <a href="/wiki/Princeps" title="Princeps">princeps</a>, or "first citizen", and the Senate gained legislative power and all legal authority previously held by the popular assemblies. However, the rule of the Emperors became increasingly <a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">autocratic</a>, and the Senate was reduced to an advisory body appointed by the Emperor. The Empire did not inherit a set bureaucracy from the Republic, since the Republic did not have any permanent governmental structures apart from the Senate. The Emperor appointed assistants and advisers, but the state lacked many institutions, such as a centrally planned <a href="/wiki/Budget" title="Budget">budget</a>. Some historians have cited this as a significant reason for the <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of the Roman Empire">decline of the Roman Empire</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military">Military</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Military" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">Military history of ancient Rome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Military of ancient Rome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structural history of the Roman military</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Roman army</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Roman navy</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n3bis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n3bis.jpg/220px-Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n3bis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2025" data-file-height="1392"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 151px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n3bis.jpg/220px-Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n3bis.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="151" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n3bis.jpg/330px-Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n3bis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n3bis.jpg/440px-Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n3bis.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Altar_of_Domitius_Ahenobarbus" title="Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus">Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus</a>, c. 122 BC; the altar shows two Roman infantrymen equipped with long <a href="/wiki/Scutum_(shield)" class="mw-redirect" title="Scutum (shield)">scuta</a> and a cavalryman with his horse. All are shown wearing <a href="/wiki/Chain_mail" title="Chain mail">chain mail</a> armour.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:R%C3%B6merturm,_Auf_dem_Gaulskopf.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/R%C3%B6merturm%2C_Auf_dem_Gaulskopf.jpg/170px-R%C3%B6merturm%2C_Auf_dem_Gaulskopf.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="175" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3684" data-file-height="3791"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 175px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/R%C3%B6merturm%2C_Auf_dem_Gaulskopf.jpg/170px-R%C3%B6merturm%2C_Auf_dem_Gaulskopf.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="175" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/R%C3%B6merturm%2C_Auf_dem_Gaulskopf.jpg/255px-R%C3%B6merturm%2C_Auf_dem_Gaulskopf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/R%C3%B6merturm%2C_Auf_dem_Gaulskopf.jpg/340px-R%C3%B6merturm%2C_Auf_dem_Gaulskopf.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Roman <a href="/wiki/Tower" title="Tower">tower</a> (<a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_(architecture)" title="Reconstruction (architecture)">reconstruction</a>) at <a href="/wiki/Upper_Germanic-Rhaetian_Limes" title="Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes">Limes</a> – <a href="/wiki/Taunus" title="Taunus">Taunus</a> / Germany</figcaption></figure> The early <a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Roman army</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 500 BC) was, like those of other contemporary <a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city-states</a> influenced by Greek civilisation, a citizen <a href="/wiki/Militia" title="Militia">militia</a> that practised <a href="/wiki/Hoplite" title="Hoplite">hoplite</a> tactics. It was small and organised in five classes (in parallel to the <a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">comitia centuriata</a>, the body of citizens organised politically), with three providing hoplites and two providing light infantry. The early Roman army was tactically limited and its stance during this period was essentially defensive.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeegan1993%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailshistoryofwarfare00keegpage263_263%E2%80%93264%5D-144">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-potter-145">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[143]</a> By the 3rd century BC, the Romans abandoned the hoplite formation in favour of a more flexible system in which smaller groups of 120 (or sometimes 60) men called <a href="/wiki/Maniple_(military_unit)" title="Maniple (military unit)">maniples</a> could manoeuvre more independently on the battlefield. Thirty maniples arranged in three lines with supporting troops constituted a <a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">legion</a>, totalling between 4,000 and 5,000 men.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeegan1993%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailshistoryofwarfare00keegpage263_263%E2%80%93264%5D-144">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-potter-145">[142]</a> The early Republican legion consisted of five sections: manipular heavy infantry (<a href="/wiki/Hastati" title="Hastati">hastati</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principes" title="Principes">principes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Triarii" title="Triarii">triarii</a>), a force of light infantry (<a href="/wiki/Velites" title="Velites">velites</a>), and the cavalry (<a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">equites</a>). With the new organisation came a new orientation toward the offensive and a much more aggressive posture toward adjoining city-states.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeegan1993%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailshistoryofwarfare00keegpage263_263%E2%80%93264%5D-144">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-potter-145">[142]</a> Until the late Republican period, the typical legionary was a property-owning citizen farmer from a rural area (an adsiduus) who served for particular (often annual) campaigns,<a href="#cite_note-148">[d]</a> and who supplied his own equipment. After 200 BC, economic conditions in rural areas deteriorated as manpower needs increased, so that the property qualifications for compulsory service were gradually reduced. Beginning in the 3rd century BC, legionaries were paid a <a href="/wiki/Stipend" title="Stipend">stipend</a>. By the time of Augustus, the ideal of the citizen-soldier had been abandoned and the legions had become fully professional. At the end of the <a href="/wiki/Final_War_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Final War of the Roman Republic">Civil War</a>, Augustus reorganised Roman military forces, discharging soldiers and disbanding legions. He retained 28 legions, distributed through the provinces of the Empire.<a href="#cite_note-149">[145]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a>, the tactical organisation of the Army continued to evolve. The auxilia remained independent cohorts, and legionary troops often operated as groups of cohorts rather than as full legions. A new and versatile type of unit, the cohortes equitatae, combined cavalry and legionaries in a single formation. They could be stationed at garrisons or outposts and could fight on their own as balanced small forces or combine with similar units as a larger, legion-sized force. This increase in organizational flexibility helped ensure the long-term success of Roman military forces.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy199636%E2%80%9337-150">[146]</a> The Emperor <a href="/wiki/Gallienus" title="Gallienus">Gallienus</a> (253–268 AD) began a reorganisation that created the last military structure of the late Empire. Withdrawing some legionaries from the fixed bases on the border, Gallienus created mobile forces (the <a href="/wiki/Comitatenses" title="Comitatenses">comitatenses</a> or field armies) and stationed them behind and at some distance from the borders as a strategic reserve. The border troops (<a href="/wiki/Limitanei" title="Limitanei">limitanei</a>) stationed at fixed bases continued to be the first line of defence. The basic units of the field army were regimental; legiones or auxilia for infantry and <a href="/wiki/Vexillation" class="mw-redirect" title="Vexillation">vexillationes</a> for cavalry. Nominal strengths may have been 1,200 men for infantry regiments and 600 for cavalry, but actual troop levels could have been much lower—800 infantry and 400 cavalry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElton199689%E2%80%9396-151">[147]</a> Many infantry and cavalry regiments operated in pairs under the command of a <a href="/wiki/Comes" title="Comes">comes</a>. Field armies included regiments recruited from allied tribes and known as <a href="/wiki/Foederati" title="Foederati">foederati</a>. By 400 AD, foederati regiments had become permanently established units of the Roman army, paid and equipped by the Empire, led by a Roman tribune and used just as Roman units were used. The Empire also used groups of barbarians to fight along with the legions as allies without integration into the field armies, under overall command of a Roman general, but led by their own officers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElton199689%E2%80%9396-151">[147]</a> Military leadership evolved over the course of the history of Rome. Under the monarchy, the hoplite armies were led by the kings. During the early and middle Roman Republic, military forces were under the command of one of the two elected <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consuls</a> for the year. During the later Republic, members of the Roman Senatorial elite, as part of the normal sequence of elected public offices known as the <a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">cursus honorum</a>, would have served first as <a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">quaestor</a> (often posted as deputies to field commanders), then as <a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">praetor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-bcorrey-152">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy1996121%E2%80%93125-153">[149]</a> Following the end of a term as praetor or consul, a Senator might be appointed by the Senate as a <a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">propraetor</a> or <a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">proconsul</a> (depending on the highest office held before) to govern a foreign province. Under Augustus, whose most important political priority was to place the military under a permanent and unitary command, the Emperor was the legal commander of each legion but exercised that command through a <a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">legatus</a> (legate) he appointed from the Senatorial elite. In a province with a single legion, the legate commanded the legion (<a href="/wiki/Legatus_legionis" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus legionis">legatus legionis</a>) and served as provincial governor, while in a province with more than one legion, each legion was commanded by a legate and the legates were commanded by the provincial governor (also a legate but of higher rank).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackay2004245%E2%80%93252-154">[150]</a> During the later stages of the Imperial period (beginning perhaps with <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a>), the Augustan model was abandoned. Provincial governors were stripped of military authority, and command of the armies in a group of provinces was given to generals (<a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">duces</a>) appointed by the Emperor. These were no longer members of the Roman elite but men who came up through the ranks and had seen much practical soldiering. With increasing frequency, these men attempted (sometimes successfully) to usurp the positions of the Emperors. Decreased resources, increasing political chaos and civil war eventually left the Western Empire vulnerable to attack and takeover by neighbouring barbarian peoples.<a href="#cite_note-155">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Roman_navy">Roman navy</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Roman navy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:D473-bir%C3%A8me_romaine-Liv2-ch10.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/D473-bir%C3%A8me_romaine-Liv2-ch10.png/220px-D473-bir%C3%A8me_romaine-Liv2-ch10.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1412" data-file-height="1087"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 169px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/D473-bir%C3%A8me_romaine-Liv2-ch10.png/220px-D473-bir%C3%A8me_romaine-Liv2-ch10.png" data-width="220" data-height="169" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/D473-bir%C3%A8me_romaine-Liv2-ch10.png/330px-D473-bir%C3%A8me_romaine-Liv2-ch10.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/D473-bir%C3%A8me_romaine-Liv2-ch10.png/440px-D473-bir%C3%A8me_romaine-Liv2-ch10.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A Roman naval <a href="/wiki/Bireme" title="Bireme">bireme</a> depicted in a relief from the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Fortuna_Primigenia" title="Temple of Fortuna Primigenia">Temple of Fortuna Primigenia</a> in <a href="/wiki/Praeneste" class="mw-redirect" title="Praeneste">Praeneste</a> (<a href="/wiki/Palestrina" title="Palestrina">Palastrina</a>), <a href="#cite_note-156">[152]</a> which was built <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 120 BC;<a href="#cite_note-157">[153]</a> exhibited in the Pius-Clementine Museum (<a href="/wiki/Museo_Pio-Clementino" class="mw-redirect" title="Museo Pio-Clementino">Museo Pio-Clementino</a>) in the <a href="/wiki/Vatican_Museums" title="Vatican Museums">Vatican Museums</a>.</figcaption></figure> Less is known about the <a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Roman navy</a> than the Roman army. Prior to the middle of the 3rd century BC, officials known as duumviri navales commanded a fleet of twenty ships used mainly to control piracy. This fleet was given up in 278 AD and replaced by allied forces. The <a href="/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars">First Punic War</a> required that Rome build large fleets, and it did so largely with the assistance of and financing from allies. This reliance on allies continued to the end of the Roman Republic. The <a href="/wiki/Quinquereme" class="mw-redirect" title="Quinquereme">quinquereme</a> was the main warship on both sides of the Punic Wars and remained the mainstay of Roman naval forces until replaced by the time of Caesar Augustus by lighter and more manoeuvrable vessels.<a href="#cite_note-Potter_pp._76-78-158">[154]</a> As compared with a <a href="/wiki/Trireme" title="Trireme">trireme</a>, the quinquereme permitted the use of a mix of experienced and inexperienced crewmen (an advantage for a primarily land-based power), and its lesser manoeuvrability permitted the Romans to adopt and perfect <a href="/wiki/Corvus_(weapon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Corvus (weapon)">boarding tactics</a> using a troop of about 40 marines in lieu of the <a href="/wiki/Naval_tactics_in_the_Age_of_Galleys" class="mw-redirect" title="Naval tactics in the Age of Galleys">ram</a>. Ships were commanded by a <a href="/wiki/Navarch" title="Navarch">navarch</a>, a rank equal to a centurion, who was usually not a citizen. Potter suggests that because the fleet was dominated by non-Romans, the navy was considered non-Roman and allowed to atrophy in times of peace.<a href="#cite_note-Potter_pp._76-78-158">[154]</a> Information suggests that by the time of the late Empire (350 AD), the Roman navy comprised several fleets including warships and merchant vessels for transportation and supply. Warships were oared sailing galleys with three to five banks of oarsmen. Fleet bases included such ports as Ravenna, Arles, Aquilea, Misenum and the mouth of the Somme River in the West and Alexandria and Rhodes in the East. Flotillas of small river craft (classes) were part of the limitanei (border troops) during this period, based at fortified river harbours along the Rhine and the Danube. That prominent generals commanded both armies and fleets suggests that naval forces were treated as auxiliaries to the army and not as an independent service. The details of command structure and fleet strengths during this period are not well known, although fleets were commanded by prefects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElton199699%E2%80%93101-159">[155]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economy">Economy</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Economy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Roman economy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman agriculture">Roman agriculture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">Roman commerce</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_finance" title="Roman finance">Roman finance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Roman currency</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Roman metallurgy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pompeii_-_Fullonica_of_Veranius_Hypsaeus_1_-_MAN.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Pompeii_-_Fullonica_of_Veranius_Hypsaeus_1_-_MAN.jpg/220px-Pompeii_-_Fullonica_of_Veranius_Hypsaeus_1_-_MAN.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="204" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2162" data-file-height="2005"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 204px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Pompeii_-_Fullonica_of_Veranius_Hypsaeus_1_-_MAN.jpg/220px-Pompeii_-_Fullonica_of_Veranius_Hypsaeus_1_-_MAN.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="204" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Pompeii_-_Fullonica_of_Veranius_Hypsaeus_1_-_MAN.jpg/330px-Pompeii_-_Fullonica_of_Veranius_Hypsaeus_1_-_MAN.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Pompeii_-_Fullonica_of_Veranius_Hypsaeus_1_-_MAN.jpg/440px-Pompeii_-_Fullonica_of_Veranius_Hypsaeus_1_-_MAN.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Workers at a cloth-processing shop, in a painting from the <a href="/wiki/Fullonica" class="mw-redirect" title="Fullonica">fullonica</a> of Veranius Hypsaeus in Pompeii</figcaption></figure> Ancient Rome commanded a vast area of land, with tremendous natural and human resources. As such, Rome's economy remained focused on <a href="/wiki/Farming_in_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Farming in ancient Rome">farming</a> and trade. Agricultural <a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a> changed the Italian landscape, and by the 1st century BC, vast grape and <a href="/wiki/Olive" title="Olive">olive</a> estates had supplanted the <a href="/wiki/Yeoman" title="Yeoman">yeoman</a> farmers, who were unable to match the imported grain price. The <a href="/wiki/Annexation" title="Annexation">annexation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, Sicily and <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a> in North Africa provided a continuous supply of grains. In turn, <a href="/wiki/Olive_oil" title="Olive oil">olive oil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">wine</a> were Italy's main exports. Two-tier <a href="/wiki/Crop_rotation" title="Crop rotation">crop rotation</a> was practised, but farm productivity was low. Industrial and manufacturing activities were small. The largest such activities were the mining and <a href="/wiki/Quarry" title="Quarry">quarrying</a> of stones, which provided basic construction materials for the buildings of that period. In manufacturing, production was on a relatively small scale, and generally consisted of workshops and small factories that employed at most dozens of workers. However, some brick factories employed hundreds of workers. The economy of the early Republic was largely based on <a href="/wiki/Smallholding" title="Smallholding">smallholding</a> and paid labour. However, foreign wars and conquests made <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_antiquity" title="Slavery in antiquity">slaves</a> increasingly cheap and plentiful, and by the late Republic, the economy was largely dependent on <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slave labour</a> for both skilled and unskilled work. Slaves are estimated to have constituted around 20% of the Roman Empire's population at this time and 40% in the city of Rome. Only in the Roman Empire, when the conquests stopped and the prices of slaves increased, did hired labour become more economical than slave ownership. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mercati_di_Traiano,_2013.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Mercati_di_Traiano%2C_2013.jpg/220px-Mercati_di_Traiano%2C_2013.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4752" data-file-height="3168"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 147px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Mercati_di_Traiano%2C_2013.jpg/220px-Mercati_di_Traiano%2C_2013.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Mercati_di_Traiano%2C_2013.jpg/330px-Mercati_di_Traiano%2C_2013.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Mercati_di_Traiano%2C_2013.jpg/440px-Mercati_di_Traiano%2C_2013.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>View of <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Market" title="Trajan's Market">Trajan's Market</a>, built by <a href="/wiki/Apollodorus_of_Damascus" title="Apollodorus of Damascus">Apollodorus of Damascus</a></figcaption></figure> Although <a href="/wiki/Barter" title="Barter">barter</a> was used in ancient Rome, and often used in tax collection, Rome had a very developed <a href="/wiki/Coin" title="Coin">coinage</a> system, with <a href="/wiki/Brass_instrument" title="Brass instrument">brass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Precious_metal" title="Precious metal">precious metal</a> coins in circulation throughout the Empire and beyond—some have even been discovered in India. Before the 3rd century BC, copper was traded by weight, measured in unmarked lumps, across <a href="/wiki/Central_Italy" title="Central Italy">central Italy</a>. The original <a href="/wiki/British_coinage" class="mw-redirect" title="British coinage">copper coins</a> (<a href="/wiki/As_(Roman_coin)" title="As (Roman coin)">as</a>) had a face value of one <a href="/wiki/Pound_(weight)#Origins" class="mw-redirect" title="Pound (weight)">Roman pound</a> of copper, but weighed less. Thus, Roman money's utility as a unit of exchange consistently exceeded its intrinsic value as metal. After <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a> began debasing the silver <a href="/wiki/Denarius" title="Denarius">denarius</a>, its <a href="/wiki/Legal_tender" title="Legal tender">legal</a> value was an estimated one-third greater than its intrinsic value. Horses were expensive and other <a href="/wiki/Pack_animal" title="Pack animal">pack animals</a> were slower. Mass trade on the <a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roman roads</a> connected military posts, where Roman markets were centered.<a href="#cite_note-160">[156]</a> These roads were designed for wheels.<a href="#cite_note-161">[157]</a> As a result, there was transport of <a href="/wiki/Commodity" title="Commodity">commodities</a> between Roman regions, but increased with the rise of <a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce#Sea_routes" title="Roman commerce">Roman maritime trade</a> in the 2nd century BC. During that period, a trading vessel took less than a month to complete a trip from <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A1diz" title="Cádiz">Gades</a> to <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> via <a href="/wiki/Ostia_Antica" title="Ostia Antica">Ostia</a>, spanning the entire length of the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScarre1995-76">[73]</a> Transport by sea was around 60 times cheaper than by land, so the volume for such trips was much larger. Some economists consider the Roman Empire a <a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">market economy</a>, similar in its degree of capitalistic practices to 17th century Netherlands and 18th century England.<a href="#cite_note-162">[158]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Family">Family</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Family" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Family_in_ancient_Rome" title="Family in ancient Rome">Family in ancient Rome</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Galla_Placidia_(rechts)_und_ihre_Kinder.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Galla_Placidia_%28rechts%29_und_ihre_Kinder.jpg/220px-Galla_Placidia_%28rechts%29_und_ihre_Kinder.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="225" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1407" data-file-height="1438"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 225px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Galla_Placidia_%28rechts%29_und_ihre_Kinder.jpg/220px-Galla_Placidia_%28rechts%29_und_ihre_Kinder.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="225" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Galla_Placidia_%28rechts%29_und_ihre_Kinder.jpg/330px-Galla_Placidia_%28rechts%29_und_ihre_Kinder.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Galla_Placidia_%28rechts%29_und_ihre_Kinder.jpg/440px-Galla_Placidia_%28rechts%29_und_ihre_Kinder.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Gold_glass" title="Gold glass">gold glass</a> portrait of a family from <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Egypt</a>. <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">The Greek inscription</a> on the medallion may indicate either the name of the artist or the <a href="/wiki/Pater_familias" title="Pater familias">pater familias</a> who is absent in the portrait.