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宋朝科技 - 维基百科,自由的百科全书

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href="#通才与机械工程学"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>通才与机械工程学</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-通才与机械工程学-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>开关通才与机械工程学子章节</span> </button> <ul id="toc-通才与机械工程学-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-通才" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#通才"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>通才</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-通才-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-记里鼓车与指南车" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#记里鼓车与指南车"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>记里鼓车与指南车</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-记里鼓车与指南车-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-转轮藏" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#转轮藏"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>转轮藏</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-转轮藏-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-纺织机" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#纺织机"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>纺织机</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-纺织机-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-活字印刷术" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#活字印刷术"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>活字印刷术</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-活字印刷术-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-最早的火药武器书籍" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#最早的火药武器书籍"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>最早的火药武器书籍</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-最早的火药武器书籍-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-建筑与土木工程" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#建筑与土木工程"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>建筑与土木工程</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-建筑与土木工程-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-航海术" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#航海术"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>航海术</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-航海术-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>开关航海术子章节</span> </button> <ul id="toc-航海术-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-背景" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#背景"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>背景</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-背景-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-著作" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#著作"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>著作</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-著作-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-桨轮船" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#桨轮船"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>桨轮船</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-桨轮船-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-冶金术" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#冶金术"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>冶金术</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-冶金术-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-风力" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#风力"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>风力</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-风力-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-其它" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#其它"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>其它</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-其它-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-参见" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#参见"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>参见</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-参见-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet 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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#引用"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>引用</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-引用-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-来源" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#来源"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>来源</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-来源-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="目录" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Science and technology of the Song dynasty – 英语" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Science and technology of the Song dynasty" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="英语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencia_y_tecnolog%C3%ADa_de_la_dinast%C3%ADa_Song" title="Ciencia y tecnología de la dinastía Song – 西班牙语" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ciencia y tecnología de la dinastía Song" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="西班牙语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li 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href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmu_dan_teknologi_di_dinasti_Song" title="Ilmu dan teknologi di dinasti Song – 印度尼西亚语" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ilmu dan teknologi di dinasti Song" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="印度尼西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tehnologija_dinastije_Song" title="Tehnologija dinastije Song – 塞尔维亚-克罗地亚语" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Tehnologija dinastije Song" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="塞尔维亚-克罗地亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a 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</div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="zh" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Su_Song_Star_Map_1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Su_Song_Star_Map_1.JPG/280px-Su_Song_Star_Map_1.JPG" decoding="async" width="280" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Su_Song_Star_Map_1.JPG/420px-Su_Song_Star_Map_1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Su_Song_Star_Map_1.JPG/560px-Su_Song_Star_Map_1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1372" data-file-height="969" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%8F%E9%A2%82" title="苏颂">苏颂</a>以元豐年間測量之數據绘制的五幅<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E5%9C%96" title="星圖">星图</a>之一(冬至春天星圖),发表于《<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%96%B0%E4%BB%AA%E8%B1%A1%E6%B3%95%E8%A6%81&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="新仪象法要(页面不存在)">新仪象法要</a>》中</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2" title="中国历史">中国历史</a>上的<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D" title="宋朝">宋朝</a>(960年—1279年)出现了大量的科技<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%91%E6%98%8E" title="发明">发明</a>,此时期中国已同时掌握<a href="/wiki/%E6%8C%87%E5%8D%97%E9%92%88" title="指南针">指南针</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%80%A0%E7%BA%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="造纸">造纸</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%81%AB%E8%8D%AF" title="火药">火药</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%B4%BB%E5%AD%97%E5%8D%B0%E5%88%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="活字印刷">活字印刷</a>等技术,并投入大规模的实际应用:如在航海领域,<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E6%B5%B7%E4%B8%80%E8%99%9F" title="南海一號">南海一号</a>的实物发现表明,因指南针与天文观测技术的普及、地理知识的进展,<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E5%AE%8B" title="南宋">南宋</a>曾长期主导世界远洋贸易;而<a href="/wiki/%E6%B4%BB%E5%AD%97%E5%8D%B0%E5%88%B7%E6%9C%AF" title="活字印刷术">活字印刷术</a>作为<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%9B%9B%E5%A4%A7%E5%8F%91%E6%98%8E" class="mw-redirect" title="中国四大发明">中国四大发明</a>之一亦诞生於宋朝,中国印刷术因此呈现一条由木雕版印刷术、陶活字印刷术、木活字印刷术至铜活字印刷术之演进脉络。与之相比,<a href="/wiki/%E6%AC%A7%E6%B4%B2" title="欧洲">欧洲</a>直到1440年方出现鉛字活字印刷术,由<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E5%9B%BD" title="德国">德国</a><a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%E5%86%85%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E8%B0%B7%E7%99%BB%E5%A0%A1" title="约翰内斯·谷登堡">谷登堡</a>发明,中国在19世纪将之引入。部分学者因而认为歐洲活字印刷術是受到中国印刷技术影响而产生。<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%9B%BD" title="英国">英国</a>学者<a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%8E%E7%BA%A6%E7%91%9F" title="李约瑟">李约瑟</a>在其著作《<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E7%9A%84%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E4%B8%8E%E6%96%87%E6%98%8E" class="mw-redirect" title="中国的科学与文明">中国的科学与文明</a>》的导论提到:“每当人们在中国的文献中查找一种具体的科技史料时,往往会发现它的焦点在宋代,不管在应用科学方面或纯粹科学方面都是如此。”<sup id="cite_ref-Needham_1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Needham_1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>中国现代<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2%E5%AD%A6%E5%AE%B6" title="历史学家">历史学家</a><a href="/wiki/%E9%99%88%E5%AF%85%E6%81%AA" title="陈寅恪">陈寅恪</a>也曾评论:“华夏民族之文化,歷数千载之演进,造极于赵宋之世。”<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>中国歷来都拥有先进精巧的<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%BA%E6%A2%B0%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B" title="机械工程">机械工程</a>技术。宋朝天文学家<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%8F%E9%A2%82" title="苏颂">苏颂</a>认为他和他同时代人的成功是以古代发明家<a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%A0%E8%A1%A1" title="张衡">张衡</a>以及其他早期机械专家的成就为基础的。<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_466_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_466-5"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>宋朝出现了世界最早的一台“水运”天文钟,此外還有精確繪製並保存至今的石刻《天文图》、《墬理圖》與《帝王紹運圖》,这是继<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E5%85%83%E5%89%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="公元前">公元前</a>2世纪<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E8%85%8A" title="希腊">希腊</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%89%E6%8F%90%E5%9F%BA%E7%89%B9%E6%8B%89%E6%9C%BA%E6%A2%B0" title="安提基特拉机械">安提基特拉机械</a>天文钟仪器的又一次改革。<a href="/wiki/%E6%B4%BB%E5%AD%97%E5%8D%B0%E5%88%B7%E6%9C%AF" title="活字印刷术">活字印刷术</a>的应用能比原来已经广为流传的<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%95%E7%89%88%E5%8D%B0%E5%88%B7" title="雕版印刷">雕版印刷</a>更好地传播知识。而新的<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%A6%E5%99%A8" title="武器">武器</a>,如<a href="/wiki/%E7%81%AB%E8%8D%AF" title="火药">火药</a>的应用使宋朝能抵抗外来者的侵略,直到13世纪后期才被<a href="/wiki/%E8%92%99%E5%8F%A4%E6%97%8F" title="蒙古族">蒙古族</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%BF%BD%E5%BF%85%E7%83%88" title="忽必烈">忽必烈</a>击败。 </p><p>宋朝有部分先进的<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%9F%E6%9C%A8%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B" title="土木工程">土木工程</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%AF%BC%E8%88%AA" class="mw-redirect" title="导航">导航</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%86%B6%E9%87%91%E5%AD%A6" title="冶金学">冶金学</a>方面的发明。这些发明和<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%99%E5%B9%A3" title="紙幣">纸币</a>都推动了宋朝经济的发展和繁荣,对人类文明产生深远影响。 </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="通才与机械工程学"><span id=".E9.80.9A.E6.89.8D.E4.B8.8E.E6.9C.BA.E6.A2.B0.E5.B7.A5.E7.A8.8B.E5.AD.A6"></span>通才与机械工程学</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="编辑章节:通才与机械工程学"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="通才"><span id=".E9.80.9A.E6.89.8D"></span>通才</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="编辑章节:通才"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clock_Tower_from_Su_Song%27s_Book.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Clock_Tower_from_Su_Song%27s_Book.JPG/200px-Clock_Tower_from_Su_Song%27s_Book.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Clock_Tower_from_Su_Song%27s_Book.JPG/300px-Clock_Tower_from_Su_Song%27s_Book.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Clock_Tower_from_Su_Song%27s_Book.JPG/400px-Clock_Tower_from_Su_Song%27s_Book.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1051" data-file-height="1392" /></a><figcaption>苏颂所绘水运仪象台图</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SuSongClock1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/SuSongClock1.JPG/180px-SuSongClock1.JPG" decoding="async" width="180" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/SuSongClock1.JPG/270px-SuSongClock1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/SuSongClock1.JPG/360px-SuSongClock1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="384" data-file-height="627" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%8F%E9%A2%82" title="苏颂">苏颂</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%B4%E9%81%8B%E5%84%80%E8%B1%A1%E5%8F%B0" title="水運儀象台">水运仪象台</a>比例模型</figcaption></figure> <p>宋朝的<a href="/wiki/%E9%80%9A%E6%89%8D" title="通才">通才</a>科学家如<a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%88%E6%8B%AC" title="沈括">沈括</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%8F%E9%A2%82" title="苏颂">苏颂</a>代表了宋朝早期<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80%E7%BB%8F%E9%AA%8C%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="科技经验主义(页面不存在)">科技经验主义</a>的思想。沈括通过精确测量<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%90%E5%8D%88%E5%9C%88" title="子午圈">子午圈</a>,发现了地磁偏角的存在,比欧洲早了四百年。<sup id="cite_ref-sivin_III_22_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sivin_III_22-6"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> 沈括还确定出<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%97%E6%9E%81%E6%98%9F" title="北极星">北极星</a>几个世纪运转的位置。这使得海员在航行时利用<a href="/wiki/%E6%8C%87%E5%8D%97%E9%92%88" title="指南针">指南针</a>更准确地确定方向。<sup id="cite_ref-sivin_III_22_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sivin_III_22-6"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> 沈括对<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E8%B4%A8%E5%AD%A6" title="地质学">地质学</a>也颇有研究。在长期观察奇怪的自然现象后,他阐明了一个<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E8%B2%8C%E5%AD%A6" title="地貌学">地貌学</a>和气候变化原理。<sup id="cite_ref-sivin_III_23_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sivin_III_23-7"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_3_618_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_3_618-8"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>根据当时<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E9%A3%9F" title="日食">日食</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%88%E9%A3%9F" title="月食">月食</a>的观测情况,他分析出<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%AA%E9%98%B3" title="太阳">太阳</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%88%E7%90%83" title="月球">月亮</a>是球状的,而不是平面的,从而扩展了中国早期天文学家的理论。<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_3_415_416_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_3_415_416-9"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>担任<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B8%E5%A4%A9%E7%9B%A3" class="mw-redirect" title="司天監">司天监</a>期间,沈括举荐北宋天文学家和数学家<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%AB%E6%9C%B4" class="mw-disambig" title="卫朴">卫朴</a>,两人一起运用<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E5%AD%A6" title="宇宙学">宇宙学</a>假设,描绘<a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E6%98%9F" title="行星">行星</a>运行轨道的变更,包括逆行。<sup id="cite_ref-sivin_III_16_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sivin_III_16-10"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sivin_III_19_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sivin_III_19-11"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>在卫朴的协助下,沈括连续五年来每晚三次记录和测绘月亮的运行轨迹,从而修正了关于月亮的运行的误差,这也是他的另一项重要成就。<sup id="cite_ref-sivin_III_18_19_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sivin_III_18_19-12"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> 然而不幸的是,当时在朝廷上有很多政敵企图破坏沈括的工作。最终朝廷接受了他们对于太阳和月亮的错误的修正,但只是部分采纳了沈括和卫朴提出的关于行星运行的轨道和变速度的理论。<sup id="cite_ref-sivin_III_18_19_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sivin_III_18_19-12"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>苏颂是沈括的政敵之一,于1070年完成了一本<a href="/wiki/%E8%8D%AF%E5%AD%A6" title="药学">药物学</a>著作──《<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%AC%E8%8D%89%E5%9B%BE%E7%BB%8F" title="本草图经">本草图经</a>》,其中涵盖了相关的学科的知识,如<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="植物学">植物学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%A8%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="动物学">动物学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%86%B6%E9%87%91%E5%AD%A6" title="冶金学">冶金学</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%BF%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="矿物学">矿物学</a>。