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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Background: 1556 to 1618</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background:_1556_to_1618-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phase_I:_1618_to_1635" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phase_I:_1618_to_1635"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Phase I: 1618 to 1635</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phase_I:_1618_to_1635-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Phase I: 1618 to 1635 subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Phase_I:_1618_to_1635-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bohemian_Revolt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bohemian_Revolt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Bohemian Revolt</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bohemian_Revolt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Palatinate_Campaign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Palatinate_Campaign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Palatinate Campaign</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Palatinate_Campaign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Danish_intervention_(1625–1629)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Danish_intervention_(1625–1629)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Danish intervention (1625–1629)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Danish_intervention_(1625–1629)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sweden_invades_Germany_(1630–1635)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sweden_invades_Germany_(1630–1635)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Sweden invades Germany (1630–1635)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sweden_invades_Germany_(1630–1635)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phase_II:_French_intervention,_1635_to_1648" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phase_II:_French_intervention,_1635_to_1648"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Phase II: French intervention, 1635 to 1648</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phase_II:_French_intervention,_1635_to_1648-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conflict_outside_Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conflict_outside_Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Conflict outside Germany</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Conflict_outside_Germany-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Conflict outside Germany subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Conflict_outside_Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Northern_Italy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Northern_Italy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Northern Italy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Northern_Italy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Catalonia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catalonia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Catalonia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catalonia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Outside_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Outside_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Outside Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Outside_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peace_of_Westphalia_(1648)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peace_of_Westphalia_(1648)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Peace of Westphalia (1648)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peace_of_Westphalia_(1648)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_and_financial_cost_of_the_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_and_financial_cost_of_the_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Human and financial cost of the war</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_and_financial_cost_of_the_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Military developments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_and_cultural_impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_and_cultural_impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Social and cultural impact</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_and_cultural_impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_consequences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_consequences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Political consequences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_consequences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Thirty Years' War</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 122 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-122" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">122 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dertigjarige_Oorlog" title="Dertigjarige Oorlog – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Dertigjarige Oorlog" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drei%C3%9Figj%C3%A4hriger_Krieg" title="Dreißigjähriger Krieg – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Dreißigjähriger Krieg" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Erittigg%C4%93ara_Orlege" title="Þrittiggēara Orlege – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Þrittiggēara Orlege" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AB%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7" title="حرب الثلاثين عاما – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حرب الثلاثين عاما" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_d%27as_Trenta_Anyadas" title="Guerra d'as Trenta Anyadas – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Guerra d'as Trenta Anyadas" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_de_los_Trenta_A%C3%B1os" title="Guerra de los Trenta Años – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Guerra de los Trenta Años" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otuzillik_m%C3%BCharib%C9%99" title="Otuzillik müharibə – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Otuzillik müharibə" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B2_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%84%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B4" title="اوتوز ایللیک ساواش – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="اوتوز ایللیک ساواش" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%9B%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7" title="ত্রিশ বছরের যুদ্ধ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ত্রিশ বছরের যুদ্ধ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sa%E2%81%BF-cha%CC%8Dp-tang_Chi%C3%A0n-cheng" title="Saⁿ-cha̍p-tang Chiàn-cheng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Saⁿ-cha̍p-tang Chiàn-cheng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%82%D1%8B%D2%99_%D0%B9%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%A1_%D2%BB%D1%83%D2%93%D1%8B%D1%88" title="Утыҙ йыллыҡ һуғыш – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Утыҙ йыллыҡ һуғыш" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%86%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Трыццацігадовая вайна – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Трыццацігадовая вайна" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%86%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Трыццацігадовая вайна – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Трыццацігадовая вайна" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Тридесетгодишна война – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Тридесетгодишна война" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drei%C3%9Fgjaariga_Kriag" title="Dreißgjaariga Kriag – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Dreißgjaariga Kriag" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tridesetogodi%C5%A1nji_rat" title="Tridesetogodišnji rat – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Tridesetogodišnji rat" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brezel_Tregont_Vloaz" title="Brezel Tregont Vloaz – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Brezel Tregont Vloaz" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%83%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%B6%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%8D%D0%B9_%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD" title="Гушан жэлэй дайн – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Гушан жэлэй дайн" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_dels_Trenta_Anys" title="Guerra dels Trenta Anys – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Guerra dels Trenta Anys" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C5%99icetilet%C3%A1_v%C3%A1lka" title="Třicetiletá válka – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Třicetiletá válka" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhyfel_Deng_Mlynedd_ar_Hugain" title="Rhyfel Deng Mlynedd ar Hugain – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Rhyfel Deng Mlynedd ar Hugain" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tredive%C3%A5rskrigen" title="Trediveårskrigen – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Trediveårskrigen" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drei%C3%9Figj%C3%A4hriger_Krieg" title="Dreißigjähriger Krieg – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Dreißigjähriger Krieg" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C5%9Bi%C5%BAas%C4%87al%C4%9Btna_w%C3%B3jna" title="Tśiźasćalětna wójna – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Tśiźasćalětna wójna" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dolnoserbski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolmek%C3%BCmneaastane_s%C3%B5da" title="Kolmekümneaastane sõda – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kolmekümneaastane sõda" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%AE%CF%82_%CE%A0%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Τριακονταετής Πόλεμος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τριακονταετής Πόλεμος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_de_los_Treinta_A%C3%B1os" title="Guerra de los Treinta Años – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Guerra de los Treinta Años" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tridekjara_Milito" title="Tridekjara Milito – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Tridekjara Milito" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hogeita_Hamar_Urteko_Gerra" title="Hogeita Hamar Urteko Gerra – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hogeita Hamar Urteko Gerra" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%B3%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87" title="جنگ سی‌ساله – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنگ سی‌ساله" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Years_War" title="Thirty Years War – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Thirty Years War" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tretivu%C3%A1rakr%C3%ADggi%C3%B0" title="Tretivuárakríggið – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Tretivuárakríggið" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerre_de_Trente_Ans" title="Guerre de Trente Ans – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Guerre de Trente Ans" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritichjierrige_Oarloch" title="Tritichjierrige Oarloch – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Tritichjierrige Oarloch" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vuere_dai_trente_agns" title="Vuere dai trente agns – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Vuere dai trente agns" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cogadh_Tr%C3%ADocha_Bliain" title="Cogadh Tríocha Bliain – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Cogadh Tríocha Bliain" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_dos_Trinta_Anos" title="Guerra dos Trinta Anos – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Guerra dos Trinta Anos" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/30%EB%85%84_%EC%A0%84%EC%9F%81" title="30년 전쟁 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="30년 전쟁" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B5%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%BD%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%B5%D5%A1_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Երեսնամյա պատերազմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Երեսնամյա պատերազմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7" title="तीसवर्षीय युद्ध – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="तीसवर्षीय युद्ध" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C5%99ice%C4%87il%C4%9Btna_w%C3%B3jna" title="Třicećilětna wójna – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Třicećilětna wójna" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hornjoserbsce</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tridesetogodi%C5%A1nji_rat" title="Tridesetogodišnji rat – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Tridesetogodišnji rat" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milito_di_Triadek_Yari" title="Milito di Triadek Yari – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Milito di Triadek Yari" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gubat_ti_Tallopulo_a_Tawen" title="Gubat ti Tallopulo a Tawen – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Gubat ti Tallopulo a Tawen" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Tiga_Puluh_Tahun" title="Perang Tiga Puluh Tahun – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perang Tiga Puluh Tahun" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_de_Trenta_Annos" title="Guerra de Trenta Annos – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Guerra de Trenta Annos" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Erj%C3%A1t%C3%ADu_%C3%A1ra_str%C3%AD%C3%B0i%C3%B0" title="Þrjátíu ára stríðið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Þrjátíu ára stríðið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_dei_trent%27anni" title="Guerra dei trent'anni – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Guerra dei trent'anni" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%AA_%D7%A9%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%9D" title="מלחמת שלושים השנים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מלחמת שלושים השנים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C9%A9nz%C9%A9_hi%C5%8B_niitozo_you" title="Pɩnzɩ hiŋ niitozo you – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Pɩnzɩ hiŋ niitozo you" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9D%E1%83%AA%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%90%E1%83%97%E1%83%AC%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ოცდაათწლიანი ომი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ოცდაათწლიანი ომი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%B7_%D0%B6%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%B4%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D1%81%D0%BE%D2%93%D1%8B%D1%81" title="Отыз жылдық соғыс – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Отыз жылдық соғыс" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bresel_Deg_Bledhen_warn_Ugens" title="Bresel Deg Bledhen warn Ugens – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Bresel Deg Bledhen warn Ugens" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vita_ya_miaka_30" title="Vita ya miaka 30 – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Vita ya miaka 30" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Eer%C3%AA_S%C3%AEh_Salan" title="Şerê Sîh Salan – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Şerê Sîh Salan" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B7_%D0%B6%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BA_%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%83%D1%88" title="Отуз жылдык согуш – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Отуз жылдык согуш" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellum_triginta_annorum" title="Bellum triginta annorum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Bellum triginta annorum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tr%C4%ABsdesmitgadu_kar%C5%A1" title="Trīsdesmitgadu karš – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Trīsdesmitgadu karš" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr%C3%ABssegj%C3%A4rege_Krich" title="Drëssegjärege Krich – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Drëssegjärege Krich" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%8A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86%D3%80%D1%83%D0%B4_%D0%B9%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%B4%D1%8F%D0%B2%D0%B5" title="КъанницӀуд йисан дяве – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="КъанницӀуд йисан дяве" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лезги</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trisde%C5%A1imtmetis_karas" title="Trisdešimtmetis karas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Trisdešimtmetis karas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go%C3%A6ra_di_trent%27agni" title="Goæra di trent'agni – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Goæra di trent'agni" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dertigj%C3%A4%C3%B6rige_Krieg" title="Dertigjäörige Krieg – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Dertigjäörige Krieg" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_di_Trent%27Agn" title="Guerra di Trent'Agn – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Guerra di Trent'Agn" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harminc%C3%A9ves_h%C3%A1bor%C3%BA" title="Harmincéves háború – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Harmincéves háború" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%98%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Триесетгодишна војна – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Триесетгодишна војна" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%B7_%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A7%E0%B4%82" title="മുപ്പതുവർഷ യുദ്ധം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മുപ്പതുവർഷ യുദ്ധം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7" title="तीस वर्षांचे युद्ध – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="तीस वर्षांचे युद्ध" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%A9%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%97%E1%83%AC%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9A%E1%83%B7%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90" title="ეჩდოვითწანიანი ლჷმა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ეჩდოვითწანიანი ლჷმა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%B3%D9%86%D9%87" title="حرب التلاتين سنه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="حرب التلاتين سنه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Tiga_Puluh_Tahun" title="Perang Tiga Puluh Tahun – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Perang Tiga Puluh Tahun" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD" title="Гучин жилийн дайн – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Гучин жилийн дайн" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%94%E1%80%BE%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B6%E1%80%B8%E1%80%86%E1%80%9A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%85%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA" title="နှစ်သုံးဆယ်စစ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="နှစ်သုံးဆယ်စစ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dertigjarige_Oorlog" title="Dertigjarige Oorlog – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Dertigjarige Oorlog" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dartigj%C3%B6%C3%A4rigen_Oorlog" title="Dartigjöärigen Oorlog – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Dartigjöärigen Oorlog" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A5%A9%E0%A5%A6_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7" title="३० वर्षे युद्ध – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="३० वर्षे युद्ध" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%89%E5%8D%81%E5%B9%B4%E6%88%A6%E4%BA%89" title="三十年戦争 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="三十年戦争" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%B6rtigjuarig_Krich" title="Dörtigjuarig Krich – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Dörtigjuarig Krich" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tredve%C3%A5rskrigen" title="Tredveårskrigen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Tredveårskrigen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tretti%C3%A5rskrigen" title="Trettiårskrigen – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Trettiårskrigen" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gu%C3%A8rra_de_Trenta_Ans" title="Guèrra de Trenta Ans – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Guèrra de Trenta Ans" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%CA%BBttiz_yillik_urush" title="Oʻttiz yillik urush – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Oʻttiz yillik urush" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A4%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%B9-%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%9C%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%97" title="ਤੀਹ-ਸਾਲਾ ਜੰਗ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਤੀਹ-ਸਾਲਾ ਜੰਗ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DB%8C%DB%81%DB%81_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%81_%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF" title="تیہہ سالہ جنگ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="تیہہ سالہ جنگ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%90%D9%80%D8%B1%D8%B4_%DA%A9%D9%84%D9%86%D9%87_%D8%AC%DA%AB%DA%93%D9%87" title="دېـرش کلنه جګړه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="دېـرش کلنه جګړه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dg%C3%A8re_ed_Trinte_Ains" title="Dgère ed Trinte Ains – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Dgère ed Trinte Ains" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Picard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dartigj%C3%B6hrigen_Krieg" title="Dartigjöhrigen Krieg – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Dartigjöhrigen Krieg" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wojna_trzydziestoletnia" title="Wojna trzydziestoletnia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wojna trzydziestoletnia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_dos_Trinta_Anos" title="Guerra dos Trinta Anos – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Guerra dos Trinta Anos" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C4%83zboiul_de_Treizeci_de_Ani" title="Războiul de Treizeci de Ani – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Războiul de Treizeci de Ani" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_da_trent%27onns" title="Guerra da trent'onns – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Guerra da trent'onns" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Rumantsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%86%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Тридцятирочна война – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Тридцятирочна война" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD%D1%8F%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Тридцатилетняя война – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Тридцатилетняя война" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%82%D1%83%D1%82_%D1%81%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B0%D1%85_%D1%81%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Отут сыллаах сэрии – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Отут сыллаах сэрии" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gherra_de_sos_Trinta_Annos" title="Gherra de sos Trinta Annos – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Gherra de sos Trinta Annos" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tr%C3%BC%C3%BCtichjierigen_Kriech" title="Trüütichjierigen Kriech – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Trüütichjierigen Kriech" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lufta_Tridhjet%C3%ABvje%C3%A7are" title="Lufta Tridhjetëvjeçare – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Lufta Tridhjetëvjeçare" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Thirty Years' War" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tridsa%C5%A5ro%C4%8Dn%C3%A1_vojna" title="Tridsaťročná vojna – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Tridsaťročná vojna" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tridesetletna_vojna" title="Tridesetletna vojna – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Tridesetletna vojna" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DB%95%DA%95%DB%8C_%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D8%A7%DA%B5%DB%95" title="شەڕی سی ساڵە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="شەڕی سی ساڵە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%88%D1%9A%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Тридесетогодишњи рат – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Тридесетогодишњи рат" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tridesetogodi%C5%A1nji_rat" title="Tridesetogodišnji rat – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Tridesetogodišnji rat" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolmikymmenvuotinen_sota" title="Kolmikymmenvuotinen sota – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kolmikymmenvuotinen sota" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trettio%C3%A5riga_kriget" title="Trettioåriga kriget – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Trettioåriga kriget" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatlumpung_Taong_Digmaan" title="Tatlumpung Taong Digmaan – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Tatlumpung Taong Digmaan" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D" title="முப்பதாண்டுப் போர் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="முப்பதாண்டுப் போர்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%B7_%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BA_%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B3%D1%8B%D1%88" title="Утыз еллык сугыш – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Утыз еллык сугыш" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%B5" title="สงครามสามสิบปี – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สงครามสามสิบปี" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otuz_Y%C4%B1l_Sava%C5%9F%C4%B1" title="Otuz Yıl Savaşı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Otuz Yıl Savaşı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otuz%C3%BDyllyk_uru%C5%9F" 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chi%E1%BA%BFn_tranh_Ba_M%C6%B0%C6%A1i_N%C4%83m" title="Chiến tranh Ba Mươi Năm – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chiến tranh Ba Mươi Năm" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guere_di_trinte_ans" title="Guere di trinte ans – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Guere di trinte ans" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%89%E5%8D%81%E5%B9%B4%E6%88%B0%E7%88%AD" title="三十年戰爭 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Major war in Central Europe (1618–1648)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years_War_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Thirty Years War (disambiguation)">Thirty Years War (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Thirty Years' War</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">European wars of religion</a> and <a href="/wiki/French%E2%80%93Habsburg_rivalry" title="French–Habsburg rivalry">French–Habsburg rivalry</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Thirty_Years_War_Collage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Thirty_Years_War_Collage.jpg/300px-Thirty_Years_War_Collage.