<a href="#cite_note-163">[159]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rilievo_funerario_dei_vibii,_fine_del_I_secolo_ac..JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Rilievo_funerario_dei_vibii%2C_fine_del_I_secolo_ac..JPG/220px-Rilievo_funerario_dei_vibii%2C_fine_del_I_secolo_ac..JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1866" data-file-height="1404"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 166px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Rilievo_funerario_dei_vibii%2C_fine_del_I_secolo_ac..JPG/220px-Rilievo_funerario_dei_vibii%2C_fine_del_I_secolo_ac..JPG" data-width="220" data-height="166" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Rilievo_funerario_dei_vibii%2C_fine_del_I_secolo_ac..JPG/330px-Rilievo_funerario_dei_vibii%2C_fine_del_I_secolo_ac..JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Rilievo_funerario_dei_vibii%2C_fine_del_I_secolo_ac..JPG/440px-Rilievo_funerario_dei_vibii%2C_fine_del_I_secolo_ac..JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A funerary relief with members of the <a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">gens</a> <a href="/wiki/Vibia_gens" title="Vibia gens">Vibia</a>, late 1st century BC, <a href="/wiki/Vatican_Museums" title="Vatican Museums">Vatican Museums</a></figcaption></figure> The basic units of Roman society were households and families.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage146_146%5D-136">[133]</a> Groups of households connected through the male line formed a family (<a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">gens</a>), based on blood ties, a common ancestry or <a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">adoption</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>, some powerful families, or <a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">Gentes Maiores</a>, came to dominate political life. Families were headed by their oldest male citizen, the <a href="/wiki/Pater_familias" title="Pater familias">pater familias</a> (father of the family), who held lawful authority (patria potestas, "father's power") over wives, sons, daughters, and slaves of the household, and the family's wealth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage146_146%5D-136">[133]</a> The extreme expressions of this power—the selling or killing of family members for moral or civil offences, including simple disobedience—were very rarely exercised, and were forbidden in the Imperial era. A pater familias had moral and legal duties towards all family members. Even the most despotic pater familias was expected to consult senior members of his household and gens over matters that affected the family's well-being and reputation. Traditionally, such matters were regarded as outside the purview of the state and its magistrates; under the emperors, they were increasingly subject to state interference and legislation.<a href="#cite_note-164">[160]</a> Once accepted into their birth family by their fathers, children were potential heirs. They could not be lawfully given away, or sold into slavery. If parents were unable to care for their child, or if its paternity was in doubt, they could resort to <a href="/wiki/Infant_exposure" class="mw-redirect" title="Infant exposure">infant exposure</a> (Boswell translates this as being "offered" up to care by the gods or strangers). If a deformed or sickly newborn was patently "unfit to live", killing it was a duty of the pater familias. A citizen father who exposed a healthy freeborn child was not punished, but automatically lost his potestas over that child. Abandoned children were sometimes adopted; some would have been sold into slavery.<a href="#cite_note-165">[161]</a> Slavery was near-ubiquitous and almost universally accepted. In the early Republic, citizens in debt were allowed to sell their labour, and perhaps their sons, to their debtor in a limited form of slavery called <a href="/wiki/Nexum" title="Nexum">nexum</a>, but this was abolished in the middle Republic. Freedom was considered a natural and proper state for citizens; slaves could <a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">be lawfully freed</a>, with consent and support of their owners, and still serve their owners' family and financial interests, as freedmen or freed women. This was the basis of the <a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">client-patron relationship</a>, one of the most important features of Rome's economy and society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasson1998%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailseverydaylifeinan00casspage10_10%E2%80%9311%5D,_24%E2%80%9332-166">[162]</a> In law, a pater familias held potestas over his adult sons with their own households. This could give rise to legal anomalies, such as adult sons also having the status of minors. No man could be considered a pater familias, nor could he truly hold property under law, while his own father lived.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasson1998%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailseverydaylifeinan00casspage10_10%E2%80%9311,_24%E2%80%9332%5D-167">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-168">[164]</a> During Rome's early history, married daughters came under the control (manus) of their husbands' pater familias. By the late Republic, most married women retained lawful connection to their birth family, though any children from the marriage belonged to her husband's family.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199839%E2%80%9340-169">[165]</a> The mother or an elderly relative often raised both boys and girls.<a href="#cite_note-170">[166]</a> Roman moralists held that marriage and child-raising fulfilled a basic duty to family, gens, and the state. Multiple remarriages were not uncommon. Fathers usually began seeking husbands for their daughters when these reached an age between twelve and fourteen, but most commoner-class women stayed single until their twenties, and in general seem to have been far more independent than wives of the elite. Divorce required the consent of one party, along with the return of any dowry. Both parents had power over their children during their minority and adulthood, but husbands had much less control over their wives.<a href="#cite_note-171">[167]</a> Roman citizen women held a restricted form of citizenship; they could not vote but were protected by law. They ran families, could own and run businesses, own and cultivate land, write their own wills, and plead in court on their own behalf, or on behalf of others, all under dispensation of the courts and the nominal supervision of a senior male relative. Throughout the late Republican and Imperial eras, a declining birthrate among the elite, and a corresponding increase among commoners was cause of concern for many gentes; <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> tried to address this through state intervention, offering rewards to any woman who gave birth to three or more children, and penalising the childless. The latter was much resented, and the former had seemingly negligible results. Aristocratic women seem to have been increasingly disinclined to childbearing.<a href="#cite_note-172">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Time_and_dates">Time and dates</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Time and dates" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Roman_timekeeping" title="Roman timekeeping">Roman timekeeping</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Roman calendar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul#Consular_dating" title="Roman consul">Roman consul § Consular dating</a></div> Roman hours were counted ordinally from dawn to dawn. Thus, if sunrise was at 6 am, then 6 to 7 am was called the "first hour". Midday was called <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/meridies" class="extiw" title="wikt:meridies">meridies</a> and it is from this word that the terms am (ante meridiem) and pm (post meridiem) stem. The English word "noon" comes from nona ("ninth (hour)"), which referred to 3 pm in ancient Rome.<a href="#cite_note-173">[e]</a> The Romans had clocks (horologia), which included giant public <a href="/wiki/Sundial" title="Sundial">sundials</a> (solaria) and water clocks (<a href="/wiki/Water_clock#Greco-Roman_world" title="Water clock">clepsydrae</a>). The ancient Roman week originally had eight days, which were identified by letters A to H, with the eighth day being the <a href="/wiki/Nundinae" title="Nundinae">nundinum</a>, or market day, a kind of weekend when farmers sold their produce on the streets. The <a href="/wiki/Seven-day_week" class="mw-redirect" title="Seven-day week">seven-day week</a>, introduced from the East during the early Empire, was officially adopted during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine</a>. Romans <a href="/wiki/Names_of_the_days_of_the_week" title="Names of the days of the week">named week days</a> after celestial bodies from at least the 1st century AD. The Roman year originally had ten months from Martius (March) to December, with the winter period not included in the calendar. The first four months were named after gods (Martius, Aprilis, Maius, Junius) and the others were numbered (Quintilis, Sextilis, September, October, November, and December). <a href="/wiki/Numa_Pompilius" title="Numa Pompilius">Numa Pompilius</a>, the second king of Rome (716–673 BC), is said to have introduced the months of January and February, both also named after gods, beginning the 12-month calendar still in use today. In 44 BC, the month Quintilis was renamed to Julius (July) after <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> and in 8 BC, Sextilis was renamed to Augustus (August) after <a href="/wiki/Augustus_Caesar" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustus Caesar">Augustus Caesar</a>. The Romans had several ways of tracking years. One widespread way was the <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul#Consular_dating" title="Roman consul">consular dating</a>, which identified years by the two <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consuls</a> who ruled each year. Another way, introduced in the late 3rd century AD, was counting years from the <a href="/wiki/Indiction" title="Indiction">indictio</a>, a 15-year period based on the announcement of the delivery of food and other goods to the government. Another way, less popular but more similar to present day, was <a href="/wiki/Ab_urbe_condita" title="Ab urbe condita">ab urbe condita</a>, which counted years from the mythical foundation of Rome in 753 BC. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Culture" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture of ancient Rome</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seven_Hills_of_Rome.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Seven_Hills_of_Rome.svg/290px-Seven_Hills_of_Rome.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="277" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="654" data-file-height="624"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 290px;height: 277px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Seven_Hills_of_Rome.svg/290px-Seven_Hills_of_Rome.svg.png" data-width="290" data-height="277" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Seven_Hills_of_Rome.svg/435px-Seven_Hills_of_Rome.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Seven_Hills_of_Rome.svg/580px-Seven_Hills_of_Rome.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Seven_hills_of_Rome" title="Seven hills of Rome">seven hills of Rome</a></figcaption></figure> Life in ancient Rome revolved around the city of Rome, located on <a href="/wiki/Seven_hills_of_Rome" title="Seven hills of Rome">seven hills</a>. The city had a vast number of monumental structures like the <a href="/wiki/Colosseum" title="Colosseum">Colosseum</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Forum" title="Trajan's Forum">Trajan's Forum</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pantheon,_Rome" title="Pantheon, Rome">Pantheon</a>. It had <a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">theatres</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gymnasium_(ancient_Greece)" title="Gymnasium (ancient Greece)">gymnasiums</a>, marketplaces, functional sewers, <a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">bath complexes</a> complete with libraries and shops, and fountains with fresh drinking water supplied by hundreds of miles of <a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">aqueducts</a>. Throughout the territory under the control of ancient Rome, residential architecture ranged from modest houses to <a href="/wiki/Roman_villa" title="Roman villa">country villas</a>. In Rome, there were <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">imperial</a> residences on <a href="/wiki/Palatine_Hill" title="Palatine Hill">Palatine Hill</a>. The low <a href="/wiki/Plebs" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebs">plebeian</a> and middle <a href="/wiki/Equestrian_order" class="mw-redirect" title="Equestrian order">equestrian</a> classes lived in the city center, packed into apartments, or <a href="/wiki/Insula_(building)" title="Insula (building)">insulae</a>, which were almost like modern <a href="/wiki/Ghetto" title="Ghetto">ghettos</a>. These areas, often built by upper class property owners to rent, were often centred upon <a href="/wiki/Collegium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Collegium (ancient Rome)">collegia</a> or <a href="/wiki/Taberna" title="Taberna">taberna</a>. These people, provided with a <a href="/wiki/Grain_supply_to_the_city_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Grain supply to the city of Rome">free supply of grain</a>, and entertained by <a href="/wiki/Gladiator" title="Gladiator">gladiatorial games</a>, were enrolled as <a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">clients of patrons</a> among the upper class <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">patricians</a>, whose assistance they sought and whose interests they upheld. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language">Language</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></div> The native <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a> of the Romans was <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic language</a> the <a href="/wiki/Latin_grammar" title="Latin grammar">grammar of which</a> relies little on word order, conveying meaning through a system of <a href="/wiki/Affix" title="Affix">affixes</a> attached to <a href="/wiki/Word_stem" title="Word stem">word stems</a>.<a href="#cite_note-174">[169]</a> Its <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">alphabet</a> was based on the <a href="/wiki/Old_Italic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Italic alphabet">Etruscan alphabet</a>, which was in turn based on the <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-175">[170]</a> Although surviving <a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin literature</a> consists almost entirely of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical Latin</a>, an artificial and highly stylised and polished <a href="/wiki/Literary_language" title="Literary language">literary language</a> from the 1st century BC, the <a href="/wiki/Spoken_language" title="Spoken language">spoken language</a> of the Roman Empire was <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a>, which significantly differed from Classical Latin in <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vocabulary" title="Vocabulary">vocabulary</a>, and eventually in pronunciation.<a href="#cite_note-176">[171]</a> Speakers of Latin could understand both until the 7th century when spoken Latin began to diverge so much that 'Classical' or 'Good Latin' had to be learned as a second language.<a href="#cite_note-177">[172]</a> While Latin remained the main written language of the Roman Empire, <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> came to be the language spoken by the well-educated elite, as most of the literature studied by Romans was written in Greek. Most of the emperors were bilingual but had a preference for Latin in the public sphere for political reasons, a practice that first started during the <a href="/wiki/Punic_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Punic wars">punic wars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERochette2023263,268Rochette2018114-115,118-178">[173]</a> In the eastern part of the Roman Empire (and later the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a>), Latin was never able to replace Greek, a legacy of the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERochette2018108-179">[174]</a> Justinian would be the last emperor to use Latin in government and marks when Greek officially took over.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998203Kaldellis2023289Rochette2011562Rochette2023283-180">[175]</a> The expansion of the Roman Empire spread Latin throughout Europe, and Vulgar Latin evolved into many distinct <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Religion" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion in ancient Rome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Roman mythology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Roman temple</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Constantine the Great and Christianity</a> and <a href="/wiki/State_church_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="State church of the Roman Empire">State church of the Roman Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pompeii_-_Casa_dei_Vettii_-_Ixion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Pompeii_-_Casa_dei_Vettii_-_Ixion.jpg/220px-Pompeii_-_Casa_dei_Vettii_-_Ixion.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="240" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2458" data-file-height="2680"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 240px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Pompeii_-_Casa_dei_Vettii_-_Ixion.jpg/220px-Pompeii_-_Casa_dei_Vettii_-_Ixion.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="240" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Pompeii_-_Casa_dei_Vettii_-_Ixion.jpg/330px-Pompeii_-_Casa_dei_Vettii_-_Ixion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Pompeii_-_Casa_dei_Vettii_-_Ixion.jpg/440px-Pompeii_-_Casa_dei_Vettii_-_Ixion.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Punishment of <a href="/wiki/Ixion" title="Ixion">Ixion</a>: in the center is <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(mythology)" title="Mercury (mythology)">Mercury</a> holding the <a href="/wiki/Caduceus" title="Caduceus">caduceus</a> and on the right <a href="/wiki/Juno_(mythology)" title="Juno (mythology)">Juno</a> sits on her throne. Behind her <a href="/wiki/Iris_(mythology)" title="Iris (mythology)">Iris</a> stands and gestures. On the left is <a href="/wiki/Vulcan_(mythology)" title="Vulcan (mythology)">Vulcan</a> (blond figure) standing behind the wheel, manning it, with Ixion already tied to it. <a href="/wiki/Nephele" title="Nephele">Nephele</a> sits at Mercury's feet; a Roman fresco from the eastern wall of the <a href="/wiki/Triclinium" title="Triclinium">triclinium</a> in the <a href="/wiki/House_of_the_Vettii" title="House of the Vettii">House of the Vettii</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pompeian_Styles" title="Pompeian Styles">Fourth Style</a> (60–79 AD).</figcaption></figure> Archaic <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman religion</a>, at least concerning the gods, was made up not of written narratives, but rather of complex interrelations between gods and humans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatyszak200324-181">[176]</a> Unlike in <a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Greek mythology</a>, the gods were not personified, but were vaguely defined sacred spirits called <a href="/wiki/Numen" title="Numen">numina</a>. Romans also believed that every person, place or thing had its own <a href="/wiki/Genius_(mythology)" title="Genius (mythology)">genius</a>, or divine soul. During the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman religion</a> was organised under a strict system of priestly offices, which were held by men of senatorial rank. The College of Pontifices was uppermost body in this hierarchy, and its chief priest, the <a href="/wiki/Pontifex_Maximus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontifex Maximus">Pontifex Maximus</a>, was the head of the state religion. <a href="/wiki/Flamen" title="Flamen">Flamens</a> took care of the cults of various gods, while <a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">augurs</a> were trusted with taking the <a href="/wiki/Auspice" class="mw-redirect" title="Auspice">auspices</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Rex_Sacrorum" title="Rex Sacrorum">sacred king</a> took on the religious responsibilities of the deposed kings. In the Roman Empire, deceased emperors who had ruled well were deified by their successors and the Senate.<a href="#cite_note-182">[177]</a> and the formalised <a href="/wiki/Imperial_cult_(ancient_Rome)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial cult (ancient Rome)">imperial cult</a> became increasingly prominent. As contact with the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greeks</a> increased, the old <a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Roman gods</a> became increasingly associated with <a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_deities" title="List of Greek deities">Greek gods</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillis2000166%E2%80%93168-183">[178]</a> Under the Empire, the Romans absorbed the mythologies of their conquered subjects, often leading to situations in which the temples and priests of traditional Italian deities existed side by side with those of foreign gods.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillis2000-184">[179]</a> Beginning with Emperor <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a> in the 1st century AD, Roman official policy towards Christianity was negative, and at some point, being a Christian could be punishable by death. Under Emperor <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">persecution of Christians</a> reached its peak. However, it became an officially supported religion in the Roman state under Diocletian's successor, <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine I</a>, with the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Milan" title="Edict of Milan">Edict of Milan</a> in 313, and quickly became dominant. All religions except Christianity were prohibited in 391 AD by an edict of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a>.<a href="#cite_note-185">[180]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethics_and_morality">Ethics and morality</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Ethics and morality" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Like many ancient cultures, concepts of ethics and morality, while sharing some commonalities with modern society, differed greatly in several important ways. Because ancient civilisations like Rome were under constant threat of attack from marauding tribes, their culture was necessarily militaristic with martial skills being a prized attribute.<a href="#cite_note-HuffPo:_Bread-186">[181]</a> Whereas modern societies consider <a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">compassion</a> a virtue, Roman society considered compassion a vice, a moral defect. Indeed, one of the primary purposes of the gladiatorial games was to inoculate Roman citizens from this weakness.<a href="#cite_note-187">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-HuffPo:_Bread-186">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-188">[183]</a> Romans instead prized virtues such as courage and conviction (virtus), a sense of duty to one's people, moderation and avoiding excess (moderatio), forgiveness and understanding (clementia), fairness (severitas), and loyalty (<a href="/wiki/Pietas" title="Pietas">pietas</a>).<a href="#cite_note-189">[184]</a> Roman society had well-established and restrictive norms related to sexuality, though as with many societies, the lion's share of the responsibilities fell on women. Women were generally expected to be monogamous having only a single husband during their life (univira), though this was much less regarded by the elite, especially under the empire. Women were expected to be modest in public avoiding any provocative appearance and to demonstrate absolute fidelity to their husbands (pudicitia). Indeed, wearing a veil was a common expectation to preserve modesty. Sex outside of marriage was generally frowned upon for men and women and indeed was made illegal during the imperial period.<a href="#cite_note-190">[185]</a> Nevertheless, prostitution was an accepted and regulated practice.<a href="#cite_note-Dillon-191">[186]</a> Public demonstrations of death, violence, and brutality were used as a source of entertainment in Roman communities; however it was also a way to maintain social order, demonstrate power, and signify communal unity. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art,_music_and_literature">Art, music and literature</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Art, music and literature" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Roman art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Music of ancient Rome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_sculpture" title="Roman sculpture">Roman sculpture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre of ancient Rome</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Art_collection_in_ancient_Rome" title="Art collection in ancient Rome">Art collection in ancient Rome</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_(painting)" title="Ancient Rome (painting)">Ancient Rome (painting)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Villa_of_the_Mysteries_(Pompeii)_-_frescos_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Villa_of_the_Mysteries_%28Pompeii%29_-_frescos_02.jpg/220px-Villa_of_the_Mysteries_%28Pompeii%29_-_frescos_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="226" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2922" data-file-height="3004"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 226px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Villa_of_the_Mysteries_%28Pompeii%29_-_frescos_02.jpg/220px-Villa_of_the_Mysteries_%28Pompeii%29_-_frescos_02.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="226" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Villa_of_the_Mysteries_%28Pompeii%29_-_frescos_02.jpg/330px-Villa_of_the_Mysteries_%28Pompeii%29_-_frescos_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Villa_of_the_Mysteries_%28Pompeii%29_-_frescos_02.jpg/440px-Villa_of_the_Mysteries_%28Pompeii%29_-_frescos_02.