<sup id="cite_ref-unschuld_60_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-unschuld_60-13"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-wu_5_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wu_5-14"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> 该论著包括很多药物应用,如<a href="/wiki/%E9%BA%BB%E9%BB%84" title="麻黄">麻黄</a>等。<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_446_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_446-15"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>他还是五幅不同的大型<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E5%9C%96" title="星圖">星图</a>的作者,<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_3_569_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_3_569-16"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>他在<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E5%9B%BE%E5%AD%A6" title="地图学">地图学</a>的大量测绘记录工作解决了宋朝和邻国<a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%91%E4%B8%B9" class="mw-redirect" title="契丹">契丹</a>自<a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%BD%E6%9C%9D" title="辽朝">辽朝</a>以來一直悬而未决的边界疆土问题。<sup id="cite_ref-wright_213_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wright_213-17"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>然而,苏颂最大的成就莫过于<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%B4%E9%81%8B%E5%84%80%E8%B1%A1%E5%8F%B0" title="水運儀象台">水运仪象台</a>,上层是机械驱动的<a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%91%E5%A4%A9%E4%BB%AA" class="mw-redirect" title="浑天仪">浑天仪</a>(天体测量之用),中层是浑象仪(天体运行演示),下层是司辰(自动报时器),1088年在当时的首都<a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%80%E5%B0%81%E5%B8%82" title="开封市">开封</a>开始动工,1092年竣工。<sup id="cite_ref-tuotuo_susong_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tuotuo_susong-18"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sivin_III_31_32_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sivin_III_31_32-19"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>苏颂的水运仪象台在钟摆机械的运用上虽然晚于<a href="/wiki/%E6%AC%A7%E6%B4%B2" title="欧洲">欧洲</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%89%E6%8F%90%E5%9F%BA%E7%89%B9%E6%8B%89%E6%9C%BA%E6%A2%B0" title="安提基特拉机械">安提基特拉机械</a>十三个世纪,但苏颂的水运仪象台却是目前已知的世界上最早的“不中断”链条传送动力的装备,最早的传送机械动力链条由<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%B8%8C%E8%85%8A" title="古希腊">古希腊</a>哲学家费罗于<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E5%85%83%E5%89%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="公元前">公元前</a>3世纪所发明,在1092年他的著作《<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%96%B0%E4%BB%AA%E8%B1%A1%E6%B3%95%E8%A6%81&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="新仪象法要(页面不存在)">新仪象法要</a>》中描述了设计要点。<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_111_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_111-20"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>沈括和苏颂的例子说明了宋朝任用了許多具備科學知識的官员,这些人掌握了多个学科的知识,有利于宋朝的管理、军事和经济发展。这些智者如沈括涉及多个领域如<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%A6" title="数学">数学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="地理学">地理学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E8%B4%A8%E5%AD%A6" title="地质学">地质学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%8F%E6%B5%8E%E5%AD%A6" title="经济学">经济学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B%E5%AD%A6" title="工程学">工程学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="医学">医学</a>、<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%97%9D%E8%A1%93%E8%A9%95%E8%AB%96&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="藝術評論(页面不存在)">藝術評論</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%80%83%E5%8F%A4%E5%AD%A6" title="考古学">考古学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%BB%8D%E4%BA%8B%E6%88%B0%E7%95%A5" title="軍事戰略">军事战略</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%96%E4%BA%A4" title="外交">外交</a>等等。<sup id="cite_ref-tuotuo_shenkuo_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tuotuo_shenkuo-21"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ebrey_162_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ebrey_162-22"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-ebrey_cambridge_148_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ebrey_cambridge_148-23"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>他曾经接受一个边境调查的任务,用木头和锯末制作了一个三维的地图来表现山脉、河流、道路等。<sup id="cite_ref-ebrey_162_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ebrey_162-22"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>有一次他计算了棋局所有的可能性,<sup id="cite_ref-shen_kuo5_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shen_kuo5-24"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>还有一次他计算了用限定的人力物力携带食物能支撑的最长战争时间。<sup id="cite_ref-shen_kuo6_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shen_kuo6-25"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-ebrey_162_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ebrey_162-22"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>沈括还提高了<a href="/wiki/%E6%BC%8F%E5%A3%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="漏壺">漏壶</a>计时的准确性,改进了<a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%91%E5%A4%A9%E4%BB%AA" class="mw-redirect" title="浑天仪">浑天仪</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E6%99%B7" title="日晷">日晷</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-shen_kuo7_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shen_kuo7-26"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>他还扩大了浑天仪的宽度,可以更好观察北极星和其它星球。<sup id="cite_ref-sivin_III_17_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sivin_III_17-27"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> 沈括还做了关于<a href="/wiki/%E6%9A%97%E7%AE%B1" title="暗箱">暗箱</a>的试验,只比首位实验者<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF%E4%BA%BA" title="阿拉伯人">阿拉伯人</a><a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E4%BB%80%E6%9C%A8" class="mw-redirect" title="海什木">海什木</a>晚了几十年。<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_1_98_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_1_98-28"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="记里鼓车与指南车"><span id=".E8.AE.B0.E9.87.8C.E9.BC.93.E8.BD.A6.E4.B8.8E.E6.8C.87.E5.8D.97.E8.BD.A6"></span>记里鼓车与指南车</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="编辑章节:记里鼓车与指南车"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r85100532">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-size:small}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:2em;margin-bottom:0.8em;margin-top:0.8em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img::after{content:"\202f \202f \202f \202f "}.mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img-small::after{content:"\202f \202f "}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img-small{display:none}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目:<a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%B0%E9%87%8C%E9%BC%93%E8%BD%A6" title="记里鼓车">记里鼓车</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%8C%87%E5%8D%97%E8%BD%A6" title="指南车">指南车</a></div> <p>古文献对天然磁石吸引铁以制备磁铁的描述于《<a href="/wiki/%E7%AE%A1%E5%AD%90_(%E6%9B%B8%E7%B1%8D)" class="mw-redirect" title="管子 (書籍)">管子</a>》、<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>《<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%95%E6%B0%8F%E6%98%A5%E7%A7%8B" title="吕氏春秋">吕氏春秋</a>》、<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>和《<a href="/wiki/%E6%B7%AE%E5%8D%97%E5%AD%90" title="淮南子">淮南子</a>》<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>中提及。<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>到了<a href="/wiki/%E6%B1%89%E6%9C%9D" title="汉朝">汉朝</a>(前202年-220年)开始使用指南北天然磁石磨制的勺碗状<a href="/wiki/%E6%8C%87%E5%8D%97%E9%92%88" title="指南针">指南针</a>,用来<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%A0%E5%8D%9C" title="占卜">占卜</a>与<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%A3%8E%E6%B0%B4%E5%A0%AA%E8%88%86&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="风水堪舆(页面不存在)">风水堪舆</a>,尚未用在<a href="/wiki/%E8%88%AA%E6%B5%B7" title="航海">导航</a>方面。<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gernet_1962_77_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gernet_1962_77-36"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tom_1989_98–99_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tom_1989_98–99-37"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>东汉<a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%8B%E5%85%85" title="王充">王充</a>(27年-约97年)在其所著《<a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%BA%E8%A1%A1" title="论衡">论衡</a>》卷17是应篇第52说「司南之杓,投之于地,其柢指南」。<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>宋朝除了沈括和苏颂之外,还有许多重要的人物,他们之间的很多人为当时科技的发展和革新做出了巨大的贡献。尽管机械传动的<a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%B0%E9%87%8C%E9%BC%93%E8%BD%A6" title="记里鼓车">记里鼓车</a>自<a href="/wiki/%E6%B1%89%E6%9C%9D" title="汉朝">汉朝</a>开始就有应用,《<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%8B%E5%8F%B2" title="宋史">宋史</a>》则比之前的记载提供了一个更加详细而深入的描述。 </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diagram_of_a_Song_dynasty_odometer_cart.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Diagram_of_a_Song_dynasty_odometer_cart.svg/200px-Diagram_of_a_Song_dynasty_odometer_cart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Diagram_of_a_Song_dynasty_odometer_cart.svg/300px-Diagram_of_a_Song_dynasty_odometer_cart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Diagram_of_a_Song_dynasty_odometer_cart.svg/400px-Diagram_of_a_Song_dynasty_odometer_cart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="519" data-file-height="429" /></a><figcaption>宋代记里鼓车齿轮系示意图</figcaption></figure> <table class="cquote pullquote" role="presentation" style="margin:auto; display:table; border-collapse: collapse; border: none; background-color: transparent; color: inherit;width: auto;"> <tbody><tr> <td class="skin-invert" style="width: 20px; vertical-align: top; border: none; color: #B2B7F2; font-size: 40px; font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;, Times, serif; font-weight: bold; line-height: .6em; text-align: left; padding: 10px; text-orientation: upright">“ </td> <td style="vertical-align: top; border: none; padding: 4px 10px;">赤质,四面画花鸟,重台,勾阑,镂拱。行一里,则上层木人击鼓;十里,则次层木人击镯。一辕,凤首,驾四马。驾士旧十八人,太宗雍熙四年,增为三十人。<sup id="cite_ref-song_shi1_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-song_shi1-40"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </td> <td class="skin-invert" style="width: 20px; vertical-align: bottom; border: none; color: #B2B7F2; font-size: 40px; font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;, Times, serif; font-weight: bold; line-height: .6em; text-align: right; padding: 10px; text-orientation: upright">” </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>接下来是内侍卢道隆关于齿轮和传动装置的详细数据。在结束时描述了装置是如何工作的: </p> <table class="cquote pullquote" role="presentation" style="margin:auto; display:table; border-collapse: collapse; border: none; background-color: transparent; color: inherit;width: auto;"> <tbody><tr> <td class="skin-invert" style="width: 20px; vertical-align: top; border: none; color: #B2B7F2; font-size: 40px; font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;, Times, serif; font-weight: bold; line-height: .6em; text-align: left; padding: 10px; text-orientation: upright">“ </td> <td style="vertical-align: top; border: none; padding: 4px 10px;">其中平轮转一周,车行一里,下一层木人击鼓;上平轮转一周,车行十里,上一层木人击镯。凡用大小轮八,合二百八十五齿,递相钩锁,犬牙相制,周而复始。<sup id="cite_ref-song_shi1_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-song_shi1-40"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </td> <td class="skin-invert" style="width: 20px; vertical-align: bottom; border: none; color: #B2B7F2; font-size: 40px; font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;, Times, serif; font-weight: bold; line-height: .6em; text-align: right; padding: 10px; text-orientation: upright">” </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>宋代的<a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%B0%E9%87%8C%E9%BC%93%E8%BD%A6" title="记里鼓车">记里鼓车</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%8C%87%E5%8D%97%E8%BD%A6" title="指南车">指南车</a>联系在一起。指南车由<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%89%E5%9B%BD" title="三国">三国时期</a>机械制造家<a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%AC%E9%88%9E" title="馬鈞">马钧</a>发明,采用齿轮的原理制作,将复杂的<a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%AE%E9%80%9F%E5%99%A8" title="差速器">差速</a>齿轮组合在一起,这也是如今所有现代汽车在转向时对旋转的车轮<a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%9B%E7%9F%A9" title="力矩">力矩</a>相同,速度不同的原理。这些差速齿轮使机械控制的手指指向固定的方向──南。指南车采用了先进的机械装置,与<a href="/wiki/%E6%8C%87%E5%8D%97%E9%92%88" title="指南针">指南针</a>采用磁极原理不同。宋代博物学者<a href="/wiki/%E7%87%95%E8%82%85" title="燕肅">燕肃</a>,于1027年重新研制出指南车,他的制作方法在《<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%8B%E5%8F%B2" title="宋史">宋史</a>》也有记载。<sup id="cite_ref-tuotuo3_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tuotuo3-41"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sivin_III_31_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sivin_III_31-42"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>燕肃和沈括及苏颂一样,也是一个通才,精通音律,擅长写诗作画,他还是一位科学家,改进了莲花刻漏,根据自己的海潮理论绘制有《海潮图》,撰写出《海潮论》。<sup id="cite_ref-sivin_III_31_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sivin_III_31-42"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-song_shi2_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-song_shi2-43"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>在《宋史》的记载中,<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%B3%E5%BE%B7%E4%BB%81" class="mw-disambig" title="吳德仁">吴德仁</a>于1107年将<a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%B0%E9%87%8C%E9%BC%93%E8%BD%A6" title="记里鼓车">记里鼓车</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%8C%87%E5%8D%97%E8%BD%A6" title="指南车">指南车</a>结合在一起: </p> <table class="cquote pullquote" role="presentation" style="margin:auto; display:table; border-collapse: collapse; border: none; background-color: transparent; color: inherit;width: auto;"> <tbody><tr> <td class="skin-invert" style="width: 20px; vertical-align: top; border: none; color: #B2B7F2; font-size: 40px; font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;, Times, serif; font-weight: bold; line-height: .6em; text-align: left; padding: 10px; text-orientation: upright">“ </td> <td style="vertical-align: top; border: none; padding: 4px 10px;">大观元年,内侍省吴德仁又献指南车、记里鼓车之制,二车成,其年宗祀大礼始用之。<sup id="cite_ref-song_shi1_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-song_shi1-40"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </td> <td class="skin-invert" style="width: 20px; vertical-align: bottom; border: none; color: #B2B7F2; font-size: 40px; font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;, Times, serif; font-weight: bold; line-height: .6em; text-align: right; padding: 10px; text-orientation: upright">” </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>接下来的文字详细描述了两个装置组合在一起的设计细节。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="转轮藏"><span id=".E8.BD.AC.E8.BD.AE.E8.97.8F"></span>转轮藏</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="编辑章节:转轮藏"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Buddhist_ark_used_by_Chinese_Jews.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Buddhist_ark_used_by_Chinese_Jews.jpg/200px-Buddhist_ark_used_by_Chinese_Jews.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Buddhist_ark_used_by_Chinese_Jews.jpg/300px-Buddhist_ark_used_by_Chinese_Jews.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Buddhist_ark_used_by_Chinese_Jews.jpg/400px-Buddhist_ark_used_by_Chinese_Jews.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1063" data-file-height="1282" /></a><figcaption>营造法式插图 转轮经藏</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wang_Juzheng%27s_Spinning_Wheel,_Close_Up_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Wang_Juzheng%27s_Spinning_Wheel%2C_Close_Up_2.jpg/150px-Wang_Juzheng%27s_Spinning_Wheel%2C_Close_Up_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Wang_Juzheng%27s_Spinning_Wheel%2C_Close_Up_2.jpg/225px-Wang_Juzheng%27s_Spinning_Wheel%2C_Close_Up_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Wang_Juzheng%27s_Spinning_Wheel%2C_Close_Up_2.jpg/300px-Wang_Juzheng%27s_Spinning_Wheel%2C_Close_Up_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="334" data-file-height="504" /></a><figcaption>北宋王居正《纺车图》</figcaption></figure> <p>除了钟表发条装置、水力驱动的天文仪、记里鼓车、指南战车外,宋朝还有许多其他令人叹为观止的机械装置。虽然在<a href="/wiki/%E5%94%90%E6%9C%9D" title="唐朝">唐朝</a>时期<a href="/wiki/%E4%BD%9B%E6%95%99" title="佛教">佛教</a>寺院已经出现<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%BD%AC%E8%BD%AE%E8%97%8F&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="转轮藏(页面不存在)">转轮藏</a>(转轮藏即为转动的藏经橱,是佛教取法轮常转,自强不息之意),宋朝则将此技术进一步提升。<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_549_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_549-44"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> 现存的最古老的转轮藏位于<a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%B3%E5%8C%97%E7%9C%81" title="河北省">河北</a><a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%A3%E5%AE%9A%E5%8E%BF" title="正定县">正定</a><a href="/wiki/%E9%9A%86%E8%88%88%E5%AF%BA" title="隆興寺">隆兴寺</a>转轮藏阁。