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Thirty_Years_War_Collage.jpg/450px-Thirty_Years_War_Collage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Thirty_Years_War_Collage.jpg/600px-Thirty_Years_War_Collage.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2880" data-file-height="2880" /></a></span><br />Left to right: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Defenestrations_of_Prague" title="Defenestrations of Prague">Defenestrations of Prague</a> (23 May 1618)</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_L%C3%BCtzen_(1632)" title="Battle of Lützen (1632)">death of Gustavus Adolphus at Lützen</a> (16 November 1632)</li> <li>Dutch warships prior to the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Downs" title="Battle of the Downs">Battle of the Downs</a> (21 October 1639)</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rocroi" title="Battle of Rocroi">Battle of Rocroi</a> (19 May 1643)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>23 May 1618 – 24 October 1648<br />(30 years, 5 months and 1 day)</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central Europe</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Territorial<br />changes</th><td> <div><ul><li>France annexes the <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9capole" title="Décapole">Décapole</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sundgau" title="Sundgau">Sundgau</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECroxton2013225–226_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECroxton2013225–226-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>Sweden gains <a href="/wiki/Wismar" title="Wismar">Wismar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wolin" title="Wolin">Wollin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Western_Pomerania" title="Western Pomerania">Western Pomerania</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bremen-Verden" title="Bremen-Verden">Bremen-Verden</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeitzRischer1995232_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeitzRischer1995232-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li><a href="/wiki/Brandenburg-Prussia" class="mw-redirect" title="Brandenburg-Prussia">Brandenburg-Prussia</a> obtains <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Pomerania_(1653-1815)" class="mw-redirect" title="Province of Pomerania (1653-1815)">Eastern Pomerania</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeitzRischer1995232_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeitzRischer1995232-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Swiss_Confederacy" title="Old Swiss Confederacy">Swiss Confederacy</a> gains independence from the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <b>Anti-Imperial alliance prior to 1635</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_Bohemia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bohemia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_Bohemia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Bohemia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_Bohemia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Bohemia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bohemia" title="Kingdom of Bohemia">Kingdom of Bohemia</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="yes"><img alt="Swedish Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg/23px-Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg/35px-Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg/46px-Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Sweden</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_The_Electoral_Palatinate_%281604%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_The_Electoral_Palatinate_%281604%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_The_Electoral_Palatinate_%281604%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_The_Electoral_Palatinate_%281604%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_The_Electoral_Palatinate_%281604%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_The_Electoral_Palatinate_%281604%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Electoral_Palatinate" title="Electoral Palatinate">Palatinate</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy" title="Duchy of Savoy"><img alt="Duchy of Savoy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Flag_of_Savoie.svg/23px-Flag_of_Savoie.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Flag_of_Savoie.svg/35px-Flag_of_Savoie.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Flag_of_Savoie.svg/46px-Flag_of_Savoie.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="307" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Savoyard_state" title="Savoyard state">Savoy</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Transylvania" title="Transylvania"><img alt="Transylvania" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Banner_of_Gabriel_Bethlen.svg/23px-Banner_of_Gabriel_Bethlen.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Banner_of_Gabriel_Bethlen.svg/35px-Banner_of_Gabriel_Bethlen.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Banner_of_Gabriel_Bethlen.svg/46px-Banner_of_Gabriel_Bethlen.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="786" data-file-height="374" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Transylvania_(1570%E2%80%931711)" title="Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711)">Transylvania</a></li> <li><span data-sort-value="Dutch Republic"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/23px-Statenvlag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/35px-Statenvlag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/45px-Statenvlag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></span></li> <li><span data-sort-value="Denmark–Norway"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Royal_Standard_of_Denmark_%281731%E2%80%931819%29.svg/23px-Royal_Standard_of_Denmark_%281731%E2%80%931819%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Royal_Standard_of_Denmark_%281731%E2%80%931819%29.svg/35px-Royal_Standard_of_Denmark_%281731%E2%80%931819%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Royal_Standard_of_Denmark_%281731%E2%80%931819%29.svg/46px-Royal_Standard_of_Denmark_%281731%E2%80%931819%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1070" data-file-height="560" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Denmark%E2%80%93Norway" title="Denmark–Norway">Denmark–Norway</a></span></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wappen_Heilbronn.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Wappen_Heilbronn.svg/18px-Wappen_Heilbronn.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Wappen_Heilbronn.svg/27px-Wappen_Heilbronn.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Wappen_Heilbronn.svg/36px-Wappen_Heilbronn.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1177" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Heilbronn_League" title="Heilbronn League">Heilbronn League</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Flag_of_Hesse.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hesse.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Flag_of_Hesse.svg/35px-Flag_of_Hesse.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Flag_of_Hesse.svg/46px-Flag_of_Hesse.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Landgraviate_of_Hesse-Kassel" title="Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel">Hesse-Kassel</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Pabellon_de_Brandeburgo_%28c._1684%29.svg/23px-Pabellon_de_Brandeburgo_%28c._1684%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Pabellon_de_Brandeburgo_%28c._1684%29.svg/35px-Pabellon_de_Brandeburgo_%28c._1684%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Pabellon_de_Brandeburgo_%28c._1684%29.svg/45px-Pabellon_de_Brandeburgo_%28c._1684%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Brandenburg-Prussia" class="mw-redirect" title="Brandenburg-Prussia">Brandenburg-Prussia</a></li> <li><span data-sort-value="Saxony"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Flag_of_Electoral_Saxony.svg/23px-Flag_of_Electoral_Saxony.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Flag_of_Electoral_Saxony.svg/35px-Flag_of_Electoral_Saxony.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Flag_of_Electoral_Saxony.svg/45px-Flag_of_Electoral_Saxony.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Saxony" title="Electorate of Saxony">Saxony</a></span></li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <b>Imperial alliance prior to 1635</b><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/23px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/35px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/45px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg Monarchy</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><span data-sort-value="Bavaria"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Electoral_Standard_of_Bavaria_%281623-1806%29.svg/15px-Electoral_Standard_of_Bavaria_%281623-1806%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Electoral_Standard_of_Bavaria_%281623-1806%29.svg/23px-Electoral_Standard_of_Bavaria_%281623-1806%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Electoral_Standard_of_Bavaria_%281623-1806%29.svg/30px-Electoral_Standard_of_Bavaria_%281623-1806%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Bavaria" title="Electorate of Bavaria">Bavaria</a></span></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Catholic_League_%28Germany%29.svg/17px-Catholic_League_%28Germany%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Catholic_League_%28Germany%29.svg/26px-Catholic_League_%28Germany%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Catholic_League_%28Germany%29.svg/33px-Catholic_League_%28Germany%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="954" data-file-height="858" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Catholic_League_(German)" title="Catholic League (German)">Catholic League</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;;border-top:1px dotted #aaa;"> <b>Post-1635 <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Prague_(1635)" title="Peace of Prague (1635)">Peace of Prague</a></b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span data-sort-value="France"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg/23px-Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg/35px-Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg/45px-Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a></span></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="yes"><img alt="Swedish Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg/23px-Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg/35px-Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg/46px-Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Sweden</a></li> <li><span data-sort-value="Dutch Republic"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/23px-Statenvlag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/35px-Statenvlag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/45px-Statenvlag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></span></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Flag_of_Hesse.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hesse.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Flag_of_Hesse.svg/35px-Flag_of_Hesse.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Flag_of_Hesse.svg/46px-Flag_of_Hesse.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Landgraviate_of_Hesse-Kassel" title="Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel">Hesse-Kassel</a></li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em;border-top:1px dotted #aaa;"> <b>Post-1635 <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Prague_(1635)" title="Peace of Prague (1635)">Peace of Prague</a></b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/23px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/35px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/45px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><span data-sort-value="Denmark–Norway"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Royal_Standard_of_Denmark_%281731%E2%80%931819%29.svg/23px-Royal_Standard_of_Denmark_%281731%E2%80%931819%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Royal_Standard_of_Denmark_%281731%E2%80%931819%29.svg/35px-Royal_Standard_of_Denmark_%281731%E2%80%931819%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Royal_Standard_of_Denmark_%281731%E2%80%931819%29.svg/46px-Royal_Standard_of_Denmark_%281731%E2%80%931819%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1070" data-file-height="560" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Denmark%E2%80%93Norway" title="Denmark–Norway">Denmark–Norway</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="yes"><img alt="Swedish Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg/23px-Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg/35px-Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg/46px-Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Gustavus_Adolphus" title="Gustavus Adolphus">Gustavus Adolphus</a>  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="yes"><img alt="Swedish Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg/23px-Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg/35px-Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg/46px-Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Axel_Oxenstierna" title="Axel Oxenstierna">Oxenstierna</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="yes"><img alt="Swedish Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg/23px-Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg/35px-Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg/46px-Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Johan_Ban%C3%A9r" title="Johan Banér">Banér</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="yes"><img alt="Swedish Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg/23px-Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg/35px-Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg/46px-Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Lennart_Torstensson" title="Lennart Torstensson">Torstensson</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="yes"><img alt="Swedish Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg/23px-Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg/35px-Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg/46px-Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustaf_Wrangel" title="Carl Gustaf Wrangel">Wrangel</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="yes"><img alt="Swedish Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg/23px-Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg/35px-Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg/46px-Naval_Ensign_of_Sweden.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Leslie" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Leslie">Alexander Leslie</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France"><img alt="Kingdom of France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg/23px-Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg/35px-Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg/45px-Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIII_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIII of France">Louis XIII</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France"><img alt="Kingdom of France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg/23px-Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg/35px-Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg/45px-Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_Richelieu" title="Cardinal Richelieu">Richelieu</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France"><img alt="Kingdom of France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg/23px-Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg/35px-Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg/45px-Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_Mazarin" title="Cardinal Mazarin">Mazarin</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France"><img alt="Kingdom of France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg/23px-Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg/35px-Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg/45px-Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Louis,_Grand_Cond%C3%A9" title="Louis, Grand Condé">Grand Condé</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France"><img alt="Kingdom of France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg/23px-Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg/35px-Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg/45px-Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Henri_Turenne" class="mw-redirect" title="Henri Turenne">Turenne</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic"><img alt="Dutch Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/23px-Statenvlag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/35px-Statenvlag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/45px-Statenvlag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Maurice,_Prince_of_Orange" title="Maurice, Prince of Orange">Maurice of Orange</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic"><img alt="Dutch Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/23px-Statenvlag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/35px-Statenvlag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/45px-Statenvlag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Henry,_Prince_of_Orange" title="Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange">Frederick Henry</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic"><img alt="Dutch Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/23px-Statenvlag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/35px-Statenvlag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/45px-Statenvlag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Maarten_Tromp" title="Maarten Tromp">Maarten Tromp</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_The_Electoral_Palatinate_%281604%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_The_Electoral_Palatinate_%281604%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_The_Electoral_Palatinate_%281604%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_The_Electoral_Palatinate_%281604%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_The_Electoral_Palatinate_%281604%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_The_Electoral_Palatinate_%281604%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></span><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia"><img alt="Bohemia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_Bohemia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bohemia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_Bohemia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Bohemia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_Bohemia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Bohemia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Frederick_V_of_the_Palatinate" title="Frederick V of the Palatinate">Frederick V</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_The_Electoral_Palatinate_%281604%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_The_Electoral_Palatinate_%281604%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_The_Electoral_Palatinate_%281604%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_The_Electoral_Palatinate_%281604%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_The_Electoral_Palatinate_%281604%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_The_Electoral_Palatinate_%281604%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Peter_Ernst,_Graf_von_Mansfeld" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Ernst, Graf von Mansfeld">von Mansfeld</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia"><img alt="Bohemia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_Bohemia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bohemia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_Bohemia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Bohemia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_Bohemia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Bohemia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Jind%C5%99ich_Maty%C3%A1%C5%A1_Thurn" title="Jindřich Matyáš Thurn">Jindřich Thurn</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_The_Electoral_Palatinate_%281604%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_The_Electoral_Palatinate_%281604%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_The_Electoral_Palatinate_%281604%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_The_Electoral_Palatinate_%281604%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_The_Electoral_Palatinate_%281604%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_The_Electoral_Palatinate_%281604%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></span> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia"><img alt="Bohemia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_Bohemia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bohemia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_Bohemia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Bohemia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_Bohemia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Bohemia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Christian_I,_Prince_of_Anhalt-Bernburg" title="Christian I, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg">Christian of Anhalt</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Denmark%E2%80%93Norway" title="Denmark–Norway"><img alt="Denmark–Norway" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Royal_Standard_of_Denmark_%281731%E2%80%931819%29.svg/23px-Royal_Standard_of_Denmark_%281731%E2%80%931819%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Royal_Standard_of_Denmark_%281731%E2%80%931819%29.svg/35px-Royal_Standard_of_Denmark_%281731%E2%80%931819%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Royal_Standard_of_Denmark_%281731%E2%80%931819%29.svg/46px-Royal_Standard_of_Denmark_%281731%E2%80%931819%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1070" data-file-height="560" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Christian_IV_of_Denmark" title="Christian IV of Denmark">Christian IV</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Denmark%E2%80%93Norway" title="Denmark–Norway"><img alt="Denmark–Norway" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Royal_Standard_of_Denmark_%281731%E2%80%931819%29.svg/23px-Royal_Standard_of_Denmark_%281731%E2%80%931819%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Royal_Standard_of_Denmark_%281731%E2%80%931819%29.svg/35px-Royal_Standard_of_Denmark_%281731%E2%80%931819%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Royal_Standard_of_Denmark_%281731%E2%80%931819%29.svg/46px-Royal_Standard_of_Denmark_%281731%E2%80%931819%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1070" data-file-height="560" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Christian_William_of_Brandenburg" title="Christian William of Brandenburg">Christian WIlliam</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Saxony" title="Electorate of Saxony"><img alt="Electorate of Saxony" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Flag_of_Electoral_Saxony.svg/23px-Flag_of_Electoral_Saxony.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Flag_of_Electoral_Saxony.svg/35px-Flag_of_Electoral_Saxony.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Flag_of_Electoral_Saxony.svg/45px-Flag_of_Electoral_Saxony.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/John_George_I_of_Saxony" class="mw-redirect" title="John George I of Saxony">John George I</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blason_Duch%C3%A9_de_Saxe-Weimar.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Blason_Duch%C3%A9_de_Saxe-Weimar.svg/20px-Blason_Duch%C3%A9_de_Saxe-Weimar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Blason_Duch%C3%A9_de_Saxe-Weimar.svg/30px-Blason_Duch%C3%A9_de_Saxe-Weimar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Blason_Duch%C3%A9_de_Saxe-Weimar.svg/40px-Blason_Duch%C3%A9_de_Saxe-Weimar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="660" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Saxe-Weimar" title="Bernard of Saxe-Weimar">Bernard of Saxe-Weimar</a></li> <li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Brunswick-L%C3%BCneburg" title="Brunswick-Lüneburg"><img alt="Brunswick-Lüneburg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Coat_of_Arms_of_Brunswick-L%C3%BCneburg.svg/20px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Brunswick-L%C3%BCneburg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Coat_of_Arms_of_Brunswick-L%C3%BCneburg.svg/30px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Brunswick-L%C3%BCneburg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Coat_of_Arms_of_Brunswick-L%C3%BCneburg.svg/40px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Brunswick-L%C3%BCneburg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="478" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Christian_of_Brunswick" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian of Brunswick">Christian of Brunswick</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Transylvania" title="Transylvania"><img alt="Transylvania" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Banner_of_Gabriel_Bethlen.svg/23px-Banner_of_Gabriel_Bethlen.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Banner_of_Gabriel_Bethlen.svg/35px-Banner_of_Gabriel_Bethlen.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Banner_of_Gabriel_Bethlen.svg/46px-Banner_of_Gabriel_Bethlen.