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Frescoes from the <a href="/wiki/Villa_of_the_Mysteries" title="Villa of the Mysteries">Villa of the Mysteries</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a>, Italy, <a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Roman artwork</a> dated to the mid-1st century BC</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:P._Fannius_Synistor_anagoria_links.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/P._Fannius_Synistor_anagoria_links.JPG/220px-P._Fannius_Synistor_anagoria_links.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2712" data-file-height="2670"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 217px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/P._Fannius_Synistor_anagoria_links.JPG/220px-P._Fannius_Synistor_anagoria_links.JPG" data-width="220" data-height="217" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/P._Fannius_Synistor_anagoria_links.JPG/330px-P._Fannius_Synistor_anagoria_links.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/P._Fannius_Synistor_anagoria_links.JPG/440px-P._Fannius_Synistor_anagoria_links.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Woman playing a <a href="/wiki/Kithara" title="Kithara">kithara</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/Villa_Boscoreale" title="Villa Boscoreale">Villa Boscoreale</a>, Italy, circa 40–30 BC</figcaption></figure> Roman painting styles show <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> influences, and surviving examples are primarily <a href="/wiki/Fresco" title="Fresco">frescoes</a> used to adorn the walls and ceilings of <a href="/wiki/Villa_rustica" title="Villa rustica">country villas</a>, though Roman literature includes mentions of paintings on wood, <a href="/wiki/Ivory" title="Ivory">ivory</a>, and other materials.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998350%E2%80%93352-192">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-MetstuffonRpaint-193">[188]</a> Several examples of Roman painting have been found at <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a>, and from these art historians divide the history of Roman painting into <a href="/wiki/Pompeian_Styles" title="Pompeian Styles">four periods</a>. The first style of Roman painting was practised from the early 2nd century BC to the early- or mid-1st century BC. It was mainly composed of imitations of <a href="/wiki/Marble" title="Marble">marble</a> and <a href="/wiki/Masonry" title="Masonry">masonry</a>, though sometimes including depictions of mythological characters. The second style began during the early 1st century BC and attempted to depict realistically three-dimensional architectural features and landscapes. The third style occurred during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> (27 BC – 14 AD), and rejected the <a href="/wiki/Realism_(visual_arts)" class="mw-redirect" title="Realism (visual arts)">realism</a> of the second style in favour of simple ornamentation. A small architectural scene, landscape, or abstract design was placed in the center with a <a href="/wiki/Monochrome" title="Monochrome">monochrome</a> background. The fourth style, which began in the 1st century AD, depicted scenes from mythology, while retaining architectural details and abstract patterns. Portrait sculpture used youthful and classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealism</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Antonines" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonines">Antonine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Severan_dynasty" title="Severan dynasty">Severan</a> periods, ornate hair and bearding, with deep cutting and drilling, became popular. Advancements were also made in <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">relief sculptures</a>, usually depicting Roman victories. <a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Roman music</a> was largely based on <a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Greece" title="Music of ancient Greece">Greek music</a>, and played an important part in many aspects of Roman life.<a href="#cite_note-iClassics-194">[189]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Roman military</a>, musical instruments such as the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tuba#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:tuba">tuba</a> (a long trumpet) or the <a href="/wiki/Cornu_(horn)" title="Cornu (horn)">cornu</a> were used to give various commands, while the <a href="/wiki/Buccina" title="Buccina">buccina</a> (possibly a trumpet or horn) and the <a href="/wiki/Lituus" title="Lituus">lituus</a> (probably an elongated J-shaped instrument), were used in ceremonial capacities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199889-195">[190]</a> Music was used in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">Roman amphitheatres</a> between fights and in the <a href="/wiki/Odeon_(building)" title="Odeon (building)">odea</a>, and in these settings is known to have featured the cornu and the <a href="/wiki/Hydraulis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulis">hydraulis</a> (a type of water organ).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998349%E2%80%93350-196">[191]</a> Most religious rituals featured musical performances.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998300-197">[192]</a> Some music historians believe that music was used at almost all public ceremonies.<a href="#cite_note-iClassics-194">[189]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Graffiti" title="Graffiti">graffiti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brothel" title="Brothel">brothels</a>, paintings, and sculptures found in <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herculaneum" title="Herculaneum">Herculaneum</a> suggest that the Romans had a sex-saturated culture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant2005130%E2%80%93134-198">[193]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Literature_and_libraries">Literature and libraries</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Literature and libraries" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin literature</a> was, from its start, influenced heavily by Greek authors. Some of the earliest extant works are of historical <a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">epics</a> telling the early military history of Rome. As the Republic expanded, authors began to produce poetry, comedy, history, and <a href="/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">tragedy</a>. Ancient Rome's literary contributions are still recognized today and the works by ancient Roman authors were available in bookshops as well as in public and private libraries. Many scholars and statesmen of ancient Rome cultivated private libraries that were used both as demonstrations of knowledge and displays of wealth and power.<a href="#cite_note-:1-199">[194]</a> Although Julius Caesar had intended to establish public libraries to further establish Rome as a great cultural center like Athens and Alexandria, he died before this was accomplished. Caesar's former lieutenant, <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Asinius_Pollio" title="Gaius Asinius Pollio">Gaius Asinius Pollio</a>, took up the project and opened the first public library in Rome in the <a href="/wiki/Atrium_Libertatis" title="Atrium Libertatis">Atrium Libertatis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-200">[195]</a> Emperors Augustus, Tiberius, <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a>, Domitian, and Trajan also founded or expanded public libraries in Rome during their reigns.<a href="#cite_note-201">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-202">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-203">[198]</a> These included the <a href="/wiki/Ulpian_Library" title="Ulpian Library">Ulpian Library</a> in Trajan's Forum and libraries in the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Apollo_Palatinus" title="Temple of Apollo Palatinus">Temple of Apollo Palatinus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Peace,_Rome" title="Temple of Peace, Rome">Temple of Peace</a> in the Roman Forum, the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Divus_Augustus" title="Temple of Divus Augustus">Temple of Divus Augustus</a>, which was dedicated to Minerva when it was rebuilt under Emperor Domitian's orders.<a href="#cite_note-:2-204">[199]</a> By the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the city of Rome had more than two dozen public libraries.<a href="#cite_note-205">[200]</a> As the Roman Empire spread, public libraries were established in other major cities and cultural centers including Ephesos, Athens, and <a href="/wiki/Timgad" title="Timgad">Timgad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-206">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[202]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cuisine">Cuisine</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Cuisine" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">Ancient Roman cuisine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">Ancient Rome and wine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Food_and_dining_in_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Food and dining in the Roman Empire">Food and dining in the Roman Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mosaico_di_un_giovane_come_mese_di_giugno,_III_secolo_dc..JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Mosaico_di_un_giovane_come_mese_di_giugno%2C_III_secolo_dc..JPG/220px-Mosaico_di_un_giovane_come_mese_di_giugno%2C_III_secolo_dc..JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1678" data-file-height="1647"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 216px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Mosaico_di_un_giovane_come_mese_di_giugno%2C_III_secolo_dc..JPG/220px-Mosaico_di_un_giovane_come_mese_di_giugno%2C_III_secolo_dc..JPG" data-width="220" data-height="216" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Mosaico_di_un_giovane_come_mese_di_giugno%2C_III_secolo_dc..JPG/330px-Mosaico_di_un_giovane_come_mese_di_giugno%2C_III_secolo_dc..JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Mosaico_di_un_giovane_come_mese_di_giugno%2C_III_secolo_dc..JPG/440px-Mosaico_di_un_giovane_come_mese_di_giugno%2C_III_secolo_dc..JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A boy with a platter of fruits and what may be a bucket of crabs, in a kitchen with fish and <a href="/wiki/Squid" title="Squid">squid</a>, on the June panel from a 3rd-century mosaic depicting the months, in the <a href="/wiki/Hermitage_Museum" title="Hermitage Museum">Hermitage Museum</a> in <a href="/wiki/St_Petersburg" class="mw-redirect" title="St Petersburg">St Petersburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a><a href="#cite_note-208">[203]</a></figcaption></figure> Ancient Roman cuisine changed over the long duration of this ancient civilisation. Dietary habits were affected by the influence of Greek culture, the political changes from <a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a> to <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a> to <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a>, and the Empire's enormous expansion, which exposed Romans to many new, provincial culinary habits and cooking techniques. In the beginning the differences between social classes were relatively small, but disparities evolved with the Empire's growth. Men and women drank wine with their meals.<a href="#cite_note-209">[204]</a> The ancient Roman diet included many items that are staples of <a href="/wiki/Italian_cuisine" title="Italian cuisine">modern Italian cooking</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> discussed more than 30 varieties of <a href="/wiki/Olive" title="Olive">olive</a>, 40 kinds of pear, <a href="/wiki/Ficus" title="Ficus">figs</a> (native and imported from Africa and the eastern provinces), and a wide variety of vegetables, including carrots (of different colours, but not orange<a href="#cite_note-210">[205]</a>) as well as <a href="/wiki/Celery" title="Celery">celery</a>, garlic, some <a href="/wiki/Flower_bulb" class="mw-redirect" title="Flower bulb">flower bulbs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cabbage" title="Cabbage">cabbage</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Brassica" title="Brassica">brassicas</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Kale" title="Kale">kale</a> and <a href="/wiki/Broccoli" title="Broccoli">broccoli</a>), lettuce, <a href="/wiki/Endive" title="Endive">endive</a>, onion, <a href="/wiki/Leek" title="Leek">leek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asparagus" title="Asparagus">asparagus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radish" title="Radish">radishes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turnip" title="Turnip">turnips</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parsnip" title="Parsnip">parsnips</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beet" class="mw-redirect" title="Beet">beets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Green_peas" class="mw-redirect" title="Green peas">green peas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chard" title="Chard">chard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cardoon" title="Cardoon">cardoons</a>, olives, and <a href="/wiki/Cucumber" title="Cucumber">cucumber</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PatrickFaas-211">[206]</a> However, some foods now considered characteristic of modern Italian cuisine were not used.<a href="#cite_note-PhyllisPray-212">[207]</a> In particular, <a href="/wiki/Spinach" title="Spinach">spinach</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eggplant" title="Eggplant">eggplant</a> (aubergine) were introduced later from the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a>, and tomatoes, potatoes, <a href="/wiki/Capsicum" title="Capsicum">capsicum</a> peppers, and maize (the modern source of <a href="/wiki/Polenta" title="Polenta">polenta</a>)<a href="#cite_note-PatrickFaas-211">[206]</a> only appeared in Europe following the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Columbian_Exchange" class="mw-redirect" title="Columbian Exchange">Columbian Exchange</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PhyllisPray-212">[207]</a> The Romans knew of rice, but it was very rarely available to them. There were also few <a href="/wiki/Citrus" title="Citrus">citrus</a> fruits.<a href="#cite_note-PhyllisPray-212">[207]</a> Butcher's meat such as beef was an uncommon luxury. The most popular meat was pork, especially <a href="/wiki/Sausage" title="Sausage">sausages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MaguelonneToussaintSamat-213">[208]</a> Fish was more common than meat, with a sophisticated <a href="/wiki/Aquaculture" title="Aquaculture">aquaculture</a> and large-scale industries devoted to <a href="/wiki/Oyster_farming" title="Oyster farming">oyster farming</a>. The Romans also engaged in <a href="/wiki/Heliciculture" title="Heliciculture">snail farming</a> and oak grub farming. Some fish were greatly esteemed and fetched high prices, such as <a href="/wiki/Mullet_(fish)" title="Mullet (fish)">mullet</a> raised in the fishery at <a href="/wiki/Cosa" title="Cosa">Cosa</a>, and "elaborate means were invented to assure its freshness".<a href="#cite_note-John-214">[209]</a> Traditionally, a breakfast called ientaculum<a href="#cite_note-ArtmanJohnAncient-215">[210]</a> was served at dawn. At mid-day to early afternoon, Romans ate <a href="/wiki/Cena" title="Cena">cena</a>,<a href="#cite_note-ArtmanJohnAncient-215">[210]</a> the main meal of the day, and at nightfall a light supper called vesperna.<a href="#cite_note-Artman,_John_page_26-216">[211]</a> With the increased importation of foreign foods, the cena grew larger in size and included a wider range of foods. Thus, it gradually shifted to the evening, while the vesperna<a href="#cite_note-Artman,_John_page_26-216">[211]</a> was abandoned completely over the course of the years. The mid-day meal prandium became a light meal to hold one over until cena.<a href="#cite_note-ArtmanJohnAncient-215">[210]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fashion">Fashion</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Fashion" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">Clothing in ancient Rome</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mosaico_di_cristo_in_trono_tra_gli_apostoli_e_le_ss._prudenziana_e_prassede,_410_dc_ca._06.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Mosaico_di_cristo_in_trono_tra_gli_apostoli_e_le_ss._prudenziana_e_prassede%2C_410_dc_ca._06.jpg/400px-Mosaico_di_cristo_in_trono_tra_gli_apostoli_e_le_ss._prudenziana_e_prassede%2C_410_dc_ca._06.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="267" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 400px;height: 267px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Mosaico_di_cristo_in_trono_tra_gli_apostoli_e_le_ss._prudenziana_e_prassede%2C_410_dc_ca._06.jpg/400px-Mosaico_di_cristo_in_trono_tra_gli_apostoli_e_le_ss._prudenziana_e_prassede%2C_410_dc_ca._06.jpg" data-width="400" data-height="267" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Mosaico_di_cristo_in_trono_tra_gli_apostoli_e_le_ss._prudenziana_e_prassede%2C_410_dc_ca._06.jpg/600px-Mosaico_di_cristo_in_trono_tra_gli_apostoli_e_le_ss._prudenziana_e_prassede%2C_410_dc_ca._06.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Mosaico_di_cristo_in_trono_tra_gli_apostoli_e_le_ss._prudenziana_e_prassede%2C_410_dc_ca._06.jpg/800px-Mosaico_di_cristo_in_trono_tra_gli_apostoli_e_le_ss._prudenziana_e_prassede%2C_410_dc_ca._06.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Detail of a <a href="/wiki/Paleochristian" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleochristian">Paleochristian</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_mosaic" title="Roman mosaic">Roman mosaic</a> from the basilica of <a href="/wiki/Santa_Pudenziana" title="Santa Pudenziana">Santa Pudenziana</a> in Rome, c. 410 AD, depicting Saint <a href="/wiki/Pudentiana" title="Pudentiana">Pudentiana</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Toga" title="Toga">toga</a>, a common garment during the era of Julius Caesar, was gradually abandoned by all social classes of the Empire. At the early 4th century, the toga had become just a garment worn by senators in Senate and ceremonial events. At the 4th century, the toga was replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Paenula" title="Paenula">paenula</a> (a garment similar to a poncho) as the everyday garment of the Romans, from the lower classes to the upper classes. Another garment that was popular among the Romans in the later years of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> was the <a href="/wiki/Pallium_(Roman_cloak)" title="Pallium (Roman cloak)">pallium</a>, which was mostly worn by philosophers and scholars in general. Due to external influences, mainly from the Germanic peoples, the Romans adopted <a href="/wiki/Tunic" title="Tunic">tunics</a> very similar to those used by the Germanic peoples with whom they interacted in the final years of the Western Empire, also adopted trousers and hats like the <a href="/wiki/Pileus_(hat)" title="Pileus (hat)">pileus pannonicus</a>. At the Late Empire the <a href="/wiki/Paludamentum" title="Paludamentum">paludamentum</a> (a type of military clothing) was used only by the Emperor of Rome (since the reign of <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>, the first emperor) while the <a href="/wiki/Dalmatic" title="Dalmatic">dalmatic</a> (also used by the Christian clergy) began to spread throughout the empire.<a href="#cite_note-217">[212]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Games_and_recreation">Games and recreation</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Games and recreation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_physical_training_and_fitness" title="History of physical training and fitness">History of physical training and fitness</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nennig_Roman_Villa_and_Mosaics_-_51134391753.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Nennig_Roman_Villa_and_Mosaics_-_51134391753.jpg/220px-Nennig_Roman_Villa_and_Mosaics_-_51134391753.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3654" data-file-height="2904"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 175px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Nennig_Roman_Villa_and_Mosaics_-_51134391753.jpg/220px-Nennig_Roman_Villa_and_Mosaics_-_51134391753.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="175" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Nennig_Roman_Villa_and_Mosaics_-_51134391753.jpg/330px-Nennig_Roman_Villa_and_Mosaics_-_51134391753.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Nennig_Roman_Villa_and_Mosaics_-_51134391753.jpg/440px-Nennig_Roman_Villa_and_Mosaics_-_51134391753.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gladiator" title="Gladiator">Gladiator</a> combat was strictly a spectator sport. This <a href="/wiki/Roman_mosaic" title="Roman mosaic">mosaic</a> shows combatants and referee, from the <a href="/wiki/Roman_villa" title="Roman villa">villa</a> at <a href="/wiki/Nennig" title="Nennig">Nennig</a>, Germany, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2nd–3rd century AD.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Villa_romana_bikini_girls.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Villa_romana_bikini_girls.JPG/220px-Villa_romana_bikini_girls.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4227" data-file-height="2747"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 143px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Villa_romana_bikini_girls.JPG/220px-Villa_romana_bikini_girls.JPG" data-width="220" data-height="143" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Villa_romana_bikini_girls.JPG/330px-Villa_romana_bikini_girls.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Villa_romana_bikini_girls.JPG/440px-Villa_romana_bikini_girls.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The "<a href="/wiki/Bikini" title="Bikini">bikini</a> girls" <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaic</a>, showing women playing sports, from the <a href="/wiki/Villa_Romana_del_Casale" title="Villa Romana del Casale">Villa Romana del Casale</a>, Italy, Roman province of <a href="/wiki/Sicilia_(Roman_province)" title="Sicilia (Roman province)">Sicilia</a>, 4th century AD</figcaption></figure> The youth of Rome had several forms of athletic play and exercise. Play for boys was supposed to prepare them for active military service, such as <a href="/wiki/Jumping" title="Jumping">jumping</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wrestling" title="Wrestling">wrestling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boxing" title="Boxing">boxing</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Racing" title="Racing">racing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasson1998%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailseverydaylifeinan00casspage98_98%E2%80%93108%5D-218">[213]</a> In the countryside, pastimes for the wealthy also included fishing and hunting.<a href="#cite_note-SPQRonline-219">[214]</a> The Romans also had several forms of ball playing, including one resembling <a href="/wiki/American_handball" title="American handball">handball</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasson1998%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailseverydaylifeinan00casspage98_98%E2%80%93108%5D-218">[213]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dice_game" class="mw-redirect" title="Dice game">Dice games</a>, <a href="/wiki/Board_game" title="Board game">board games</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gambling" title="Gambling">gamble games</a> were popular pastimes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasson1998%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailseverydaylifeinan00casspage98_98%E2%80%93108%5D-218">[213]</a> For the wealthy, dinner parties presented an opportunity for entertainment, sometimes featuring music, dancing, and poetry readings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998350%E2%80%93352-192">[187]</a> The majority, less well-off, sometimes enjoyed similar parties through clubs or associations, but for most Romans, recreational dining usually meant patronising <a href="/wiki/Tavern" title="Tavern">taverns</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998350%E2%80%93352-192">[187]</a> Children entertained themselves with toys and such games as <a href="/wiki/Leapfrog" title="Leapfrog">leapfrog</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SPQRonline-219">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998350%E2%80%93352-192">[187]</a> Public games and spectacles were sponsored by leading Romans who wished to advertise their generosity and court popular approval; in Rome or its provinces, this usually meant the emperor or his governors. Venues in Rome and the provinces were developed specifically for public games. Rome's <a href="/wiki/Colisseum" class="mw-redirect" title="Colisseum">Colisseum</a> was built in 70 AD under the Roman emperor Vespasian and opened in 80 AD to host other events and <a href="/wiki/Gladiator" title="Gladiator">gladiatorial</a> combats. Gladiators sometimes fought to the death, but more often to an adjudicated victory, usually in keeping with the mood of the watching crowd. Shows of exotic animals were popular in their own right; but sometimes animals were pitted against human beings, either armed professionals or unarmed criminals who had been condemned to public death. <a href="/wiki/Chariot_racing" title="Chariot racing">Chariot racing</a> was extremely popular among all classes. In Rome, these races were usually held at the <a href="/wiki/Circus_Maximus" title="Circus Maximus">Circus Maximus</a>, which had been purpose-built for chariot and horse-racing and, as Rome's largest public place, was also used for festivals and animal shows.<a href="#cite_note-220">[215]</a> It could seat around 150,000 people;<a href="#cite_note-221">[216]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Technology">Technology</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Technology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">Ancient Roman technology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pont_du_Gard_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Pont_du_Gard_3.jpg/220px-Pont_du_Gard_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1200"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 147px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Pont_du_Gard_3.jpg/220px-Pont_du_Gard_3.