整座小楼的设计就是为一个转轮藏而构成的,这个转轮藏是中国现存惟一第十世纪的真正可以转动的佛经的书架。<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_549_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_549-44"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>宋朝一共建有9座转轮藏,其中有一座记载在<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%97%E5%AE%8B" title="北宋">北宋</a>建筑师<a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%8E%E8%AF%AB_(%E5%8C%97%E5%AE%8B)" title="李诫 (北宋)">李诫</a>所编修的《<a href="/wiki/%E8%90%A5%E9%80%A0%E6%B3%95%E5%BC%8F" title="营造法式">营造法式</a>》中。<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_551_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_551-47"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><a href="/wiki/%E9%95%BF%E6%B2%99%E5%B8%82" title="长沙市">长沙</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%80%E7%A6%8F%E5%AF%BA_(%E9%95%BF%E6%B2%99)" title="开福寺 (长沙)">开福寺</a>的转轮藏一共有五个轮子共同转动,<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_552_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_552-48"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%8F%E5%B7%9E%E5%B8%82" title="苏州市">苏州</a>南禅寺甚至还有一个类似刹车系统的装置,<a href="/wiki/%E6%B1%89%E5%AD%A6" title="汉学">汉学</a>家至今不能确定它运作的方式。<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_552_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_552-48"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear: both; height: 1em"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="纺织机"><span id=".E7.BA.BA.E7.BB.87.E6.9C.BA"></span>纺织机</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="编辑章节:纺织机"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>在纺织领域,11世纪的中国人已经开始使用皮带驱动的纺织机。<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_108_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_108-49"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%A6%E8%A7%82" title="秦观">秦观</a>的著作《<a href="/wiki/%E8%9A%95%E4%B9%A6" title="蚕书">蚕书</a>》中详细记载了缫车的结构、几个关键部件及用法,通过脚踏板产生动力,丝被缠绕在线轴上。该书是有关缫车的最早记载。<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>南宋绍兴年间画家<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A5%BC%E4%BF%A6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="楼俦(页面不存在)">楼俦</a>所作的《<a href="/wiki/%E8%80%95%E7%BB%87%E5%9B%BE" title="耕织图">耕织图</a>》采用绘图的形式详实记录耕作与蚕织。<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="活字印刷术"><span id=".E6.B4.BB.E5.AD.97.E5.8D.B0.E5.88.B7.E6.9C.AF"></span>活字印刷术</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="编辑章节:活字印刷术"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85100532"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目:<a href="/wiki/%E6%B4%BB%E5%AD%97%E5%8D%B0%E5%88%B7%E6%9C%AF" title="活字印刷术">活字印刷术</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E8%A5%BF%E5%A4%8F%E6%96%87%E6%B4%BB%E5%AD%97%E5%8D%B0%E6%9C%AC%E3%80%8A%E5%A4%A7%E6%96%B9%E5%B9%BF%E4%BD%9B%E5%8D%8E%E4%B8%A5%E7%BB%8F%E5%85%B8%E6%99%AE%E8%B4%A4%E8%A1%8C%E5%93%81%E3%80%8B.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/%E8%A5%BF%E5%A4%8F%E6%96%87%E6%B4%BB%E5%AD%97%E5%8D%B0%E6%9C%AC%E3%80%8A%E5%A4%A7%E6%96%B9%E5%B9%BF%E4%BD%9B%E5%8D%8E%E4%B8%A5%E7%BB%8F%E5%85%B8%E6%99%AE%E8%B4%A4%E8%A1%8C%E5%93%81%E3%80%8B.jpg/220px-%E8%A5%BF%E5%A4%8F%E6%96%87%E6%B4%BB%E5%AD%97%E5%8D%B0%E6%9C%AC%E3%80%8A%E5%A4%A7%E6%96%B9%E5%B9%BF%E4%BD%9B%E5%8D%8E%E4%B8%A5%E7%BB%8F%E5%85%B8%E6%99%AE%E8%B4%A4%E8%A1%8C%E5%93%81%E3%80%8B.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/%E8%A5%BF%E5%A4%8F%E6%96%87%E6%B4%BB%E5%AD%97%E5%8D%B0%E6%9C%AC%E3%80%8A%E5%A4%A7%E6%96%B9%E5%B9%BF%E4%BD%9B%E5%8D%8E%E4%B8%A5%E7%BB%8F%E5%85%B8%E6%99%AE%E8%B4%A4%E8%A1%8C%E5%93%81%E3%80%8B.jpg/330px-%E8%A5%BF%E5%A4%8F%E6%96%87%E6%B4%BB%E5%AD%97%E5%8D%B0%E6%9C%AC%E3%80%8A%E5%A4%A7%E6%96%B9%E5%B9%BF%E4%BD%9B%E5%8D%8E%E4%B8%A5%E7%BB%8F%E5%85%B8%E6%99%AE%E8%B4%A4%E8%A1%8C%E5%93%81%E3%80%8B.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/%E8%A5%BF%E5%A4%8F%E6%96%87%E6%B4%BB%E5%AD%97%E5%8D%B0%E6%9C%AC%E3%80%8A%E5%A4%A7%E6%96%B9%E5%B9%BF%E4%BD%9B%E5%8D%8E%E4%B8%A5%E7%BB%8F%E5%85%B8%E6%99%AE%E8%B4%A4%E8%A1%8C%E5%93%81%E3%80%8B.jpg/440px-%E8%A5%BF%E5%A4%8F%E6%96%87%E6%B4%BB%E5%AD%97%E5%8D%B0%E6%9C%AC%E3%80%8A%E5%A4%A7%E6%96%B9%E5%B9%BF%E4%BD%9B%E5%8D%8E%E4%B8%A5%E7%BB%8F%E5%85%B8%E6%99%AE%E8%B4%A4%E8%A1%8C%E5%93%81%E3%80%8B.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3564" data-file-height="4130" /></a><figcaption>现存最早的木活字<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E5%A4%8F%E6%96%87" title="西夏文">西夏文</a>印本《华严经普贤行品》,<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%98%E8%82%83%E7%9C%81%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%A6%86" title="甘肃省博物馆">甘肃省博物馆</a>藏。首行对应汉文“身语意业无有疲厌”</figcaption></figure> <p>膠泥式<a href="/wiki/%E6%B4%BB%E5%AD%97%E5%8D%B0%E5%88%B7%E6%9C%AF" title="活字印刷术">活字印刷术</a>由北宋发明家<a href="/wiki/%E6%AF%95%E5%8D%87" class="mw-redirect" title="毕升">畢昇</a>于11世纪发明。与畢昇同时代的<a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%88%E6%8B%AC" title="沈括">沈括</a>所著的《<a href="/wiki/%E6%A2%A6%E6%BA%AA%E7%AC%94%E8%B0%88" title="梦溪笔谈">梦溪笔谈</a>》记载了畢昇的这一创造性发明:<sup id="cite_ref-bowman_105_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bowman_105-52"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="cquote pullquote" role="presentation" style="margin:auto; display:table; border-collapse: collapse; border: none; background-color: transparent; color: inherit;width: auto;"> <tbody><tr> <td class="skin-invert" style="width: 20px; vertical-align: top; border: none; color: #B2B7F2; font-size: 40px; font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;, Times, serif; font-weight: bold; line-height: .6em; text-align: left; padding: 10px; text-orientation: upright">“ </td> <td style="vertical-align: top; border: none; padding: 4px 10px;">庆曆中,有布衣畢昇又为活板。其法:用胶泥刻字,薄如钱唇,每字为一印,火烧令坚。先设一铁板,其上以松脂、蜡和纸灰之类冒之。欲印,则以一铁范置铁板上,乃密布字印,满铁范为一板,持就火炀之,药稍熔,则以一平板按其面,则字平如砥。若止印三、二本,未为简易;若印数十百千本,则极为神速。<sup id="cite_ref-shenkuo_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shenkuo-53"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </td> <td class="skin-invert" style="width: 20px; vertical-align: bottom; border: none; color: #B2B7F2; font-size: 40px; font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;, Times, serif; font-weight: bold; line-height: .6em; text-align: right; padding: 10px; text-orientation: upright">” </td></tr> </tbody></table> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jiao_zi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Jiao_zi.jpg/150px-Jiao_zi.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Jiao_zi.jpg/225px-Jiao_zi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Jiao_zi.jpg/300px-Jiao_zi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="308" data-file-height="537" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%A4%E5%AD%90" title="交子">交子</a>被认为是世界最早的正式发行<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%99%E5%B9%A3" title="紙幣">纸币</a>,其前身为唐代<a href="/wiki/%E9%A3%9E%E9%92%B1" class="mw-redirect" title="飞钱">飞钱</a>,主要流通于中国北宋时期1023年的<a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%9B%E5%B7%9D" class="mw-redirect" title="四川">四川</a><a href="/wiki/%E6%88%90%E9%83%BD%E5%B8%82" title="成都市">成都</a>。</figcaption></figure> <p>活字印刷与<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%95%E7%89%88%E5%8D%B0%E5%88%B7" title="雕版印刷">雕版印刷</a>相比降低了成本,增加了印刷品的发行数量。虽然这一时期,雕版印刷仍然占据主流地位,但是活字印刷术的发明促进了后世学子的知识普及,推进了<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E4%B8%BE" title="科举">科举</a>考试的发展。活字印刷在朝鮮半島的<a href="/wiki/%E9%AB%98%E9%BA%97" title="高麗">高丽王朝</a>时期得到了改进,于1234年将畢昇的烧粘土字改为<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%91%E5%B1%9E" title="金属">金属</a>字。<sup id="cite_ref-ebrey_238_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ebrey_238-54"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>中国的活字印刷也在不停改进,<a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%8B%E7%A5%AF_(%E5%85%83%E6%9C%9D)" title="王祯 (元朝)">王祯</a>在1298年发明了木活字版印刷。<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E5%9B%BD" title="德国">德国</a><a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%E5%86%85%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E8%B0%B7%E7%99%BB%E5%A0%A1" title="约翰内斯·谷登堡">谷登堡</a>于1440年发明了鉛字活字(鉛字活字于1833年传入<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD" class="mw-redirect" title="中国">中国</a><a href="/wiki/%E6%BE%B3%E9%97%A8" class="mw-redirect" title="澳门">澳门</a>)。虽然活字印刷与雕版印刷几个世纪以来作为主要的印刷方式,但东亚国家后来还是最终采用欧洲的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%88%B7%E6%9C%BA" title="印刷机">印刷机</a>。 </p><p>在印刷术之前,中国已经有能力大规模生产<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%B8" title="纸">纸</a>。<a href="/wiki/%E9%80%A0%E7%BA%B8%E6%9C%AF" title="造纸术">造纸术</a>由<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%9C%E6%B1%89" title="东汉">东汉</a><a href="/wiki/%E8%94%A1%E4%BC%A6" title="蔡伦">蔡伦</a>改进,不再使用竹简和缣帛作为原料,改用树皮、破布、麻头和鱼网等廉价之物造纸,大大降低了造纸的成本,为纸的普及准备了条件。105年发明成功,公元3世纪广泛应用。<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_1_1_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_1_1-56"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>大唐是世界上最早出现<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%99%E5%B9%A3" title="紙幣">纸币</a>的国家,其<a href="/wiki/%E5%94%90%E5%AE%AA%E5%AE%97" title="唐宪宗">唐宪宗</a>时代的<a href="/wiki/%E9%A3%9E%E9%92%B1" class="mw-redirect" title="飞钱">飞钱</a>是目前已知最早的纸币<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>,而到了宋代,<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%A4%E5%AD%90" title="交子">交子</a>成为了世界上最早“正式”发行的纸币。<sup id="cite_ref-ebrey_156_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ebrey_156-58"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> 交子产生的原因据《<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%8B%E5%8F%B2" title="宋史">宋史</a>》记载是因为铁钱笨重,携带不方便。<sup id="cite_ref-tuotuojiaozi1_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tuotuojiaozi1-59"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>1023年(天圣元年),北宋朝廷在四川(益州)设交子务,发行官交子。<sup id="cite_ref-tuotuojiaozi2_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tuotuojiaozi2-60"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-jiarengfan_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jiarengfan-61"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>李焘的《<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%8C%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91%E9%95%B7%E7%B7%A8" title="續資治通鑑長編">续资治通鉴长编</a>》也有相关记载。<sup id="cite_ref-lishoujiaozi_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lishoujiaozi-62"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><a href="/wiki/%E6%89%8B%E7%B4%99" class="mw-redirect" title="手紙">手纸</a>自从6世纪以来在中国得到广泛使用,<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_1_122_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_1_122-63"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>保存<a href="/wiki/%E8%8C%B6" title="茶">茶叶</a>的纸袋也于7世纪出现,<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_1_122_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_1_122-63"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>并且大宋朝廷在奖励官员的时候将纸币装在纸质的<a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%A1%E5%B0%81" class="mw-redirect" title="信封">信封</a>里。<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_1_122_63-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_1_122-63"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>在宋仁宗庆历年间,人口首次达到了1亿。为了满足人口增长的需要,独立或政府资助的工业开始发展。例如,除了独立的纸币印刷外,政府还在<a href="/wiki/%E6%83%A0%E5%B7%9E%E5%B8%82" title="惠州市">惠州</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%88%90%E9%83%BD%E5%B8%82" title="成都市">成都</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%AD%E5%B7%9E%E5%B8%82" title="杭州市">杭州</a>等处成立了几个铸币厂。<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_1_48_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_5_part_1_48-64"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>这些工厂的工人数目庞大,据记录仅在杭州就超过1000人。<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_1_48_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_5_part_1_48-64"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear: both; height: 1em"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="最早的火药武器书籍"><span id=".E6.9C.80.E6.97.A9.E7.9A.84.E7.81.AB.E8.8D.AF.E6.AD.A6.E5.99.A8.E4.B9.A6.E7.B1.8D"></span>最早的火药武器书籍</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="编辑章节:最早的火药武器书籍"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FireLanceAndGrenade10thCenturyDunhuang.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/FireLanceAndGrenade10thCenturyDunhuang.jpg/220px-FireLanceAndGrenade10thCenturyDunhuang.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/FireLanceAndGrenade10thCenturyDunhuang.jpg/330px-FireLanceAndGrenade10thCenturyDunhuang.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/FireLanceAndGrenade10thCenturyDunhuang.jpg/440px-FireLanceAndGrenade10thCenturyDunhuang.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2413" data-file-height="1935" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80" class="mw-redirect" title="十世紀">十世纪</a><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%94%E4%BB%A3" class="mw-redirect" title="五代">五代</a>时期的<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%A6%E7%85%8C%E5%B8%82" title="敦煌市">敦煌</a>(时属<a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%92%E4%B9%89%E5%86%9B" title="归义军">归义军</a>)壁画,目前所知最早的关于<a href="/wiki/%E7%81%AB%E6%9E%AA" title="火枪">火枪</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%89%8B%E6%A6%B4%E5%BC%B9" title="手榴弹">手榴弹</a>(右上方)的描绘。<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>世界上最早的金属火铳出土于中国<a href="/wiki/%E9%BB%91%E9%BE%99%E6%B1%9F" title="黑龙江">黑龙江</a>,制作年代为1288年,现藏黑龙江省博物馆。<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_7_293_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_5_part_7_293-66"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>近代的中外学者们一致认为<a href="/wiki/%E7%81%AB%E8%8D%AF" title="火药">火药</a>最晚在公元9世纪唐代时期就已经出现。<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>军事科技方面,公元904年,唐朝的<a href="/wiki/%E6%A5%8A%E8%A1%8C%E5%AF%86" title="楊行密">楊行密</a>軍圍攻豫章﹙今江西南昌﹚,部將<a href="/wiki/%E9%84%AD%E7%92%A0" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="鄭璠">鄭璠</a>命所部“發機飛火,燒龍沙門,率壯士突火先登入城,焦灼被體”,这也是中国第一次将<a href="/wiki/%E7%81%AB%E8%8D%AF" title="火药">火药</a>应用到战争中的记载,最早的火药武器则出现在五代时期的敦煌壁画。<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。 </p><p>领先的军事科技使宋朝在一定程度上抵御住了北方的邻国的侵袭。火焰喷射器最早起源于<a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%9C%E5%8D%A0%E5%BA%AD%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD" class="mw-redirect" title="拜占庭帝国">拜占庭帝国</a>时期的<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E8%85%8A" title="希腊">希腊</a>,公元7世纪应用虹吸管而制造的一个设备,称为“<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E8%85%8A%E7%81%AB" title="希腊火">希腊火</a>”。在中国,最早提及<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E8%85%8A%E7%81%AB" title="希腊火">希腊火</a>的著作是清<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%B4%E4%BB%BB%E8%87%A3" class="mw-redirect" title="吴任臣">吴任臣</a>编撰的《<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%81%E5%9B%BD%E6%98%A5%E7%A7%8B" title="十国春秋">十国春秋</a>》中提及917年吳王楊隆濱派使者給契丹主送去猛火油一事。<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_7_80_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_5_part_7_80-73"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>不过此猛火油与火药武器无关,例如,<a href="/wiki/%E9%92%B1%E4%BF%A8" title="钱俨">钱俨</a>的《<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%90%B4%E8%B6%8A%E5%A4%87%E5%8F%B2&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="吴越备史(页面不存在)">吴越备史</a>》记录了<a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%9B%E7%81%AB%E6%B2%B9" title="猛火油">猛火油</a>(即<a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%B3%E6%B2%B9" title="石油">石油</a>)不能被水熄灭的特性<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_7_81_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_5_part_7_81-74"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>,书中还提到这种猛火油源自中国的南方海上贸易伙伴“大食国”(今<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF%E5%8D%8A%E5%B2%9B" title="阿拉伯半岛">阿拉伯半岛</a>)。<sup id="cite_ref-wuyuebeishi_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wuyuebeishi-75"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_7_82_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_5_part_7_82-76"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>宋人将<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E8%85%8A" title="希腊">希腊</a>人的发明,即双<a href="/wiki/%E6%B4%BB%E5%A1%9E" title="活塞">活塞</a>应用到火器中,以连续喷射火焰。<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_7_82_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_5_part_7_82-76"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> 一直到北宋中期,曾公亮的《<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%A6%E7%BB%8F%E6%80%BB%E8%A6%81" title="武经总要">武经总要</a>》中记载的“猛火油柜”才引入了火药作为引燃物。