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="786" data-file-height="374" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Bethlen" title="Gabriel Bethlen">Gabriel Bethlen</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Pabellon_de_Brandeburgo_%28c._1684%29.svg/23px-Pabellon_de_Brandeburgo_%28c._1684%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Pabellon_de_Brandeburgo_%28c._1684%29.svg/35px-Pabellon_de_Brandeburgo_%28c._1684%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Pabellon_de_Brandeburgo_%28c._1684%29.svg/45px-Pabellon_de_Brandeburgo_%28c._1684%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/George_William,_Elector_of_Brandenburg" title="George William, Elector of Brandenburg">George William</a></li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire"><img alt="Holy Roman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/23px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/35px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/45px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor">Ferdinand II</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire"><img alt="Holy Roman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/23px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/35px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/45px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_III,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor">Ferdinand III</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire"><img alt="Holy Roman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/23px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/35px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/45px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Albrecht_von_Wallenstein" title="Albrecht von Wallenstein">Wallenstein</a><abbr title="Assassinated"> <a href="/wiki/Assassination" title="Assassination"><b>X</b></a></abbr></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire"><img alt="Holy Roman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/23px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/35px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/45px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Matthias_Gallas" title="Matthias Gallas">Gallas</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire"><img alt="Holy Roman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/23px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/35px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/45px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Archduke_Leopold_Wilhelm_of_Austria" title="Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria">Archduke Leopold</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire"><img alt="Holy Roman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/23px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/35px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/45px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Melchior_von_Hatzfeldt" title="Melchior von Hatzfeldt">von Hatzfeldt</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire"><img alt="Holy Roman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/23px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/35px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/45px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Peter_Melander_Graf_von_Holzappel" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Melander Graf von Holzappel">von Holzappel</a><abbr title="KIA"> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a></abbr></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire"><img alt="Holy Roman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/23px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/35px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/45px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ottavio_Piccolomini" title="Ottavio Piccolomini">Piccolomini</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Philip_IV_of_Spain" title="Philip IV of Spain">Philip IV</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Gaspar_de_Guzm%C3%A1n,_Count-Duke_of_Olivares" title="Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares">Olivares</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Gonzalo_Fern%C3%A1ndez_de_C%C3%B3rdoba_(1585%E2%80%931635)" title="Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba (1585–1635)">Córdoba</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ambrogio_Spinola,_1st_Marquess_of_Los_Balbases" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambrogio Spinola, 1st Marquess of Los Balbases">Spinola</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Cardinal-Infante_Ferdinand" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand">Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Bavaria" title="Electorate of Bavaria"><img alt="Electorate of Bavaria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Electoral_Standard_of_Bavaria_%281623-1806%29.svg/15px-Electoral_Standard_of_Bavaria_%281623-1806%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Electoral_Standard_of_Bavaria_%281623-1806%29.svg/23px-Electoral_Standard_of_Bavaria_%281623-1806%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Electoral_Standard_of_Bavaria_%281623-1806%29.svg/30px-Electoral_Standard_of_Bavaria_%281623-1806%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Maximilian_I,_Elector_of_Bavaria" title="Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria">Maximilian of Bavaria</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire"><img alt="Holy Roman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/23px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/35px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/45px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Johann_Tserclaes,_Count_of_Tilly" title="Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly">Tilly</a><abbr title="KIA"> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a></abbr></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire"><img alt="Holy Roman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/23px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/35px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/45px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Heinrich_Graf_zu_Pappenheim" title="Gottfried Heinrich Graf zu Pappenheim">Pappenheim</a><abbr title="KIA"> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a></abbr></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire"><img alt="Holy Roman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/23px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/35px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/45px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Charles_IV,_Duke_of_Lorraine" title="Charles IV, Duke of Lorraine">Charles of Lorraine</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire"><img alt="Holy Roman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/23px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/35px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/45px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Franz_von_Mercy" title="Franz von Mercy">von Mercy</a><abbr title="KIA"> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a></abbr></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire"><img alt="Holy Roman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/23px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/35px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/45px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Raimondo_Montecuccoli" title="Raimondo Montecuccoli">Montecuccoli</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire"><img alt="Holy Roman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/23px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/35px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg/45px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_without_haloes_%281400-1806%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Johann_von_Werth" title="Johann von Werth">von Werth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <b>Maximum actual</b><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>100,000–140,000 Swedish<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009484_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009484-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter200840_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter200840-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>27,000 Danes (1626)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009387_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009387-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>70,000–80,000 French<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParrott2001164–168_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParrott2001164–168-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>80,000–90,000 Dutch<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Nimwegen2014166_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Nimwegen2014166-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <b>Maximum actual</b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>110,000 <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Army_(Holy_Roman_Empire)" title="Imperial Army (Holy Roman Empire)">Imperial</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009395_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009395-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>90,000 Spanish<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker2004231_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2004231-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>f<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>20,500 Bavarians<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter200839_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter200839-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <b>Combat deaths:</b><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>g<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <br /> 110,000 in Swedish service<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker1997173_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker1997173-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <br /> 80,000 in French service<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009790_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009790-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>h<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <br /> 30,000 in Danish service<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009790_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009790-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <br /> 50,000 other<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009790_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009790-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <b>Combat deaths:</b><br /> 120,000 in Imperial service<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009790_22-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009790-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <br /> 30,000 in Bavarian service<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009790_22-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009790-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <br /> 30,000 other<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009790_22-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009790-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-top:1px dotted #aaa;"> <b>Military deaths from disease</b>: 700,000–1,350,000<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>i<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <br /><b>Total civilian dead</b>: 3,500,000–6,500,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009787_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009787-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><b>Total dead:</b> 4,500,000–8,000,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOutram2002248_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOutram2002248-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson20094,_787_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson20094,_787-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Thirty Years' War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Thirty_Years&#039;_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink"><span class="wrap">Thirty Years' War</span></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:transparent; padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Revolt" title="Bohemian Revolt">Bohemian Revolt (1618–1620)</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Pilsen" title="Siege of Pilsen">Pilsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lomnice" title="Battle of Lomnice">Lomnice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sablat" title="Battle of Sablat">Sablat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wisternitz" title="Battle of Wisternitz">Wisternitz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Bautzen_(1620)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Bautzen (1620) (page does not exist)">Bautzen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_White_Mountain" title="Battle of White Mountain">White Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Neu_Titschein" title="Battle of Neu Titschein">Neu Titschein</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:transparent; padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Palatinate_campaign" title="Palatinate campaign">Palatinate campaign (1620–1623)</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Bad_Kreuznach" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Bad Kreuznach">Bad Kreuznach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Oppenheim" title="Capture of Oppenheim">Oppenheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Bacharach" title="Capture of Bacharach">Bacharach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_J%C3%BClich_(1621%E2%80%931622)" title="Siege of Jülich (1621–1622)">Jülich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mingolsheim" title="Battle of Mingolsheim">Mingolsheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wimpfen" title="Battle of Wimpfen">Wimpfen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_H%C3%B6chst" title="Battle of Höchst">Höchst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Bergen_op_Zoom_(1622)" title="Siege of Bergen op Zoom (1622)">Bergen op Zoom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Heidelberg_(1622)" title="Siege of Heidelberg (1622)">Heidelberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fleurus_(1622)" title="Battle of Fleurus (1622)">Fleurus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Mannheim" title="Capture of Mannheim">Mannheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Frankenthal" title="Siege of Frankenthal">Frankenthal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stadtlohn" title="Battle of Stadtlohn">Stadtlohn</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:transparent; padding-bottom:0;"> Transylvanian invasions of Hungary (1619–1621, 1623–1624, 1626)</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Humenn%C3%A9" title="Battle of Humenné">Humenné</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_%C3%89rsek%C3%BAjv%C3%A1r_(1621)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Érsekújvár (1621) (page does not exist)">Érsekújvár</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Tyrnau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Tyrnau (page does not exist)">Tyrnau</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schlacht_bei_Tyrnau" class="extiw" title="de:Schlacht bei Tyrnau">de</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Hodon%C3%ADn&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Hodonín (page does not exist)">Hodonín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vlach_uprisings_in_Moravia" title="Vlach uprisings in Moravia">Vlach uprisings</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:transparent; padding-bottom:0;"> Danish intervention (1625–1629)</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Breda_(1624)" title="Siege of Breda (1624)">Breda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dessau_Bridge" title="Battle of Dessau Bridge">Dessau Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Oldenzaal_(1626)" title="Siege of Oldenzaal (1626)">Oldenzaal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lutter" title="Battle of Lutter">Lutter am Barenberge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Groenlo_(1627)" title="Siege of Groenlo (1627)">Groenlo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Stralsund_(1628)" title="Siege of Stralsund (1628)">Stralsund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wolgast" title="Battle of Wolgast">Wolgast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_%27s-Hertogenbosch" title="Siege of 's-Hertogenbosch">'s-Hertogenbosch</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:transparent; padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Swedish_intervention_in_the_Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Swedish intervention in the Thirty Years' War">Swedish intervention (1630–1635)</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Stettin_(1630)" title="Treaty of Stettin (1630)">Swedish landing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Frankfurt_an_der_Oder" title="Battle of Frankfurt an der Oder">Frankfurt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Magdeburg" title="Sack of Magdeburg">Magdeburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Werben" title="Battle of Werben">Werben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Breitenfeld_(1631)" title="Battle of Breitenfeld (1631)">1st Breitenfeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bamberg" title="Battle of Bamberg">Bamberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rain" title="Battle of Rain">Rain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Maastricht" title="Capture of Maastricht">Maastricht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Nuremberg" title="Siege of Nuremberg">Nuremberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wiesloch_(1632)" title="Battle of Wiesloch (1632)">Wiesloch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Alte_Veste" title="Battle of the Alte Veste">Alte Veste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_F%C3%BCrth" title="Battle of Fürth">Fürth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_L%C3%BCtzen_(1632)" title="Battle of Lützen (1632)">Lützen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Oldendorf" title="Battle of Oldendorf">Oldendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Pfaffenhofen_(1633)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Pfaffenhofen (1633) (page does not exist)">Pfaffenhofen</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Steinau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Steinau (page does not exist)">Steinau</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Relief_of_Konstanz_(1633)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Relief of Konstanz (1633) (page does not exist)">Konstanz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Relief_of_Breisach_(1633)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Relief of Breisach (1633) (page does not exist)">1st Breisach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Rheinfelden_(1633)" title="Siege of Rheinfelden (1633)">1st Rheinfelden</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Liegnitz_(1634)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Liegnitz (1634) (page does not exist)">Liegnitz</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schlacht_bei_Liegnitz_(1634)" class="extiw" title="de:Schlacht bei Liegnitz (1634)">de</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_N%C3%B6rdlingen_(1634)" title="Battle of Nördlingen (1634)">1st Nördlingen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Strasbourg_Bridge" title="Battle of Strasbourg Bridge">Strasbourg Bridge</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:transparent; padding-bottom:0;"> Swedish-French Period (1635–1648)</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Les_Avins" title="Battle of Les Avins">Les Avins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leuven" title="Siege of Leuven">Leuven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Schenkenschans" title="Siege of Schenkenschans">Schenkenschans</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Ray-sur-Sa%C3%B4ne&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Ray-sur-Saône (page does not exist)">Ray-sur-Saône</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_D%C3%B6mitz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Dömitz (page does not exist)">Dömitz</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schlacht_bei_D%C3%B6mitz" class="extiw" title="de:Schlacht bei Dömitz">de</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Hasel%C3%BCnne&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Haselünne (page does not exist)">Haselünne</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schlacht_bei_Hasel%C3%BCnne" class="extiw" title="de:Schlacht bei Haselünne">de</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Raon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Raon (page does not exist)">Raon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tornavento" title="Battle of Tornavento">Tornavento</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Magdeburg_(1636)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Magdeburg (1636) (page does not exist)">2nd Magdeburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossing_of_the_Somme" title="Crossing of the Somme">Somme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wittstock" title="Battle of Wittstock">Wittstock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Breda_(1637)" title="Siege of Breda (1637)">2nd Breda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Venlo_(1637)" title="Siege of Venlo (1637)">Venlo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Leipzig_(1637)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Leipzig (1637) (page does not exist)">Leipzig</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Hanau_(1638)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Hanau (1638) (page does not exist)">Hanau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rheinfelden" title="Battle of Rheinfelden">2nd Rheinfelden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Saint-Omer" title="Siege of Saint-Omer">Saint Omer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Fuenterrab%C3%ADa_(1638)" title="Siege of Fuenterrabía (1638)">Fuenterrabía</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kallo" title="Battle of Kallo">Kallo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wittenweiher" title="Battle of Wittenweiher">Wittenweiher</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Thann_(1638)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Thann (1638) (page does not exist)">Thann</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treffen_auf_dem_Ochsenfelde" class="extiw" title="de:Treffen auf dem Ochsenfelde">de</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vlotho" title="Battle of Vlotho">Vlotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Breisach" title="Siege of Breisach">2nd Breisach</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Freiberg&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Freiberg (page does not exist)">1st Freiberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chemnitz" title="Battle of Chemnitz">Chemnitz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Melnik&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Melnik (page does not exist)">Melnik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relief_of_Thionville" title="Relief of Thionville">Thionville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Salses" title="Siege of Salses">Salses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cambrils" title="Battle of Cambrils">Cambrils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Montju%C3%AFc_(1641)" title="Battle of Montjuïc (1641)">Montjuïc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pre%C3%9Fnitz" title="Battle of Preßnitz">Preßnitz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Plauen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Plauen (page does not exist)">Plauen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_La_Marf%C3%A9e" title="Battle of La Marfée">La Marfée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Dorsten" title="Siege of Dorsten">Dorsten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wolfenb%C3%BCttel" title="Battle of Wolfenbüttel">Wolfenbüttel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kempen" title="Battle of Kempen">Kempen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Honnecourt" title="Battle of Honnecourt">Honnecourt</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Schweidnitz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Schweidnitz (page does not exist)">Schweidnitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Breitenfeld_(1642)" title="Battle of Breitenfeld (1642)">2nd Breitenfeld</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Freiberg_(1642)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Freiberg (1642) (page does not exist)">2nd Freiberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rocroi" title="Battle of Rocroi">Rocroi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Brno_(1643)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Brno (1643) (page does not exist)">1st Brno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tuttlingen" title="Battle of Tuttlingen">Tuttlingen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kolding_(1644)" title="Battle of Kolding (1644)">Kolding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Freiburg" title="Battle of Freiburg">Freiburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Philippsburg_(1644)" title="Siege of Philippsburg (1644)">Philippsburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_J%C3%BCterbog" title="Battle of Jüterbog">Jüterbog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bysj%C3%B6n" title="Battle of Bysjön">Bysjön</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jankau" title="Battle of Jankau">Jankau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Brno_(1645)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Brno (1645)">2nd Brno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Herbsthausen" title="Battle of Herbsthausen">Mergentheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_N%C3%B6rdlingen_(1645)" title="Battle of Nördlingen (1645)">2nd Nördlingen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Hulst_(1645)" title="Siege of Hulst (1645)">3rd Hulst</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Korneuburg&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Korneuburg (page does not exist)">Korneuburg</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belagerung_von_Korneuburg_(1646)" class="extiw" title="de:Belagerung von Korneuburg (1646)">de</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Totenh%C3%B6he&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Totenhöhe (page does not exist)">Totenhöhe</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gefecht_auf_der_Totenh%C3%B6he" class="extiw" title="de:Gefecht auf der Totenhöhe">de</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Hohent%C3%BCbingen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Hohentübingen (page does not exist)">Hohentübingen</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belagerung_von_Schloss_Hohent%C3%BCbingen" class="extiw" title="de:Belagerung von Schloss Hohentübingen">de</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Triebl" title="Battle of Triebl">Triebl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neapolitan_Revolt_(1647%E2%80%931648)" class="mw-redirect" title="Neapolitan Revolt (1647–1648)">Naples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zusmarshausen" title="Battle of Zusmarshausen">Zusmarshausen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wevelinghoven" title="Battle of Wevelinghoven">Wevelinghoven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lens" title="Battle