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subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Art_to_attract_donations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_monastic_investment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_monastic_investment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>The monastic investment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_monastic_investment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_liturgical_artwork" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_liturgical_artwork"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>The liturgical artwork</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_liturgical_artwork-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_equation_between_excessive_art_and_holiness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_equation_between_excessive_art_and_holiness"> <div 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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Apologia+ad+Guillelmum%22">"Apologia ad Guillelmum"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Apologia+ad+Guillelmum%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Apologia+ad+Guillelmum%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Apologia+ad+Guillelmum%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Apologia+ad+Guillelmum%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Apologia+ad+Guillelmum%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_footnotes_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-More_footnotes_needed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article includes a list of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#General_references" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">general references</a>, but <b>it lacks sufficient corresponding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Reliability" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Reliability">improve</a> this article by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvaux" title="Bernard of Clairvaux">Bernard of Clairvaux</a>'s <i><b>Apologia ad Guillelmum</b></i> was written in 1125 at the ostensible request of his friend and fellow monastic reformer, <a href="/wiki/William_of_St-Thierry" title="William of St-Thierry">William of Saint-Thierry</a>, and is the key document in the early twelfth century controversy over art, the greatest controversy over art to occur in the West previous to the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Reformation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Already in the <a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christian period</a>, there was disagreement within the Church as to the appropriateness of <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Church art">religious art</a>. While the use of religious art gradually came to be accepted by the mainstream, its rejection within certain limits remained a constant throughout the Middle Ages. In the twelfth century, certain elements within reform monasticism (especially the <a href="/wiki/Cistercians" title="Cistercians">Cistercians</a> but also others) saw the use of art by monks as inappropriate for a number of reasons. Criticism of the use of monastic art was seen as a criticism of the greatest patrons of religious art of the time, traditional <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Saint_Benedict" class="mw-redirect" title="Order of Saint Benedict">Benedictine</a> monasticism (virtually all of the greatest medieval art up until this time had been religious). Since traditional Benedictine monasticism was one of the richest and most influential segments of society—and since art was one of the great vehicles of interaction between traditional monasticism and the lay public, this interaction being an important source of wealth for monasticism—the controversy over art that arose involved far more than aesthetic questions. </p><p>The <i>Apologia</i> is the most articulate document we have for this controversy and one of the most important in understanding how medieval art was used and perceived. In it, Bernard takes up five major criticisms of the use of monastic art. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Art_to_attract_donations">Art to attract donations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Apologia_ad_Guillelmum&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Art to attract donations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_monastic_investment">The monastic investment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Apologia_ad_Guillelmum&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The monastic investment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Perhaps Bernard's harshest criticism of the monastic use of art addresses the economic base of monastic art production: the monastic investment in art for the purpose of attracting donations from the visiting public. In doing so, he takes up a number of different themes such as the justification of investing in art, art for the honor of God, the relation between material and spiritual prosperity, and the financial necessity of pilgrimage art. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_liturgical_artwork">The liturgical artwork</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Apologia_ad_Guillelmum&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: The liturgical artwork"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Master_Of_Saint_Gilles_-_The_Mass_of_St_Gilles_-_WGA14485.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Master_Of_Saint_Gilles_-_The_Mass_of_St_Gilles_-_WGA14485.jpg/220px-Master_Of_Saint_Gilles_-_The_Mass_of_St_Gilles_-_WGA14485.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Master_Of_Saint_Gilles_-_The_Mass_of_St_Gilles_-_WGA14485.jpg/330px-Master_Of_Saint_Gilles_-_The_Mass_of_St_Gilles_-_WGA14485.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Master_Of_Saint_Gilles_-_The_Mass_of_St_Gilles_-_WGA14485.jpg/440px-Master_Of_Saint_Gilles_-_The_Mass_of_St_Gilles_-_WGA14485.jpg 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="1010" /></a><figcaption><i>The Mass of Saint Giles</i>, by the <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Saint_Giles" title="Master of Saint Giles">Master of Saint Giles</a>, c. 1500 (National Gallery, London)</figcaption></figure> <p>In discussing the artistic means by which the investment in art was carried out, Bernard particularly criticizes excess in art, focusing especially on excess in material, craftsmanship, size, and quantity. In this criticism, what he most objects to is not monumental sculpture and painting but rather liturgical art, that is, works often of gold, silver, and jewels that were used in the liturgy and often in the Cult of Relics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_equation_between_excessive_art_and_holiness">The equation between excessive art and holiness</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Apologia_ad_Guillelmum&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The equation between excessive art and holiness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In his critique of the reception of art on the part of the general public, Bernard took up the indispensable element of medieval pilgrimage art: the equation between excessive art and holiness, that is, the use of excessive art in order to create a sense of <i>praesentia</i> (the physical presence of the holy). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art_in_opposition_to_the_care_of_the_poor">Art in opposition to the care of the poor</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Apologia_ad_Guillelmum&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Art in opposition to the care of the poor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Following in the patristic tradition, Bernard also sees art as in opposition to the care of the poor, his most significant social objection external to monasticism properly speaking. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art_as_a_spiritual_distraction_to_the_monk">Art as a spiritual distraction to the monk</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Apologia_ad_Guillelmum&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Art as a spiritual distraction to the monk"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> One of Bernard's most important criticisms of the monastic use of art is that of art as a spiritual distraction to the monk. Aside from simple distraction, this criticism includes such dangers to the medieval monk as curiosity and materiality.</p><blockquote><p>"But in cloisters, where the brothers are reading, what is the point of this ridiculous monstrosity, this shapely misshapenness, this misshapen shapeliness? What is the point of those unclean apes, fierce lions, monstrous centaurs, half-men, striped tigers, fighting soldiers and hunters blowing their horns?... In short, so many and so marvelous are the various shapes surrounding us that it is more pleasant to read the marble than the books, and to spend the whole day marveling over these things rather than meditating on the law of God."<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="To_Whom_the_Apologia_Was_Addressed">To Whom the Apologia Was Addressed</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Apologia_ad_Guillelmum&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: To Whom the Apologia Was Addressed"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While the traditional view has been that the <i>Apologia</i> was directed at the art of the monastery of <a href="/wiki/Cluny_Abbey" title="Cluny Abbey">Cluny</a> in particular and that of other offending Cluniac and traditional Benedictine monasteries in general, more recent scholarship has shown that the <i>Apologia</i> was instead directed at not only all of traditional monasticism but also marginal traditional Benedictine monasteries, the new ascetic orders (<a href="/wiki/Carthusians" title="Carthusians">Carthusians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gilbertine_Order" title="Gilbertine Order">Gilbertines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Premonstratensians" title="Premonstratensians">Premonstratensians</a>, and so on), and Bernard's own <a href="/wiki/Cistercians" title="Cistercians">Cistercian Order</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Apologia_ad_Guillelmum&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRudolph1990" class="citation book cs1">Rudolph, Conrad (1990-07-01). <i>The "Things of Greater Importance": Bernard of Clairvaux's Apologia and the Medieval Attitude Toward Art</i> (First ed.). Univ of Pennsylvania Pr. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780812281811" title="Special:BookSources/9780812281811"><bdi>9780812281811</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+%22Things+of+Greater+Importance%22%3A+Bernard+of+Clairvaux%27s+Apologia+and+the+Medieval+Attitude+Toward+Art&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Univ+of+Pennsylvania+Pr&rft.date=1990-07-01&rft.isbn=9780812281811&rft.aulast=Rudolph&rft.aufirst=Conrad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AApologia+ad+Guillelmum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernard_of_Clairvaux" class="citation web cs1">Bernard of Clairvaux. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/bernard1.asp">"Apology"</a>. <i>sourcebooks.fordham.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160823201156/http://sourcebooks.fordham.edu:80/source/bernard1.asp">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-08-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-11-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=sourcebooks.fordham.edu&rft.atitle=Apology&rft.au=Bernard+of+Clairvaux&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsourcebooks.fordham.edu%2Fsource%2Fbernard1.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AApologia+ad+Guillelmum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRudolph1988" class="citation journal cs1">Rudolph, Conrad (1988-01-01). "Bernard of Clairvaux's Apologia as a Description of Cluny, and the Controversy over Monastic Art". <i>Gesta</i>. <b>27</b> (1/2): 125–132. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F767000">10.2307/767000</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0016-920X">0016-920X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/767000">767000</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:191699118">191699118</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Gesta&rft.atitle=Bernard+of+Clairvaux%27s+Apologia+as+a+Description+of+Cluny%2C+and+the+Controversy+over+Monastic+Art&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=1%2F2&rft.pages=125-132&rft.date=1988-01-01&rft.issn=0016-920X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A191699118%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F767000%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F767000&rft.aulast=Rudolph&rft.aufirst=Conrad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AApologia+ad+Guillelmum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_references">General references</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Apologia_ad_Guillelmum&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: General references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Conrad Rudolph, "The Scholarship on Bernard of Clairvaux's <i>Apologia</i>," <i>Cîteaux: Commentarii Cistercienses</i> 40 (1989) 69-111</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output 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