<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_7_82_76-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_5_part_7_82-76"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>火药的破坏力在<a href="/wiki/%E5%94%90%E6%9C%9D" title="唐朝">唐朝</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%96%E4%B8%B9%E6%9C%AF" title="外丹术">炼丹术</a>已经提及,如唐朝<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B8%85%E8%99%9A%E5%AD%90&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="清虚子(页面不存在)">清虚子</a>编的《铅汞甲庚至宝集成》的记载的“伏火矾法”,<sup id="cite_ref-fuhuofan_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fuhuofan-77"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>而宋人<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AD%9F%E8%A6%81%E7%94%AB&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="孟要甫(页面不存在)">孟要甫</a>的《诸家神品丹法》则收录了无名氏配方的“伏火硫黄法”。<sup id="cite_ref-fuhuoliuhuang_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fuhuoliuhuang-78"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>目前流传下来的最早的记载火药作为武器的制作过程的书籍为曾公亮的《<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%A6%E7%BB%8F%E6%80%BB%E8%A6%81" title="武经总要">武经总要</a>》,描绘了炸药从弹弩发射的机理。<sup id="cite_ref-ebrey_cambridge_138_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ebrey_cambridge_138-79"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> 该书记载了中国第一批军用火器,分火球类和火箭类,在第十一和十二卷中,记录了引火球、蒺藜火球 、毒药烟球三种火药配方。<sup id="cite_ref-wujingzongyao_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wujingzongyao-80"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>宋朝后期研制成功世界上最早的原始炮管和<a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%A0%E5%86%9C%E7%82%AE" title="加农炮">大炮</a>射弹。关于中国火枪最早的艺术作品来自<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%A6%E7%85%8C%E5%B8%82" title="敦煌市">敦煌</a>的佛教壁画,该画大约作于公元950年。<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_7_224_225_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_5_part_7_224_225-81"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>12世纪初期,这些火枪被大量使用,用中空的竹管作为枪管,装有火药沙、铅弹、尖锐的金属屑或瓷器碎片的,后来发展成为大的火药推进的箭。<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_7_220_221_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_5_part_7_220_221-82"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>最后,易损坏的竹子被铸铁管所取代,同时新武器名称也由原来的“火枪”变为“火铳”。13世纪还发展出了“百子连珠炮”,在铜管或铸铁管中可以填充大约100粒<a href="/wiki/%E9%93%85" title="铅">铅</a>弹。<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_7_263-264_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_5_part_7_263-264-83"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>中国人后来发明了包裹炸药的炮弹。<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%8E%E6%9C%9D" title="明朝">明朝</a><a href="/wiki/%E7%84%A6%E7%8E%89" title="焦玉">焦玉</a>所著的《<a href="/wiki/%E7%81%AB%E9%BE%99%E7%BB%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="火龙经">火龙经</a>》记载了宋朝初期的“飞云霹雳炮”,这是一种轻型爆炸性火炮,炮身铁铸造,射生铁铸造的球型爆炸炮弹。<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_7_264_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_5_part_7_264-84"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>1126年(靖康元年),<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%91%E6%9C%9D" title="金朝">金人</a>围攻<a href="/wiki/%E6%B1%B4%E6%A2%81" title="汴梁">汴京</a>,<a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%8E%E7%BA%B2" title="李纲">李纲</a>在守城时曾用<a href="/wiki/%E9%9C%B9%E9%9B%B3%E7%82%AE" title="霹雳炮">霹雳炮</a>击退金兵,“夜发霹雳炮以击贼,军皆惊呼”。<sup id="cite_ref-ligang_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ligang-85"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p><br /> 宋朝新武器的研制逐步推进,还研制出了<a href="/wiki/%E6%8A%95%E7%9F%B3%E6%A9%9F" title="投石機">投石机</a>。据《宋史》记载,1277年(元至元十四年),元兵攻静江,静江外城被攻破,邕守马成旺及其子都统应麒投降,“独塈部将娄钤辖犹以二百五十人守月城不下”。元军围之十餘日,“娄乃令所部入拥一火炮燃之,声如雷霆,震城土皆崩,烟气涨天外,兵多惊死者,火熄入视之,灰烬无遗矣”。<sup id="cite_ref-songshi210_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-songshi210-86"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><a href="/wiki/%E6%98%8E%E6%9C%9D" title="明朝">明朝</a>学者<a href="/wiki/%E8%8C%85%E5%85%83%E4%BB%AA" title="茅元仪">茅元仪</a>在著作《<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%A6%E5%82%99%E5%BF%97" title="武備志">武备志</a>》描绘了这个武器。<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_7_22_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_5_part_7_22-87"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>14世纪的《<a href="/wiki/%E7%81%AB%E9%BE%99%E7%BB%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="火龙经">火龙经</a>》也是中国第一部描绘<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E9%9B%B7" title="地雷">地雷</a>的书籍,地雷被应用在1277年宋人与蒙古人的战争中,宋军使用埋设于地面的“火药炮”(即铁壳地雷),后来在<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%83%E6%9C%9D" title="元朝">元朝</a>进一步发展。<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_7_192_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_5_part_7_192-88"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_Flamethrower.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="《武经总要》中记载的火焰喷射器"><img alt="《武经总要》中记载的火焰喷射器" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Chinese_Flamethrower.JPG/82px-Chinese_Flamethrower.JPG" decoding="async" width="82" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Chinese_Flamethrower.JPG/123px-Chinese_Flamethrower.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Chinese_Flamethrower.JPG/164px-Chinese_Flamethrower.JPG 2x" data-file-width="801" data-file-height="1170" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">《<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%A6%E7%BB%8F%E6%80%BB%E8%A6%81" title="武经总要">武经总要</a>》中记载的<a href="/wiki/%E7%81%AB%E7%84%B0%E5%96%B7%E5%B0%84%E5%99%A8" title="火焰喷射器">火焰喷射器</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%AD%A6%E7%BB%8F%E6%80%BB%E8%A6%81%E5%85%A8%E5%89%8D%E9%9B%86%E5%8D%B7%E5%8D%81%E4%BA%8C_%E7%81%AB%E8%8D%AF%E5%88%B6%E6%B3%95.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="武经总要 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/%E6%AD%A6%E7%BB%8F%E6%80%BB%E8%A6%81_%E7%81%AB%E7%90%83%E5%9B%BE.jpg/133px-%E6%AD%A6%E7%BB%8F%E6%80%BB%E8%A6%81_%E7%81%AB%E7%90%83%E5%9B%BE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/%E6%AD%A6%E7%BB%8F%E6%80%BB%E8%A6%81_%E7%81%AB%E7%90%83%E5%9B%BE.jpg/177px-%E6%AD%A6%E7%BB%8F%E6%80%BB%E8%A6%81_%E7%81%AB%E7%90%83%E5%9B%BE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="739" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">武经总要 蒺藜火球图</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Trebuchet1-intransit.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="《武经总要》中记载的投石机"><img alt="《武经总要》中记载的投石机" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Trebuchet1-intransit.jpg/92px-Trebuchet1-intransit.jpg" decoding="async" width="92" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Trebuchet1-intransit.jpg/138px-Trebuchet1-intransit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Trebuchet1-intransit.jpg/185px-Trebuchet1-intransit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="308" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">《<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%A6%E7%BB%8F%E6%80%BB%E8%A6%81" title="武经总要">武经总要</a>》中记载的<a href="/wiki/%E6%8A%95%E7%9F%B3%E6%A9%9F" title="投石機">投石机</a></div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear: both; height: 1em"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="建筑与土木工程"><span id=".E5.BB.BA.E7.AD.91.E4.B8.8E.E5.9C.9F.E6.9C.A8.E5.B7.A5.E7.A8.8B"></span>建筑与土木工程</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="编辑章节:建筑与土木工程"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Boju-gueltas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A large, square pool of water sits trapped between two metal doors. The door at the rear of the image is at a higher elevation than the door at the front of the image." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Boju-gueltas.jpg/220px-Boju-gueltas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Boju-gueltas.jpg/330px-Boju-gueltas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Boju-gueltas.jpg/440px-Boju-gueltas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1704" data-file-height="2272" /></a><figcaption>法國當代運河船閘系統,採用了北宋喬維岳發明的復閘系統技術</figcaption></figure> <p>984年,淮南转运使<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B9%94%E7%BB%B4%E5%B2%B3&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="乔维岳(页面不存在)">乔维岳</a>负责治理淮河,创建的二斗门,是复闸形式的运河<a href="/wiki/%E8%88%B9%E9%97%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="船闸">船闸</a>,从而提高了河运能力。根据《宋史》记载: </p> <table class="cquote pullquote" role="presentation" style="margin:auto; display:table; border-collapse: collapse; border: none; background-color: transparent; color: inherit;width: auto;"> <tbody><tr> <td class="skin-invert" style="width: 20px; vertical-align: top; border: none; color: #B2B7F2; font-size: 40px; font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;, Times, serif; font-weight: bold; line-height: .6em; text-align: left; padding: 10px; text-orientation: upright">“ </td> <td style="vertical-align: top; border: none; padding: 4px 10px;">维岳规度开故沙河,自末口至淮阴磨盘口,凡四十里。又建安北至淮澨,总五堰,运舟所至,十经上下,其重载者皆卸粮而过,舟时坏失粮,纲卒缘此为奸,潜有侵盗。维岳始命创二斗门于西河第三堰,二门相距逾五十步,覆以厦屋,设县门积水,俟潮平乃泄之。建横桥岸上,筑土累石,以牢其址。自是弊尽革,而运舟往来无滞矣。<sup id="cite_ref-songshi_qiao_weiyue_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-songshi_qiao_weiyue-89"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </td> <td class="skin-invert" style="width: 20px; vertical-align: bottom; border: none; color: #B2B7F2; font-size: 40px; font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;, Times, serif; font-weight: bold; line-height: .6em; text-align: right; padding: 10px; text-orientation: upright">” </td></tr> </tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Canallock.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A diagram of the pound lock system, from a bird&#39;s eye perspective and from a side perspective. The bird&#39;s eye view illustrates that water enters the enclosed area through two culverts on either side of the upper lock gate. The side view diagram illustrates how the elevation is higher before reaching the top gate than it is afterwards." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Canallock.png/220px-Canallock.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Canallock.png 1.5x" data-file-width="297" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>運河復閘原理圖,喬維岳10世紀發明,錄於沈括著《夢溪筆談》</figcaption></figure> <p>该项发明也是世界首创,<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_3_350_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_3_350-90"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>之后广为流传。在沈括的《<a href="/wiki/%E6%A2%A6%E6%BA%AA%E7%AC%94%E8%B0%88" title="梦溪笔谈">梦溪笔谈</a>》中,也提到了复闸的应用,并详细描述了应用该技术后效果。<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E5%9C%A3" title="天圣">天圣</a>年间,扬子江监真州(今江苏仪征)段采用复闸后,每年节约了500名工人,一百二十万钱。以前船只能装载三百石粮食,闸建成后,可以通过四百石粮食的船。<sup id="cite_ref-shenkuo10_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shenkuo10-91"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>沈括亦寫到,當是時(西元1080年左右),官船能載糧最重達七百石,私船則能載多達800袋,每袋2石<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。而且沈括還提及,合理地使用灌溉運河的水閘門能使淤泥施肥之方法最有成效<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。然而在20年前,即1060年,著名的官員和詩人<a href="/wiki/%E8%98%87%E8%BB%BE" class="mw-redirect" title="蘇軾">蘇軾</a>還認為,農業發展與水利並不能相得益彰,他於其《東坡志林》<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>中如是寫道: </p><p><br /> </p> <table class="cquote pullquote" role="presentation" style="margin:auto; display:table; border-collapse: collapse; border: none; background-color: transparent; color: inherit;width: auto;"> <tbody><tr> <td class="skin-invert" style="width: 20px; vertical-align: top; border: none; color: #B2B7F2; font-size: 40px; font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;, Times, serif; font-weight: bold; line-height: .6em; text-align: left; padding: 10px; text-orientation: upright">“ </td> <td style="vertical-align: top; border: none; padding: 4px 10px;">數年前朝廷作汴河斗門以淤田,識者皆以為不可,竟為之,然卒亦無功。方樊山水盛時放斗門,則河田墳墓廬舍皆被害,及秋深水退而放,則淤不能厚,謂之「蒸餅淤」,朝廷亦厭之而罷。偶讀白居易《甲乙判》,有云:「得轉運使以汴河水淺不通運,請築塞兩河斗門,節度使以當管營田悉在河次,在斗門築塞,無以供軍。」乃知唐時汴河兩岸皆有營田斗門,若運水不乏,即可沃灌。古有之而今不能,何也?當更問知者。 </td> <td class="skin-invert" style="width: 20px; vertical-align: bottom; border: none; color: #B2B7F2; font-size: 40px; font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;, Times, serif; font-weight: bold; line-height: .6em; text-align: right; padding: 10px; text-orientation: upright">” </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div style="clear: both; height: 1em"></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Liaodi_Pagoda_1935.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Liaodi_Pagoda_1935.jpg/220px-Liaodi_Pagoda_1935.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="319" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Liaodi_Pagoda_1935.jpg/330px-Liaodi_Pagoda_1935.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Liaodi_Pagoda_1935.jpg/440px-Liaodi_Pagoda_1935.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1483" /></a><figcaption>坍塌后的开元寺塔(料敌塔),1935年</figcaption></figure> <p>在建筑方面,完工于至和二年(1055年)年的<a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%80%E5%85%83%E5%AF%BA%E5%A1%94_(%E5%AE%9A%E5%B7%9E)" title="开元寺塔 (定州)">开元寺塔</a>为中国现存最高的砖塔,共十一层,高84米。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="航海术"><span id=".E8.88.AA.E6.B5.B7.E6.9C.AF"></span>航海术</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="编辑章节:航海术"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Songrivership3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Songrivership3.jpg/200px-Songrivership3.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Songrivership3.jpg/300px-Songrivership3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Songrivership3.jpg/400px-Songrivership3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1709" data-file-height="1281" /></a><figcaption>《<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%A6%E7%BB%8F%E6%80%BB%E8%A6%81" title="武经总要">武经总要</a>》记载的装配<a href="/wiki/%E6%8A%95%E7%9F%B3%E6%A9%9F" title="投石機">投石车</a>的中国宋代的海军战船。</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="背景"><span id=".E8.83.8C.E6.99.AF"></span>背景</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="编辑章节:背景"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>宋朝的船只曾航行到綠衣大食(<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E8%92%82%E7%8E%9B%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D" title="法蒂玛王朝">法蒂玛王朝</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%83%E5%8F%8A" title="埃及">埃及</a>)的港口。<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>士兵们装备精良,驾驶着船尾装有方向锚的大型船只,通过<a href="/wiki/%E6%8C%87%E5%8D%97%E9%92%88" title="指南针">指南针</a>确定航行的方向。在沈括和<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%B1%E5%BD%A7" title="朱彧">朱彧</a>描述海军的磁针指南针之前,更早期的军事著作《<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%A6%E7%BB%8F%E6%80%BB%E8%A6%81" title="武经总要">武经总要</a>》里已经记载了一种热顽磁的指南针。<sup id="cite_ref-sivin_III_21_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sivin_III_21-96"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>这种指南针使用一个(段)简单的铁或钢制的针,通过加热冷却,放到一碗水中产生弱磁铁效应从而发挥效用,虽然这种设备只用于陆上指南而非海上导航。<sup id="cite_ref-sivin_III_21_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sivin_III_21-96"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="著作"><span id=".E8.91.97.E4.BD.9C"></span>著作</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="编辑章节:著作"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>关于宋朝海港运作、商船运输、远洋贸易的著作非常多。<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%B1%E5%BD%A7" title="朱彧">朱彧</a>所著的《<a href="/wiki/%E8%90%8D%E6%B4%B2%E5%8F%AF%E8%AB%87" title="萍洲可談">萍洲可谈</a>》巻二记录了宋代海外贸易及市舶管理情况。书中不仅仅描述了航海的指南针,还描绘了海员从甲板扔铁钩,取得海底泥土,从而根据泥土的气味和外观来判断船只的位置。<sup id="cite_ref-zhu_yu_1_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zhu_yu_1-97"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_1_279_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_1_279-98"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>并且,宋人已经开始掌握了季风规律,并利用季风的规律进行航海,提高了效率。<sup id="cite_ref-zhu_yu_4_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zhu_yu_4-99"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>朱彧还描写了在船上设有<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%B4%E5%AF%86%E9%9A%94%E8%88%B1" class="mw-redirect" title="水密隔舱">水密隔舱</a>,即使有一、二个船舱破裂漏水,其他船舱也不致进水,从而避免船只触礁沉没。<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_3_463_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_3_463-100"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>1973年,在中国南海岸挖掘出一艘长78英尺,宽28英尺,大约是公元1277年的宋朝商船,船上共有12间水密隔舱,从而也验证了朱彧的描述。<sup id="cite_ref-ebrey_159_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ebrey_159-101"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>这些新技术以及江河和运河交通疏通,推动了宋朝的航海文化的发展。政府运作的交通船、贡品船、和驳船,私人的运输船、渔船,还有富人的豪华游艇,构成了一副熙熙攘攘的繁荣景象。<sup id="cite_ref-China_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-China-102"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>除了朱彧外,还有很多杰出的作家的著作中提到了航海技术。