of Lens">Lens</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Dachau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Dachau (page does not exist)">Dachau</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schlacht_bei_Dachau" class="extiw" title="de:Schlacht bei Dachau">de</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Prague_(1648)" title="Battle of Prague (1648)">Prague</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:transparent; padding-bottom:0;"> Naval battles</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gibraltar_(1621)" title="Battle of Gibraltar (1621)">Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relief_of_Genoa" title="Relief of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Slaak" title="Battle of the Slaak">The Slaak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Saint_Martin_(1633)" title="Capture of Saint Martin (1633)">1st Saint Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_off_Lizard_Point" title="Battle off Lizard Point">Lizard Point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_18_February_1639" title="Action of 18 February 1639">Dunkirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fight_in_the_Channel" title="Fight in the Channel">Channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Downs" title="Battle of the Downs">The Downs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_St._Vincent_(1641)" title="Battle of Cape St. Vincent (1641)">Cape St. Vincent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Saint_Martin" title="Attack on Saint Martin">2nd Saint Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_16_May_1644" title="Action of 16 May 1644">Lister Dyb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Colberger_Heide" title="Battle of Colberger Heide">Colberger Heide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fehmarn_(1644)" title="Battle of Fehmarn (1644)">Fehmarn</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div><sub><b><a href="/wiki/Template:Thirty_Years%27_War_treaties" title="Template:Thirty Years' War treaties">Treaties</a></b></sub></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Franco-Spanish_War_(1635–1659)" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Franco-Spanish_War_(1635%E2%80%931659)" title="Template:Campaignbox Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Franco-Spanish_War_(1635%E2%80%931659)" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Franco-Spanish_War_(1635%E2%80%931659)" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Franco-Spanish_War_(1635–1659)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Franco-Spanish_War_(1635%E2%80%931659)" title="Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)"><span class="wrap">Franco-Spanish War</span></a><br /> (1635–1659)</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>Flanders and Northern France</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Les_Avins" title="Battle of Les Avins">Les Avins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leuven" title="Siege of Leuven">Leuven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Le_Catelet_(1636)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Le Catelet (1636)">Le Catelet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_La_Capelle" title="Siege of La Capelle">La Capelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossing_of_the_Somme" title="Crossing of the Somme">Somme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Siege_of_Corbie" title="First Siege of Corbie">1st Corbie</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Landrecies_(1637)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Landrecies (1637) (page does not exist)">1st Landrecies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Saint-Omer" title="Siege of Saint-Omer">1st Saint Omer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relief_of_Thionville" title="Relief of Thionville">1st Thionville</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Charlemont_(1640)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Charlemont (1640) (page does not exist)">Charlemont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Arras_(1640)" title="Siege of Arras (1640)">1st Arras</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Aire-sur-la-Lys_(1641&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Aire-sur-la-Lys (1641 (page does not exist)">Aire-sur-la-Lys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_La_Marf%C3%A9e" title="Battle of La Marfée">La Marfée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Honnecourt" title="Battle of Honnecourt">Honnecourt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rocroi" title="Battle of Rocroi">Rocroi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Thionville_(1643)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Thionville (1643) (page does not exist)">2nd Thionville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Gravelines_(1644)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Gravelines (1644)">1st Gravelines</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_B%C3%A9thune_(1645)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Béthune (1645) (page does not exist)">Béthune</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Saint-Omer_(1645)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Saint-Omer (1645) (page does not exist)">2nd Saint Omer</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Lens&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Lens (page does not exist)">1st Lens</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Bergues&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Bergues (page does not exist)">Bergues</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Mardyck_(1646)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Mardyck (1646) (page does not exist)">1st Mardyck</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Furnes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Furnes (page does not exist)">Furnes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Dunkirk_(1646)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Dunkirk (1646) (page does not exist)">1st Dunkirk</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Armenti%C3%A8res_(1647)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Armentières (1647) (page does not exist)">Armentières</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Nieuwpoort_(1647)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Nieuwpoort (1647) (page does not exist)">Nieuwpoort</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Commines&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Commines (page does not exist)">Commines</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Landrecies_(1647)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Landrecies (1647) (page does not exist)">2nd Landrecies</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Diksmuide&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Diksmuide (page does not exist)">Diksmuide</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Ypres_(1647)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Ypres (1647) (page does not exist)">Ypres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lens" title="Battle of Lens">2nd Lens</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Rethel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Rethel (page does not exist)">Rethel</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8B%92%E6%B3%B0%E5%8B%92%E5%9C%8D%E5%9F%8E%E6%88%B0" class="extiw" title="zh:勒泰勒圍城戰">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Mouzon" title="Siege of Mouzon">Mouzon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arras_(1654)" title="Battle of Arras (1654)">2nd Arras</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Landrecies_(1655)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Landrecies (1655) (page does not exist)">3rd Landrecies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Valenciennes_(1656)" title="Battle of Valenciennes (1656)">Valenciennes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Mardyck_(1657)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Mardyck (1657) (page does not exist)">2nd Mardyck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Dunkirk_(1658)" title="Siege of Dunkirk (1658)">2nd Dunkirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Dunes_(1658)" title="Battle of the Dunes (1658)">The Dunes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Gravelines_(1658)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Gravelines (1658) (page does not exist)">2nd Gravelines</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Bergues_(1658)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Bergues (1658) (page does not exist)">Bergues</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Northern Spain and Southern France</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leucate" title="Siege of Leucate">Leucate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Fuenterrab%C3%ADa_(1638)" title="Siege of Fuenterrabía (1638)">Fuenterrabía</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Salses" title="Siege of Salses">1st Salses</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Ille-sur-T%C3%AAt_(1640)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Ille-sur-Têt (1640) (page does not exist)">Ille-sur-Têt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Montju%C3%AFc_(1641)" title="Battle of Montjuïc (1641)">Montjuïc</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Tarragona_(1641)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Tarragona (1641) (page does not exist)">1st Tarragona</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Almenar_(1641)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Almenar (1641) (page does not exist)">Almenar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Montmel%C3%B3" title="Battle of Montmeló">Montmeló</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_La_Granada&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of La Granada (page does not exist)">La Granada</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Monz%C3%B3n_(1642)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Monzón (1642) (page does not exist)">Monzón</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Collioure_(1642)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Collioure (1642) (page does not exist)">Collioure</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Tortosa_(1642)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Tortosa (1642) (page does not exist)">1st Tortosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Perpignan_(1642)" title="Siege of Perpignan (1642)">Perpignan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Roses_(1642)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Roses (1642) (page does not exist)">1st Roses</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Salses_(1642)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Salses (1642) (page does not exist)">2nd Salses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lleida_(1642)" title="Battle of Lleida (1642)">1st Lleida</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Miravet_(1643)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Miravet (1643) (page does not exist)">Miravet</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Monz%C3%B3n_(1643)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Monzón (1643) (page does not exist)">Monzón</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Lleida_(1644)" title="Siege of Lleida (1644)">2nd Lleida</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Tarragona_(1644)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Tarragona (1644) (page does not exist)">4th Tarragona</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Roses_(1645)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Roses (1645) (page does not exist)">2nd Roses</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_San_Lorenzo_de_Mongay_(1645)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of San Lorenzo de Mongay (1645) (page does not exist)">San Lorenzo de Mongay</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Balaguer_(1645)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Balaguer (1645) (page does not exist)">Balaguer</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Lleida_(1646)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Lleida (1646) (page does not exist)">3rd Lleida</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Lleida_(1647)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Lleida (1647) (page does not exist)">4th Lleida</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Tortosa_(1648)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Tortosa (1648) (page does not exist)">2nd Tortosa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Montblanc&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Montblanc (page does not exist)">Montblanc</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Tortosa_(1650)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Tortosa (1650) (page does not exist)">3rd Tortosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Barcelona_(1651)" title="Siege of Barcelona (1651)">2nd Barcelona</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Castell%C3%B3_d%27Emp%C3%BAries_(1653)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Castelló d'Empúries (1653) (page does not exist)">Castelló d'Empúries</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Girona_(1653)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Girona (1653) (page does not exist)">Girona</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Villefranche-de-Conflent_(1654)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Villefranche-de-Conflent (1654) (page does not exist)">Villefranche-de-Conflent</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Cadaqu%C3%A9s_(1655)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Cadaqués (1655) (page does not exist)">Cadaqués</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Solsona_(1655)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Solsona (1655) (page does not exist)">Solsona</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Solsona_(1655)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Solsona (1655) (page does not exist)">Berga</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Solsona_(1657)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Solsona (1657) (page does not exist)">Castellfollit</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Camprod%C3%B3n_(1658)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Camprodón (1658) (page does not exist)">Camprodon</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Italy</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Valenza_(1635)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Valenza (1635) (page does not exist)">1st Valenza</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Morbegno&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Morbegno (page does not exist)">Morbegno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tornavento" title="Battle of Tornavento">Tornavento</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Marbegno_(1637)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Marbegno (1637) (page does not exist)">Marbegno</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Breme_(1638)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Breme (1638) (page does not exist)">Breme</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Vercelli_(1638)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Vercelli (1638) (page does not exist)">Vercelli</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Chieri_(1639)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Chieri (1639) (page does not exist)">Chieri</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Casale&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Casale (page does not exist)">Casale</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%A1%E8%96%A9%E8%90%8A%E6%88%B0%E5%BD%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:卡薩萊戰役">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Turin_(1640)" title="Siege of Turin (1640)">Turin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Valenza_(1641)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Valenza (1641) (page does not exist)">2nd Valenza</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Cremona_(1644)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Cremona (1644) (page does not exist)">1st Cremona</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Proh_(1645)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Proh (1645) (page does not exist)">Proh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neapolitan_Revolt_(1647%E2%80%931648)" class="mw-redirect" title="Neapolitan Revolt (1647–1648)">Naples</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Cremona_(1648)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Cremona (1648) (page does not exist)">2nd Cremona</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Pavia_(1655)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Pavia (1655) (page does not exist)">Pavia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Valenza_(1656)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Valenza (1656) (page does not exist)">3rd Valenza</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>France hinterland</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Fronde" title="The Fronde">The Fronde</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Franche-Comté and Germany</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Dole_(1636)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Dole (1636) (page does not exist)">Dole</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Martignat_(1637)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Martignat (1637) (page does not exist)">Martignat</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Savigny_(1637)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Savigny (1637) (page does not exist)">Savigny</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Arbent_(1637)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Arbent (1637) (page does not exist)">Arbent</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Cornod_(1637)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Cornod (1637) (page does not exist)">Cornod</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Saint-Amour_(1637)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Saint-Amour (1637) (page does not exist)">Saint-Amour</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Sainte-Agn%C3%A8s_(1637)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Sainte-Agnès (1637) (page does not exist)">Sainte-Agnès</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Lons-le-Saunier_(1637)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Lons-le-Saunier (1637) (page does not exist)">Lons-le-Saunier</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Bletterans_(1637)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Bletterans (1637) (page does not exist)">Bletterans</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Battle_of_Poligny&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="First Battle of Poligny (page does not exist)">1st Poligny</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Battle_of_Poligny&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Second Battle of Poligny (page does not exist)">2nd Poligny</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Pontarlier_(1639)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Pontarlier (1639) (page does not exist)">Pontarlier</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Jonvelle_(1639)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Jonvelle (1639) (page does not exist)">Jonvelle</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Maynal_(1641)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Maynal (1641) (page does not exist)">Maynal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tuttlingen" title="Battle of Tuttlingen">Tuttlingen</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Caribbean</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Tortuga" title="Capture of Tortuga">Tortuga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Fort_Rocher" title="Capture of Fort Rocher">Fort Rocher</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Naval battles</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=L%C3%A9rins_Islands_expedition_(1635)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lérins Islands expedition (1635) (page does not exist)">1st Lérins Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Raid_on_Sardinia_(1637)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Raid on Sardinia (1637) (page does not exist)">Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=L%C3%A9rins_Islands_expedition_(1637)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lérins Islands expedition (1637) (page does not exist)">2nd Lérins Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=L%C3%A9rins_Islands_expedition_(1638)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lérins Islands expedition (1638) (page does not exist)">3rd Lérins Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Genoa_(1638)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Genoa (1638) (page does not exist)">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Getaria" title="Battle of Getaria">Getaria</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Attack_on_Laredo_and_Santo%C3%B1a_(1639)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Attack on Laredo and Santoña (1639) (page does not exist)">Laredo <b>·</b> Santoña</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_%C3%8Ele_de_R%C3%A9_(1640)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Île de Ré (1640) (page does not exist)">Île de Ré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_C%C3%A1diz_(1640)" title="Battle of Cádiz (1640)">Cádiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Battle_of_Tarragona_(July_1641)" class="mw-redirect" title="Naval Battle of Tarragona (July 1641)">2nd Tarragona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tarragona_(August_1641)" title="Battle of Tarragona (August 1641)">3rd Tarragona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Barcelona" title="Battle of Barcelona">1st Barcelona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cartagena_(1643)" title="Battle of Cartagena (1643)">Cartagena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Orbetello" title="Battle of Orbetello">Orbetello</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Castellammare_(1647)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Castellammare (1647) (page does not exist)">Castellammare</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Piombino_and_Porto_Longone_(1650)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Piombino and Porto Longone (1650) (page does not exist)">Piombino <b>·</b> Porto Longone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_23_November_1650" title="Action of 23 November 1650">Cambrils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_galleon_Lion_Couronn%C3%A9" title="Capture of the galleon Lion Couronné">Formentera</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Attack_on_Sant_Feliu_(1651)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Attack on Sant Feliu (1651) (page does not exist)">Sant Feliu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bordeaux_(1653)" title="Battle of Bordeaux (1653)">Bordeaux</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Barcelona_(1655)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Barcelona (1655) (page does not exist)">3rd Barcelona</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>The <b>Thirty Years' War</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>j<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from 1618 to 1648, was one of the most destructive conflicts in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">European history</a>. Fought primarily in <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central Europe</a>, an estimated 4.5 to 8 million soldiers and civilians died from the effects of battle, famine, or disease, while parts of <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> reported population declines of over 50%.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker1997189_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker1997189-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Related conflicts include the <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Mantuan_Succession" title="War of the Mantuan Succession">War of the Mantuan Succession</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Spanish_War_(1635%E2%80%931659)" title="Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)">Franco-Spanish War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Torstenson_War" title="Torstenson War">Torstenson War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Dutch-Portuguese_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch-Portuguese War">Dutch-Portuguese War</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Restoration_War" title="Portuguese Restoration War">Portuguese Restoration War</a>. </p><p>The war can be seen as a continuation of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Schmalkaldic_War" title="Second Schmalkaldic War">religious conflict</a> initiated by the 16th-century <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>. The 1555 <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Augsburg" title="Peace of Augsburg">Peace of Augsburg</a> attempted to resolve this by dividing the Empire into <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a> states, but over the next 50 years the expansion of <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a> beyond these boundaries destabilised the settlement. However, while differences over religion and <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Imperial</a> authority were important factors in causing the war, some contemporary commentators suggest its scope and extent were driven by the <a href="/wiki/French%E2%80%93Habsburg_rivalry" title="French–Habsburg rivalry">contest</a> for European dominance between <a href="/wiki/House_of_Habsburg" title="House of Habsburg">Habsburg</a>-ruled <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain" title="Habsburg Spain">Spain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Austria</a>, and the French <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">House of Bourbon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESutherland1992589–590_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESutherland1992589–590-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Its outbreak is generally traced to <a href="/wiki/Defenestrations_of_Prague" title="Defenestrations of Prague">1618</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>k<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> when <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor">Emperor Ferdinand II</a> was deposed as king of <a href="/wiki/Lands_of_the_Bohemian_Crown" title="Lands of the Bohemian Crown">Bohemia</a> and replaced by the Protestant <a href="/wiki/Frederick_V_of_the_Palatinate" title="Frederick V of the Palatinate">Frederick V of the Palatinate</a>. Although Imperial forces quickly suppressed the <a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Revolt" title="Bohemian Revolt">Bohemian Revolt</a>, Frederick's participation expanded the <a href="/wiki/Palatinate_campaign" title="Palatinate campaign">fighting into the Palatinate</a>, whose strategic importance drew in the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a> and Spain, then engaged in the Eighty Years' War. In addition, the acquisition of territories within the empire by rulers like <a href="/wiki/Christian_IV_of_Denmark" title="Christian IV of Denmark">Christian IV of Denmark</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gustavus_Adolphus" title="Gustavus Adolphus">Gustavus Adolphus</a> of <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Sweden</a> gave them and other foreign powers an ongoing motive to intervene. Combined with fears the Protestant religion in general was threatened, what started as an internal dynastic dispute became a European conflict. </p><p>The period from 1618 to 1635 was primarily a <a href="/wiki/Civil_war" title="Civil war">civil war</a> within the Holy Roman Empire, with support from external powers. After <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Prague_(1635)" title="Peace of Prague (1635)">1635</a>, the empire became one theatre in a wider struggle between <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a>, chiefly supported by Sweden, and <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_III,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor">Emperor Ferdinand III</a>, whose principal ally was Spain. Fighting ended with the 1648 <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a>, the terms of which included greater autonomy within the empire for states like <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Bavaria" title="Electorate of Bavaria">Bavaria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Saxony" title="Electorate of Saxony">Saxony</a>, as well as acceptance of Dutch independence by Spain. The conflict shifted the <a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">balance of power</a> in favour of France, and set the stage for the expansionist wars of <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a> which dominated Europe for the next sixty years. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structural_origins">Structural origins</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thirty_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Structural origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 1552 <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Passau" title="Peace of Passau">Peace of Passau</a> ended the <a href="/wiki/Schmalkaldic_War" title="Schmalkaldic War">Schmalkaldic War</a>, a religious conflict between <a href="/wiki/Protestants" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestants">Protestants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Catholics" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholics">Catholics</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>. The 1555 <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Augsburg" title="Peace of Augsburg">Peace of Augsburg</a> tried to prevent their recurrence by fixing boundaries between the two faiths, using the principle of <i><a href="/wiki/Cuius_regio,_eius_religio" title="Cuius regio, eius religio">cuius regio, eius religio</a></i>. This designated individual states as either <a href="/wiki/Lutheran" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran">Lutheran</a>, then the most usual form of Protestantism, or Catholic, based on the religion of their ruler. Other provisions protected substantial religious minorities in cities like <a href="/wiki/Donauw%C3%B6rth" title="Donauwörth">Donauwörth</a>, and confirmed Lutheran ownership of property taken from the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> since Passau.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker199717–18_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker199717–18-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These agreements were undermined by the post-1555 expansion of Protestantism into areas previously designated as Catholic. Another factor was the growth of Protestant faiths not recognised by Augsburg, especially <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a>, which was viewed with hostility by both Lutherans and Catholics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESutherland1992602–603_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESutherland1992602–603-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Peace of Augsburg also gave individual rulers within the empire greater political autonomy and control over the religion practised in their domains, while weakening central authority. Conflict over economic and political objectives frequently superseded religion, with Lutheran <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Saxony" title="Electorate of Saxony">Saxony</a>, <a href="/wiki/Denmark%E2%80%93Norway" title="Denmark–Norway">Denmark–Norway</a> and <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Sweden</a><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>l<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> competing with each other and Calvinist <a href="/wiki/Brandenburg-Prussia" class="mw-redirect" title="Brandenburg-Prussia">Brandenburg</a> over the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_maritime_trade_(c._1400%E2%80%931800)" title="Baltic maritime trade (c. 1400–1800)">Baltic trade</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood193822–24_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood193822–24-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Managing these issues was hampered by the fragmented nature of the empire. Its representative institutions included 300 <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Estate" title="Imperial Estate">Imperial Estates</a> distributed across Germany, the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Italy" title="Northern Italy">Northern Italy</a>, and present-day France.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>m<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These ranged in size and importance from the seven <a href="/wiki/Prince-elector" title="Prince-elector">prince-electors</a> who voted for the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor</a>, down to <a href="/wiki/Prince-bishop" title="Prince-bishop">prince-bishoprics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Free_imperial_city" title="Free imperial city">Imperial cities</a> like <a href="/wiki/Hamburg" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>n<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each also belonged to a regional grouping or "<a href="/wiki/Imperial_circle" title="Imperial circle">Imperial circle</a>", which primarily focused on defence and operated as autonomous bodies. Above all of these was the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Diet_(Holy_Roman_Empire)" title="Imperial Diet (Holy Roman Empire)">Imperial Diet</a>, which only assembled on an irregular basis, and then largely served as a forum for discussion, rather than legislation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson200917–22_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson200917–22-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although, in theory, emperors were elected, the position had been held by the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Habsburg" title="House of Habsburg">House of Habsburg</a> since 1440. The largest single landowner within the Holy Roman Empire, they controlled lands containing over eight million subjects, including <a href="/wiki/Archduchy_of_Austria" title="Archduchy of Austria">Austria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bohemia" title="Kingdom of Bohemia">Bohemia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Hungary</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood193824_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood193824-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Habsburgs also ruled the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a> until 1556, when <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a> divided the two empires between different branches of the family. This bond was reinforced by frequent inter-marriage, while <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain" title="Habsburg Spain">Spain</a> retained Imperial territories such as the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Spanish Netherlands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Franche-Comt%C3%A9" title="Franche-Comté">Franche-Comté</a>. Although these links meant the Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs often worked together, their objectives did not always align. Spain was a global maritime superpower, whose possessions stretched from Europe to the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Philippines_(1565%E2%80%931898)" title="History of the Philippines (1565–1898)">Philippines</a>, and <a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">much of the Americas</a>. In contrast, Austria was a land-based power, focused on ensuring their pre-eminence within Germany and securing their eastern border against the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938159–161_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938159–161-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before Augsburg, unity of religion compensated for lack of strong central authority; once removed, it presented opportunities for those who sought to further weaken it. These included ambitious Imperial states like Lutheran Saxony and Catholic <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Bavaria" title="Duchy of Bavaria">Bavaria</a>, as well as France, confronted by Habsburg lands on its borders to the <a href="/wiki/Nord-Pas-de-Calais" title="Nord-Pas-de-Calais">North</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southern_France" title="Southern France">South</a>, and along the <a href="/wiki/Pyrenees" title="Pyrenees">Pyrenees</a>. Since many foreign rulers were also Imperial princes, divisions within the empire drew in external powers like <a href="/wiki/Christian_IV_of_Denmark" title="Christian IV of Denmark">Christian IV of Denmark</a>, who joined the war in 1625 as <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Holstein-Gottorp" title="Duke of Holstein-Gottorp">Duke of Holstein-Gottorp</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHayden19731–23_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayden19731–23-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background:_1556_to_1618">Background: 1556 to 1618</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thirty_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Background: 1556 to 1618"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Thirty_Years_War-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Map_Thirty_Years_War-en.svg/260px-Map_Thirty_Years_War-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="337" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Map_Thirty_Years_War-en.svg/390px-Map_Thirty_Years_War-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Map_Thirty_Years_War-en.svg/520px-Map_Thirty_Years_War-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="715" data-file-height="927" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Thirty Years' War</figcaption></figure> <p>Disputes occasionally resulted in full-scale conflict like the 1583 to 1588 <a href="/wiki/Cologne_War" title="Cologne War">Cologne War</a>, caused when its <a href="/wiki/Gebhard_Truchsess_von_Waldburg" title="Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg">ruler</a> converted to Calvinism. More common were events such as the 1606 "Battle of the Flags" in Donauwörth, when riots broke out after the Lutheran majority blocked a Catholic religious procession. <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor">Emperor Rudolf</a> approved intervention by the Catholic <a href="/wiki/Maximilian_I,_Elector_of_Bavaria" title="Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria">Maximilian of Bavaria</a>. In return, he was allowed to annex the town, and as agreed at Augsburg, the official religion changed from Lutheran to Catholic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009222_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009222-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the Imperial Diet opened in February 1608, both Lutherans and Calvinists sought formal re-confirmation of the Augsburg settlement. In return, the Habsburg heir <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor">Archduke Ferdinand</a> required the immediate restoration of all property taken from the Catholic Church since 1555, rather than the previous practice whereby the court ruled case by case. This demand threatened all Protestants, paralysed the diet, and removed the perception of Imperial neutrality.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009224_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009224-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Loss of faith in central authority meant towns and rulers began strengthening their fortifications and armies; outside travellers often commented on the growing militarisation of Germany in this period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker199711_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker199711-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1608, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_IV,_Elector_Palatine" title="Frederick IV, Elector Palatine">Frederick IV, Elector Palatine</a> formed the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Union" title="Protestant Union">Protestant Union</a>, and Maximilian responded by setting up the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_League_(German)" title="Catholic League (German)">Catholic League</a> in July 1609. Both were created to support the dynastic ambitions of their leaders, but combined with the 1609 to 1614 <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_J%C3%BClich_Succession" title="War of the Jülich Succession">War of the Jülich Succession</a>, the result was to increase tensions throughout the empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood193847–49_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood193847–49-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some historians who see the war as primarily a European conflict argue Jülich marks its beginning, with Spain and Austria backing the Catholic candidate, France and the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a> the Protestant.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2008557_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2008557-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CaminoEspa%C3%B1ol.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/CaminoEspa%C3%B1ol.svg/180px-CaminoEspa%C3%B1ol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/CaminoEspa%C3%B1ol.svg/270px-CaminoEspa%C3%B1ol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/CaminoEspa%C3%B1ol.svg/360px-CaminoEspa%C3%B1ol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="449" data-file-height="614" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Road" title="Spanish Road">Spanish Road</a> <br /> <b>Purple</b>: <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain" title="Habsburg Spain">Spanish</a> dependencies <br /> <b>Green</b>: Ruled by <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Austria</a> <br /> <b>Brown</b>: Ruled by Spain</figcaption></figure> <p>External powers became involved in what was an internal German dispute due to the imminent expiry of the 1609 <a href="/wiki/Twelve_Years%27_Truce" title="Twelve Years' Truce">Twelve Years' Truce</a>, which suspended the <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a> between Spain and the Dutch Republic. Before restarting hostilities, <a href="/wiki/Ambrosio_Spinola" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambrosio Spinola">Ambrosio Spinola</a>, commander in the Spanish Netherlands, needed to secure the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Road" title="Spanish Road">Spanish Road</a>, an overland route connecting Habsburg possessions in Italy to <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a>. This allowed him to move troops and supplies by road, rather than sea where the Dutch navy was dominant; by 1618, the only part not controlled by Spain ran through the <a href="/wiki/Electoral_Palatinate" title="Electoral Palatinate">Electoral Palatinate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood193850_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood193850-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since <a href="/wiki/Matthias,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor">Emperor Matthias</a> had no surviving children, in <a href="/wiki/O%C3%B1ate_treaty" title="Oñate treaty">July 1617</a> <a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Spain" title="Philip III of Spain">Philip III of Spain</a> agreed to support Ferdinand's election as king of Bohemia and Hungary. In return, Ferdinand made concessions to Spain in Northern Italy and Alsace, and agreed to support their offensive against the Dutch. Doing so required his election as emperor, which was not guaranteed; Maximilian of Bavaria, who opposed the increase of Spanish influence in an area he considered his own, tried to create a coalition with Saxony and the Palatinate to support his candidacy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood193863–65_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood193863–65-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another option was <a href="/wiki/Frederick_V,_Elector_Palatine" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick V, Elector Palatine">Frederick V, Elector Palatine</a>, a Calvinist who succeeded his father in 1610, and in 1613 married <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_of_Bohemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabeth of Bohemia">Elizabeth Stuart</a>, daughter of <a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James I of England</a>. Four of the electors were Catholic, and three were Protestant; if this balance changed, it would potentially result in the election of a Protestant emperor. When Ferdinand became king of Bohemia in 1617, he also gained control of its electoral vote; however, his conservative Catholicism made him unpopular with the predominantly Protestant nobility, who were also concerned about the erosion of their rights. These factors combined to bring about the <a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Revolt" title="Bohemian Revolt">Bohemian Revolt</a> in May 1618.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009271–274_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009271–274-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phase_I:_1618_to_1635">Phase I: 1618 to 1635</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thirty_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Phase I: 1618 to 1635"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bohemian_Revolt">Bohemian Revolt</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thirty_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Bohemian Revolt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Revolt" title="Bohemian Revolt">Bohemian Revolt</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Friedrich_V._von_der_Pfalz_bis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Friedrich_V._von_der_Pfalz_bis.jpg/220px-Friedrich_V._von_der_Pfalz_bis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Friedrich_V._von_der_Pfalz_bis.jpg/330px-Friedrich_V._von_der_Pfalz_bis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Friedrich_V._von_der_Pfalz_bis.jpg/440px-Friedrich_V._von_der_Pfalz_bis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="515" data-file-height="650" /></a><figcaption>"Winter's King", <a href="/wiki/Frederick_V_of_the_Palatinate" title="Frederick V of the Palatinate">Frederick V of the Palatinate</a>, whose acceptance of the Bohemian Crown sparked the conflict</figcaption></figure> <p>Ferdinand once claimed he would rather see his lands destroyed than tolerate <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heresy</a> within them. Less than 18 months after taking control of <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Styria" title="Duchy of Styria">Styria</a> in 1595, he had eliminated Protestantism in what had been a stronghold of the <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBassett201514_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBassett201514-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Absorbed by their war in the Netherlands, his Spanish relatives preferred to avoid antagonising Protestants elsewhere. They recognised the dangers associated with Ferdinand's fervent Catholicism, but supported his claim due to the lack of alternatives.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood193874–75_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood193874–75-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On being elected king of Bohemia in May 1617, Ferdinand reconfirmed <a href="/wiki/Letter_of_Majesty" title="Letter of Majesty">Protestant religious freedoms</a>, but his record in Styria led to the suspicion he was only awaiting a chance to overturn them. These concerns were heightened after a series of legal disputes over property were all decided in favour of the Catholic Church. In May 1618, Protestant nobles led by <a href="/wiki/Jind%C5%99ich_Maty%C3%A1%C5%A1_Thurn" title="Jindřich Matyáš Thurn">Count Thurn</a> met in <a href="/wiki/Prague_Castle" title="Prague Castle">Prague Castle</a> with Ferdinand's two Catholic representatives, <a href="/wiki/Vilem_Slavata_of_Chlum" class="mw-redirect" title="Vilem Slavata of Chlum">Vilem Slavata</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jaroslav_Borzita_of_Martinice" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaroslav Borzita of Martinice">Jaroslav Borzita</a>. In what became known as the <a href="/wiki/Third_Defenestration_of_Prague" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Defenestration of Prague">Third Defenestration of Prague</a>, both men were thrown out of the castle windows along with their secretary <a href="/wiki/Filip_Fabricius" title="Filip Fabricius">Filip Fabricius</a>, although all three survived.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood193878–79_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood193878–79-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thurn established a Protestant-dominated government in Bohemia, while unrest expanded into <a href="/wiki/Silesia" title="Silesia">Silesia</a> and the Habsburg heartlands of <a href="/wiki/Lower_Austria" title="Lower Austria">Lower</a> and <a href="/wiki/Upper_Austria" title="Upper Austria">Upper Austria</a>, where much of the nobility was also Protestant. Losing control of these threatened the entire Habsburg state, while Bohemia was one of the most prosperous areas of the Empire and its electoral vote crucial to ensuring Ferdinand succeeded Matthias as Emperor. The combination meant their recapture was vital for the Austrian Habsburgs but chronic financial weakness left them dependent on Maximilian and Spain for the resources needed to achieve this.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBassett201512,_15_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBassett201512,_15-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Spanish involvement inevitably drew in the Dutch, and potentially <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a>, although the strongly Catholic <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIII_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIII of France">Louis XIII of France</a> faced his own <a href="/wiki/Huguenot_rebellions" title="Huguenot rebellions">Protestant rebels</a> at home and refused to support them elsewhere. The revolt also provided opportunities for external opponents of the Habsburgs, including the Ottoman Empire and <a href="/wiki/Savoyard_state" title="Savoyard state">Savoy</a>. Funded by Frederick and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Emmanuel_I,_Duke_of_Savoy" title="Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy">Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy</a>, a mercenary army under <a href="/wiki/Ernst_von_Mansfeld" title="Ernst von Mansfeld">Ernst von Mansfeld</a> was sent to support the Bohemian rebels. Attempts by Maximilian and John George of Saxony to broker a negotiated solution ended when Matthias died in March 1619, since many believed the loss of his authority and influence had fatally damaged the Habsburgs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood193881–82_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood193881–82-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By mid-June 1619, the Bohemian army under Thurn was outside <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a> and although Mansfeld's defeat by Imperial forces at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sablat" title="Battle of Sablat">Sablat</a> forced him to return to Prague, Ferdinand's position continued to worsen.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood193894_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood193894-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Bethlen" title="Gabriel Bethlen">Gabriel Bethlen</a>, Calvinist <a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Transylvania" title="Prince of Transylvania">Prince of Transylvania</a>, invaded Hungary with Ottoman support, although the Habsburgs persuaded them to avoid direct involvement; this was helped when the Ottomans became involved in the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Ottoman_War_(1620%E2%80%9321)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish–Ottoman War (1620–21)">1620 Polish war</a>, followed by <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Safavid_War_(1623%E2%80%931639)" title="Ottoman–Safavid War (1623–1639)">the 1623 to 1639 conflict with Persia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaramova2014121–122_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaramova2014121–122-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 19 August, the Bohemian Estates rescinded Ferdinand's 1617 election as king; on the 26th, they formally offered the crown to Frederick. Two days later, Ferdinand was elected emperor, making war inevitable if Frederick accepted the Bohemian Crown. Most of Frederick's advisors urged him to reject it, as did the Duke of Savoy, and his father-in-law James I.