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Pont_du_Gard_3.jpg/330px-Pont_du_Gard_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Pont_du_Gard_3.jpg/440px-Pont_du_Gard_3.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pont_du_Gard" title="Pont du Gard">Pont du Gard</a> in France is a <a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Roman aqueduct</a> built in c. 19 BC. It is a <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a>.</figcaption></figure> Ancient Rome boasted impressive technological feats, using many advancements that were lost in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> and not rivalled again until the 19th and 20th centuries. An example of this is <a href="/wiki/Insulated_glazing" title="Insulated glazing">insulated glazing</a>, which was not invented again until the 1930s. Many practical Roman innovations were adopted from earlier Greek designs. Advancements were often divided and based on craft. <a href="/wiki/Trade_(profession)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade (profession)">Artisans</a> guarded technologies as <a href="/wiki/Trade_secret" title="Trade secret">trade secrets</a>.<a href="#cite_note-222">[217]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_engineering" title="Ancient Roman engineering">Roman civil engineering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">military engineering</a> constituted a large part of Rome's technological superiority and legacy, and contributed to the construction of hundreds of <a href="/wiki/Roman_road" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman road">roads</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">bridges</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">aqueducts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">public baths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">theatres</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">arenas</a>. Many monuments, such as the <a href="/wiki/Colosseum" title="Colosseum">Colosseum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pont_du_Gard" title="Pont du Gard">Pont du Gard</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pantheon,_Rome" title="Pantheon, Rome">Pantheon</a>, remain as testaments to Roman engineering and culture. The Romans were renowned for their <a href="/wiki/Roman_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman architecture">architecture</a>, which is grouped with Greek traditions into "<a href="/wiki/Classical_architecture" title="Classical architecture">Classical architecture</a>". Although there were many differences from <a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_ancient_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture of ancient Greece">Greek architecture</a>, Rome borrowed heavily from Greece in adhering to strict, formulaic building designs and proportions. Aside from two new <a href="/wiki/Classical_order" title="Classical order">orders</a> of columns, <a href="/wiki/Composite_order" title="Composite order">composite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tuscan_order" title="Tuscan order">Tuscan</a>, and from the <a href="/wiki/Dome" title="Dome">dome</a>, which was derived from the <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscan</a> <a href="/wiki/Arch" title="Arch">arch</a>, Rome had relatively few architectural innovations until the end of the Republic. In the 1st century BC, Romans started to use <a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Roman concrete</a> widely. Concrete was <a href="/wiki/Roman_architectural_revolution" title="Roman architectural revolution">invented</a> in the late 3rd century BC. It was a powerful cement derived from <a href="/wiki/Pozzolana" title="Pozzolana">pozzolana</a>, and soon supplanted <a href="/wiki/Marble" title="Marble">marble</a> as the chief Roman building material and allowed many daring architectural forms.<a href="#cite_note-223">[218]</a> Also in the 1st century BC, <a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a> wrote <a href="/wiki/De_architectura" title="De architectura">De architectura</a>, possibly the first complete treatise on architecture in history. The Romans also largely built using timber, causing a rapid decline of the woodlands surrounding Rome. The first evidence of long-distance wood trading come from the discovery of wood planks, felled between AD 40 and 60, coming from the Jura mountains in northeastern France and ending up more than 1,055 miles (1,700 km) away, in the foundations of a lavish portico that was part of a vast wealthy patrician villa, in Central Rome. It is suggested that timber, around 4 metres (13 ft) long, came up to Rome via the Tiber River on ships travelling across the Mediterranean Sea from the confluence of the <a href="/wiki/Sa%C3%B4ne" title="Saône">Saône</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rh%C3%B4ne" title="Rhône">Rhône</a> rivers in what is now the city of <a href="/wiki/Lyon" title="Lyon">Lyon</a> in present-day France.<a href="#cite_note-224">[219]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Appia_antica_2-7-05_048.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Appia_antica_2-7-05_048.jpg/220px-Appia_antica_2-7-05_048.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2288" data-file-height="1712"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Appia_antica_2-7-05_048.jpg/220px-Appia_antica_2-7-05_048.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Appia_antica_2-7-05_048.jpg/330px-Appia_antica_2-7-05_048.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Appia_antica_2-7-05_048.jpg/440px-Appia_antica_2-7-05_048.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Appian_Way" title="Appian Way">Appian Way</a> (Via Appia), a road connecting the city of Rome to the southern parts of Italy, remains usable even today</figcaption></figure> With solid foundations and good drainage,<a href="#cite_note-225">[220]</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roman roads</a> were known for their durability and many segments of the Roman road system were still in use a thousand years after the fall of Rome. The construction of a vast and efficient travel network throughout the Empire dramatically increased Rome's power and influence. They allowed <a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Roman legions</a> to be deployed rapidly, with predictable marching times between key points of the empire, no matter the season.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeegan1993%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailshistoryofwarfare00keegpage303_303%5D-226">[221]</a> These highways also had enormous economic significance, solidifying Rome's role as a trading crossroads—the origin of the saying "all roads lead to Rome". The Roman government maintained a system of way stations, known as the <a href="/wiki/Cursus_publicus" title="Cursus publicus">cursus publicus</a>, and established a system of horse relays allowing a dispatch to travel up to 80 km (50 mi) a day. The Romans constructed numerous <a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_(watercourse)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aqueduct (watercourse)">aqueducts</a> to supply water to cities and industrial sites and to aid in <a href="/wiki/Roman_agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman agriculture">their agriculture</a>. By the third century, the city of Rome was supplied by <a href="/wiki/List_of_aqueducts_in_the_city_of_Rome" title="List of aqueducts in the city of Rome">11 aqueducts</a> with a combined length of 450 km (280 mi). The Romans also made major advancements in <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a>. Romans were particularly famous for their public <a href="/wiki/Bathing" title="Bathing">baths</a>, called <a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">thermae</a>, which were used for both hygienic and social purposes. Many Roman houses had <a href="/wiki/Flush_toilet" title="Flush toilet">flush toilets</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tap_water" title="Tap water">indoor plumbing</a>, and a complex <a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">sewer</a> system, the <a href="/wiki/Cloaca_Maxima" title="Cloaca Maxima">Cloaca Maxima</a>, was used to drain the local <a href="/wiki/Marsh" title="Marsh">marshes</a> and carry waste into the Tiber. Some historians have speculated that lead pipes in the sewer and plumbing systems led to widespread <a href="/wiki/Lead_poisoning" title="Lead poisoning">lead poisoning</a>, which contributed to <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of the Roman Empire">fall of Rome</a>; however, lead content would have been minimised.<a href="#cite_note-227">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-Grout2011-228">[223]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Legacy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy of the Roman Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Classics</a></div> Ancient Rome is the progenitor of <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western civilisation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-229">[224]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Norm_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Norm (sociology)">customs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman technology">technology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman architecture">architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics of Ancient Rome">political system</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_military" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman military">military</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">languages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">alphabet</a>, government and many factors and aspects of western civilisation are all inherited from Roman advancements. The rediscovery of Roman culture revitalised Western civilisation, playing a role in the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-230">[225]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Historiography">Historiography</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Historiography" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_and_secondary_sources">Primary and secondary sources</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Primary and secondary sources" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_historiography" title="Roman historiography">Roman historiography</a></div> The two longest ancient accounts of the Roman history, the histories of Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, were composed 500 years later than the date for the founding of the republic and 200 years from the defeat of Hannibal.<a href="#cite_note-231">[226]</a> Although there has been a diversity of works on ancient Roman history, many of them are lost. As a result of this loss, there are gaps in Roman history, which are filled by unreliable works, such as the <a href="/wiki/Historia_Augusta" title="Historia Augusta">Historia Augusta</a>.<a href="#cite_note-232">[227]</a> <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a> wrote his own accounts of his military campaigns in <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a> and during the <a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesar's Civil War">Civil War</a> in part to impress his contemporaries.<a href="#cite_note-233">[228]</a> In the Empire, the biographies of famous men and early emperors flourished, examples being <a href="/wiki/The_Twelve_Caesars" title="The Twelve Caesars">The Twelve Caesars</a> of Suetonius, and Plutarch's <a href="/wiki/Parallel_Lives" title="Parallel Lives">Parallel Lives</a>. Other major works of Imperial times were that of Livy and Tacitus. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a> – <a href="/wiki/The_Histories_(Polybius)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Histories (Polybius)">The Histories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a> – <a href="/wiki/Catiline" title="Catiline">Bellum Catilinae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jugurthine_War" title="Jugurthine War">Bellum Jugurthinum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> – <a href="/wiki/De_Bello_Gallico" class="mw-redirect" title="De Bello Gallico">De Bello Gallico</a> and <a href="/wiki/De_Bello_Civili" class="mw-redirect" title="De Bello Civili">De Bello Civili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a> – <a href="/wiki/Ab_Urbe_Condita_Libri_(Livy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ab Urbe Condita Libri (Livy)">Ab urbe condita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a> – Roman Antiquities</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> – <a href="/wiki/Naturalis_Historia" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalis Historia">Naturalis Historia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a> – <a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_War" title="The Jewish War">The Jewish War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a> – <a href="/wiki/The_Twelve_Caesars" title="The Twelve Caesars">The Twelve Caesars</a> (De Vita Caesarum)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a> – <a href="/wiki/Annals_(Tacitus)" title="Annals (Tacitus)">Annales</a> and <a href="/wiki/Histories_(Tacitus)" title="Histories (Tacitus)">Histories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> – <a href="/wiki/Parallel_Lives" title="Parallel Lives">Parallel Lives</a> (a series of biographies of famous Roman and Greek men)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a> – Historia Romana</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a> – History of the Roman Empire since Marcus Aurelius</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a> – Res Gestae</li></ul> Interest in studying, and idealising, ancient Rome became prevalent during the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Italian Renaissance</a>. <a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon's</a> <a href="/wiki/The_History_of_the_Decline_and_Fall_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire">The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</a> "began the modern study of Roman history in the English-speaking world".<a href="#cite_note-234">[229]</a> <a href="/wiki/Barthold_Georg_Niebuhr" title="Barthold Georg Niebuhr">Barthold Georg Niebuhr</a> was a founder of the examination of ancient Roman history and wrote The Roman History, tracing the period until the <a href="/wiki/First_Punic_War" title="First Punic War">First Punic war</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_I_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon I of France">Napoleonic</a>, The History of Romans by <a href="/wiki/Victor_Duruy" title="Victor Duruy">Victor Duruy</a> highlighted the <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesarean</a> period popular at the time. <a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome_(Mommsen)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Rome (Mommsen)">History of Rome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_constitutional_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman constitutional law">Roman constitutional law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum" title="Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum">Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum</a>, all by <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Mommsen" title="Theodor Mommsen">Theodor Mommsen</a>,<a href="#cite_note-kirjasto-235">[230]</a> became milestones. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a> – <a href="/wiki/The_History_of_the_Decline_and_Fall_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire">The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bagnall_Bury" class="mw-redirect" title="John Bagnall Bury">John Bagnall Bury</a> – History of the Later Roman Empire</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Grant_(author)" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Grant (author)">Michael Grant</a> – The Roman World<a href="#cite_note-236">[231]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Levick" title="Barbara Levick">Barbara Levick</a> – Claudius<a href="#cite_note-237">[232]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barthold_Georg_Niebuhr" title="Barthold Georg Niebuhr">Barthold Georg Niebuhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Rostovtzeff" title="Michael Rostovtzeff">Michael Rostovtzeff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Hayes_Scullard" title="Howard Hayes Scullard">Howard Hayes Scullard</a> – The History of the Roman World<a href="#cite_note-238">[233]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Syme" title="Ronald Syme">Ronald Syme</a> – The Roman Revolution<a href="#cite_note-239">[234]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Goldsworthy" title="Adrian Goldsworthy">Adrian Goldsworthy</a> – Caesar: The Life of a Colossus and How Rome fell</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Beard_(classicist)" title="Mary Beard (classicist)">Mary Beard</a> - <a href="/wiki/SPQR:_A_History_of_Ancient_Rome" title="SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome">SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output 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emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">List of Roman civil wars and revolts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Roman army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeologically_attested_women_from_the_ancient_Mediterranean_region" title="List of archaeologically attested women from the ancient Mediterranean region">List of archaeologically attested women from the ancient Mediterranean region</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Notes" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> Taken from <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>, written with all caps since the ancient Romans do not have lowercase letters for Latin. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> The specific dates vary, depending on whether one follows Roman tradition, modern archaeology, or competing views of which particular events mark endpoints. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> There are several different estimates for the population of the Roman Empire. <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFScheidelSallerMorris2007">Scheidel, Saller & Morris 2007</a>, p. 2 estimates 60 million.</li> <li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation journal cs1">Goldsmith, Raymond W. (September 1984). "An Estimate of the Size And Structure of the National Product of the Early Roman Empire". Review of Income and Wealth. 30 (3): 263. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1475-4991.1984.tb00552.x">10.1111/j.1475-4991.1984.tb00552.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Review+of+Income+and+Wealth&rft.atitle=An+Estimate+of+the+Size+And+Structure+of+the+National+Product+of+the+Early+Roman+Empire&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=263&rft.date=1984-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1475-4991.1984.tb00552.x&rft.aulast=Goldsmith&rft.aufirst=Raymond+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> estimates 55.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Beloch, Karl Julius (1886). Bevölkerung der griechisch-römischen Welt (in German). Duncker. p. 507.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bev%C3%B6lkerung+der+griechisch-r%C3%B6mischen+Welt&rft.pages=507&rft.pub=Duncker&rft.date=1886&rft.aulast=Beloch&rft.aufirst=Karl+Julius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> estimates 54.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Angus_Maddison" title="Angus Maddison">Maddison, Angus</a> (2007). Contours of the World Economy, 1–2030 AD. Essays in Macro-Economic History. Oxford University Press. pp. 51, 120. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1992-2721-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1992-2721-1"><bdi>978-0-1992-2721-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contours+of+the+World+Economy%2C+1%E2%80%932030+AD.+Essays+in+Macro-Economic+History&rft.pages=51%2C+120&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-1992-2721-1&rft.aulast=Maddison&rft.aufirst=Angus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> estimates 48.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unrv.com/empire/roman-population.php">Roman Empire Population</a> estimates 65 (while mentioning several other estimates between 55 and 120).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">McLynn, Frank (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xvcAhdF-VlgC&pg=PA3">Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor</a>. Random House. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4464-4933-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4464-4933-2"><bdi>978-1-4464-4933-2</bdi></a>. <q>[T]he most likely estimate for the reign of Marcus Aurelius is somewhere between seventy and eighty million.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marcus+Aurelius%3A+Warrior%2C+Philosopher%2C+Emperor&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4464-4933-2&rft.aulast=McLynn&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxvcAhdF-VlgC%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">McEvedy, Colin; Jones, Richard (1978). Atlas of world population history. New York: Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-1405-1076-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-1405-1076-1"><bdi>0-1405-1076-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/4150954">4150954</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL4292284M">4292284M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlas+of+world+population+history&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F4150954&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL4292284M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=0-1405-1076-1&rft.aulast=McEvedy&rft.aufirst=Colin&rft.au=Jones%2C+Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li>an average of figures from different sources as listed at the US Census Bureau's <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.census.gov/ipc/www/worldhis.html">Historical Estimates of World Population</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131013110506/http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/worldhis.html">Archived</a> 13 October 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Kremer" title="Michael Kremer">Kremer, Michael</a> (1993). "Population Growth and Technological Change: One Million B.C. to 1990" in The Quarterly Journal of Economics 108(3): 681–716.</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> Between 343 BC and 241 BC, the Roman army fought in every year but five.<a href="#cite_note-147">[144]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> Later in Christian liturgy, "noon" came to describe the <a href="/wiki/Nones_(liturgy)" title="Nones (liturgy)">nones</a>, a time of prayer originally at 3 pm but later at midday, so "noon" became synonymous with midday. </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Rome">"ancient Rome | Facts, Maps, & History"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 5 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=ancient+Rome+%7C+Facts%2C+Maps%2C+%26+History&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2Fancient-Rome&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaagepera1979" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rein_Taagepera" title="Rein Taagepera">Taagepera, Rein</a> (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.". Social Science History. 3 (3/4): 125. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1170959">10.2307/1170959</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0145-5532">0145-5532</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1170959">1170959</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Science+History&rft.atitle=Size+and+Duration+of+Empires%3A+Growth-Decline+Curves%2C+600+B.C.+to+600+A.D.&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=3%2F4&rft.pages=125&rft.date=1979&rft.issn=0145-5532&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1170959%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1170959&rft.aulast=Taagepera&rft.aufirst=Rein&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurchinAdamsHall2006" class="citation journal cs1">Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5195%2FJWSR.2006.369">"East-West Orientation of Historical Empires"</a>. Journal of World-Systems Research. 12 (2): 222. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5195%2FJWSR.2006.369">10.5195/JWSR.2006.369</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1076-156X">1076-156X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World-Systems+Research&rft.atitle=East-West+Orientation+of+Historical+Empires&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=222&rft.date=2006-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5195%2FJWSR.2006.369&rft.issn=1076-156X&rft.aulast=Turchin&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Adams%2C+Jonathan+M.&rft.au=Hall%2C+Thomas+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.5195%252FJWSR.2006.369&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFuretOzouf1989" class="citation book cs1">Furet, François; Ozouf, Mona, eds. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bGxiE6jvzOcC">A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution</a>. Harvard University Press. p. 793. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6741-7728-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6741-7728-4"><bdi>978-0-6741-7728-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Critical+Dictionary+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.pages=793&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-6741-7728-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbGxiE6jvzOcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuckhamWhite1996" class="citation book cs1">Luckham, Robin; White, Gordon (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RMDnAAAAIAAJ">Democratization in the South: The Jagged Wave</a>. Manchester University Press. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-4942-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-4942-2"><bdi>978-0-7190-4942-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Democratization+in+the+South%3A+The+Jagged+Wave&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-4942-2&rft.aulast=Luckham&rft.aufirst=Robin&rft.au=White%2C+Gordon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRMDnAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSellers1994" class="citation book cs1">Sellers, Mortimer N. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zN7lgzjettgC">American Republicanism: Roman Ideology in the United States Constitution</a>. NYU Press. p. 90. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-8005-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-8005-3"><bdi>978-0-8147-8005-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Republicanism%3A+Roman+Ideology+in+the+United+States+Constitution&rft.pages=90&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-8005-3&rft.aulast=Sellers&rft.aufirst=Mortimer+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzN7lgzjettgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright2012519-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright2012519_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoatwright2012">Boatwright 2012</a>, p. 519. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201229-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201229_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoatwright2012">Boatwright 2012</a>, p. 29. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201231-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201231_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoatwright2012">Boatwright 2012</a>, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201231–32-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201231%E2%80%9332_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoatwright2012">Boatwright 2012</a>, pp. 31–32. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201232-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201232_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoatwright2012">Boatwright 2012</a>, p. 32. </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> Mellor, Ronald and McGee Marni, The Ancient Roman World p. 15 (Cited 15 March 2009). </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoatwright2012">Boatwright 2012</a>, p. 35. "Rex, the Latin word for king, appears in two fragmentary sixth-century texts, one an inscription from the shrine of <a href="/wiki/Vulcan_(mythology)" title="Vulcan (mythology)">Vulcan</a>, and the other a potsherd found in the <a href="/wiki/Regia" title="Regia">Regia</a>". </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201236-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201236_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201236_14-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201236_14-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoatwright2012">Boatwright 2012</a>, p. 36. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201237-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201237_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoatwright2012">Boatwright 2012</a>, p. 37. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201239-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201239_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoatwright2012">Boatwright 2012</a>, p. 39. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201240-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201240_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoatwright2012">Boatwright 2012</a>, p. 40. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201242-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201242_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoatwright2012">Boatwright 2012</a>, p. 42. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201243-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoatwright201243_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoatwright2012">Boatwright 2012</a>, p. 43. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECornell1995215_et_seq-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECornell1995215_et_seq_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCornell1995">Cornell 1995</a>, pp. 215 et seq. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatyszak200343–44-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatyszak200343%E2%80%9344_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMatyszak2003">Matyszak 2003</a>, pp. 43–44. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199841–42-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199841%E2%80%9342_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdkinsAdkins1998">Adkins & Adkins 1998</a>, pp. 41–42. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHooker1999" class="citation web cs1">Hooker, Richard (6 June 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110514025151/http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/ROME/REPUBLIC.HTM">"Rome: The Roman Republic"</a>. Washington State University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/ROME/REPUBLIC.HTM">the original</a> on 14 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rome%3A+The+Roman+Republic&rft.pub=Washington+State+University&rft.date=1999-06-06&rft.aulast=Hooker&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsu.edu%2F~dee%2FROME%2FREPUBLIC.HTM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lacus-24"><a href="#cite_ref-Lacus_24-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Magistratus.html">Magistratus</a> by George Long, M.A. Appearing on pp. 723–724 of A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities by William Smith, D.C.L., LL.D. Published by John Murray, London, 1875. Website, 8 December 2006. Retrieved 24 March 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLivius1998" class="citation book cs1">Livius, Titus (Livy) (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/riseofromebookso00livy">"Book II"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/riseofromebookso00livy">The Rise of Rome, Books 1–5</a>. Translated by Luce, T.J. Oxford World's Classics. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1928-2296-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1928-2296-3"><bdi>978-0-1928-2296-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Book+II&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+Rome%2C+Books+1%E2%80%935&rft.pub=Oxford+World%27s+Classics&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-1928-2296-3&rft.aulast=Livius&rft.aufirst=Titus+%28Livy%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Friseofromebookso00livy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199839-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199839_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdkinsAdkins1998">Adkins & Adkins 1998</a>, p. 39. </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> These are literally Roman librae, from which the pound is derived. </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Camillus*.html">[1]</a> Plutarch, Parallel Lives, Life of Camillus, XXIX, 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaywood1971[httpsarchiveorgdetailsancientworld0000unsepage350_350]–358-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaywood1971%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailsancientworld0000unsepage350_350%5D%E2%80%93358_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaywood1971%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailsancientworld0000unsepage350_350%5D%E2%80%93358_29-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaywood1971%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailsancientworld0000unsepage350_350%5D%E2%80%93358_29-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFHaywood1971">Haywood 1971</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientworld0000unse/page/350">350</a>–358. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/ps-pz/pyrrhus/pyrrhus02.html">Pyrrhus of Epirus (2)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160414161122/http://www.livius.org/ps-pz/pyrrhus/pyrrhus02.html">Archived</a> 14 April 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/ps-pz/pyrrhus/pyrrhus03.html">Pyrrhus of Epirus (3)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303193524/http://www.livius.org/ps-pz/pyrrhus/pyrrhus03.html">Archived</a> 3 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by Jona Lendering. Livius.org. Retrieved 21 March 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBennettDawsonFieldHawthornwaite2016" class="citation book cs1">Bennett, Matthew; Dawson, Doyne; Field, Ron; Hawthornwaite, Philip; Loades, Mike (2016). The History of Warfare: The Ultimate Visual Guide to the History of Warfare from the Ancient World to the American Civil War. p. 61.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Warfare%3A+The+Ultimate+Visual+Guide+to+the+History+of+Warfare+from+the+Ancient+World+to+the+American+Civil+War&rft.pages=61&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Bennett&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft.au=Dawson%2C+Doyne&rft.au=Field%2C+Ron&rft.au=Hawthornwaite%2C+Philip&rft.au=Loades%2C+Mike&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldsworthy2006">Goldsworthy 2006</a>, pp. 25–26; <a href="#CITEREFMiles2011">Miles 2011</a>, pp. 175–176. </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/11*.html">"Cassius Dio – Fragments of Book 11"</a>. penelope.uchicago.edu. 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Retrieved 24 March 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-Liviuseques-39">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Liviuseques_39-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Liviuseques_39-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/ei-er/eques/eques.html">Eques (Knight)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140807190312/http://www.livius.org/ei-er/eques/eques.html">Archived</a> 7 August 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by Jona Lendering. Livius.org. Retrieved 24 March 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199838-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199838_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdkinsAdkins1998">Adkins & Adkins 1998</a>, p. 38. </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTuma1965" class="citation book cs1">Tuma, Elias H. 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University of California Press. p. 34.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Twenty-six+Centuries+of+Agrarian+Reform%3A+A+Comparative+Analysis&rft.pages=34&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Tuma&rft.aufirst=Elias+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkmZHKOHgvFQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-WHdP-EBp760-42">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WHdP-EBp760_42-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHdP-EBp760_42-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHdP-EBp760_42-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_Harrison_De_Puy1893" class="citation book cs1">William Harrison De Puy (1893). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nGxJAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA760">The Encyclopædia britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, and general literature; the R.S. Peale reprint, with new maps and original American articles</a>. Werner Co. p. 760.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclop%C3%A6dia+britannica%3A+a+dictionary+of+arts%2C+sciences%2C+and+general+literature%3B+the+R.S.+Peale+reprint%2C+with+new+maps+and+original+American+articles&rft.pages=760&rft.pub=Werner+Co.&rft.date=1893&rft.au=William+Harrison+De+Puy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnGxJAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA760&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenry_George_Liddell1855" class="citation book cs1">Henry George Liddell (1855). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8mQBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA305">A history of Rome, to the establishment of the empire</a>. p. 305.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+Rome%2C+to+the+establishment+of+the+empire&rft.pages=305&rft.date=1855&rft.au=Henry+George+Liddell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8mQBAAAAQAAJ%26pg%3DPA305&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/caesar_julius.shtml">Julius Caesar (100–44 BC)</a>. BBC. Retrieved 21 March 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html">[2]</a> Plutarch, Life of Caesar. Retrieved 1 October 2011 </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roman-emperors.org/auggie.htm">Augustus (31 BC – 14 AD)</a> by Garrett G. Fagan. De Imperatoribus Romanis. 5 July 2004. Retrieved 21 March 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usask.ca/antiquities/coins/augustus.html">Coins of the Emperor Augustus</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090525075317/http://www.usask.ca/antiquities/coins/augustus.html">Archived</a> 25 May 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; examples are a coin of 38 BC inscribed "Divi Iuli filius", and another of 31 BC bearing the inscription "Divi filius" (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.unine.ch/webdav/site/antic/shared/documents/latin/Memoires/mlreid.pdf">Auguste vu par lui-même et par les autres by Juliette Reid</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090319090301/http://www2.unine.ch/webdav/site/antic/shared/documents/latin/Memoires/mlreid.pdf">Archived</a> 19 March 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#ref53">[3]</a> Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, Augustus, XV. </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Antony*.html#ref57">[4]</a> Plutarch, Parallel Lives, Life of Antony, LXXI, 3–5. </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/augustus.shtml">Augustus (63 BC – AD 14)</a> from <a href="/wiki/BBC_Online" title="BBC Online">bbc.co.uk</a>. Retrieved 12 March 2007; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLangleySouza1996" class="citation book cs1">Langley, Andrew; Souza, de Philip (1996). The Roman Times. Candle Wick Press. p. 14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Times&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=Candle+Wick+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Langley&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft.au=Souza%2C+de+Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/jucl/hd_jucl.htm">The Julio-Claudian Dynasty (27 BC – 68 AD)</a>. by the Department of Greek and <a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Roman Art</a>, The <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a>. October 2000. Retrieved 18 March 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrr1915" class="citation book cs1">Orr, James (1915). The International Standard Bible Encyclopaedia. Howard-Severance Company. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Tn4PAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA2598">2598</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+International+Standard+Bible+Encyclopaedia&rft.pages=2598&rft.pub=Howard-Severance+Company&rft.date=1915&rft.aulast=Orr&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSherman1917" class="citation book cs1">Sherman, Charles Phineas (1917). Roman law in the modern world. The Boston book company. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F1iuAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA50">50</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+law+in+the+modern+world&rft.pages=50&rft.pub=The+Boston+book+company&rft.date=1917&rft.aulast=Sherman&rft.aufirst=Charles+Phineas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> Werner Eck, The Age of Augustus </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPelham1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Francis_Pelham" title="Henry Francis Pelham">Pelham, Henry Francis</a> (1911). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Augustus">"Augustus" </a>. In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 912.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Augustus&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=912&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Pelham&rft.aufirst=Henry+Francis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html">[5]</a> Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, Augustus, XXI, 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html">[6]</a> Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, Augustus, XXI. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage140_140]-58"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage140_140%5D_58-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDuikerSpielvogel2001">Duiker & Spielvogel 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldhistoryto1500duik/page/140">140</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html">[7]</a> Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, Augustus, LXIII. </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/57*.html#ref4">[8]</a> Cassius Dio, Roman History, LVII, 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-tarver1902-61"><a href="#cite_ref-tarver1902_61-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Charles_Tarver1902" class="citation book cs1">John Charles Tarver (1902). Tiberius, the tyrant. A. Constable. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3MHPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA342">342–428</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tiberius%2C+the+tyrant&rft.pages=342-428&rft.pub=A.+Constable&rft.date=1902&rft.au=John+Charles+Tarver&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohann_Jakob_HerzogJohn_Henry_Augustus_Bomberger1858" class="citation book cs1">Johann Jakob Herzog; John Henry Augustus Bomberger (1858). The Protestant Theological and Ecclesiastical Encyclopedia: Being a Condensed Translation of Herzog's Real Encyclopedia. Lindsay & Blakiston. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VOkXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA99">99</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Protestant+Theological+and+Ecclesiastical+Encyclopedia%3A+Being+a+Condensed+Translation+of+Herzog%27s+Real+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=99&rft.pub=Lindsay+%26+Blakiston&rft.date=1858&rft.au=Johann+Jakob+Herzog&rft.au=John+Henry+Augustus+Bomberger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">The Chautauquan. M. Bailey. 1881. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=g8fmAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA445">445</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chautauquan&rft.pages=445&rft.pub=M.+Bailey&rft.date=1881&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCompendium1858" class="citation book cs1">Compendium (1858). A compendium of universal history. 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Amberley Publishing Limited. 2014. p. 27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=England+Invaded&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Amberley+Publishing+Limited&rft.date=2014&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">In the Name of Rome: The Men Who Won the Roman Empire. Hachette UK. 2010. p. 30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+Name+of+Rome%3A+The+Men+Who+Won+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Hachette+UK&rft.date=2010&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210713102217/https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/2016/09/27/gaius-suetonius-paulinus/">"Gaius Suetonius Paulinus"</a>. 27 September 2016. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/daily/military-history/gaius-suetonius-paulinus/">the original</a> on 13 July 2021. 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Benario. De Imperatoribus Romanis. 10 November 2006. Retrieved 18 March 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-suetonius-74"><a href="#cite_ref-suetonius_74-0">^</a> Suetonius </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFO'Connell1989">O'Connell 1989</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ofarmsmenhisto00ocon/page/81">81</a>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKreis" class="citation web cs1">Kreis, Stephen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyguide.org/ancient/lecture12b.html">"Augustus Caesar and the Pax Romana"</a>. The History Guide. 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Profile Books. p. 32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8466-8582-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8466-8582-8"><bdi>978-1-8466-8582-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Being+Mortal&rft.pages=32&rft.pub=Profile+Books&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-8466-8582-8&rft.aulast=Gawande&rft.aufirst=Atul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRossi1981" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Rossi, Lino (1981). Rotocalchi di pietra. Segni e disegni dei tempi sui monumenti trionfali dell'Impero romano (in Italian). Jaca Book. p. 59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8-8164-0071-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-8-8164-0071-9"><bdi>978-8-8164-0071-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rotocalchi+di+pietra.+Segni+e+disegni+dei+tempi+sui+monumenti+trionfali+dell%27Impero+romano&rft.pages=59&rft.pub=Jaca+Book&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-8-8164-0071-9&rft.aulast=Rossi&rft.aufirst=Lino&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199846-135"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199846_135-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdkinsAdkins1998">Adkins & Adkins 1998</a>, p. 46. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage146_146]-136">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage146_146%5D_136-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage146_146%5D_136-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage146_146%5D_136-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFDuikerSpielvogel2001">Duiker & Spielvogel 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldhistoryto1500duik/page/146">146</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> Frank Frost Abbott, Society and Politics in Ancient Rome, BiblioBazaar, LLC, 2009, p. 41 </li> <li id="cite_note-Lecture_13-138">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lecture_13_138-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lecture_13_138-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyguide.org/ancient/lecture13b.html">Lecture 13: A Brief Social History of the Roman Empire</a> by Steven Kreis. 11 October 2006. Retrieved 2 April 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211-139">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211_139-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211_139-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211_139-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211_139-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211_139-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211_139-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211_139-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins1998211_139-7">h</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdkinsAdkins1998">Adkins & Adkins 1998</a>, p. 211. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWerner197831-140">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWerner197831_140-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWerner197831_140-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWerner1978">Werner 1978</a>, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage143_143]-141"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuikerSpielvogel2001%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailsworldhistoryto1500duikpage143_143%5D_141-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDuikerSpielvogel2001">Duiker & Spielvogel 2001</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldhistoryto1500duik/page/143">143</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-TexEd-142">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TexEd_142-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-TexEd_142-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-TexEd_142-2">c</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071225125840/http://www.txclassics.org/exceteducation.htm">Roman Education</a>. Latin ExCET Preparation. Texas Classical Association, by Ginny Lindzey, September 1998. Retrieved 27 March 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatyszak200316–42-143"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatyszak200316%E2%80%9342_143-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMatyszak2003">Matyszak 2003</a>, pp. 16–42. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeegan1993[httpsarchiveorgdetailshistoryofwarfare00keegpage263_263–264]-144">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeegan1993%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailshistoryofwarfare00keegpage263_263%E2%80%93264%5D_144-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeegan1993%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailshistoryofwarfare00keegpage263_263%E2%80%93264%5D_144-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeegan1993%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailshistoryofwarfare00keegpage263_263%E2%80%93264%5D_144-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFKeegan1993">Keegan 1993</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofwarfare00keeg/page/263">263–264</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-potter-145">^ <a href="#cite_ref-potter_145-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-potter_145-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-potter_145-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPotter2004" class="citation book cs1">Potter, David (2004). The Roman Army and Navy. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_s0h2/page/67">67–70</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Army+and+Navy&rft.pages=67-70&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Potter&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> in <a href="#CITEREFFlower2004">Flower 2004</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> For a discussion of hoplite tactics and their sociocultural setting, see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanson1989" class="citation book cs1">Hanson, Victor Davis (1989). The Western Way of War: Infantry Battle in Classical Greece. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-3945-7188-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-3945-7188-6"><bdi>0-3945-7188-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Western+Way+of+War%3A+Infantry+Battle+in+Classical+Greece&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-3945-7188-6&rft.aulast=Hanson&rft.aufirst=Victor+Davis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOakley2004" class="citation book cs1">Oakley, Stephen P. (2004). The Early Republic. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_s0h2/page/27">27</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Early+Republic&rft.pages=27&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Oakley&rft.aufirst=Stephen+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> in <a href="#CITEREFFlower2004">Flower 2004</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMackay2004">Mackay 2004</a>, pp. 249–250 Mackay points out that the number of legions grew to 30 by 125 AD and 33 during the <a href="/wiki/Severan_dynasty" title="Severan dynasty">Severan</a> period (200–235 AD). </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy199636–37-150"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy199636%E2%80%9337_150-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldsworthy1996">Goldsworthy 1996</a>, pp. 36–37. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElton199689–96-151">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElton199689%E2%80%9396_151-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElton199689%E2%80%9396_151-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFElton1996">Elton 1996</a>, pp. 89–96. </li> <li id="cite_note-bcorrey-152"><a href="#cite_ref-bcorrey_152-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrennan2004" class="citation book cs1">Brennan, Correy T. (2004). Power and Process Under the Republican 'Constitution'. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_s0h2/page/66">66–68</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Power+and+Process+Under+the+Republican+%27Constitution%27&rft.pages=66-68&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Brennan&rft.aufirst=Correy+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> in <a href="#CITEREFFlower2004">Flower 2004</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy1996121–125-153"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy1996121%E2%80%93125_153-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldsworthy1996">Goldsworthy 1996</a>, pp. 121–125. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackay2004245–252-154"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackay2004245%E2%80%93252_154-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMackay2004">Mackay 2004</a>, pp. 245–252. </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMackay2004">Mackay 2004</a>, pp. 295–296 Also chapters 23–24. </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaddington2011" class="citation book cs1">Saddington, D.B. (2011) [2007]. "Classes: the Evolution of the Roman Imperial Fleets". In Erdkamp, Paul (ed.). A Companion to the Roman Army. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 201–217 (Plate 12.2 on p. 204). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2153-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2153-8"><bdi>978-1-4051-2153-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Classes%3A+the+Evolution+of+the+Roman+Imperial+Fleets&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Roman+Army&rft.pages=201-217+%28Plate+12.2+on+p.+204%29&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-2153-8&rft.aulast=Saddington&rft.aufirst=D.B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> Coarelli, Filippo (1987), I Santuari del Lazio in età repubblicana. NIS, Rome, pp. 35–84. </li> <li id="cite_note-Potter_pp._76-78-158">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Potter_pp._76-78_158-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Potter_pp._76-78_158-1">b</a> This paragraph is based upon <a href="#CITEREFPotter2004">Potter 2004</a>, pp. 76–78 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElton199699–101-159"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElton199699%E2%80%93101_159-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFElton1996">Elton 1996</a>, pp. 99–101. </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSabinvan_WeesWhitby2007" class="citation book cs1">Sabin, Philip; van Wees, Hans; Whitby, Michael, eds. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4aX-W6AVNv8C&pg=PA231">The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 231. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5217-8274-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5217-8274-6"><bdi>978-0-5217-8274-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Greek+and+Roman+Warfare&rft.pages=231&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-5217-8274-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4aX-W6AVNv8C%26pg%3DPA231&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeseltine2005" class="citation book cs1">Heseltine, John (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Fm5l000EmoAC">Roads to Rome</a>. J. Paul Getty Museum. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7112-2552-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7112-2552-7"><bdi>978-0-7112-2552-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roads+to+Rome&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=J.+Paul+Getty+Museum&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7112-2552-7&rft.aulast=Heseltine&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFm5l000EmoAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTemin2001" class="citation web cs1">Temin, Peter (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100615223139/http://eh.net/abstracts/archive/0370.php">"A Market Economy in the Early Roman Empire"</a>. Abstract Archives. Economy History Services. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eh.net/abstracts/archive/0370.php">the original</a> on 15 June 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Abstract+Archives&rft.atitle=A+Market+Economy+in+the+Early+Roman+Empire&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Temin&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feh.net%2Fabstracts%2Farchive%2F0370.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> See <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211019100706/https://www.bresciamusei.com/nsantagiulia.asp?nm=14&t=Masterpieces.+Desiderius%27+Cross">"Masterpieces. Desiderius' Cross"</a>. Fondazione Brescia Musei. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bresciamusei.com/nsantagiulia.asp?nm=14&t=Masterpieces%2E+Desiderius%27+Cross">the original</a> on 19 October 2021. Retrieved 2 October 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Fondazione+Brescia+Musei&rft.atitle=Masterpieces.+Desiderius%27+Cross&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bresciamusei.com%2Fnsantagiulia.asp%3Fnm%3D14%26t%3DMasterpieces%252E%2BDesiderius%2527%2BCross&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988">. For a description of scholarly research on the Brescia Medallion, see Daniel Thomas Howells (2015). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britishmuseum.org/pdf/Late_Antique_Gold_Glass_online.pdf">A Catalogue of the Late Antique Gold Glass in the British Museum (PDF).</a>" London: the British Museum (Arts and Humanities Research Council), p. 7. Accessed 2 October 2016. <a href="/wiki/List_of_gold-glass_portraits" class="mw-redirect" title="List of gold-glass portraits">gold glass portrait</a> (most likely by an <a href="/wiki/History_of_Alexandria" title="History of Alexandria">Alexandrian Greek</a> due to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_dialects" title="Ancient Greek dialects">the Egyptian dialect of the inscription</a>), dated 3rd century AD; Beckwith, John, Early Christian and Byzantine Art, Penguin History of Art (now Yale), 2nd edn. 1979, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-1405-6033-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-1405-6033-5">0-1405-6033-5</a>, p. 25; Boardman, John ed., The Oxford History of Classical Art, 1993, OUP, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-1981-4386-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-1981-4386-9">0-1981-4386-9</a>, pp. 338–340; Grig, Lucy, "Portraits, Pontiffs and the Christianization of Fourth-Century Rome", Papers of the British School at Rome, Vol. 72, (2004), pp. 203–230, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40311081">40311081</a>, p. 207; Jás Elsner (2007). "The Changing Nature of Roman Art and the Art Historical Problem of Style", in Eva R. Hoffman (ed), Late Antique and Medieval Art of the Medieval World, 11–18. Oxford, Malden & Carlton: Blackwell Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2071-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2071-5">978-1-4051-2071-5</a>, p. 17, Figure 1.3 on p. 18. </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> Parkin, Tim, & Pomeroy, Arthur, Roman Social History, a Sourcebook, Routledge, 2007, p. 72. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4154-2675-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4154-2675-6">978-0-4154-2675-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> Boswell, John Eastburn, "Expositio and Oblatio: The Abandonment of Children and the Ancient and Medieval Family", American Historical Review, 89, 1984, p. 12 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECasson1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailseverydaylifeinan00casspage10_10–11],_24–32-166"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECasson1998%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailseverydaylifeinan00casspage10_10%E2%80%9311%5D,_24%E2%80%9332_166-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCasson1998">Casson 1998</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/everydaylifeinan00cass/page/10">10–11</a>, 24–32. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECasson1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailseverydaylifeinan00casspage10_10–11,_24–32]-167"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECasson1998%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailseverydaylifeinan00casspage10_10%E2%80%9311,_24%E2%80%9332%5D_167-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCasson1998">Casson 1998</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/everydaylifeinan00cass/page/10">10–11, 24–32</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fathom.lib.uchicago.edu/1/777777121908/">Family Values in Ancient Rome</a> by Richard Saller. The University of Chicago Library Digital Collections: Fathom Archive. 2001. Visited 14 April 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199839–40-169"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdkinsAdkins199839%E2%80%9340_169-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdkinsAdkins1998">Adkins & Adkins 1998</a>, pp. 39–40. </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRawson1987" class="citation book cs1">Rawson, Beryl (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=85Gdul_43DEC&pg=PP7">The Family in Ancient Rome: New Perspectives</a>. 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Tourneisen. p. 91.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+history+of+the+decline+and+fall+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pages=91&rft.pub=printed+for+J.J.+Tourneisen&rft.date=1787&rft.au=Edward+Gibbon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHvIbFyM1s54C%26pg%3DPA91&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a75PAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA644">The Encyclopedia Americana: A Library of Universal Knowledge</a>. 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McGraw-Hill/Dushkin. 2002. p. 68. <q>... where compassion was regarded as a moral defect ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Annual+Editions%3A+Western+Civilization&rft.pages=68&rft.edition=12th&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill%2FDushkin&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D87_ImL1ryQ8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson,_Michael_Anthony2004" class="citation book cs1">Jackson, Michael Anthony (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZkU9IuW1IuAC">Look Back to Get Ahead: Life Lessons from History's Heroes</a>. Arcade Publishing. p. 174. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5597-0727-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5597-0727-5"><bdi>978-1-5597-0727-5</bdi></a>. <q>Gladatorial games were popular because the Romans actually believed that compassion was a vice and a weakness</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Look+Back+to+Get+Ahead%3A+Life+Lessons+from+History%27s+Heroes&rft.pages=174&rft.pub=Arcade+Publishing&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-5597-0727-5&rft.au=Jackson%2C+Michael+Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZkU9IuW1IuAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarvey,_Brian_K.2016" class="citation book cs1">Harvey, Brian K., ed. 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Transactions of the Nebraska Academy of Sciences. 7: 137–143.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+Nebraska+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Roman+Concrete%3A+The+Ascent%2C+Summit%2C+and+Decline+of+an+Art&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E137-%3C%2Fspan%3E143&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=Winter&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Nelson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.unl.edu%2Fclassicsfacpub%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> Choi, Charles Q. (4 December 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.insidescience.org/news/muddy-find-shows-how-foreign-timber-helped-build-ancient-rome">"Muddy Find Shows How Foreign Timber Helped Build Ancient Rome."</a> InsideScience.org. Retrieved 22 May 2020. </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/Roman-road-system">"Roman road system"</a>. Britannica.com. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 19 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Britannica.com&rft.atitle=Roman+road+system&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftechnology%2FRoman-road-system&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeegan1993[httpsarchiveorgdetailshistoryofwarfare00keegpage303_303]-226"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeegan1993%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailshistoryofwarfare00keegpage303_303%5D_226-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKeegan1993">Keegan 1993</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofwarfare00keeg/page/303">303</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHodge1992" class="citation book cs1">Hodge, A.T. (1992). Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply. Duckworth. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780715621943" title="Special:BookSources/9780715621943"><bdi>9780715621943</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Aqueducts+and+Water+Supply&rft.pub=Duckworth&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9780715621943&rft.aulast=Hodge&rft.aufirst=A.T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grout2011-228"><a href="#cite_ref-Grout2011_228-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrout" class="citation web cs1">Grout, James. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/wine/leadpoisoning.html">"Lead Poisoning and Rome"</a>. University of Chicago. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120526104339/http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/wine/leadpoisoning.html">Archived</a> from the original on 26 May 2012. Retrieved 22 July 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lead+Poisoning+and+Rome&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago&rft.aulast=Grout&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2F~grout%2Fencyclopaedia_romana%2Fwine%2Fleadpoisoning.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacob_Dorsey_Forrest1906" class="citation book cs1">Jacob Dorsey Forrest (1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pnJDAAAAIAAJ">The development of western civilization: a study in ethical, economic and political evolution</a>. The University of Chicago Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+development+of+western+civilization%3A+a+study+in+ethical%2C+economic+and+political+evolution&rft.pub=The+University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1906&rft.au=Jacob+Dorsey+Forrest&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpnJDAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_Cunningham1900" class="citation book cs1">William Cunningham (1900). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C3kqAAAAYAAJ">An Essay on Western Civilization in Its Economic Aspects: Mediaeval and modern times</a>. University Press. Retrieved 31 May 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Essay+on+Western+Civilization+in+Its+Economic+Aspects%3A+Mediaeval+and+modern+times&rft.pub=University+Press&rft.date=1900&rft.au=William+Cunningham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DC3kqAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988">; <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Fleming_West" title="Andrew Fleming West">Andrew Fleming West</a>, Value of the classics. 1917. p. 185 </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuno_Fischer1887" class="citation book cs1">Kuno Fischer (1887). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pnRYAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA85">History of modern philosophy</a>. C. Scribner's Sons. p. 85.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+modern+philosophy&rft.pages=85&rft.pub=C.+Scribner%27s+Sons&rft.date=1887&rft.au=Kuno+Fischer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpnRYAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA85&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_Burger2008" class="citation book cs1">Michael Burger (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MQUs2QnC2F4C&pg=PA203">The Shaping of Western Civilization: From Antiquity To the Enlightenment</a>. University of Toronto Press. p. 203. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5511-1432-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5511-1432-3"><bdi>978-1-5511-1432-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Shaping+of+Western+Civilization%3A+From+Antiquity+To+the+Enlightenment&rft.pages=203&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-5511-1432-3&rft.au=Michael+Burger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMQUs2QnC2F4C%26pg%3DPA203&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinley2008" class="citation book cs1">Finley, M.I. (2008). Ancient History: Evidence and Models. ACLS History. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5974-0534-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5974-0534-8"><bdi>978-1-5974-0534-8</bdi></a>. <q>Unfortunately, the two longest ancient accounts of Roman Republican history, the area in which the problems are currently the most acute and the most widely discussed, the histories of Livy and of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, were composed 500 years (in very round numbers) later than the traditional date for the founding of the Republic, 200 years from the defeat of Hannibal.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+History%3A+Evidence+and+Models&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=ACLS+History&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-5974-0534-8&rft.aulast=Finley&rft.aufirst=M.I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Marius*.html">[32]</a> Plutarch, Parallel Lives, Life of Marius, XI, 5–7. </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHandford1951" class="citation book cs1">Handford, S.A. (1951). Caesar: The Conquest of Gaul. Harmondsworth: Penguin. p. 24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caesar%3A+The+Conquest+of+Gaul&rft.place=Harmondsworth&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1951&rft.aulast=Handford&rft.aufirst=S.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeard2015" class="citation book cs1">Beard, Mary (20 October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x795CgAAQBAJ">SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome</a>. Profile. pp. 15–16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8476-5441-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8476-5441-0"><bdi>978-1-8476-5441-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=SPQR%3A+A+History+of+Ancient+Rome&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E15-%3C%2Fspan%3E16&rft.pub=Profile&rft.date=2015-10-20&rft.isbn=978-1-8476-5441-0&rft.aulast=Beard&rft.aufirst=Mary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx795CgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-kirjasto-235"><a href="#cite_ref-kirjasto_235-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiukkonen" class="citation web cs1">Liukkonen, Petri. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140824083420/http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/mommsen.htm">"Theodor Mommsen"</a>. Books and Writers (kirjasto.sci.fi). <a href="/wiki/Kuusankoski" title="Kuusankoski">Kuusankoski</a> Public Library. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/mommsen.htm">the original</a> on 24 August 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Books+and+Writers+%28kirjasto.sci.fi%29&rft.atitle=Theodor+Mommsen&rft.aulast=Liukkonen&rft.aufirst=Petri&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kirjasto.sci.fi%2Fmommsen.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrant1987" class="citation book cs1">Grant, Michael (1987). The World of Rome. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780452008496" title="Special:BookSources/9780452008496"><bdi>9780452008496</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+of+Rome&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=9780452008496&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevick1993" class="citation book cs1">Levick, Barbara (1993). Claudius. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3000-5831-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3000-5831-4"><bdi>978-0-3000-5831-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Claudius&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-3000-5831-4&rft.aulast=Levick&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080129204740/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=88132230">online edition</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSyme2002" class="citation book cs1">Syme, Ronald (2002). The Roman Revolution. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1928-0320-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1928-0320-7"><bdi>978-0-1928-0320-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Revolution&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-1928-0320-7&rft.aulast=Syme&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Works cited" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdkinsAdkins1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roy_and_Lesley_Adkins" title="Roy and Lesley Adkins">Adkins, Lesley</a>; <a href="/wiki/Roy_and_Lesley_Adkins" title="Roy and Lesley Adkins">Adkins, Roy A.</a> (1998). Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1951-2332-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1951-2332-6"><bdi>978-0-1951-2332-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+to+Life+in+Ancient+Rome&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-1951-2332-6&rft.aulast=Adkins&rft.aufirst=Lesley&rft.au=Adkins%2C+Roy+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoatwright2012" class="citation book cs1">Boatwright, Mary T.; et al. (2012). The Romans: From Village to Empire (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1997-3057-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1997-3057-5"><bdi>978-0-1997-3057-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL25033142M">25033142M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Romans%3A+From+Village+to+Empire&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL25033142M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-1997-3057-5&rft.aulast=Boatwright&rft.aufirst=Mary+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCary1967" class="citation book cs1">Cary, Max (1967). A History of Rome Down to the Reign of Constantine (2nd ed.). St. Martin's Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Rome+Down+to+the+Reign+of+Constantine&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Cary&rft.aufirst=Max&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCasson1998" class="citation book cs1">Casson, Lionel (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/everydaylifeinan00cass">Everyday Life in Ancient Rome</a>. The Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-5992-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-5992-2"><bdi>978-0-8018-5992-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Everyday+Life+in+Ancient+Rome&rft.pub=The+Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-5992-2&rft.aulast=Casson&rft.aufirst=Lionel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feverydaylifeinan00cass&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCornell1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tim_Cornell" title="Tim Cornell">Cornell, Tim J.</a> (1995). The beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000–264 BC). Routledge. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/31515793">31515793</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+beginnings+of+Rome%3A+Italy+and+Rome+from+the+Bronze+Age+to+the+Punic+Wars+%28c.+1000%E2%80%93264+BC%29&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F31515793&rft.aulast=Cornell&rft.aufirst=Tim+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuikerSpielvogel2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_J._Duiker" title="William J. Duiker">Duiker, William</a>; <a href="/wiki/Jackson_J._Spielvogel" title="Jackson J. Spielvogel">Spielvogel, Jackson</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldhistoryto1500duik">World History</a> (3rd ed.). Wadsworth. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5345-7168-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5345-7168-9"><bdi>978-0-5345-7168-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL6786176M">6786176M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+History&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Wadsworth&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL6786176M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-5345-7168-9&rft.aulast=Duiker&rft.aufirst=William&rft.au=Spielvogel%2C+Jackson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fworldhistoryto1500duik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurantDurant1944" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Durant, Will; Durant, Ariel (1944). <a href="/wiki/The_Story_of_Civilization" title="The Story of Civilization">The Story of Civilization</a>. Vol. III: Caesar and Christ. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5673-1023-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5673-1023-8"><bdi>978-1-5673-1023-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Civilization&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1944&rft.isbn=978-1-5673-1023-8&rft.aulast=Durant&rft.aufirst=Will&rft.au=Durant%2C+Ariel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElton1996" class="citation book cs1">Elton, Hugh (1996). Warfare in Roman Europe AD 350–425. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1981-5241-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1981-5241-5"><bdi>978-0-1981-5241-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warfare+in+Roman+Europe+AD+350%E2%80%93425&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-1981-5241-5&rft.aulast=Elton&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlower2004" class="citation book cs1">Flower, Harriet I., ed. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_s0h2">The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5210-0390-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5210-0390-2"><bdi>978-0-5210-0390-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+the+Roman+Republic&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-5210-0390-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcambridgecompani0000unse_s0h2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldsworthy1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Goldsworthy" title="Adrian Goldsworthy">Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith</a> (1996). The Roman Army at War: 100 BC – AD 200. 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Phoenix. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3043-6642-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3043-6642-2"><bdi>978-0-3043-6642-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fall+of+Carthage%3A+The+Punic+Wars+265%E2%80%93146+BC&rft.pub=Phoenix&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-3043-6642-2&rft.aulast=Goldsworthy&rft.aufirst=Adrian+Keith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrant2005" class="citation book cs1">Grant, Michael (2005). Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii and Herculaneum. Phoenix Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8988-0045-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8988-0045-3"><bdi>978-1-8988-0045-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cities+of+Vesuvius%3A+Pompeii+and+Herculaneum&rft.pub=Phoenix+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-8988-0045-3&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaywood1971" class="citation book cs1">Haywood, Richard (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientworld0000unse">The Ancient World</a>. David McKay Company, Inc.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+World&rft.pub=David+McKay+Company%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Haywood&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientworld0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaldellis2023" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kaldellis" title="Anthony Kaldellis">Kaldellis, Anthony</a> (2023). The New Roman Empire: A History of Byzantium. New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780197549322.001.0001">10.1093/oso/9780197549322.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1975-4932-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1975-4932-2"><bdi>978-0-1975-4932-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Roman+Empire%3A+A+History+of+Byzantium&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780197549322.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-1975-4932-2&rft.aulast=Kaldellis&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeegan1993" class="citation book cs1">Keegan, John (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofwarfare00keeg">A History of Warfare</a>. Alfred A. Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3945-8801-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3945-8801-8"><bdi>978-0-3945-8801-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Warfare&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-3945-8801-8&rft.aulast=Keegan&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofwarfare00keeg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>. The Rise of Rome, Books 1–5, translated from <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> by T.J. Luce, 1998. Oxford World's Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-1928-2296-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-1928-2296-9">0-1928-2296-9</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMackay2004" class="citation book cs1">Mackay, Christopher S. (2004). Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5218-0918-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5218-0918-4"><bdi>978-0-5218-0918-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Rome%3A+A+Military+and+Political+History&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-5218-0918-4&rft.aulast=Mackay&rft.aufirst=Christopher+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatyszak2003" class="citation book cs1">Matyszak, Philip (2003). Chronicle of the Roman Republic. Thames & Hudson, Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5000-5121-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5000-5121-4"><bdi>978-0-5000-5121-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chronicle+of+the+Roman+Republic&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson%2C+Ltd.&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-5000-5121-4&rft.aulast=Matyszak&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiles2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Miles_(historian)" title="Richard Miles (historian)">Miles, Richard</a> (2011). Carthage Must be Destroyed. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1410-1809-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1410-1809-6"><bdi>978-0-1410-1809-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carthage+Must+be+Destroyed&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-1410-1809-6&rft.aulast=Miles&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Connell1989" class="citation book cs1">O'Connell, Robert (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ofarmsmenhisto00ocon">Of Arms and Men: A History of War, Weapons, and Aggression</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1950-5359-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1950-5359-3"><bdi>978-0-1950-5359-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Of+Arms+and+Men%3A+A+History+of+War%2C+Weapons%2C+and+Aggression&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-1950-5359-3&rft.aulast=O%27Connell&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fofarmsmenhisto00ocon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRochette2011" class="citation book cs1">Rochette, Bruno (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781444343397.ch30">"Language Policies in the Roman Republic and Empire"</a>. A Companion to the Latin Language. pp. 549–563. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781444343397.ch30">10.1002/9781444343397.ch30</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2268%2F35932">2268/35932</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-8605-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-8605-6"><bdi>978-1-4051-8605-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Language+Policies+in+the+Roman+Republic+and+Empire&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Latin+Language&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E549-%3C%2Fspan%3E563&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2268%2F35932&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781444343397.ch30&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-8605-6&rft.aulast=Rochette&rft.aufirst=Bruno&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1002%2F9781444343397.ch30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRochette2018" class="citation journal cs1">Rochette, Bruno (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rivisteweb.it/doi/10.1418/90426">"Was there a Roman linguistic imperialism during the Republic and the early Principate?"</a>. Lingue e Linguaggio (1/2018): 107–128. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1418%2F90426">10.1418/90426</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1720-9331">1720-9331</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lingue+e+Linguaggio&rft.atitle=Was+there+a+Roman+linguistic+imperialism+during+the+Republic+and+the+early+Principate%3F&rft.issue=1%2F2018&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E107-%3C%2Fspan%3E128&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1418%2F90426&rft.issn=1720-9331&rft.aulast=Rochette&rft.aufirst=Bruno&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rivisteweb.it%2Fdoi%2F10.1418%2F90426&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRochette2023" class="citation journal cs1">Rochette, Bruno (2023). Mullen, Alex (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/book/55330/chapter/428805545">"The Attitude of the Roman Emperors towards Language Practices"</a>. Social Factors in the Latinization of the Roman West (1 ed.). Oxford: Oxford Academic: 258–285. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198887294.003.0012">10.1093/oso/9780198887294.003.0012</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1988-8729-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1988-8729-4"><bdi>978-0-1988-8729-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 22 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Factors+in+the+Latinization+of+the+Roman+West&rft.atitle=The+Attitude+of+the+Roman+Emperors+towards+Language+Practices&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E258-%3C%2Fspan%3E285&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198887294.003.0012&rft.isbn=978-0-1988-8729-4&rft.aulast=Rochette&rft.aufirst=Bruno&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fbook%2F55330%2Fchapter%2F428805545&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScarre1995" class="citation book cs1">Scarre, Chris (1995). The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Rome. Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1405-1329-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1405-1329-5"><bdi>978-0-1405-1329-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Penguin+Historical+Atlas+of+Ancient+Rome&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-1405-1329-5&rft.aulast=Scarre&rft.aufirst=Chris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScheidelSallerMorris2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Scheidel" title="Walter Scheidel">Scheidel, Walter</a>; Saller, Richard P.; Morris, Ian (2007). The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5217-8053-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5217-8053-7"><bdi>978-0-5217-8053-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/works/OL16929915W">16929915W</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Economic+History+of+the+Greco-Roman+World&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fworks%2FOL16929915W%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-5217-8053-7&rft.aulast=Scheidel&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft.au=Saller%2C+Richard+P.&rft.au=Morris%2C+Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWard-Perkins1994" class="citation book cs1">Ward-Perkins, John Bryan (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/romanimperialarc00jbwa">Roman Imperial Architecture</a>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3000-5292-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3000-5292-3"><bdi>978-0-3000-5292-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Imperial+Architecture&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-3000-5292-3&rft.aulast=Ward-Perkins&rft.aufirst=John+Bryan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fromanimperialarc00jbwa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWerner1978" class="citation book cs1">Werner, Paul (1978). Life in Rome in Ancient Times. translated by David Macrae. Editions Minerva S.A.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+in+Rome+in+Ancient+Times&rft.pub=Editions+Minerva+S.A.&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Werner&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillis2000" class="citation book cs1">Willis, Roy (2000). World Mythology: The Illustrated Guide. Ken Fin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8645-8089-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8645-8089-1"><bdi>978-1-8645-8089-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+Mythology%3A+The+Illustrated+Guide&rft.pub=Ken+Fin+Books&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-8645-8089-1&rft.aulast=Willis&rft.aufirst=Roy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAntonio_et_al.2019" class="citation journal cs1">Antonio, Margaret L.; et al. (8 November 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7093155">"Ancient Rome: A genetic crossroads of Europe and the Mediterranean"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a>. 366 (6466). <a href="/wiki/American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science" title="American Association for the Advancement of Science">American Association for the Advancement of Science</a>: 708–714. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019Sci...366..708A">2019Sci...366..708A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aay6826">10.1126/science.aay6826</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7093155">7093155</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31699931">31699931</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Ancient+Rome%3A+A+genetic+crossroads+of+Europe+and+the+Mediterranean&rft.volume=366&rft.issue=6466&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E708-%3C%2Fspan%3E714&rft.date=2019-11-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7093155%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31699931&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.aay6826&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019Sci...366..708A&rft.aulast=Antonio&rft.aufirst=Margaret+L.&rft.au=Gao%2C+Ziyue&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7093155&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCassius_Dio2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a> (January 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/10890/10890-h/10890-h.htm">Dio's Rome, Volume V., Books 61–76 (AD 54–211)</a>. Retrieved 17 December 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dio%27s+Rome%2C+Volume+V.%2C+Books+61%E2%80%9376+%28AD+54%E2%80%93211%29&rft.date=2004-01&rft.au=Cassius+Dio&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Ffiles%2F10890%2F10890-h%2F10890-h.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoarelli2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Filippo_Coarelli" title="Filippo Coarelli">Coarelli, Filippo</a> (2007). Rome and environs: An archaeological guide. University of California Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome+and+environs%3A+An+archaeological+guide&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Coarelli&rft.aufirst=Filippo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoulstonDodge2000" class="citation book cs1">Coulston, J. C.; Dodge, Hazel, eds. (2000). Ancient Rome: The archaeology of the eternal city. Oxford University School of Archaeology.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Rome%3A+The+archaeology+of+the+eternal+city&rft.pub=Oxford+University+School+of+Archaeology&rft.date=2000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForsythe2005" class="citation book cs1">Forsythe, Gary (2005). A critical history of early Rome. University of California Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+critical+history+of+early+Rome&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Forsythe&rft.aufirst=Gary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFox1996" class="citation book cs1">Fox, Matthew (1996). Roman historical myths: The regal period in Augustan literature. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+historical+myths%3A+The+regal+period+in+Augustan+literature&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Fox&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGabba1991" class="citation book cs1">Gabba, Emilio (1991). Dionysius and the history of Archaic Rome. University of California Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dionysius+and+the+history+of+Archaic+Rome&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Gabba&rft.aufirst=Emilio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibbon1776–1789" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Gibbon, Edward</a> (1776–1789). <a href="/wiki/The_History_of_the_Decline_and_Fall_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire">The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Decline+and+Fall+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.date=1776%2F1789&rft.aulast=Gibbon&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldsworthy2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Goldsworthy" title="Adrian Goldsworthy">Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith</a> (2003). The Complete Roman Army. Thames and Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5000-5124-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5000-5124-5"><bdi>978-0-5000-5124-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Complete+Roman+Army&rft.pub=Thames+and+Hudson.&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-5000-5124-5&rft.aulast=Goldsworthy&rft.aufirst=Adrian+Keith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldsworthy2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Goldsworthy" title="Adrian Goldsworthy">Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith</a> (2008). Caesar: Life of a Colossus. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3001-2689-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3001-2689-1"><bdi>978-0-3001-2689-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caesar%3A+Life+of+a+Colossus&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-3001-2689-1&rft.aulast=Goldsworthy&rft.aufirst=Adrian+Keith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolloway1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/R._Ross_Holloway" title="R. Ross Holloway">Holloway, R. Ross</a> (1994). The archaeology of early Rome and Latium. 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Cornell University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Patricians+and+plebeians%3A+The+origin+of+the+Roman+state&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=Richard+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPotter1987" class="citation book cs1">Potter, T.W. (1987). Roman Italy. University of California Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Italy&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Potter&rft.aufirst=T.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaaflaub2004" class="citation book cs1">Raaflaub, Kurt A., ed. (2004). Social struggles in Archaic Rome: New perspectives on the conflict of the orders (2nd ed.). Blackwell.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+struggles+in+Archaic+Rome%3A+New+perspectives+on+the+conflict+of+the+orders&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosensteinMorstein-Marx2006" class="citation book cs1">Rosenstein, Nathan S.; Morstein-Marx, Robert, eds. (2006). A companion to the Roman Republic. Blackwell.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+companion+to+the+Roman+Republic&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScullard1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Howard_Hayes_Scullard" title="Howard Hayes Scullard">Scullard, H.H.</a> (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fromgracchitoner00scul">From the Gracchi to Nero</a> (5th ed.). Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4150-2527-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4150-2527-0"><bdi>978-0-4150-2527-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+the+Gracchi+to+Nero&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-4150-2527-0&rft.aulast=Scullard&rft.aufirst=H.H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffromgracchitoner00scul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1996" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Christopher J. (1996). Early Rome and Latium: Economy and society c. 1000–500 BC. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Rome+and+Latium%3A+Economy+and+society+c.+1000%E2%80%93500+BC&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Christopher+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStewart1998" class="citation book cs1">Stewart, Roberta (1998). Public office in early Rome: Ritual procedure and political practice. University of Michigan Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Public+office+in+early+Rome%3A+Ritual+procedure+and+political+practice&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufirst=Roberta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWade2019" class="citation journal cs1">Wade, Lizzie (8 November 2019). "Immigrants from the Middle East shaped Rome". <a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a>. 366 (6466). <a href="/wiki/American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science" title="American Association for the Advancement of Science">American Association for the Advancement of Science</a>: 673. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019Sci...366..673W">2019Sci...366..673W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.366.6466.673">10.1126/science.366.6466.673</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31699914">31699914</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:207965960">207965960</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Immigrants+from+the+Middle+East+shaped+Rome&rft.volume=366&rft.issue=6466&rft.pages=673&rft.date=2019-11-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.366.6466.673&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A207965960%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31699914&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019Sci...366..673W&rft.aulast=Wade&rft.aufirst=Lizzie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoolf2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Greg_Woolf" title="Greg Woolf">Woolf, Greg</a> (2012). Rome: An Empire's Story. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome%3A+An+Empire%27s+Story&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Woolf&rft.aufirst=Greg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWyke1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Maria_Wyke" title="Maria Wyke">Wyke, Maria</a> (1997). Projecting the Past: Ancient Rome, Cinema, and History. Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Projecting+the+Past%3A+Ancient+Rome%2C+Cinema%2C+and+History&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Wyke&rft.aufirst=Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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title="Antieke Rome – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Antieke Rome" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6misches_Reich" title="Römisches Reich – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Römisches Reich" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%88%AE%E1%88%9C_%E1%88%98%E1%8A%95%E1%8C%8D%E1%88%A5%E1%89%B5" title="የሮሜ መንግሥት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የሮሜ መንግሥት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-smn mw-list-item"><a href="https://smn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rooma_v%C3%A4ldikodde" title="Rooma väldikodde – Inari Sami" lang="smn" hreflang="smn" data-title="Rooma väldikodde" data-language-autonym="Anarâškielâ" data-language-local-name="Inari Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Anarâškielâ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="प्राचीन रोम सभ्यता – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="प्राचीन रोम सभ्यता" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A9" title="روما القديمة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="روما القديمة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiga_Roma" title="Antiga Roma – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Antiga Roma" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%AA%DC%97%DC%98%DC%A1%DC%90_%DC%A5%DC%AC%DC%9D%DC%A9%DC%AC%DC%90" title="ܪܗܘܡܐ ܥܬܝܩܬܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܪܗܘܡܐ ܥܬܝܩܬܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigua_Roma" title="Antigua Roma – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Antigua Roma" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rr%C3%B3ma_Ymaguare" title="Rróma Ymaguare – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Rróma Ymaguare" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q%C9%99dim_Roma" title="Qədim Roma – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qədim Roma" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%85_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85" title="قدیم روم – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="قدیم روم" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AE" title="প্রাচীন রোম – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রাচীন রোম" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B3%CD%98-t%C4%81i_L%C3%B4-m%C3%A1" title="Kó͘-tāi Lô-má – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kó͘-tāi Lô-má" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D2%93%D0%BE_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Боронғо Рим – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Боронғо Рим" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%A0%D1%8B%D0%BC" title="Старажытны Рым – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Старажытны Рым" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%A0%D1%8B%D0%BC" title="Старажытны Рым – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Старажытны Рым" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Древен Рим – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Древен Рим" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remisches_Reich" title="Remisches Reich – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Remisches Reich" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti%C4%8Dki_Rim" title="Antički Rim – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Antički Rim" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henroma" title="Henroma – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Henroma" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiga_Roma" title="Antiga Roma – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Antiga Roma" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B8_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Авалхи Рим – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Авалхи Рим" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karaang_Roma" title="Karaang Roma – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Karaang Roma" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starov%C4%9Bk%C3%BD_%C5%98%C3%ADm" title="Starověký Řím – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Starověký Řím" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_antica" title="Roma antica – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Roma antica" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhufain_hynafol" title="Rhufain hynafol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Rhufain hynafol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romerriget" title="Romerriget – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Romerriget" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7_%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A9" title="روما لقديمة – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="روما لقديمة" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pdc mw-list-item"><a href="https://pdc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altes_Rom" title="Altes Rom – Pennsylvania German" lang="pdc" hreflang="pdc" data-title="Altes Rom" data-language-autonym="Deitsch" data-language-local-name="Pennsylvania German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deitsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6misches_Reich" title="Römisches Reich – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Römisches Reich" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nv mw-list-item"><a href="https://nv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_dine%CA%BC%C3%A9" title="Roman dineʼé – Navajo" lang="nv" hreflang="nv" data-title="Roman dineʼé" data-language-autonym="Diné bizaad" data-language-local-name="Navajo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Diné bizaad</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rooma_riik" title="Rooma riik – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Rooma riik" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%81%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CE%A1%CF%8E%CE%BC%CE%B7" title="Αρχαία Ρώμη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αρχαία Ρώμη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigua_Roma" title="Antigua Roma – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Antigua Roma" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romio" title="Romio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Romio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antzinako_Erroma" title="Antzinako Erroma – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Antzinako Erroma" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="روم باستان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="روم باستان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome_antique" title="Rome antique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Rome antique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome_antighe" title="Rome antighe – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Rome antighe" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_tSean-R%C3%B3imh" title="An tSean-Róimh – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An tSean-Róimh" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_antiga" title="Roma antiga – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Roma antiga" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%BA_L%C3%B2-m%C3%A2" title="Kú Lò-mâ – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Kú Lò-mâ" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A0%EB%8C%80_%EB%A1%9C%EB%A7%88" title="고대 로마 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="고대 로마" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romawa_na_Da" title="Romawa na Da – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Romawa na Da" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%80%D5%BC%D5%B8%D5%B4" title="Հին Հռոմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հին Հռոմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE" title="प्राचीन रोम – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्राचीन रोम" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti%C4%8Dki_Rim" title="Antički Rim – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Antički Rim" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiqua_Roma" title="Antiqua Roma – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Antiqua Roma" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romawi_Kuno" title="Romawi Kuno – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Romawi Kuno" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_antique" title="Roma antique – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Roma antique" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancian_Roma" title="Ancian Roma – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Ancian Roma" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhomani" title="Rhomani – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Rhomani" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B3maveldi" title="Rómaveldi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Rómaveldi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilt%C3%A0_romana" title="Civiltà romana – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Civiltà romana" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%90_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="רומא העתיקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="רומא העתיקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C9%A9b%C9%A9njaaz%C9%A9_Room" title="Kɩbɩnjaazɩ Room – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Kɩbɩnjaazɩ Room" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AB%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ძველი რომი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ძველი რომი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B3%D1%96_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Ежелгі Рим – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ежелгі Рим" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_ya_Kale" title="Roma ya Kale – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Roma ya Kale" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B6_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Важ Рим – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Важ Рим" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C3%B2m_ansyen" title="Wòm ansyen – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Wòm ansyen" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rom_antik" title="Rom antik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Rom antik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romaya_kevnare" title="Romaya kevnare – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Romaya kevnare" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%BA%D1%8B_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Байыркы Рим – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Байыркы Рим" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_romana" title="Storia romana – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Storia romana" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romani_antiqui" title="Romani antiqui – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Romani antiqui" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sen%C4%81_Roma" title="Senā Roma – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Senā Roma" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senov%C4%97s_Roma" title="Senovės Roma – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Senovės Roma" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_antica" title="Roma antica – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Roma antica" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%93kori_R%C3%B3ma" title="Ókori Róma – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ókori Róma" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Стар Рим – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Стар Рим" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B4ma_Taloha" title="Rôma Taloha – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Rôma Taloha" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9A%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%A8_%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%82" title="പ്രാചീന റോം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പ്രാചീന റോം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE" title="प्राचीन रोम – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="प्राचीन रोम" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AF%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ჯვეში რომი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ჯვეში რომი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%87" title="روما القديمه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="روما القديمه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rom_kuno" title="Rom kuno – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Rom kuno" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%91%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%84_%EA%AF%94%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%9D" title="ꯑꯂꯤꯄ ꯔꯣꯝ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯑꯂꯤꯄ ꯔꯣꯝ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romawi_Kuno" title="Romawi Kuno – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Romawi Kuno" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C5%AB_L%C3%B2%CC%A4-m%C4%81" title="Gū Lò̤-mā – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Gū Lò̤-mā" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_Antiga" title="Roma Antiga – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Roma Antiga" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Эртний Ром – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Эртний Ром" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oude_Rome" title="Oude Rome – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Oude Rome" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE" title="प्राचीन रोम – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="प्राचीन रोम" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE" title="प्राचीन रोम – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="प्राचीन रोम" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E4%BB%A3%E3%83%AD%E3%83%BC%E3%83%9E" title="古代ローマ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="古代ローマ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6%C3%B6msk_Rik" title="Röömsk Rik – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Röömsk Rik" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romerriket" title="Romerriket – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Romerriket" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_i_antikken" title="Roma i antikken – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Roma i antikken" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_antica" title="Roma antica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Roma antica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qadimgi_Rim" title="Qadimgi Rim – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Qadimgi Rim" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%8D%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%9A%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%AE" title="ਪ੍ਰਾਚੀਨ ਰੋਮ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਪ੍ਰਾਚੀਨ ਰੋਮ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85" title="پرانا روم – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="پرانا روم" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_antiguo" title="Roma antiguo – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Roma antiguo" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ienshent_Ruom" title="Ienshent Ruom – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Ienshent Ruom" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-koi mw-list-item"><a href="https://koi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B6_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Важ Рим – Komi-Permyak" lang="koi" hreflang="koi" data-title="Важ Рим" data-language-autonym="Перем коми" data-language-local-name="Komi-Permyak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Перем коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%80%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%84%E1%9E%9A%E1%9F%89%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%8E" title="ទីក្រុងរ៉ូមបុរាណ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ទីក្រុងរ៉ូមបុរាណ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome_antike" title="Rome antike – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Rome antike" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sivilt%C3%A0_roman-a" title="Siviltà roman-a – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Siviltà roman-a" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6%C3%B6msch_Riek" title="Röömsch Riek – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Röömsch Riek" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staro%C5%BCytny_Rzym" title="Starożytny Rzym – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Starożytny Rzym" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_Antiga" title="Roma Antiga – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Roma Antiga" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_Antic%C4%83" title="Roma Antică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Roma Antică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperi_roman" title="Imperi roman – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Imperi roman" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Старовікый Рим – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Старовікый Рим" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Древний Рим – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Древний Рим" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7" title="سلطنت روما – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="سلطنت روما" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target">سرائیکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tziviltade_romana" title="Tziviltade romana – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Tziviltade romana" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nso mw-list-item"><a href="https://nso.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_ya_kgale" title="Roma ya kgale – Northern Sotho" lang="nso" hreflang="nso" data-title="Roma ya kgale" data-language-autonym="Sesotho sa Leboa" data-language-local-name="Northern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sesotho sa Leboa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_e_lasht%C3%AB" title="Roma e lashtë – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Roma e lashtë" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antica_Roma" title="Antica Roma – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Antica Roma" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%AD%E0%B6%B1_%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%BA" title="පුරාතන රෝමය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="පුරාතන රෝමය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Ancient Rome" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%DA%B3%D8%A7%D9%BD%D9%88_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85" title="آڳاٽو روم – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="آڳاٽو روم" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starovek%C3%BD_R%C3%ADm" title="Staroveký Rím – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Staroveký Rím" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starorimska_civilizacija" title="Starorimska civilizacija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Starorimska civilizacija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staro%C5%BCytny_Rzim" title="Starożytny Rzim – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Starożytny Rzim" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%95%DB%86%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C_%DA%A9%DB%86%D9%86" title="ڕۆمای کۆن – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ڕۆمای کۆن" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Стари Рим – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Стари Рим" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti%C4%8Dki_Rim" title="Antički Rim – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Antički Rim" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rooman_valtakunta" title="Rooman valtakunta – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Rooman valtakunta" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romerska_riket" title="Romerska riket – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Romerska riket" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinaunang_Roma" title="Sinaunang Roma – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Sinaunang Roma" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88" title="பண்டைய உரோமை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பண்டைய உரோமை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B3%D1%8B_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Борынгы Рим – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Борынгы Рим" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%93" title="โรมโบราณ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="โรมโบราณ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B8_%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Руми Бостон – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Руми Бостон" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antik_Roma" title="Antik Roma – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Antik Roma" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rom_gbangbang" title="Rom gbangbang – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Rom gbangbang" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tyap</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Вашкала Рим – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Вашкала Рим" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="Udmurt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Удмурт</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B9_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Стародавній Рим – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Стародавній Рим" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%85_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85" title="قدیم روم – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="قدیم روم" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_M%C3%A3_c%E1%BB%95_%C4%91%E1%BA%A1i" title="La Mã cổ đại – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="La Mã cổ đại" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vana-Rooma" title="Vana-Rooma – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Vana-Rooma" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC" title="古羅馬 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="古羅馬" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadton_Roma" title="Hadton Roma – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Hadton Roma" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E7%BD%97%E9%A9%AC" title="古罗马 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="古罗马" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%98_%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%99%D7%9D" title="אוראלט רוים – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אוראלט רוים" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B3m%C3%B9_Ay%C3%A9ij%E1%BB%8D%CC%81un" title="Rómù Ayéijọ́un – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Rómù Ayéijọ́un" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC" title="古羅馬 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="古羅馬" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_Antike" title="Roma Antike – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Roma Antike" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E7%BD%97%E9%A9%AC" title="古罗马 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="古罗马" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rom%C9%99_Imperij%C9%99" title="Romə Imperijə – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Romə Imperijə" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tolışi</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img 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<div class="mw-notification-area" data-mw="interface"></div>  <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-d8647bfd6-5wl6t","wgBackendResponseTime":558,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.351","walltime":"2.822","ppvisitednodes":{"value":21921,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":679467,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":27605,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":71,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":778949,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2141.049 1 -total"," 25.78% 551.910 2 Template:Reflist"," 20.16% 431.529 117 Template:Cite_book"," 11.34% 242.714 1 Template:Infobox_former_country"," 9.06% 193.969 5 Template:Efn"," 7.53% 161.167 75 Template:Sfn"," 5.90% 126.372 11 Template:Cite_journal"," 4.73% 101.270 1 Template:Ancient_Rome_military_sidebar"," 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[\"CITEREFMichael_Burger2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiles2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitchell1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Connell1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOakley2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrr1915\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPelham1911\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPfeiffer1931\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPotter1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPotter2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaaflaub2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRawson1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRochette2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRochette2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRochette2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosensteinMorstein-Marx2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRossi1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSabinvan_WeesWhitby2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaddington2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScarre1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScheidelSallerMorris2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScullard1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSellers1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSherman1917\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSir_William_Smith1890\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkip_Knox\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStaikos2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStewart1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSuetonius\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSyme2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaagepera1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTemin2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTuma1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurchinAdamsHall2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWade2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWard-Perkins1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWerner1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliam_Cunningham1900\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliam_Harrison_De_Puy1893\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWillis2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinter1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoolf2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWyke1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZeidman2011\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 2,\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Ancient Roman Wars\"] = 1,\n [\"Ancient Rome military sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Ancient Rome topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 8,\n [\"Citation\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite EB1911\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 117,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 11,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 24,\n [\"Colonies of Ancient Rome\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 7,\n [\"Efn\"] = 5,\n [\"EngvarB\"] = 1,\n [\"Former monarchies Italian peninsula\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 3,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 16,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 8,\n [\"Infobox former country\"] = 1,\n [\"Italy topics\"] = 1,\n [\"JSTOR\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 8,\n [\"Legend\"] = 6,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 22,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 4,\n [\"Note\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Ref\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Reign\"] = 1,\n [\"Roman Constitution\"] = 1,\n [\"Roman Emperors\"] = 1,\n [\"Roman religion\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 5,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 75,\n [\"Sfnm\"] = 2,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Small\"] = 6,\n [\"Ubl\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 8,\n [\"Western world\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 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Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2004-03-12T11:42:33Z","dateModified":"2025-02-23T05:57:58Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/e\/ea\/Roman_Republic_Empire_map.gif","headline":"country that began growing on the Italian Peninsula from the 8th century BC"}</script><script>(window.NORLQ=window.NORLQ||[]).push(function(){var ns,i,p,img;ns=document.getElementsByTagName('noscript');for(i=0;i<ns.length;i++){p=ns[i].nextSibling;if(p&&p.className&&p.className.indexOf('lazy-image-placeholder')>-1){img=document.createElement('img');img.setAttribute('src',p.getAttribute('data-mw-src'));img.setAttribute('width',p.getAttribute('data-width'));img.setAttribute('height',p.getAttribute('data-height'));img.setAttribute('alt',p.getAttribute('data-alt'));p.parentNode.replaceChild(img,p);}}});</script> </body> </html>