《<a href="/wiki/%E5%B2%AD%E5%A4%96%E4%BB%A3%E7%AD%94" title="岭外代答">岭外代答</a>》为<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E5%AE%8B" title="南宋">南宋</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%91%A8%E5%8E%BB%E9%9D%9E" title="周去非">周去非</a>于1178年任<a href="/wiki/%E6%A1%82%E6%9E%97%E5%B8%82" title="桂林市">桂林</a>县尉时所撰写的笔记。书中记载<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D" title="宋朝">宋代</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%B9%BF%E8%A5%BF%E5%A3%AE%E6%97%8F%E8%87%AA%E6%B2%BB%E5%8C%BA" title="广西壮族自治区">广西</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="地理学">地理</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E6%96%87%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="人文科学">人文</a>、边防、风土、物产等方面的丰富的记载,兼述<a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%8A%E5%8D%97" title="越南">安南</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%A0%E5%9F%8E" title="占城">占城</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%89%E4%BD%9B%E9%BD%90" title="三佛齐">三佛齐</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%88%AA%E5%93%87%E5%B2%9B" title="爪哇岛">爪哇</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E5%B8%9D%E5%9C%8B" title="羅馬帝國">大秦</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E6%96%AF" title="波斯">波斯</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%A9%86%E6%8B%89%E6%AF%94%E7%89%B9%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D" title="穆拉比特王朝">木兰皮</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%B3%E4%BA%BA%E5%9B%BD" title="女人国">女人国</a>等域外国家的地理、人文、风土、物产。宋代沿海贸易,比之前代发达许多,因此这本著作是研究宋代中西海上交通和十二世纪<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E6%B5%B7" title="南海">南海</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%9A" title="南亚">南亚</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E4%BA%9A" title="西亚">西亚</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%9C%E4%BA%9A" title="东亚">东亚</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%97%E9%83%A8%E9%9D%9E%E6%B4%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="北部非洲">北非</a>等地古国史的可贵资料。<sup id="cite_ref-levathes_37_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-levathes_37-103"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>书中对木兰舟描写如下: </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_18th_century_Nanjing_ship_or_sand_ship_from_Tosen_no_Zu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/A_18th_century_Nanjing_ship_or_sand_ship_from_Tosen_no_Zu.jpg/200px-A_18th_century_Nanjing_ship_or_sand_ship_from_Tosen_no_Zu.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/A_18th_century_Nanjing_ship_or_sand_ship_from_Tosen_no_Zu.jpg/300px-A_18th_century_Nanjing_ship_or_sand_ship_from_Tosen_no_Zu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/A_18th_century_Nanjing_ship_or_sand_ship_from_Tosen_no_Zu.jpg/400px-A_18th_century_Nanjing_ship_or_sand_ship_from_Tosen_no_Zu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="501" data-file-height="340" /></a><figcaption>一艘宋朝13世纪的<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%B8%86%E8%88%B9" title="中国帆船">中国帆船</a></figcaption></figure> <table class="cquote pullquote" role="presentation" style="margin:auto; display:table; border-collapse: collapse; border: none; background-color: transparent; color: inherit;width: auto;"> <tbody><tr> <td class="skin-invert" style="width: 20px; vertical-align: top; border: none; color: #B2B7F2; font-size: 40px; font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;, Times, serif; font-weight: bold; line-height: .6em; text-align: left; padding: 10px; text-orientation: upright">“ </td> <td style="vertical-align: top; border: none; padding: 4px 10px;">浮南海而南,舟如巨室,帆若垂天之云,柂长数丈,一舟数百人,中积一年粮,豢豕酿酒其中,置死生于度外。...又大食国更越西海,至木兰皮国,则其舟又加大矣。一舟容千人,舟上有机杼市井,或不遇便风,则数年而后达,非甚巨舟,不可至也。<sup id="cite_ref-zhouqufei_1_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zhouqufei_1-104"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </td> <td class="skin-invert" style="width: 20px; vertical-align: bottom; border: none; color: #B2B7F2; font-size: 40px; font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;, Times, serif; font-weight: bold; line-height: .6em; text-align: right; padding: 10px; text-orientation: upright">” </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>书中还描写了海军的藤舟: </p> <table class="cquote pullquote" role="presentation" style="margin:auto; display:table; border-collapse: collapse; border: none; background-color: transparent; color: inherit;width: auto;"> <tbody><tr> <td class="skin-invert" style="width: 20px; vertical-align: top; border: none; color: #B2B7F2; font-size: 40px; font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;, Times, serif; font-weight: bold; line-height: .6em; text-align: left; padding: 10px; text-orientation: upright">“ </td> <td style="vertical-align: top; border: none; padding: 4px 10px;">深广沿海州军,难得铁钉桐油,造船皆空板穿藤约束而成。于藤缝中,以海上所生茜草,干而窒之,遇水则涨,舟为之不漏矣。其舟甚大,越大海商贩皆用之。<sup id="cite_ref-zhouqufei_2_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zhouqufei_2-105"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </td> <td class="skin-invert" style="width: 20px; vertical-align: bottom; border: none; color: #B2B7F2; font-size: 40px; font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;, Times, serif; font-weight: bold; line-height: .6em; text-align: right; padding: 10px; text-orientation: upright">” </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>之后的穆斯林<a href="/wiki/%E6%91%A9%E6%B4%9B%E5%93%A5" title="摩洛哥">摩洛哥</a><a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%8F%E6%9F%8F%E5%B0%94%E4%BA%BA" title="柏柏尔人">柏柏尔</a>旅行家<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%AC%C2%B7%E7%99%BD%E5%9B%BE%E6%B3%B0" title="伊本·白图泰">伊本·白图泰</a>撰写了大量关于中国船只的文章。其中特别提到了<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%B8%86%E8%88%B9" title="中国帆船">中国帆船</a>。<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_3_469_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_3_469-106"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> 他还描述最大的中国船有12根桅杆,而小船则有3根。<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_3_469_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_3_469-106"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="桨轮船"><span id=".E6.A1.A8.E8.BD.AE.E8.88.B9"></span>桨轮船</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="编辑章节:桨轮船"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Radpaddelsch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Radpaddelsch.jpg/200px-Radpaddelsch.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Radpaddelsch.jpg/300px-Radpaddelsch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Radpaddelsch.jpg/400px-Radpaddelsch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="405" data-file-height="604" /></a><figcaption>桨轮船</figcaption></figure> <p>宋朝为一种依靠人力踩动车轮推动的船的建造投入了大量的物力,被称作桨轮船。自公元5世纪以来就开始有这种船的雏形,<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_3_31_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_3_31-107"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><a href="/wiki/%E5%94%90%E6%9C%9D" title="唐朝">唐代</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%8E%E7%9A%8B" class="mw-disambig" title="李皋">李皋</a>则于784年成功设计出桨轮船,在战船的舷侧或艉部装置了人力桨轮。<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_3_31_107-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_3_31-107"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>当人力踩动车轮时,叶片拨水,产生动力,船也随之前行。宋朝将领<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%90%B4%E9%9D%A9&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="吴革(页面不存在)">吴革</a>于1134年制造了一批桨轮船,一艘有9个桨轮,其余的有13个桨轮。<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_3_421_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_3_421-108"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>在宋朝还有船的两侧各有12个桨轮的大轮船。<sup id="cite_ref-morton_104_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-morton_104-109"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>1135年,著名将领<a href="/wiki/%E5%B2%B3%E9%A3%9E" title="岳飞">岳飞</a>镇压洞庭湖地区叛军<a href="/wiki/%E5%B2%B3%E9%A3%9B%E5%89%BF%E6%BB%85%E6%A5%8A%E5%B9%BA" title="岳飛剿滅楊幺">楊幺</a>的时候,在湖中放置漂浮的杂草和腐烂的圆木来对付桨轮船,从而登上了甲板,获得了战略性胜利。<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_3_421_108-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_3_421-108"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="冶金术"><span id=".E5.86.B6.E9.87.91.E6.9C.AF"></span>冶金术</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="编辑章节:冶金术"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>宋朝积累了前人的经验,在<a href="/wiki/%E5%86%B6%E9%87%91%E5%AD%A6" title="冶金学">冶金</a>方面引入了新的技术。公元前1世纪,<a href="/wiki/%E6%B1%89%E6%9C%9D" title="汉朝">汉朝</a>时期的中国人已经研制出用<a href="/wiki/%E7%A2%B3" title="碳">碳</a>作为媒介物,将<a href="/wiki/%E9%8D%9B%E9%90%B5" class="mw-redirect" title="鍛鐵">锻铁</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E9%93%B8%E9%93%81" title="铸铁">铸铁</a>融化在一起炼<a href="/wiki/%E9%92%A2" title="钢">钢</a>的方法。<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_3_563g_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_3_563g-110"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gernet_69_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gernet_69-111"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-morton_287_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-morton_287-112"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>11世纪,宋朝又研制出两项炼铁的革新。一种方法用来铸造次等的不均匀的钢;另一种是现代炼钢熔炉的前身,通过鼓冷风反复锻造,来达到脱碳的目的。<sup id="cite_ref-Hartwell,_53_54_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hartwell,_53_54-113"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hydraulic-Powdered_Trip_Hammers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Hydraulic-Powdered_Trip_Hammers.jpg/200px-Hydraulic-Powdered_Trip_Hammers.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Hydraulic-Powdered_Trip_Hammers.jpg/300px-Hydraulic-Powdered_Trip_Hammers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Hydraulic-Powdered_Trip_Hammers.jpg/400px-Hydraulic-Powdered_Trip_Hammers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="933" data-file-height="756" /></a><figcaption>水力驱动的杵锤</figcaption></figure> <p>806年到1078年期间,人均<a href="/wiki/%E9%93%81" title="铁">铁</a>的产量增长了六倍,到1078年,年产量已经达到了1.27亿公斤。<sup id="cite_ref-Ebrey_158_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ebrey_158-114"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-wagner_175_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wagner_175-115"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>還發展出如<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%A5%E4%BA%BA%E7%94%B2" title="步人甲">步人甲</a>這類的<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8D%E6%AD%A5%E5%85%B5" class="mw-redirect" title="重步兵">重步兵</a><a href="/wiki/%E9%8E%A7%E7%94%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="鎧甲">铠甲</a>,1134年所规定的步人甲由1825张<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%B2%E5%8F%B6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="甲叶(页面不存在)">甲叶</a>连缀而成,重达29公斤,被认为是世界上最重的<a href="/wiki/%E7%9B%94%E7%94%B2" title="盔甲">盔甲</a>,同时可通过增加甲叶数量来提高防护力,但是重量会进一步上升。为此,皇帝亲自赐命,规定步兵铠甲以29.8KG为限。此后,又把长枪手的铠甲重量定为32-35KG;由于弓箭手经常卷入近战格斗,其铠甲定为 28-33KG;而弩射手的铠甲定为22-27KG。 </p><p>历史学家唐纳德·瓦格纳指出产量的数据是基于政府向国内各个生产铁的县收取的税赋记录来统计的。<sup id="cite_ref-wagner_177_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wagner_177-116"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> 应用<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%B4%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%A6" title="水力学">水力</a>驱动熔炉的大型风箱,在铸造过程中使用大量的<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%A8%E7%82%AD" title="木炭">木炭</a>,因此导致中国北部大范围森林开伐。<sup id="cite_ref-Ebrey_158_114-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ebrey_158-114"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ebrey_cambridge_144_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ebrey_cambridge_144-117"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>在11世纪末期,中国人发现可以用烟煤取代木炭,因此中国北部的森林和上好的木材得以保留下来。<sup id="cite_ref-Ebrey_158_114-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ebrey_158-114"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ebrey_cambridge_144_117-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ebrey_cambridge_144-117"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> 宋朝钢铁业产量的飞涨有多种原因,一是宋朝军事扩张,二是商用金属产品需求的增长,如炊事器具、种类繁多的农业工具等,而新的运河的开通也连接了主要钢铁产品生产中心和繁华的首都市场。<sup id="cite_ref-embree_339_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-embree_339-118"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>宋朝最主要的铁产品是武器、工具、钱币、农具、乐器、艺术雕像,<sup id="cite_ref-wagner_175_115-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wagner_175-115"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> 另外还有机械的组件如水力驱动的杵锤,这种设备在公元前1世纪的汉代已经开始使用,在宋朝更是大量应用。<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_393_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_393-119"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> 由于大量的铁产品的需求,经济历史学家郝若贝(罗伯特·哈特韦尔)指出中国12世纪的铁和煤的产量几乎与<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%9B%BD" title="英国">英国</a>18世纪<a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%A5%E4%B8%9A%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" class="mw-redirect" title="工业革命">工业革命</a>时期的铁和煤的产量相当。<sup id="cite_ref-embree_712_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-embree_712-120"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> 然而,宋朝人并没有发现可以利用煤的能量研制出相应的动力机械。<sup id="cite_ref-China_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-China-102"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>在宋朝时期,政府非常重视钢铁业的管理。如诗人和政治家<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%8F%E8%BD%BC" title="苏轼">苏轼</a>担任徐州知府期间,于1078年曾献表详细说明36座铁熔炉的生产情况,每个都有几百名工人。<sup id="cite_ref-wagner_178_179_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wagner_178_179-121"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="风力"><span id=".E9.A3.8E.E5.8A.9B"></span>风力</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14" title="编辑章节:风力"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yuan_Dynasty_-_waterwheels_and_smelting.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Yuan_Dynasty_-_waterwheels_and_smelting.png/200px-Yuan_Dynasty_-_waterwheels_and_smelting.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Yuan_Dynasty_-_waterwheels_and_smelting.png/300px-Yuan_Dynasty_-_waterwheels_and_smelting.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Yuan_Dynasty_-_waterwheels_and_smelting.png/400px-Yuan_Dynasty_-_waterwheels_and_smelting.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="592" /></a><figcaption>《<a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%8B%E7%A5%AF%E5%86%9C%E4%B9%A6" title="王祯农书">王祯农书</a>》中描绘的元代的水排</figcaption></figure> <p>中国利用风力由来已久,<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%8B%E7%A5%9E%E5%AE%97" title="宋神宗">宋神宗</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%83%E4%B8%B0_(%E5%8C%97%E5%AE%8B)" title="元丰 (北宋)">元丰</a>年间更进一步发明了<a href="/wiki/%E9%A2%A8%E8%BB%8A" class="mw-disambig" title="風車">风磨</a>。古中国人从何时开始在窑和熔炉使用风箱至今没有明确考证,也许从<a href="/wiki/%E5%95%86%E6%9C%9D" title="商朝">商朝</a>以来就存在了,因为自那时起炼<a href="/wiki/%E9%93%9C" title="铜">铜</a>技术已经十分复杂。可以确定的是从公元前6世纪之前鼓风炉已经开始在中国出现,因为<a href="/wiki/%E9%93%B8%E9%93%81" title="铸铁">铸铁</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%86%9C%E5%85%B7" title="农具">农具</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%A6%E5%99%A8" title="武器">武器</a>在公元前5世纪已经广泛使用。<sup id="cite_ref-ebrey_30_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ebrey_30-122"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>公元31年,<a href="/wiki/%E6%B1%89%E6%9C%9D" title="汉朝">汉代</a>南阳太守<a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%9C%E8%A9%A9_(%E6%9D%B1%E6%BC%A2%E5%AE%98%E5%93%A1)" class="mw-redirect" title="杜詩 (東漢官員)">杜诗</a>发明了水排,以水力传动机械,使皮制的鼓风囊连续开合,将空气送入冶铁炉,铸造农具。<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_370_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_370-124"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>风箱继续应用在<a href="/wiki/%E5%86%B6%E9%87%91%E5%AD%A6" title="冶金学">冶金</a>上,同时其他应用风力的设备也相继出现。汉代的工匠<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%81%E7%B7%A9" title="丁緩">丁缓</a>,不仅是最早发明<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%A1%E5%B0%94%E8%BE%BE%E8%AF%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="卡尔达诺">卡尔达诺悬挂</a>的人,还发明了七轮扇,<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_33_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_33-125"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> 可以视为一个小型的<a href="/wiki/%E7%A9%BA%E6%B0%A3%E8%AA%BF%E7%AF%80" title="空氣調節">空调</a>。<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_233_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_233-127"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>在<a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%8B%E7%A5%AF_(%E5%85%83%E6%9C%9D)" title="王祯 (元朝)">王祯</a>的著作《<a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%8B%E7%A5%AF%E5%86%9C%E4%B9%A6" title="王祯农书">王祯农书</a>》中,描绘了一种复杂的去糠簸的风扬机。(最早的风扬机在汉代的一座坟墓中出土,据考证年代在公元前2世纪到公元2世纪之间。)