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood193898–99_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood193898–99-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The exceptions included <a href="/wiki/Christian_I,_Prince_of_Anhalt-Bernburg" title="Christian I, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg">Christian of Anhalt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maurice,_Prince_of_Orange" title="Maurice, Prince of Orange">Maurice of Orange</a>, for whom conflict in Germany was a means to divert Spanish resources from the Netherlands. The Dutch offered subsidies to Frederick and the Protestant Union, helped raise loans for Bohemia, and provided weapons and munitions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995b469_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995b469-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Guerre_30_ans_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Guerre_30_ans_1.jpg/240px-Guerre_30_ans_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Guerre_30_ans_1.jpg/360px-Guerre_30_ans_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Guerre_30_ans_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="369" data-file-height="396" /></a><figcaption>The Catholic counter-offensive; <a href="/wiki/Count_of_Tilly" class="mw-redirect" title="Count of Tilly">Tilly</a>'s campaign during the Bohemian revolt and Palatine campaign</figcaption></figure> <p>However, wider European support failed to materialise, largely due to lack of enthusiasm for removing a legally elected ruler, regardless of religion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood193898–99_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood193898–99-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Frederick accepted the crown and entered Prague in October 1619, his support eroded over the next few months. In July 1620, the Protestant Union proclaimed its neutrality, while John George of Saxony backed Ferdinand in return for the cession of <a href="/wiki/Lusatia" title="Lusatia">Lusatia</a>, and a guarantee of Lutheran rights in Bohemia. Maximilian of Bavaria funded a combined Imperial-Catholic League army led by <a href="/wiki/Johann_Tserclaes,_Count_of_Tilly" title="Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly">Count Tilly</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Bonaventure_de_Longueval,_2nd_Count_of_Bucquoy" title="Charles Bonaventure de Longueval, 2nd Count of Bucquoy">Charles of Bucquoy</a>, which pacified Upper and Lower Austria and occupied western Bohemia before marching on Prague. Defeated by Tilly at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_White_Mountain" title="Battle of White Mountain">Battle of White Mountain</a> in November 1620, the Bohemian army disintegrated, and Frederick was forced to flee the country.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938127–129_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938127–129-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Palatinate_Campaign">Palatinate Campaign</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thirty_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Palatinate Campaign"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By abandoning Frederick, the German princes hoped to restrict the dispute to Bohemia, but Maximilian's dynastic ambitions made this impossible. In the October 1619 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Munich_(1619)" title="Treaty of Munich (1619)">Treaty of Munich</a>, Ferdinand transferred the Palatinate's electoral vote to Bavaria, and allowed Maximilian to annex the <a href="/wiki/Upper_Palatinate" title="Upper Palatinate">Upper Palatinate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStutler201437–38_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStutler201437–38-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many Protestant rulers had supported Ferdinand against Frederick because they objected to deposing the legally elected king of Bohemia. On the same grounds, they viewed Frederick's removal as an infringement of "German liberties", while for Catholics, it presented an opportunity to regain lands and properties lost since 1555. The combination destabilised large parts of the Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938117_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938117-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joachim_von_Sandrart_-_Maximilian_I,_Elector_of_Bavaria.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Joachim_von_Sandrart_-_Maximilian_I%2C_Elector_of_Bavaria.jpg/200px-Joachim_von_Sandrart_-_Maximilian_I%2C_Elector_of_Bavaria.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Joachim_von_Sandrart_-_Maximilian_I%2C_Elector_of_Bavaria.jpg/300px-Joachim_von_Sandrart_-_Maximilian_I%2C_Elector_of_Bavaria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Joachim_von_Sandrart_-_Maximilian_I%2C_Elector_of_Bavaria.jpg/400px-Joachim_von_Sandrart_-_Maximilian_I%2C_Elector_of_Bavaria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1073" data-file-height="1506" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Maximilian_I,_Elector_of_Bavaria" title="Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria">Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria</a> whose seizure of the Palatinate expanded the war</figcaption></figure> <p>At the same time, the strategic importance of the Spanish Road to their war in the Netherlands, and its proximity to the Palatinate, drew in the Spanish. When an army led by <a href="/wiki/Gonzalo_Fern%C3%A1ndez_de_C%C3%B3rdoba_(1585%E2%80%931635)" title="Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba (1585–1635)">Córdoba</a> occupied the <a href="/wiki/Lower_Palatinate" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Palatinate">Lower Palatinate</a> in October 1619, James I responded to this attack on his son-in-law. English naval forces were sent to threaten Spanish possessions in the Americas and the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a>, while James announced he would declare war if Spanish troops were not withdrawn by spring 1621. These actions were primarily designed to placate his opponents in <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_England" title="Parliament of England">Parliament</a>, who considered his pro-Spanish policy a betrayal of the Protestant cause.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZaller1974147–148_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaller1974147–148-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Spanish chief minister <a href="/wiki/Gaspar_de_Guzm%C3%A1n,_Count-Duke_of_Olivares" title="Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares">Olivares</a> correctly interpreted them as an invitation to open negotiations, and in return for an Anglo-Spanish alliance offered to restore Frederick to his Rhineland possessions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZaller1974152–154_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaller1974152–154-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since Frederick's demand for full restitution of his lands and titles was incompatible with the Treaty of Munich, hopes of a negotiated peace quickly evaporated. Despite defeat in Bohemia, Frederick's allies included <a href="/wiki/George_Frederick,_Margrave_of_Baden-Durlach" title="George Frederick, Margrave of Baden-Durlach">Georg Friedrich of Baden</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_the_Younger_of_Brunswick" title="Christian the Younger of Brunswick">Christian of Brunswick</a>, while the Dutch provided him with military support after the Eighty Years' War restarted in April 1621 and his father-in-law James funded an army of mercenaries under Mansfeld. However, their failure to co-ordinate effectively led to a series of defeats by Spanish and Catholic League forces, including <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wimpfen" title="Battle of Wimpfen">Wimpfen</a> in May 1622 and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_H%C3%B6chst" title="Battle of Höchst">Höchst</a> in June. By November 1622, the Imperials controlled most of the Palatinate, apart from <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Frankenthal" title="Siege of Frankenthal">Frankenthal</a>, which was held by a small English garrison under Sir <a href="/wiki/Horace_Vere" class="mw-redirect" title="Horace Vere">Horace Vere</a>. The remnants of Mansfeld's army took refuge in the Dutch Republic, as did Frederick, who spent most of his time in <a href="/wiki/The_Hague" title="The Hague">The Hague</a> until his death in November 1632.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpielvogel2017447_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpielvogel2017447-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At a meeting of the Imperial Diet in February 1623, Ferdinand forced through provisions transferring Frederick's titles, lands, and electoral vote to Maximilian. He did so with support from the Catholic League, despite strong opposition from Protestant members, as well as the Spanish. The Palatinate was clearly lost; in March, James instructed Vere to surrender Frankenthal, while Tilly's victory over Christian of Brunswick at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stadtlohn" title="Battle of Stadtlohn">Stadtlohn</a> in August completed military operations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPursell2003182–185_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPursell2003182–185-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Spanish and Dutch involvement in the campaign was a significant step in internationalising the war, while Frederick's removal meant other Protestant princes began discussing armed resistance to preserve their own rights and territories.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938162–164_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938162–164-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Danish_intervention_(1625–1629)"><span id="Danish_intervention_.281625.E2.80.931629.29"></span>Danish intervention (1625–1629)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thirty_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Danish intervention (1625–1629)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238443738">.mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#fff!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:white!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}</style><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:282px;border-color:black"><div style="position:relative;width:280px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lower_Saxony_relief_location_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Thirty Years' War is located in Lower Saxony"><img alt="Thirty Years' War is located in Lower Saxony" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Lower_Saxony_relief_location_map.jpg/280px-Lower_Saxony_relief_location_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Lower_Saxony_relief_location_map.jpg/420px-Lower_Saxony_relief_location_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Lower_Saxony_relief_location_map.jpg/560px-Lower_Saxony_relief_location_map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1786" data-file-height="1509" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:32.738%;left:43.396%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Bremen"><img alt="Bremen" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;bottom:5px;left:-3em"><div>Bremen</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:61.311%;left:31.064%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Osnabrück"><img alt="Osnabrück" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div>Osnabrück</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:75%;left:85.849%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Halberstadt"><img alt="Halberstadt" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;top:5px;left:-3em"><div>Halberstadt</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:4.762%;left:78.931%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Lübeck (Duchy of Holstein)"><img alt="Lübeck (Duchy of Holstein)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;top:5px;left:-3em"><div>Lübeck (Duchy of Holstein)</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:66.667%;left:96.541%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Magdeburg"><img alt="Magdeburg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div>Magdeburg</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:14.881%;left:66.038%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hamburg"><img alt="Hamburg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div>Hamburg</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:71.429%;left:71.069%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Lutter"><img alt="Lutter" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div>Lutter</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:38.69%;left:51.572%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Verden"><img alt="Verden" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;top:5px;left:-3em"><div>Verden</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:95.833%;left:56.604%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Kassel"><img alt="Kassel" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div>Kassel</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:62.064%;left:78.056%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Wolfenbüttel"><img alt="Wolfenbüttel" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div>Wolfenbüttel</div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Lower_Saxony_relief_location_map.jpg" title="File:Lower Saxony relief location map.jpg">class=notpageimage| </a></div>Key locations, 1625–1629 on the map of the modern federal state <a href="/wiki/Lower_Saxony" title="Lower Saxony">Lower Saxony</a></div></div></div> <p>With Saxony dominating the <a href="/wiki/Upper_Saxon_Circle" title="Upper Saxon Circle">Upper Saxon Circle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brandenburg" title="Brandenburg">Brandenburg</a> the <a href="/wiki/Lower_Saxon_Circle" title="Lower Saxon Circle">Lower</a>, both <i>kreise</i> had remained neutral during the campaigns in Bohemia and the Palatinate. However, Frederick's deposition in 1623 meant John George of Saxony and the Calvinist <a href="/wiki/George_William,_Elector_of_Brandenburg" title="George William, Elector of Brandenburg">George William, Elector of Brandenburg</a> became concerned Ferdinand intended to reclaim formerly Catholic bishoprics currently held by Protestants. These fears seemed confirmed when Tilly restored the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Halberstadt" title="Roman Catholic Diocese of Halberstadt">Roman Catholic Diocese of Halberstadt</a> in early 1625.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938179–181_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938179–181-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As Duke of Holstein, Christian IV was also a member of the Lower Saxon circle, while the Danish economy relied on the Baltic trade and tolls from traffic through the <a href="/wiki/%C3%98resund" title="Øresund">Øresund</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELockhart2007107–109_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELockhart2007107–109-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1621, Hamburg accepted Danish "supervision", while his son <a href="/wiki/Frederick_III_of_Denmark" title="Frederick III of Denmark">Frederick</a> became joint-administrator of <a href="/wiki/Prince-bishopric_of_L%C3%BCbeck" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince-bishopric of Lübeck">Lübeck</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prince-Archbishopric_of_Bremen" title="Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen">Bremen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Verden" title="Prince-Bishopric of Verden">Verden</a>; possession ensured Danish control of the <a href="/wiki/Elbe" title="Elbe">Elbe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Weser" title="Weser">Weser</a> rivers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMurdoch200053_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurdoch200053-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ferdinand had paid <a href="/wiki/Albrecht_von_Wallenstein" title="Albrecht von Wallenstein">Albrecht von Wallenstein</a> for his support against Frederick with estates confiscated from the Bohemian rebels, and now contracted with him to conquer the north on a similar basis. In May 1625, the Lower Saxony <i>kreis</i> elected Christian their military commander, although not without resistance; Saxony and Brandenburg viewed Denmark and Sweden as competitors, and wanted to avoid either becoming involved in the empire. Attempts to negotiate a peaceful solution failed as the conflict in Germany became part of the wider struggle between France and their Habsburg rivals in Spain and Austria.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009387_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009387-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the June 1624 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Compi%C3%A8gne_(1624)" title="Treaty of Compiègne (1624)">Treaty of Compiègne</a>, France had agreed to subsidise the Dutch war against Spain for a minimum of three years, while in the December 1625 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_The_Hague_(1625)" title="Treaty of The Hague (1625)">Treaty of The Hague</a>, the Dutch and English agreed to finance Danish intervention in the Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>o<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hoping to create a wider coalition against Ferdinand, the Dutch invited France, Sweden, Savoy, and the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a> to join, but it was overtaken by events.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavenport1917295_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavenport1917295-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In early 1626, <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_Richelieu" title="Cardinal Richelieu">Cardinal Richelieu</a>, main architect of the alliance, faced a new Huguenot rebellion at home and in the March <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Monz%C3%B3n" title="Treaty of Monzón">Treaty of Monzón</a>, France withdrew from Northern Italy, re-opening the Spanish Road.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938208_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938208-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Danish_phase_Bul_Map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Danish_phase_Bul_Map.png/220px-Danish_phase_Bul_Map.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Danish_phase_Bul_Map.png/330px-Danish_phase_Bul_Map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Danish_phase_Bul_Map.png/440px-Danish_phase_Bul_Map.png 2x" data-file-width="5349" data-file-height="4500" /></a><figcaption>Danish intervention</figcaption></figure> <p>Dutch and English subsidies enabled Christian to devise an ambitious three part campaign plan; while he led the main force down the Weser, Mansfeld would attack Wallenstein in <a href="/wiki/Archbishopric_of_Magdeburg" title="Archbishopric of Magdeburg">Magdeburg</a>, supported by forces led by Christian of Brunswick and <a href="/wiki/Maurice,_Landgrave_of_Hesse-Kassel" title="Maurice, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel">Maurice of Hesse-Kassel</a>. The advance quickly fell apart; Mansfeld was defeated at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dessau_Bridge" title="Battle of Dessau Bridge">Dessau Bridge</a> in April, and when Maurice refused to support him, Christian of Brunswick fell back on <a href="/wiki/Wolfenb%C3%BCttel" title="Wolfenbüttel">Wolfenbüttel</a>, where he died of disease shortly after. The Danes were comprehensively beaten at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lutter" title="Battle of Lutter">Lutter</a> in August, and Mansfeld's army dissolved following his death in November.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938212_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938212-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many of Christian's German allies, such as <a href="/wiki/Landgraviate_of_Hesse-Kassel" title="Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel">Hesse-Kassel</a> and Saxony, had little interest in replacing Imperial domination with Danish, while few of the subsidies agreed to by the Treaty of The Hague were ever paid. <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_England" title="Charles I of England">Charles I of England</a> allowed Christian to recruit up to 9,000 Scottish mercenaries, but they took time to arrive, and while able to slow Wallenstein's advance were insufficient to stop him.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMurdochGrosjean201443–44_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurdochGrosjean201443–44-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of 1627, Wallenstein occupied <a href="/wiki/Mecklenburg" title="Mecklenburg">Mecklenburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Capitulation_of_Franzburg" title="Capitulation of Franzburg">Pomerania</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jutland" title="Jutland">Jutland</a>, and began making plans to construct a fleet capable of challenging Danish control of the Baltic. He was supported by Spain, for whom it provided an opportunity to open another front against the Dutch.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009426_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009426-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 13 May 1628, his deputy <a href="/wiki/Hans_Georg_von_Arnim-Boitzenburg" title="Hans Georg von Arnim-Boitzenburg">von Arnim</a> besieged <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Stralsund_(1628)" title="Siege of Stralsund (1628)">Stralsund</a>, the only port with facilities large enough to build this fleet. However, this threat led <a href="/wiki/Gustavus_Adolphus" title="Gustavus Adolphus">Gustavus Adolphus</a> to send several thousand Scots and Swedish troops to Stralsund, commanded by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Leslie" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Leslie">Alexander Leslie</a> who was also appointed governor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMurdochGrosjean201448–49_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurdochGrosjean201448–49-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Von Arnim was forced to lift the siege on 4 August, but three weeks later, Christian suffered another defeat at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wolgast" title="Battle of Wolgast">Wolgast</a>. He began negotiations with Wallenstein, who despite his recent victories was concerned by the prospect of Swedish intervention, and thus anxious to make peace.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELockhart2007170_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELockhart2007170-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Albrecht_von_Wallenstein.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Albrecht_von_Wallenstein.jpeg/150px-Albrecht_von_Wallenstein.jpeg" decoding="async" width="150" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Albrecht_von_Wallenstein.jpeg/225px-Albrecht_von_Wallenstein.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Albrecht_von_Wallenstein.jpeg/300px-Albrecht_von_Wallenstein.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2694" data-file-height="3364" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Albrecht_von_Wallenstein" title="Albrecht von Wallenstein">Albrecht von Wallenstein</a> achieved great military success for the Empire but his power threatened both Ferdinand and the German princes.</figcaption></figure> <p>With Austrian resources stretched by the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Mantuan_Succession" title="War of the Mantuan Succession">War of the Mantuan Succession</a>, Wallenstein persuaded Ferdinand to agree with relatively lenient terms in the June 1629 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_L%C3%BCbeck" title="Treaty of Lübeck">Treaty of Lübeck</a>. Christian retained his German possessions of <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Schleswig" title="Duchy of Schleswig">Schleswig</a> and Holstein, in return for relinquishing Bremen and Verden, and abandoning support for the German Protestants. While Denmark kept Schleswig and Holstein until 1864, this effectively ended its reign as the predominant Nordic state.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELockhart2007172_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELockhart2007172-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Once again, the methods used to obtain victory explain why the war failed to end. Ferdinand paid Wallenstein by letting him confiscate estates, extort ransoms from towns, and allowing his men to plunder the lands they passed through, regardless of whether they belonged to allies or opponents. In early 1628, Ferdinand deposed the hereditary <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Frederick_I,_Duke_of_Mecklenburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Adolf Frederick I, Duke of Mecklenburg">Duke of Mecklenburg</a>, and appointed Wallenstein in his place, an act which united all German princes in opposition, regardless of religion. This unity was undermined by Maximilian of Bavaria's desire to retain the Palatinate; as a result, the Catholic League argued only for a return to the position prevailing pre-1627, while Protestants wanted that of 1618.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938232–233_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938232–233-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Made overconfident by success, in March 1629 Ferdinand passed an <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Restitution" title="Edict of Restitution">Edict of Restitution</a>, which required all lands taken from the Catholic church after 1555 to be returned. While technically legal, politically it was extremely unwise, since doing so would alter nearly every single state boundary in North and Central Germany, deny the existence of Calvinism and restore Catholicism in areas where it had not been a significant presence for nearly a century. Well aware none of the princes involved would agree, Ferdinand used the device of an Imperial <a href="/wiki/Edict" title="Edict">edict</a>, once again asserting his right to alter laws without consultation. This new assault on "German liberties" ensured continuing opposition and undermined his previous success.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938242–244_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938242–244-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the same time, his Spanish allies were reluctant to antagonise German Protestants as their <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War,_1621%E2%80%931648" title="Eighty Years' War, 1621–1648">war in the Spanish Netherlands</a> had now shifted in favour of the Dutch Republic. The financial predicament of the Spanish Crown steadily deteriorated in the 1620s, particularly after the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_West_India_Company" title="Dutch West India Company">Dutch West India Company</a> captured their <a href="/wiki/Spanish_treasure_fleet" title="Spanish treasure fleet">treasure fleet</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_in_the_Bay_of_Matanzas" title="Battle in the Bay of Matanzas">Matanzas</a> in 1628. The War of the Mantuan Succession further diverted Spanish resources from the Netherlands,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995b497_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995b497-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the loss of <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_%27s-Hertogenbosch" title="Siege of 's-Hertogenbosch">'s-Hertogenbosch</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_States_Army" title="Dutch States Army">Dutch Army</a> under <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Henry,_Prince_of_Orange" title="Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange">Frederick Henry</a> in 1629 caused dismay in Madrid.