<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_118_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_118-128"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>在这些发明之后,风磨于13世纪初年在<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%91%E6%9C%9D" title="金朝">金朝</a>出现。 </p><p>据考证,中国北部<a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%B3%E7%9C%9F%E6%97%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="女真族">女真族</a>从<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E5%85%B0%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="伊斯兰国家">伊斯兰国家</a>学习到了<a href="/wiki/%E9%A2%A8%E8%BB%8A" class="mw-disambig" title="風車">风磨</a>的知识,在<a href="/wiki/%E7%9B%9B%E5%A6%82%E6%A2%93" title="盛如梓">盛如梓</a>的《<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BA%B6%E6%96%8B%E8%80%81%E5%AD%A6%E4%B8%9B%E8%B0%88&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="庶斋老学丛谈(页面不存在)">庶斋老学丛谈</a>》也有相关的记载。<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_560_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_560-129"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> 如今风磨依旧在<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E6%B4%A5%E5%B8%82" title="天津市">天津</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E9%95%BF%E6%B1%9F" title="长江">长江</a>流域使用。<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_558_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_558-130"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>第一位参观中国的风磨的欧洲人是<a href="/wiki/%E8%8D%B7%E5%85%B0" title="荷兰">荷兰</a>驻中国大使<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%80%AA%E8%B4%BA%E5%A4%AB&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="倪贺夫(页面不存在)">倪贺夫</a>,他于1656年坐船沿<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%AC%E6%9D%AD%E5%A4%A7%E8%BF%90%E6%B2%B3" title="京杭大运河">京杭大运河</a>经过<a href="/wiki/%E6%B1%9F%E8%8B%8F%E7%9C%81" title="江苏省">江苏</a>。<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_558_130-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_558-130"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>风磨之后,其它利用风力的设备甚至交通工具相继在中国出现。利用风力的独轮车于17世纪<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%8E%E6%9C%9D" title="明朝">明朝</a>甚至明朝之前出现,欧洲人16世纪来到中国的时候,惊讶地发现大型独轮车不仅仅由驴或者马拉动,还安装了类似船上的桅的装置和帆,通过风力帮助车辆行进。<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_274_276_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_274_276-131"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="其它"><span id=".E5.85.B6.E5.AE.83"></span>其它</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15" title="编辑章节:其它"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>絲綢、陶瓷在中國為民生產業,亦為奢侈品行業及大宗出口貨品,其工藝在宋代均有發展。自唐以來,陶瓷之業,日見發達,而宋代有一最著名之美術工藝,為歷代所不及,曰瓷器,其中以<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AE%9A%E7%93%B7&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="定瓷(页面不存在)">定</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%B1%9D%E7%93%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="汝瓷">汝</a>、<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AE%98%E7%93%B7&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="官瓷(页面不存在)">官</a>、<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%A5%E7%93%B7&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="哥瓷(页面不存在)">哥</a>等為最有名,外此複有<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%89%E5%B7%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="吉州">吉州</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%9D%87%E5%B7%9E" title="均州">均州</a>、<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%93%B7%E5%B7%9E&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="瓷州(页面不存在)">瓷州</a>等窯,<a href="/wiki/%E6%99%AF%E5%BE%B7%E9%8E%AE%E7%93%B7%E5%99%A8" class="mw-redirect" title="景德鎮瓷器">景德鎮之瓷器</a>源于唐而大放光彩於<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%8B%E7%9C%9F%E5%AE%97" title="宋真宗">宋真宗</a>之世。<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>在現代,仍有陶瓷專家通過研究古代特别是宋代<a href="/wiki/%E6%99%AF%E5%BE%B7%E9%8E%AE" class="mw-redirect" title="景德鎮">景德鎮</a>等地的陶瓷原料和工藝來改進陶瓷製作技術。<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="参见"><span id=".E5.8F.82.E8.A7.81"></span>参见</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16" title="编辑章节:参见"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>《<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E7%9A%84%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E4%B8%8E%E6%96%87%E6%98%8E" class="mw-redirect" title="中国的科学与文明">中国的科学与文明</a>》</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E6%8A%80%E6%9C%AF%E5%8F%B2" title="中国科学技术史">中国科学技术史</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E7%99%BC%E6%98%8E%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="中國發明列表(页面不存在)">中国发明列表</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="另见"><span id=".E5.8F.A6.E8.A7.81"></span>另见</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17" title="编辑章节:另见"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%98%8E%E6%9C%9D%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80" title="明朝科技">明朝科技</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="参考文献"><span id=".E5.8F.82.E8.80.83.E6.96.87.E7.8C.AE"></span>参考文献</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18" title="编辑章节:参考文献"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="引用"><span id=".E5.BC.95.E7.94.A8"></span>引用</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19" title="编辑章节:引用"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREF钱存训2004" class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/%E9%8C%A2%E5%AD%98%E8%A8%93" title="錢存訓">钱存训</a>. 《中国纸和印刷文化史》. 2004. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/7-5633-4472-1" title="Special:网络书源/7-5633-4472-1"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span>&#160;7-5633-4472-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80&amp;rft.au=%E9%92%B1%E5%AD%98%E8%AE%AD&amp;rft.btitle=%E3%80%8A%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E7%BA%B8%E5%92%8C%E5%8D%B0%E5%88%B7%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E5%8F%B2%E3%80%8B&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=7-5633-4472-1&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">(第8章:纸与印刷术的西传)</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">安田朴. 《<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E8%A5%BF%E5%82%B3%E6%AD%90%E6%B4%B2%E5%8F%B2&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="中國文化西傳歐洲史(页面不存在)">中國文化西傳歐洲史</a>》. 商務印書館. 2000-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80&amp;rft.au=%E5%AE%89%E7%94%B0%E6%9C%B4&amp;rft.btitle=%E3%80%8A%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E8%A5%BF%E5%82%B3%E6%AD%90%E6%B4%B2%E5%8F%B2%E3%80%8B&amp;rft.date=2000-07&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pub=%E5%95%86%E5%8B%99%E5%8D%B0%E6%9B%B8%E9%A4%A8&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Needham_1-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Needham_1_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第一卷。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">陈寅恪,《陈寅恪先生文集》,第2卷,第245页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_466-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_466_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第四卷,第二分册,466页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sivin_III_22-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sivin_III_22_6-0"><sup><b>6.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sivin_III_22_6-1"><sup><b>6.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sivin,III,第22页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sivin_III_23-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sivin_III_23_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sivin,III,第23页</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_3_618-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_3_618_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第三卷,第618页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_3_415_416-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_3_415_416_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第三卷,第415-416页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sivin_III_16-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sivin_III_16_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sivin,III,第16页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sivin_III_19-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sivin_III_19_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sivin,III,第19页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sivin_III_18_19-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sivin_III_18_19_12-0"><sup><b>12.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sivin_III_18_19_12-1"><sup><b>12.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sivin,III,第18-19页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-unschuld_60-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-unschuld_60_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Unschuld,第60页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wu_5-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-wu_5_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wu,第5页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_446-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_446_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第四卷,第二分册,第446页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_3_569-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_3_569_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第四卷,第三分册,第569页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wright_213-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-wright_213_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright,第213页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tuotuo_susong-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tuotuo_susong_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">脱脱,《宋史》,列传第九十九,苏颂,“既又请别制浑仪,因命颂提举。……授以古法,为台三层,上设浑仪,中设浑象,下设司辰,贯以一机,激水转轮,不假人力。时至刻临,则司辰出告。”</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sivin_III_31_32-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sivin_III_31_32_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sivin,III,第31-32页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_111-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_111_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第四卷,第二分册,第111页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tuotuo_shenkuo-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tuotuo_shenkuo_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">脱脱,《宋史》,列传第九十,沈括,“括博学善文,于天文、方志、律历、音乐、医药、卜算,无所不通,皆有所论著。”</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ebrey_162-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ebrey_162_22-0"><sup><b>22.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ebrey_162_22-1"><sup><b>22.1</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ebrey_162_22-2"><sup><b>22.2</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ebrey,第162页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ebrey_cambridge_148-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ebrey_cambridge_148_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ebrey,《Cambridge Illustrated History of China》,第148页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-shen_kuo5-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-shen_kuo5_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">沈括,《梦溪笔谈》,卷十八-技艺,“千变万化,不出此数,棋之局尽矣。”。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-shen_kuo6-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-shen_kuo6_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">沈括,《梦溪笔谈》,卷十一-官政一,“凡师行,因粮于敌,最为急务。运粮不但多费。而势难行远。馀尝计之...”</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-shen_kuo7-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-shen_kuo7_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">沈括,《梦溪笔谈》,卷七-象数一,“古今言刻漏者数十家,悉皆疏谬。……予编校昭文书时,预详定浑天仪。……”。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sivin_III_17-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sivin_III_17_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sivin,III,第17页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_1_98-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_1_98_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第四卷,第一部分,第98页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">见《<a href="/wiki/%E7%AE%A1%E5%AD%90_(%E6%9B%B8%E7%B1%8D)" class="mw-redirect" title="管子 (書籍)">管子</a>》<a href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E7%AE%A1%E5%AD%90/%E7%AC%AC77%E7%AF%87%E5%9C%B0%E6%95%B0" class="extiw" title="s:管子/第77篇地数">地数第七十七</a>,原文:「……黄帝曰:『若此言可得闻乎?』伯高对曰:『上有丹沙者,下有黄金。上有慈石者,下有铜金。上有陵石者,下有铅锡赤铜。上有赭者,下有铁。』……」</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">见《<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%95%E6%B0%8F%E6%98%A5%E7%A7%8B" title="吕氏春秋">吕氏春秋</a>》<a href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%90%95%E6%B0%8F%E6%98%A5%E7%A7%8B/%E5%8D%B7%E4%B9%9D#精通" class="extiw" title="s:吕氏春秋/卷九">卷九</a>,原文:「……慈石召铁,或引之也。……」</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">见《<a href="/wiki/%E6%B7%AE%E5%8D%97%E5%AD%90" title="淮南子">淮南子</a>》<a href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%B7%AE%E5%8D%97%E5%AD%90/%E8%AF%B4%E5%B1%B1%E8%AE%AD" class="extiw" title="s:淮南子/说山训">卷十六 说山训</a>,原文:「……慈石能引铁,及其于铜,则不行也。……」</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blanc (1985), 125, 128, 132–133, 136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Knoblock (2001), 218.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rickett (1998), 424.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carlson (1975), 755.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gernet_1962_77-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-gernet_1962_77_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gernet (1962), 77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tom_1989_98–99-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tom_1989_98–99_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tom (1989), 98–99.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lacheisserie (2005), 5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aczel (2002), 80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-song_shi1-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-song_shi1_40-0"><sup><b>40.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-song_shi1_40-1"><sup><b>40.1</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-song_shi1_40-2"><sup><b>40.2</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">脱脱,《宋史》,志第一百二,舆服一,指南车。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tuotuo3-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tuotuo3_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">脱脱,《宋史》,志第一百二 舆服一,“仁宗天圣五年,工部郎中燕肃始造指南车”、“其法:用独辕车,车箱外笼上有重构,立木仙人于上,引臂南指。”</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sivin_III_31-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sivin_III_31_42-0"><sup><b>42.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sivin_III_31_42-1"><sup><b>42.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sivin,III,第31页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-song_shi2-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-song_shi2_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">脱脱,《宋史》,列传第五十七, 燕肃传。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_549-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_549_44-0"><sup><b>44.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_549_44-1"><sup><b>44.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第四卷,第二分册,第549页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">梁思成,《中国建筑艺术二十讲》,第7讲,中国的佛教建筑</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">梁思成全集第七卷 471页 宋李诫原著 营造法式 卷三十二 转轮经藏图 <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/7112044316" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 7112044316</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_551-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_551_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第四卷,第二分册,第551页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_552-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_552_48-0"><sup><b>48.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_552_48-1"><sup><b>48.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第四卷,第二分册,第552页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_108-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_108_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第四卷,第二分册,第108页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">《中国农史》,1987年第1期。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">北京晚报,<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://epaper.bjd.com.cn/wb/20060409/200604/t5050.htm">从《耕织图》到耕织图</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20070927231516/http://epaper.bjd.com.cn/wb/20060409/200604/t5050.htm">页面存档备份</a>,存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>),于2007年12月29日查阅。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bowman_105-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bowman_105_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bowman,第105页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-shenkuo-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-shenkuo_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">沈括,《梦溪笔谈》,卷十八-技艺。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ebrey_238-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ebrey_238_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ebrey,第238页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas Christensen (2007). "Did East Asian Printing Traditions Influence the European Renaissance?". Arts of Asia Magazine (to appear). </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_1_1-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_1_1_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第四卷,第一分册,第一页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070223074703/http://www.ex.ac.uk/%7ERDavies/arian/origins.html#paper">Origins of Money and Banking</a>. University of Exeter. May 25, 2005 <span class="reference-accessdate"> &#91;<span class="nowrap">2007-03-09</span>&#93;</span>. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ex.ac.uk/~RDavies/arian/origins.html#paper">原始内容</a>存档于2007-02-23).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80&amp;rft.btitle=Origins+of+Money+and+Banking&amp;rft.date=2005-05-25&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Exeter&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ex.ac.uk%2F~RDavies%2Farian%2Forigins.html%23paper&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ebrey_156-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ebrey_156_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ebrey,第156页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tuotuojiaozi1-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tuotuojiaozi1_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">脱脱,《宋史》,志第一百三十四食货下三,会子盐上,“患蜀人铁钱重,不便贸易”。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tuotuojiaozi2-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tuotuojiaozi2_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">脱脱,《宋史》,志第一百三十四食货下三,会子盐上,“转运使薛田、张若谷请置益州交子务,以榷其出入,私造者禁之。仁宗从其议。”</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jiarengfan-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jiarengfan_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">加藤繁,《中国经济史考证》,第二卷,第11页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lishoujiaozi-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lishoujiaozi_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">李焘,《续资治通鉴长编》,卷一百一十一,天圣元年,“薛田为转运使,请官置交子务以榷其出入。……戊午,诏从其请,始置益州交子务。”</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_1_122-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_1_122_63-0"><sup><b>63.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_1_122_63-1"><sup><b>63.1</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_1_122_63-2"><sup><b>63.2</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第四卷,第一分册,第122页</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_5_part_1_48-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_1_48_64-0"><sup><b>64.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_1_48_64-1"><sup><b>64.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第五卷,第一分册,第48页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">《The Genius of China》,Robert Temple。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_5_part_7_293-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_7_293_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第五卷,第七分册,第293页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110723115852/http://www.erdsi.net/sjszzdhp.html">The World's Earliest Cannon (世界上最早的火炮)</a>. <span class="reference-accessdate"> &#91;<span class="nowrap">November 18,</span> 2010&#93;</span>. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.erdsi.net/sjszzdhp.html">原始内容</a>存档于2011-07-23) <span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="连接到中文网页">(中文)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80&amp;rft.btitle=The+World%27s+Earliest+Cannon+%28%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E4%B8%8A%E6%9C%80%E6%97%A9%E7%9A%84%E7%81%AB%E7%82%AE%29&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.erdsi.net%2Fsjszzdhp.html&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Allan_Lorge2008" class="citation">Peter Allan Lorge, The Asian military revolution: from gunpowder to the bomb, Cambridge University Press: 32, 2008, <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-521-60954-8" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-521-60954-8"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span>&#160;978-0-521-60954-8</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80&amp;rft.au=Peter+Allan+Lorge&amp;rft.btitle=The+Asian+military+revolution%3A+from+gunpowder+to+the+bomb&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-521-60954-8&amp;rft.pages=32&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chase, Kenneth (2003), Firearms: A Global History to 1700, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0521822742" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-521-82274-2</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Buchanan, Brenda J., ed. (2006), Gunpowder, Explosives and the State: A Technological History, Aldershot: Ashgate, <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0754652599" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-7546-5259-9</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E8%B7%AF%E6%8C%AF" title="路振">路振</a>:《九國志‧ 鄭璠傳》 </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">見《<a href="/wiki/%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%92" class="mw-redirect" title="資治通鑒">資治通鑑</a>》<a href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7269#均王上貞明三年(丁丑,公元九一七年)" class="extiw" title="s:資治通鑑/卷269">卷269均王上貞明三年(丁丑,公元九一七年)</a>,原文:「……吳王遣使遺契丹主以猛火油,曰:『攻城,以此油然火焚樓櫓,敵以水沃之,火愈熾。』……」,李約瑟可能當時僅有《十國春秋》可資佐證,應以《資治通鑑》為主</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_5_part_7_80-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_7_80_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第五卷,第七分册,第80页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_5_part_7_81-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_7_81_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第五卷,第七分册,第81页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wuyuebeishi-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-wuyuebeishi_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">钱俨,《吴越备史》,卷三,文穆王,“火油得之海南大食国,以铁筒发之,水沃其焰弥盛。”</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_5_part_7_82-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_7_82_76-0"><sup><b>76.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_7_82_76-1"><sup><b>76.1</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_7_82_76-2"><sup><b>76.2</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第五卷,第七分册,第82页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fuhuofan-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-fuhuofan_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">清虚子,《铅汞甲庚至宝集成》,卷二,“硫二两、硝二两,马兜铃二钱半。右为末,拌匀。掘坑,入药于罐内,与地平。将熟火一块,弹子大,下放里面,烟渐渐起,以湿纸四、五重盖,用方砖两片捺,以土冢之,候冷取出,其硫黄住,每白矾三两,入伏火硫黄二两,为末,大甘锅一个,以药在内,成汁,倾石器中,其色如玉也。”</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fuhuoliuhuang-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-fuhuoliuhuang_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">孟要甫,《诸家神品丹法》,卷五,“硫黄、硝石各二两,今研。右用销银锅,或砂罐子,人上件药在内。掘一地坑,放锅子在坑内,与地平,四面却以土填实。将皂角子不蛀者三个,烧令存性,以钤逐个入之。候出尽焰,即就口上着生熟炭三斤簇煅之,候炭消三分之一,即去餘火,不用冷,取之,即伏火矣。”</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ebrey_cambridge_138-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ebrey_cambridge_138_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ebrey,《Cambridge Illustrated History of China》,第138页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wujingzongyao-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-wujingzongyao_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">曾公亮、丁度,《武经总要》,第十一和十二卷。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_5_part_7_224_225-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_7_224_225_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第五卷,第七分册,第224-225页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_5_part_7_220_221-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_7_220_221_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第五卷,第七分册,第220-221页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_5_part_7_263-264-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_7_263-264_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第五卷,第七分册,第263-264页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_5_part_7_264-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_7_264_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第五卷,第七分册,第264页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ligang-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ligang_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">李纲,《靖康传信录》,卷二。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-songshi210-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-songshi210_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">脱脱,《宋史》,列传第二百一十,忠义六。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_5_part_7_22-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_7_22_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第五卷,第七分册,第22页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_5_part_7_192-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_7_192_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第五卷,第七分册,第192页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-songshi_qiao_weiyue-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-songshi_qiao_weiyue_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">脱脱,《宋史》,列传第六十六,乔维岳。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_3_350-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_3_350_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第四卷,第三分册,第350页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-shenkuo10-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-shenkuo10_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">沈括,《梦溪笔谈》,卷十二-官政二,“天圣中,监真州排岸司右禁陶鉴始议为复闸节水,以省舟船过埭之劳。……”</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 352</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 230-231</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www4.webng.com/khcjhk/song/dpzl1a.htm#_Toc90119162">[1]</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20111206081618/http://www4.webng.com/khcjhk/song/dpzl1a.htm#_Toc90119162">页面存档备份</a>,存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>) <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111206081618/http://www4.webng.com/khcjhk/Song/dpzl1a.htm">存档副本</a>. <span class="reference-accessdate"> &#91;<span class="nowrap">2017-09-19</span>&#93;</span>. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www4.webng.com/khcjhk/Song/dpzl1a.htm">原始内容</a>存档于2011-12-06).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80&amp;rft.btitle=%E5%AD%98%E6%A1%A3%E5%89%AF%E6%9C%AC&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww4.webng.com%2Fkhcjhk%2FSong%2Fdpzl1a.htm&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span>蘇軾,《東坡志林》,卷四,<i>《汴河斗門》</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">見《<a href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E8%AB%B8%E8%95%83%E5%BF%97" class="extiw" title="s:諸蕃志">諸蕃志</a>》中<a href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E8%AB%B8%E8%95%83%E5%BF%97#中理國" class="extiw" title="s:諸蕃志">中理國</a>、<a href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E8%AB%B8%E8%95%83%E5%BF%97#層拔國" class="extiw" title="s:諸蕃志">層拔國</a>(今<a href="/wiki/%E6%A1%91%E7%B5%A6%E5%B7%B4%E7%88%BE" title="桑給巴爾">桑給巴爾</a>)、<a href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E8%AB%B8%E8%95%83%E5%BF%97#勿廝離國" class="extiw" title="s:諸蕃志">勿廝離國</a>(勿廝離國考證見<cite class="citation web">许永璋. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090829120906/http://iwaas.cass.cn/SuoKan/show_SuoKan_ls.asp?id=412">中国载籍中非洲史资料汇编问题漫议</a>. 中国社科院西亚非洲研究所. 2001 <span class="reference-accessdate"> &#91;<span class="nowrap">2009-08-26</span>&#93;</span>. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://iwaas.cass.cn/SuoKan/show_SuoKan_ls.asp?id=412">原始内容</a>存档于2009-08-29).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80&amp;rft.au=%E8%AE%B8%E6%B0%B8%E7%92%8B&amp;rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E8%BD%BD%E7%B1%8D%E4%B8%AD%E9%9D%9E%E6%B4%B2%E5%8F%B2%E8%B5%84%E6%96%99%E6%B1%87%E7%BC%96%E9%97%AE%E9%A2%98%E6%BC%AB%E8%AE%AE&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.pub=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E7%A4%BE%E7%A7%91%E9%99%A2%E8%A5%BF%E4%BA%9A%E9%9D%9E%E6%B4%B2%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%E6%89%80&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fiwaas.cass.cn%2FSuoKan%2Fshow_SuoKan_ls.asp%3Fid%3D412&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sivin_III_21-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sivin_III_21_96-0"><sup><b>96.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sivin_III_21_96-1"><sup><b>96.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sivin,III,第21页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-zhu_yu_1-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-zhu_yu_1_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">朱彧,《萍洲可谈》卷二,“夜则观星,昼则观日,阴晦観指南针,或以十丈绳钩,取海底泥嗅之,便知所至。”</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_1_279-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_1_279_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第四卷,第一分册,第279页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-zhu_yu_4-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-zhu_yu_4_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">朱彧,《萍洲可谈》卷二,“船舶去以十一月、十二月,就北风;来以五月、六月,就南风。”</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_3_463-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_3_463_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第四卷,第三分册,第463页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ebrey_159-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ebrey_159_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ebrey,第159年。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-China-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-China_102-0"><sup><b>102.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-China_102-1"><sup><b>102.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">大英百科全书,<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-71718/China">《宋文化》</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20071226111719/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-71718/China">页面存档备份</a>,存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>),2007年12月28日查阅。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-levathes_37-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-levathes_37_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Levathes,第37页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-zhouqufei_1-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-zhouqufei_1_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">周去非,《岭外代答》卷六,器用门 舟楫附,木兰舟。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-zhouqufei_2-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-zhouqufei_2_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">周去非,《岭外代答》卷六,器用门 舟楫附,藤舟。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_3_469-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_3_469_106-0"><sup><b>106.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_3_469_106-1"><sup><b>106.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第四卷,第三分册,第469页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_3_31-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_3_31_107-0"><sup><b>107.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_3_31_107-1"><sup><b>107.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第四卷,第三分册,第31页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_3_421-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_3_421_108-0"><sup><b>108.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_3_421_108-1"><sup><b>108.