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995b511_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995b511-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sweden_invades_Germany_(1630–1635)"><span id="Sweden_invades_Germany_.281630.E2.80.931635.29"></span>Sweden invades Germany (1630–1635)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thirty_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Sweden invades Germany (1630–1635)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Swedish_intervention_in_the_Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Swedish intervention in the Thirty Years' War">Swedish intervention in the Thirty Years' War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Strasbourg_walter_gustave_adolphe.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Strasbourg_walter_gustave_adolphe.JPG/220px-Strasbourg_walter_gustave_adolphe.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Strasbourg_walter_gustave_adolphe.JPG/330px-Strasbourg_walter_gustave_adolphe.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Strasbourg_walter_gustave_adolphe.JPG/440px-Strasbourg_walter_gustave_adolphe.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2324" data-file-height="1569" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gustavus_Adolphus_of_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden">Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden</a>, known as the "Lion of the North", at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Breitenfeld_(1631)" title="Battle of Breitenfeld (1631)">Battle of Breitenfeld</a> in 1631</figcaption></figure> <p>From 1626 to 1629, Gustavus was engaged in a <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Swedish_War_(1626%E2%80%931629)" title="Polish–Swedish War (1626–1629)">war with Poland–Lithuania</a>, ruled by his Catholic cousin <a href="/wiki/Sigismund_III_Vasa" title="Sigismund III Vasa">Sigismund</a>, who also claimed the Swedish throne and had Imperial support. Once this conflict ended, and with only a few minor states like <a href="/wiki/Hesse-Kassel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hesse-Kassel">Hesse-Kassel</a> still openly opposing the Emperor, Gustavus became an obvious ally for Richelieu.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaland198098–99_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaland198098–99-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In September 1629, the latter helped negotiate the <a href="/wiki/Truce_of_Altmark" title="Truce of Altmark">Truce of Altmark</a> between Sweden and Poland, freeing Gustavus to enter the war. Partly a genuine desire to support his Protestant co-religionists, like Christian he also wanted to maximise his share of the Baltic trade that provided much of Sweden's income.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938385–386_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938385–386-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following failed negotiations with the Emperor, Gustavus landed in <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Pomerania" title="Duchy of Pomerania">Pomerania</a> in June 1630 with nearly 18,000 Swedish troops. Using Stralsund as a bridgehead, he marched south along the <a href="/wiki/Oder" title="Oder">Oder</a> towards <a href="/wiki/Szczecin" title="Szczecin">Stettin</a> and coerced <a href="/wiki/Bogislaw_XIV,_Duke_of_Pomerania" title="Bogislaw XIV, Duke of Pomerania">Bogislaw XIV, Duke of Pomerania</a>, into agreeing an <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Stettin_(1630)" title="Treaty of Stettin (1630)">alliance</a> which secured his interests in Pomerania against his rival Sigismund.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorrhem201928–29_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorrhem201928–29-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, the Poles turned their attention to Russia, initiating the 1632 to 1634 <a href="/wiki/Smolensk_War" title="Smolensk War">Smolensk War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPorshnev1995106_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorshnev1995106-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, Swedish expectations of widespread German support proved unrealistic. By the end of 1630, their only new ally was the Administrator of Magdeburg, <a href="/wiki/Christian_William_of_Brandenburg" title="Christian William of Brandenburg">Christian William</a> whose capital was under siege by Tilly.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker1997120_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker1997120-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the devastation inflicted by Imperial soldiers, Saxony and Brandenburg had their own ambitions in Pomerania, which clashed with those of Gustavus; previous experience also showed inviting external powers into the Empire was easier than getting them to leave.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connell1968253–254_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connell1968253–254-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sack_of_Magdeburg_1631.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Sack_of_Magdeburg_1631.jpg/220px-Sack_of_Magdeburg_1631.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Sack_of_Magdeburg_1631.jpg/330px-Sack_of_Magdeburg_1631.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Sack_of_Magdeburg_1631.jpg/440px-Sack_of_Magdeburg_1631.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2604" data-file-height="1527" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Magdeburg" title="Sack of Magdeburg">Sack of Magdeburg</a> in 1631</figcaption></figure> <p>Gustavus put pressure on Brandenburg by sacking Küstrin and <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_an_der_Oder" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankfurt an der Oder">Frankfurt an der Oder</a>, while the <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Magdeburg" title="Sack of Magdeburg">Sack of Magdeburg</a> in May 1631 provided a powerful warning of the consequences of Imperial victory.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker1997128_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker1997128-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once again, Richelieu used French financial power to bridge differences between the Swedes and the German princes; the 1631 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_B%C3%A4rwalde" title="Treaty of Bärwalde">Treaty of Bärwalde</a> provided funds for the Swedes and their Protestant allies, including Saxony and Brandenburg.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connell1968256_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connell1968256-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These amounted to 400,000 <a href="/wiki/Reichstaler" class="mw-redirect" title="Reichstaler">Reichstaler</a> per year, or one million <a href="/wiki/French_livre" title="French livre">livres</a>, plus an additional 120,000 for 1630. While less than 2% of total French income, these payments boosted that of Sweden by more than 25%, and allowed Gustavus to maintain 36,000 troops.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPorshnev199538_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorshnev199538-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gustavus used this army to win victories at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Breitenfeld_(1631)" title="Battle of Breitenfeld (1631)">Breitenfeld</a> in September 1631, then <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rain" title="Battle of Rain">Rain</a> in April 1632, where Tilly was killed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938305–306_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938305–306-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ferdinand turned once again to Wallenstein, who realised Gustavus was overextended and established himself at <a href="/wiki/F%C3%BCrth" title="Fürth">Fürth</a>, from where he could threaten his supply lines. This led to the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Alte_Veste" title="Battle of the Alte Veste">Battle of the Alte Veste</a> in late August, one of the largest battles of the war. An assault on the Imperial camp outside the town was bloodily repulsed, arguably the greatest blunder committed by Gustavus during his German campaign.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrzezinski20014_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrzezinski20014-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Swedish_phase_map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Swedish_phase_map.svg/220px-Swedish_phase_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Swedish_phase_map.svg/330px-Swedish_phase_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Swedish_phase_map.svg/440px-Swedish_phase_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="856" data-file-height="714" /></a><figcaption>Campaigns during the Swedish phase</figcaption></figure> <p>Two months later, the Swedes and Imperials met at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_L%C3%BCtzen_(1632)" title="Battle of Lützen (1632)">Lützen</a>, where both sides suffered heavy casualties; Gustavus himself was killed, while some Swedish units incurred losses of over 60%.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson201889_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson201889-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fighting continued until dusk when Wallenstein retreated, abandoning his artillery and wounded.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson201889_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson201889-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite their losses, this allowed the Swedes to claim victory, although the result continues to be disputed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson201899_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson201899-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrzezinski200174_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrzezinski200174-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After his death, Gustavus' policies were continued by his Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Axel_Oxenstierna" title="Axel Oxenstierna">Axel Oxenstierna</a>, and with French backing, Sweden and their German allies formed the <a href="/wiki/Heilbronn_League" title="Heilbronn League">Heilbronn League</a> in April 1633. In July, their combined forces defeated an Imperial army under Bronckhorst-Gronsfeld at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Oldendorf" title="Battle of Oldendorf">Oldendorf</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009523_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009523-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Critics claimed this defeat was caused by Wallenstein's failure to support the Bavarians, while rumours spread that he was preparing to switch sides. As a result, Emperor Ferdinand ordered his arrest in February 1634, and on 25th, he was assassinated by his own officers in Cheb.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938220–223_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938220–223-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The loss of Wallenstein and his organisation left Emperor Ferdinand reliant on Spain for military support. Since their main concern was to re-open the Spanish Road for their campaign against the Dutch, the focus of the war now shifted from the north to the Rhineland and Bavaria. <a href="/wiki/Cardinal-Infante_Ferdinand_of_Austria" title="Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand of Austria">Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand of Austria</a>, new Governor of the Spanish Netherlands, raised an army of 18,000 in Italy, which met up with an Imperial force of 15,000 at Donauwörth on 2 September 1634. Four days later, they won a decisive victory at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_N%C3%B6rdlingen_(1634)" title="Battle of Nördlingen (1634)">Nördlingen</a> which destroyed Swedish power in Southern Germany and led to the defection of their German allies, who now sought to make peace with the Emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamen2003385–386_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen2003385–386-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phase_II:_French_intervention,_1635_to_1648"><span id="Phase_II:_French_intervention.2C_1635_to_1648"></span>Phase II: French intervention, 1635 to 1648</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thirty_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Phase II: French intervention, 1635 to 1648"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Swedish defeat at Nördlingen triggered direct French intervention and thus expanded the conflict rather than ending it. Richelieu provided the Swedes with <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Compi%C3%A8gne_(1635)" title="Treaty of Compiègne (1635)">new subsidies</a>, hired mercenaries led by <a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Saxe-Weimar" title="Bernard of Saxe-Weimar">Bernard of Saxe-Weimar</a> for an offensive in the Rhineland, and in May 1635 declared war on Spain, starting the 1635 to 1659 <a href="/wiki/Franco-Spanish_War_(1635%E2%80%931659)" title="Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)">Franco-Spanish War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker1997132–134_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker1997132–134-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A few days later, the German states and Ferdinand agreed to the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Prague_(1635)" title="Peace of Prague (1635)">Peace of Prague</a>; in return for withdrawing the Edict of Restitution, the Heilbronn and Catholic Leagues were dissolved and replaced by a single Imperial army, although Saxony and Bavaria retained control of their own forces. This is generally seen as the point when the war ceased to be a primarily inter-German religious conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBireley197632_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBireley197632-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cardinal_de_Richelieu_(detail).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Cardinal_de_Richelieu_%28detail%29.jpg/200px-Cardinal_de_Richelieu_%28detail%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Cardinal_de_Richelieu_%28detail%29.jpg/300px-Cardinal_de_Richelieu_%28detail%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Cardinal_de_Richelieu_%28detail%29.jpg/400px-Cardinal_de_Richelieu_%28detail%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="472" data-file-height="499" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cardinal_Richelieu" title="Cardinal Richelieu">Cardinal Richelieu</a>, French chief minister from 1624 until 1642, and creator of the anti-Habsburg alliance</figcaption></figure> <p>In March 1635, French soldiers entered the <a href="/wiki/Valtellina" title="Valtellina">Valtellina</a>, cutting the link between Spanish controlled Milan and the Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamen2003387_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen2003387-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In May, their main army of 35,000 invaded the Spanish Netherlands, but withdrew in July after suffering 17,000 casualties. In <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Wismar" title="Treaty of Wismar">March 1636</a>, France joined the Thirty Years War as an ally of Sweden, whose loss of most of the territories gained by Gustavus and their taxes made it increasingly reliant on French financing.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>p<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Spanish then invaded Northern France, causing panic in Paris before lack of supplies forced them to retreat.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995a272–273_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995a272–273-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A Swedish army under <a href="/wiki/Johan_Ban%C3%A9r" title="Johan Banér">Johan Banér</a> defeated the Imperials at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wittstock" title="Battle of Wittstock">Wittstock</a> on 4 October, and re-established their predominance in North-East Germany, despite the defection of most of their German allies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMurdochZickermanMarks201280–85_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurdochZickermanMarks201280–85-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ferdinand II died in February 1637, and was succeeded by his son <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_III,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor">Ferdinand III</a>, who faced a deteriorating military position. Although <a href="/wiki/Matthias_Gallas" title="Matthias Gallas">Matthias Gallas</a> and the main Imperial army had forced Banér back to the Baltic, in March 1638, Bernard destroyed an Imperial army at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rheinfelden" title="Battle of Rheinfelden">Rheinfelden</a>. His capture of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Breisach" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Breisach">Breisach</a> in December secured French control of Alsace and severed the Spanish Road, forcing Gallas to divert resources there. Although <a href="/wiki/Melchior_von_Hatzfeldt" title="Melchior von Hatzfeldt">von Hatzfeldt</a> defeated a combined Swedish-German force at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vlotho" title="Battle of Vlotho">Vlotho</a> in October, lack of supplies forced Gallas to withdraw from the Baltic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009595–598_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009595–598-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In April 1639, Banér defeated the Saxons at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chemnitz" title="Battle of Chemnitz">Chemnitz</a>, then entered Bohemia in May.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009615_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009615-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To retrieve the situation, Ferdinand diverted <a href="/wiki/Ottavio_Piccolomini" title="Ottavio Piccolomini">Piccolomini</a>'s army from <a href="/wiki/Relief_of_Thionville" title="Relief of Thionville">Thionville</a>, ending direct military cooperation between Austria and Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009661–662_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009661–662-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pressure grew on Olivares to make peace, especially after French and Swedish gains in Germany cut the Spanish Road, forcing <a href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</a> to resupply their armies in Flanders by sea. However, their attempts to re-assert maritime control ended when the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_States_Navy" title="Dutch States Navy">Dutch fleet</a> under <a href="/wiki/Maarten_Tromp" title="Maarten Tromp">Maarten Tromp</a> won a significant victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Downs" title="Battle of the Downs">Downs</a> in October 1639.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBely201494–95_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBely201494–95-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995b537_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995b537-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Spanish inability to adequately supply their troops allowed the French to over-run <a href="/wiki/Artois" title="Artois">Artois</a> in 1640. At the same time, continuing <a href="/wiki/Dutch%E2%80%93Portuguese_War" title="Dutch–Portuguese War">Dutch attacks</a> on <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese colonies</a> and opposition to heavy taxes led to revolts in both <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Restoration_War" title="Portuguese Restoration War">Portugal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reapers%27_War" title="Reapers' War">Catalonia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECosta20054_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECosta20054-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Olivares now argued Spain should accept Dutch independence, and focus on preventing further French gains in the Spanish Netherlands.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Gelderen2002284_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Gelderen2002284-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This appeared achievable since most of the Dutch <i><a href="/wiki/Regenten" title="Regenten">regenten</a></i> believed the war was won, the only question being the price of peace. They therefore reduced the army budget for 1640, despite objections from Frederick Henry.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlgraAlgra1956120_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlgraAlgra1956120-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;border-color:black"><div style="position:relative;width:300px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Relief_Map_of_Germany.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Thirty Years' War is located in Germany"><img alt="Thirty Years' War is located in Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Relief_Map_of_Germany.svg/300px-Relief_Map_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="356" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Relief_Map_of_Germany.svg/450px-Relief_Map_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Relief_Map_of_Germany.svg/600px-Relief_Map_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1073" data-file-height="1272" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:46.61%;left:68.778%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Breitenfeld"><img alt="Breitenfeld" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div>Breitenfeld</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:37.187%;left:50.369%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Wolfenbüttel"><img alt="Wolfenbüttel" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;bottom:5px;left:-3em"><div>Wolfenbüttel</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:24.511%;left:69.856%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Wittstock"><img alt="Wittstock" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;bottom:5px;left:-3em"><div>Wittstock</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:79.1%;left:49.883%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Nördlingen"><img alt="Nördlingen" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div>Nördlingen</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:89.451%;left:20.833%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Breisach"><img alt="Breisach" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div>Breisach</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:95.429%;left:22.917%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Rheinfelden"><img alt="Rheinfelden" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;top:5px;left:-3em"><div>Rheinfelden</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:84.808%;left:50.967%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Zusmarshausen"><img alt="Zusmarshausen" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Zusmarshausen</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:39.715%;left:21.256%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Münster"><img alt="Münster" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div>Münster</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:53.013%;left:78.428%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Freiberg"><img alt="Freiberg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Freiberg</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:72.127%;left:43.289%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Herbsthausen"><img alt="Herbsthausen" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;bottom:5px;left:-3em"><div>Herbsthausen</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:37.131%;left:33.497%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Vlotho"><img alt="Vlotho" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;top:5px;left:-3em"><div>Vlotho</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:35.654%;left:26.464%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Osnabrück"><img alt="Osnabrück" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;bottom:5px;left:-3em"><div>Osnabrück</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:90.061%;left:33.234%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Tuttlingen"><img alt="Tuttlingen" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Tuttlingen</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:19.198%;left:45%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hamburg"><img alt="Hamburg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;bottom:5px;left:-3em"><div>Hamburg</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:63.502%;left:89.167%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Prague"><img alt="Prague" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;top:5px;left:-3em"><div>Prague</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:47.268%;left:9.194%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Kempen"><img alt="Kempen" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Kempen</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:47.679%;left:68.833%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Leipzig"><img alt="Leipzig" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Leipzig</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:72.672%;left:6.692%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Thionville"><img alt="Thionville" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Thionville</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:54.008%;left:74.167%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Chemnitz"><img alt="Chemnitz" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div>Chemnitz</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:77.004%;left:65.833%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Regensburg"><img alt="Regensburg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;bottom:5px;left:-3em"><div>Regensburg</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:40.559%;left:55.467%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Halberstadt"><img alt="Halberstadt" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Halberstadt</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:89.937%;left:23.5%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Freiburg[q]"><img alt="Freiburg[q]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;bottom:5px;left:-3em"><div>Freiburg<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>q<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Relief_Map_of_Germany.svg" title="File:Relief Map of Germany.