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第四卷,第三分册,第421页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-morton_104-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-morton_104_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Morton,第104页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_3_563g-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_3_563g_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第四卷,第三分册,第563页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gernet_69-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-gernet_69_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gernet,第69页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-morton_287-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-morton_287_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Morton,第287页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hartwell,_53_54-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hartwell,_53_54_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hartwell,第53-54页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ebrey_158-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ebrey_158_114-0"><sup><b>114.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ebrey_158_114-1"><sup><b>114.1</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ebrey_158_114-2"><sup><b>114.2</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ebrey et al.,第158页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wagner_175-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wagner_175_115-0"><sup><b>115.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wagner_175_115-1"><sup><b>115.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wagner,第175页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wagner_177-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-wagner_177_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wagner,第177页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ebrey_cambridge_144-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ebrey_cambridge_144_117-0"><sup><b>117.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ebrey_cambridge_144_117-1"><sup><b>117.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ebrey,《Cambridge Illustrated History of China》,第144页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-embree_339-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-embree_339_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Embree,第339页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_393-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_393_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第四卷,第二分册,第390-393页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-embree_712-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-embree_712_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Embree,第712页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wagner_178_179-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-wagner_178_179_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wagner,第178-179页</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ebrey_30-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ebrey_30_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ebrey,第30页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">范晔,《后汉书》,卷三十一,郭杜孔张廉王苏羊贾陆列传第二十一。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_370-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_370_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第四卷,第二分册,第370页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_33-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_33_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第四卷,第二分册,第33页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">葛洪,《西京杂记》,“又作七轮扇,七轮大皆径尺,递相连续,一人运之,满堂寒颤。”</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_233-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_233_127-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第四卷,第二分册,第233页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_118-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_118_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第四卷,第二分册,第118页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_560-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_560_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第四卷,第二分册,第560页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_558-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_558_130-0"><sup><b>130.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_558_130-1"><sup><b>130.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第四卷,第二分册,第558页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_274_276-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_274_276_131-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham,第四卷,第二分册,第274-276页。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%B3%E8%A9%92%E5%BE%B5" class="mw-redirect" title="柳詒徵">柳詒徵</a> 《中國文化史》 第二十三章:宋元間之文物</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E5%91%A8%E4%BB%81" title="周仁">周仁</a> 《中國古陶瓷研究論文集》,《景德鎮陶瓷的研究》。</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="来源"><span id=".E6.9D.A5.E6.BA.90"></span>来源</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20" title="编辑章节:来源"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r80540462">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-100{font-size:100%}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <dl><dt>书籍</dt></dl> <ul><li>[<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%9C%E6%99%8B" title="东晋">东晋</a>]<a href="/wiki/%E8%91%9B%E6%B4%AA" title="葛洪">葛洪</a>:《<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E4%BA%AC%E6%9D%82%E8%AE%B0" title="西京杂记">西京杂记</a>》.</li> <li>[<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E5%8C%97%E6%9C%9D" title="南北朝">南朝</a>]<a href="/wiki/%E8%8C%83%E6%99%94_(%E5%8F%B2%E5%AE%B6)" class="mw-redirect" title="范晔 (史家)">范晔</a>:《<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%8E%E6%B1%89%E4%B9%A6" title="后汉书">后汉书</a>》,中华书局. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9787101003062" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 9787101003062</a>.</li> <li>[<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%97%E5%AE%8B" title="北宋">北宋</a>]<a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%88%E6%8B%AC" title="沈括">沈括</a>:《<a href="/wiki/%E6%A2%A6%E6%BA%AA%E7%AC%94%E8%B0%88" title="梦溪笔谈">梦溪笔谈</a>》.</li> <li>[北宋]<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%8F%E8%BD%BC" title="苏轼">苏轼</a>:《东坡志林》.</li> <li>[<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%97%E5%AE%8B" title="北宋">北宋</a>]<a href="/wiki/%E6%9B%BE%E5%85%AC%E4%BA%AE" title="曾公亮">曾公亮</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%81%E5%BA%A6" title="丁度">丁度</a>:《<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%A6%E7%BB%8F%E6%80%BB%E8%A6%81" title="武经总要">武经总要</a>》.</li> <li>[北宋]<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%B1%E5%BD%A7" title="朱彧">朱彧</a>:《<a href="/wiki/%E8%90%8D%E6%B4%B2%E5%8F%AF%E8%AB%87" title="萍洲可談">萍洲可谈</a>》.</li> <li>[北宋]<a href="/wiki/%E9%92%B1%E4%BF%A8" title="钱俨">钱俨</a>:《<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%90%B4%E8%B6%8A%E5%A4%87%E5%8F%B2&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="吴越备史(页面不存在)">吴越备史</a>》.</li> <li>[宋]<a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%8E%E7%84%98_(%E5%AE%8B)" class="mw-redirect" title="李焘 (宋)">李焘</a>:《<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%8C%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91%E9%95%B7%E7%B7%A8" title="續資治通鑑長編">续资治通鉴长编</a>》.</li> <li>[南宋]<a href="/wiki/%E5%91%A8%E5%8E%BB%E9%9D%9E" title="周去非">周去非</a>:《<a href="/wiki/%E5%B2%AD%E5%A4%96%E4%BB%A3%E7%AD%94" title="岭外代答">岭外代答</a>》。</li> <li>[元]<a href="/wiki/%E8%84%B1%E8%84%B1" title="脱脱">脱脱</a>等:《<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%8B%E5%8F%B2" title="宋史">宋史</a>》,北京图书出版社,2005年出版. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/7501325774" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 7-5013-2577-4</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A2%81%E6%80%9D%E6%88%90" title="梁思成">梁思成</a>:《中国建筑艺术二十讲》.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%99%88%E5%AF%85%E6%81%AA" title="陈寅恪">陈寅恪</a>(1980年):《陈寅恪先生文集》,上海古籍出版社.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%A0%E8%97%A4%E7%B9%81" title="加藤繁">加藤繁</a>:《中国经济史考证》,商务印书馆1963年出版.</li> <li><span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="英語">(英文)</span> Bowman, John S. (2000年),《<i>Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture</i>(哥伦比亚大学亚洲历史文化年代史)》,纽约:哥伦比亚大学出版社.</li> <li><span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="英語">(英文)</span> Ebrey, Walthall, Palais, (2006年),<i>East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History</i>(《东亚:文化、社会和政治史》),波士顿:Houghton Mifflin Company.</li> <li><span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="英語">(英文)</span> Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (1999年),<i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>(《剑桥中国图解史》),剑桥:剑桥大学出版社. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0521435196" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-521-43519-6</a> (硬皮本);<a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/052166991X" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-521-66991-X</a> (平装本).</li> <li><span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="英語">(英文)</span> Embree, Ainslie Thomas (1997年),<i>Asia in Western and World History: A Guide for Teaching</i>(《西方和世界史中的亚洲:教学参考》), Armonk:ME Sharpe, Inc。</li> <li><span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="英語">(英文)</span> Gernet, Jacques (1982年),<i>A History of Chinese Civilization</i>(《中国文明史》),剑桥:剑桥大学出版社.</li> <li><span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="英語">(英文)</span> Hartwell, Robert (1966年),<i>Markets, Technology and the Structure of Enterprise in the Development of the Eleventh Century Chinese Iron and Steel Industry</i>(《11世纪中国钢铁业发展的市场、技术和架构》),<i>Journal of Economic History</i>(《经济史期刊》)第26期.</li> <li><span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="英語">(英文)</span> Levathes (1994年),<i>When China Ruled the Seas</i>(《当中国统治海洋》),纽约:Simon &amp; Schuster. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0671701584" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-671-70158-4</a>.</li> <li><span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="英語">(英文)</span> Morton, Scott 和 Charlton Lewis (2005年),<i>China: Its History and Culture: Fourth Edition</i>(《中国:历史和文化:第四版》),纽约:McGraw-Hill, Inc.</li> <li><span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="英語">(英文)</span> Needham, Joseph(<a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%8E%E7%BA%A6%E7%91%9F" title="李约瑟">李约瑟</a>),(1986年),<i>Science and Civilization in China: Volume 1, Introductory Orientations</i>(《中国科学技术史·第一卷:导论》),台北:Caves Books, Ltd.</li> <li><span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="英語">(英文)</span> Needham, Joseph(李约瑟),(1986年),<i>Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth</i>(《中国科学技术史·第三卷:数学、天学和地学》),台北:Caves Books, Ltd.</li> <li><span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="英語">(英文)</span> Needham, Joseph(李约瑟),(1986年),<i>Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology</i>, Part 1, Physics(《中国科学技术史-第四卷-物理学及相关技术-第一分册-物理学》),台北:Caves Books, Ltd. 中国大陆版,科学出版社,2003年出版,<a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9787030112323" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-7-03-011232-3</a>.</li> <li><span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="英語">(英文)</span> Needham, Joseph(李约瑟),(1986年),<i>Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology</i>, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering(《中国科学技术史-第四卷-物理学及相关技术--第二分册-机械工程》),台北:Caves Books, Ltd. 中国大陆版,科学出版社,2003年出版,ISBN 97030075269.</li> <li><span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="英語">(英文)</span> Needham, Joseph(李约瑟),(1986年),<i>Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology</i>, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics(《中国科学技术史-第四卷-物理学及相关技术--第三分册-土木工程和航海术》),台北:Caves Books, Ltd.</li> <li><span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="英語">(英文)</span> Needham, Joseph(李约瑟),(1986年),<i>Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 1, Paper and Printing</i>(《中国科学技术史-第五卷-化学及相关技术-第一分册-造纸和印刷术》),台北:Caves Books, Ltd.</li> <li><span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="英語">(英文)</span> Needham, Joseph(李约瑟),(1986年),<i>Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology,</i> Part 7, Military Technology, the Gunpowder Epic(《中国科学技术史-第五卷-化学及相关技术-第七分册-军事科技》),台北:Caves Books, Ltd.</li> <li><span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="英語">(英文)</span> Partington, James Riddick (1960年),<i>A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder</i>(《希腊火药史》),剑桥:W. Heffer &amp; Sons Ltd.</li> <li><span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="英語">(英文)</span> Sivin, Nathan (1995年),<i>Science in Ancient China</i>(《古中国科技》),Brookfield, Vermont: VARIORUM, Ashgate Publishing.</li> <li><span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="英語">(英文)</span> Unschuld, Paul U. (2003年),<i>Nature, Knowledge, Imagery in an Ancient Chinese Medical Text</i>(注:该书为一本有关《黄帝内经素问》的英文研究著作),Berkeley: University of California Press.</li> <li><span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="英語">(英文)</span> Wagner, Donald B,"The Administration of the Iron Industry in Eleventh-Century China",<i>Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient</i>(2001年44期):第175-197页。</li> <li><span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="英語">(英文)</span> Wright, David Curtis (2001年),<i>The History of China</i>(《中国史》),Westport:Greenwood Press.</li> <li><span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="英語">(英文)</span> Wu, Jing-nuan (2005年),<i>An Illustrated Chinese Materia Medica</i>(《中国药物学》),纽约:Oxford University Press.</li></ul> </div> <div style="clear: both; height: 1em"></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r84265675">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:" :"}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%97%E5%AE%8B" title="北宋">北宋</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/%E9%99%88%E6%A1%A5%E5%85%B5%E5%8F%98" title="陈桥兵变">陈桥兵变</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%AF%E9%85%92%E9%87%8A%E5%85%B5%E6%9D%83" title="杯酒释兵权">杯酒释兵权</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%8E%E7%AD%A0" title="李筠">李筠之乱</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%8E%E9%87%8D%E9%80%B2" title="李重進">李重进之乱</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%B7%E5%B9%B9%E5%BC%B1%E6%9E%9D" title="強幹弱枝">強幹弱枝</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8D%E6%96%87%E6%8A%91%E6%AD%A6" title="重文抑武">重文抑武</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E5%BB%BA%E9%9A%86%E4%B9%8B%E6%B2%BB" title="建隆之治">建隆之治</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%81%E6%9C%9D" title="丁朝">交趾独立</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%97%E5%AE%8B%E5%BC%80%E5%9B%BD%E6%88%98%E4%BA%89" title="北宋开国战争">北宋开国战争</a>(<a href="/wiki/%E8%8D%86%E6%B9%96%E4%B9%8B%E6%88%98" title="荆湖之战">荆湖之战</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%8B%E7%81%AD%E5%90%8E%E8%9C%80%E4%B9%8B%E6%88%98" title="宋灭后蜀之战">宋灭后蜀之战</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%8B%E7%81%AD%E5%8D%97%E6%B1%89%E4%B9%8B%E6%88%98" title="宋灭南汉之战">宋灭南汉之战</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%8B%E7%81%AD%E5%8D%97%E5%94%90%E4%B9%8B%E6%88%98" title="宋灭南唐之战">宋灭南唐之战</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%8B%E7%81%AD%E5%8C%97%E6%B1%89%E4%B9%8B%E6%88%98" title="宋灭北汉之战">宋灭北汉之战</a>)<span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E7%A6%81%E5%86%9B" class="mw-redirect" title="禁军">禁军</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E6%9B%B4%E6%88%8D%E6%B3%95" title="更戍法">更戍法</a>與<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%BB%E5%85%B5%E5%BC%A5%E4%B9%B1" title="养兵弥乱">养兵弥乱</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E7%87%AD%E5%BD%B1%E6%96%A7%E8%81%B2" title="燭影斧聲">燭影斧聲</a>與<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%91%E5%8C%B1%E4%B9%8B%E7%9B%9F" title="金匱之盟">金匱之盟</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%8B%E8%BE%BD%E6%88%98%E4%BA%89" title="宋辽战争">宋辽战争</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E9%AB%98%E6%A2%81%E6%B2%B3%E4%B9%8B%E6%88%98" title="高梁河之战">高梁河之战</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E7%99%BD%E8%97%A4%E6%B1%9F%E4%B9%8B%E6%88%98_(981%E5%B9%B4)" title="白藤江之战 (981年)">白藤江之战</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%8D%E7%86%99%E5%8C%97%E4%BC%90" title="雍熙北伐">雍熙北伐</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E7%A6%81%E6%A6%B7" title="禁榷">禁榷</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%8B%E5%B0%8F%E6%B3%A2%E3%80%81%E6%9D%8E%E9%A1%BA%E8%B5%B7%E4%B9%89" title="王小波、李顺起义">王小波、李顺起义</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E5%92%B8%E5%B9%B3%E4%B9%8B%E6%B2%BB" title="咸平之治">咸平之治</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E6%BE%B6%E6%B8%8A%E4%B9%8B%E7%9B%9F" title="澶渊之盟">澶渊之盟</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;">&#160;·</span> <a 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