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div>Key locations 1635 to 1648 mentioned in text</div></div></div> <p>After Bernard died in July 1639, his troops joined Banér's Swedish army on an ineffectual campaign along the Weser, the highlight being a surprise attack in January 1641 on the Imperial Diet in Regensburg.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker1997150_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker1997150-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Forced to retreat, Banér reached <a href="/wiki/Halberstadt" title="Halberstadt">Halberstadt</a> in May where he died, and despite beating off an Imperial force at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wolfenb%C3%BCttel_(1641)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Wolfenbüttel (1641)">Wolfenbüttel</a> in June, his largely German troops mutinied due to lack of pay.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938446_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938446-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The situation was saved by the arrival of <a href="/wiki/Lennart_Torstensson" title="Lennart Torstensson">Lennart Torstensson</a> in November with 7,000 Swedish recruits and enough cash to satisfy the mutineers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938447_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938447-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>French victory at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kempen" title="Battle of Kempen">Kempen</a> in January 1642 was followed by <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Breitenfeld_(1642)" title="Battle of Breitenfeld (1642)">Second Breitenfeld</a> in October 1642, where Torstensson inflicted almost 10,000 casualties on an Imperial army led by <a href="/wiki/Archduke_Leopold_Wilhelm_of_Austria" title="Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria">Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter200841_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter200841-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The capture of <a href="/wiki/Leipzig" title="Leipzig">Leipzig</a> in December gave the Swedes a significant new base in Germany, and despite their failure to take <a href="/wiki/Freiberg" title="Freiberg">Freiberg</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009636–639_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009636–639-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by 1643 the Saxon army had been reduced to a few isolated garrisons.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009641–642_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009641–642-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While Ferdinand accepted a military solution was no longer possible, by fighting on he hoped to prevent the Imperial Estates joining his peace negotiations with France and Sweden, thus preserving his authority by allowing him to represent the Empire as a whole.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiltonAxworthySimms201860–65_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiltonAxworthySimms201860–65-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This seemed more likely when Richelieu died in December 1642, followed by <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIII" title="Louis XIII">Louis XIII</a> in May 1643, leaving his five-year-old son <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIV of France">Louis XIV</a> as king. However, Richelieu's policies were continued by his successor <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_Mazarin" title="Cardinal Mazarin">Cardinal Mazarin</a>, while gains in Alsace allowed France to focus on the war against Spain. In 1643, the Army of Flanders invaded Northern France hoping to relieve pressure elsewhere, but were decisively beaten by <a href="/wiki/Louis_II_de_Bourbon,_Prince_de_Cond%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé">Condé</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rocroi" title="Battle of Rocroi">Rocroi</a> on 19 May.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker1997154_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker1997154-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Defeat ended any prospect of re-opening the Spanish Road, and Madrid finally accepted the war against the Dutch could not be won.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker1997171_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker1997171-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tortensson1642_marcossouza.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Tortensson1642_marcossouza.jpg/220px-Tortensson1642_marcossouza.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Tortensson1642_marcossouza.jpg/330px-Tortensson1642_marcossouza.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Tortensson1642_marcossouza.jpg/440px-Tortensson1642_marcossouza.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1187" data-file-height="811" /></a><figcaption>Campaigns during the Franco-Swedish phase (until 1642)</figcaption></figure> <p>However, Condé was unable to fully exploit his victory due to factors affecting all combatants. The devastation inflicted by 25 years of warfare meant armies spent more time foraging than fighting, forcing them to become smaller and more mobile, with a much greater emphasis on cavalry. Difficulties in gathering provisions meant campaigns started later, and restricted them to areas that could be easily supplied, usually close to rivers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009587_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009587-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, the French had to rebuild their army in Germany after it was shattered by an Imperial-Bavarian force led by <a href="/wiki/Franz_von_Mercy" title="Franz von Mercy">Franz von Mercy</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tuttlingen" title="Battle of Tuttlingen">Tuttlingen</a> in November.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009643–645_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009643–645-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Soon after Rocroi, Ferdinand invited Sweden and France to attend peace talks in the <a href="/wiki/Westphalia" title="Westphalia">Westphalian</a> towns of <a href="/wiki/M%C3%BCnster" title="Münster">Münster</a> and <a href="/wiki/Osnabr%C3%BCck" title="Osnabrück">Osnabrück</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009671_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009671-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but negotiations were delayed when Christian of Denmark blockaded Hamburg and increased toll payments in the Baltic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009687_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009687-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This severely impacted the Dutch and Swedish economies, and in December 1643 the <a href="/wiki/Torstensson_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Torstensson War">Torstensson War</a> began when the Swedes invaded Jutland with Dutch naval support. Ferdinand pulled together an Imperial army under Gallas to attack the Swedes from the rear, which proved a disastrous decision. Leaving <a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustaf_Wrangel" title="Carl Gustaf Wrangel">Wrangel</a> to finish the war in Denmark, in May 1644 Torstensson marched into the Empire; Gallas was unable to stop him, while the Danes sued for peace after their defeat at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fehmarn_(1644)" title="Battle of Fehmarn (1644)">Fehmarn</a> in October 1644.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938472–473_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938472–473-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In August 1644, the French and Bavarian armies met in the three day <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Freiburg" title="Battle of Freiburg">Battle of Freiburg</a>, in which both sides suffered heavy casualties. Convinced the war could no longer be won, Maximilian now put pressure on Ferdinand to end the conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECroxton1998273_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECroxton1998273-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shortly after peace talks restarted in November, Gallas' Imperial army disintegrated and the remnants retreated into Bohemia, where they were scattered by Torstensson at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jankau" title="Battle of Jankau">Jankau</a> in March 1645.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009693–695_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009693–695-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In May, a Bavarian force under von Mercy destroyed a French detachment at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Herbsthausen" title="Battle of Herbsthausen">Herbsthausen</a>, before he was defeated and killed at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_N%C3%B6rdlingen_(1645)" title="Battle of Nördlingen (1645)">Second Nördlingen</a> in August.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonney200264_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonney200264-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Deprived of Imperial support, John George of Saxony signed a six-month truce with Sweden in September, and in the March 1646 Treaty of Eulenberg agreed to remain neutral until the end of the war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009711_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009711-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slaget_vid_Prag_(1648),_ur_%22Theatri_Europ%C3%A6i...%22_1663_-_Skoklosters_slott_-_99875.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Slaget_vid_Prag_%281648%29%2C_ur_%22Theatri_Europ%C3%A6i...%22_1663_-_Skoklosters_slott_-_99875.tif/lossy-page1-260px-Slaget_vid_Prag_%281648%29%2C_ur_%22Theatri_Europ%C3%A6i...%22_1663_-_Skoklosters_slott_-_99875.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Slaget_vid_Prag_%281648%29%2C_ur_%22Theatri_Europ%C3%A6i...%22_1663_-_Skoklosters_slott_-_99875.tif/lossy-page1-390px-Slaget_vid_Prag_%281648%29%2C_ur_%22Theatri_Europ%C3%A6i...%22_1663_-_Skoklosters_slott_-_99875.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Slaget_vid_Prag_%281648%29%2C_ur_%22Theatri_Europ%C3%A6i...%22_1663_-_Skoklosters_slott_-_99875.tif/lossy-page1-520px-Slaget_vid_Prag_%281648%29%2C_ur_%22Theatri_Europ%C3%A6i...%22_1663_-_Skoklosters_slott_-_99875.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5324" data-file-height="2800" /></a><figcaption>The final battle of the war; the Swedish <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Prague_(1648)" title="Battle of Prague (1648)">Siege of Prague</a> in 1648</figcaption></figure> <p>Under <a href="/wiki/Henri_de_La_Tour_d%27Auvergne,_Viscount_of_Turenne" title="Henri de La Tour d'Auvergne, Viscount of Turenne">Turenne</a>, French commander in the Rhineland, and Wrangel, who had replaced Torstensson, the French and Swedes separately invaded Bavaria in the summer of 1646.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938493–494_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938493–494-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Maximilian was soon desperate to end the war he was largely responsible for starting, at which point the Spanish publicised a secret offer by Mazarin to exchange French-occupied Catalonia for the Spanish Netherlands. Angered by this duplicity, the Dutch agreed a truce with Spain in January 1647 and began to negotiate their own peace terms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938495–496_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938495–496-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Having failed to acquire the Netherlands through diplomacy, Mazarin decided to do so by force. To free up resources for the attempt, on 14 March 1647 he signed the <a href="/wiki/Truce_of_Ulm" class="mw-redirect" title="Truce of Ulm">Truce of Ulm</a> with Bavaria, <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Cologne" title="Electorate of Cologne">Cologne</a> and Sweden.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009716_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009716-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The planned offensive fell apart when Turenne's mostly German troops mutinied, while Bavarian general <a href="/wiki/Johann_von_Werth" title="Johann von Werth">Johann von Werth</a> refused to comply with the truce.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938496_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938496-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the mutinies were quickly suppressed, Maximilian felt obliged to follow Werth's example and in September ordered Bronckhorst-Gronsfeld to combine the remnants of the Bavarian army with Imperial troops under <a href="/wiki/Peter_Melander,_Graf_von_Holzappel" title="Peter Melander, Graf von Holzappel">von Holzappel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009726_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009726-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Outnumbered by a Franco-Swedish army led by Wrangel and Turenne, they were defeated at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zusmarshausen" title="Battle of Zusmarshausen">Zusmarshausen</a> in May 1648 and von Holzappel was killed. Although the bulk of the Imperial army escaped thanks to an effective rearguard action by <a href="/wiki/Raimondo_Montecuccoli" title="Raimondo Montecuccoli">Raimondo Montecuccoli</a>, Bavaria was left defenceless once again.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009740–741_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009740–741-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Swedes sent a second force under <a href="/wiki/Hans_Christoff_von_K%C3%B6nigsmarck" title="Hans Christoff von Königsmarck">von Königsmarck</a> to <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Prague_(1648)" title="Battle of Prague (1648)">attack Prague</a>, seizing the castle and <a href="/wiki/Mal%C3%A1_Strana" title="Malá Strana">Malá Strana</a> district in July. The main objective was to gain as much loot as possible before the war ended; they failed to take the <a href="/wiki/Old_Town_(Prague)" title="Old Town (Prague)">Old Town</a> but captured the Imperial library, along with treasures including the <i><a href="/wiki/Codex_Gigas" title="Codex Gigas">Codex Gigas</a></i>, now in Stockholm. When a Spanish offensive in Flanders ended with defeat at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lens" title="Battle of Lens">Lens</a> in August 1648, Ferdinand finally agreed terms and on 24 October, he signed peace treaties with France and Sweden, ending the war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938501_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938501-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conflict_outside_Germany">Conflict outside Germany</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thirty_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Conflict outside Germany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Northern_Italy">Northern Italy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thirty_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Northern Italy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:352px;border-color:black"><div style="position:relative;width:350px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:North_Italy_relief_location_map.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Thirty Years' War is located in Northern Italy"><img alt="Thirty Years' War is located in Northern Italy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/North_Italy_relief_location_map.png/350px-North_Italy_relief_location_map.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/North_Italy_relief_location_map.png/525px-North_Italy_relief_location_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/North_Italy_relief_location_map.png/700px-North_Italy_relief_location_map.png 2x" data-file-width="1238" data-file-height="780" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:60.788%;left:25.841%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Montferrat"><img alt="Montferrat" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Mantua</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:58.559%;left:26.623%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Casale"><img alt="Casale" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;bottom:5px;left:-3em"><div>Casale</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:49.55%;left:36.364%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Milan"><img alt="Milan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;bottom:5px;left:-3em"><div>Milan</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:78.078%;left:32.893%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Genoa"><img alt="Genoa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;top:5px;left:-3em"><div>Genoa</div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:65.315%;left:12.121%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Pinerolo"><img alt="Pinerolo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;top:5px;left:-3em"><div>Pinerolo</div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:North_Italy_relief_location_map.png" title="File:North Italy relief location map.png">class=notpageimage| </a></div>Northern Italy</div></div></div> <p>Northern Italy had been contested by France and the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Habsburg" title="House of Habsburg">Habsburgs</a> since the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars" title="Italian Wars">end of the 15th century</a>. One reason was control of this area allowed opponents to threaten the southern borders of France and Austria. In addition, it contained large sections of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Road" title="Spanish Road">Spanish Road</a>, which allowed Spain to safely move recruits and supplies from their Italian possessions to support their <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">war against the Dutch</a>. This reliance on long exterior lines of communication was a strategic weakness, which the French sought to exploit by disrupting the Road. This usually involved attacks on the Spanish-held Duchy of Milan, or blocking the Alpine passes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanlon2016118–119_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanlon2016118–119-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Montferrat" title="Duchy of Montferrat">Montferrat</a> and its fortress of <a href="/wiki/Casale_Monferrato" title="Casale Monferrato">Casale Monferrato</a> were subsidiary territories of the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Mantua" title="Duchy of Mantua">Duchy of Mantua</a> and their possession allowed the holder to threaten Milan. This meant when the <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_II_Gonzaga,_Duke_of_Mantua" title="Vincenzo II Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua">last duke in the direct line</a> died in December 1627, France and Spain backed rival claimants, resulting in the 1628 to 1631 War of the Mantuan Succession.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938235–236_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938235–236-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The French-born <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_Gonzaga,_Duke_of_Mantua" title="Charles I Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua">Duke of Nevers</a> was backed by France and the Republic of Venice, his rival the <a href="/wiki/Ferrante_II_Gonzaga,_Duke_of_Guastalla" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferrante II Gonzaga, Duke of Guastalla">Duke of Guastalla</a> by Spain, Ferdinand II, Savoy and <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Tuscany</a>. While a relatively minor conflict, the struggle had a disproportionate impact on the Thirty Years War, since <a href="/wiki/Pope_Urban_VIII" title="Pope Urban VIII">Pope Urban VIII</a> viewed Habsburg expansion in Italy as a threat to the <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a>. His opposition to Ferdinand II divided the Catholic powers, and made it acceptable for France to employ Protestant allies against Austria.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938247_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938247-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In March 1629, the French stormed Savoyard positions in the Pas de Suse, lifted the Spanish siege of Casale and captured <a href="/wiki/Pinerolo" title="Pinerolo">Pinerolo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThion200862_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThion200862-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Suza" title="Treaty of Suza">Treaty of Suza</a> then ceded the two fortresses to France and allowed their troops unrestricted passage through Savoyard territory, giving them control over <a href="/wiki/Piedmont" title="Piedmont">Piedmont</a> and the Alpine passes into Southern France.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerretti201412–18_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerretti201412–18-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, as soon as the main French army withdrew in late 1629, the Spanish and Savoyards besieged Casale once again. At the same time, the Spanish employed mercenaries paid for by Ferdinand II in an offensive which routed the main Venetian field army and forced Nevers to abandon Mantua. By October 1630, the French position seemed so precarious their representatives agreed the Treaty of Ratisbon, but it was never ratified as Richelieu claimed he had never approved the terms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938263–264_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938263–264-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several factors restored the French position in Northern Italy, notably a devastating outbreak of <a href="/wiki/1629%E2%80%931631_Italian_plague" title="1629–1631 Italian plague">plague</a>; between 1629 and 1631, over 60,000 died in <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a> and 46,000 in <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a>, with proportionate losses elsewhere.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKohn1995200_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn1995200-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Richelieu took advantage of the diversion of Imperial resources to fund a <a href="/wiki/Swedish_intervention_in_the_Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Swedish intervention in the Thirty Years' War">Swedish invasion of Germany</a>, whose success forced the Spanish-Savoyard alliance to withdraw from Casale and sign the Treaty of Cherasco in April 1631. Nevers was confirmed as Duke of Mantua and although Richelieu's representative, Cardinal Mazarin, agreed to evacuate Pinerolo, it was later secretly returned under an agreement with <a href="/wiki/Victor_Amadeus_I,_Duke_of_Savoy" title="Victor Amadeus I, Duke of Savoy">Victor Amadeus I, Duke of Savoy</a>. With the exception of the 1639 to 1642 <a href="/wiki/Piedmontese_Civil_War" title="Piedmontese Civil War">Piedmontese Civil War</a>, this secured the French position in Northern Italy for the next twenty years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerretti201420_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerretti201420-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dankaerts-Historis-9287.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Dankaerts-Historis-9287.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Dankaerts-Historis-9287.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Dankaerts-Historis-9287.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Dankaerts-Historis-9287.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Dankaerts-Historis-9287.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Dankaerts-Historis-9287.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4902" data-file-height="3402" /></a><figcaption>Siege and capture of <a href="/wiki/Casale_Monferrato" title="Casale Monferrato">Casale Monferrato</a> by French troops, 1630</figcaption></figure> <p>After the outbreak of the Franco-Spanish War in 1635, Richelieu supported a renewed offensive by Victor Amadeus against Milan to tie down Spanish resources. These included an unsuccessful attack on <a href="/wiki/Valenza" title="Valenza">Valenza</a> in 1635, plus minor victories at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tornavento" title="Battle of Tornavento">Tornavento</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mombaldone" title="Mombaldone">Mombaldone</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuffy1995125_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuffy1995125-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the anti-Habsburg alliance in Northern Italy fell apart when first Charles of Mantua died in September 1637, then Victor Amadeus in October, whose death led to a struggle for control of the Savoyard state between his widow <a href="/wiki/Christine_of_France" title="Christine of France">Christine of France</a> and brothers, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Francis,_Prince_of_Carignano" title="Thomas Francis, Prince of Carignano">Thomas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prince_Maurice_of_Savoy" title="Prince Maurice of Savoy">Maurice</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009259_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009259-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1639, their quarrel erupted into open warfare, with France backing Christine and Spain the two brothers, and resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Turin_(1640)" title="Siege of Turin (1640)">Siege of Turin</a>. One of the most famous military events of the 17th century, at one stage it featured no less than three different armies besieging each other. However, the revolts in Portugal and Catalonia forced the Spanish to cease operations in Italy and the war was settled on terms favourable to Christine and France.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanlon2016124_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanlon2016124-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1647, a French-backed rebellion succeeded in temporarily overthrowing Spanish rule in <a href="/wiki/Neapolitan_Republic_(1647)" class="mw-redirect" title="Neapolitan Republic (1647)">Naples</a>. The Spanish quickly crushed the insurrection and restored their rule over all of southern Italy, defeating multiple French expeditionary forces sent to back the rebels.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamen2003406_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen2003406-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it exposed the weakness of Spanish rule in Italy and the alienation of the local elites from Madrid; in 1650, the governor of Milan wrote that as well as widespread dissatisfaction in the south, the only one of the Italian states that could be relied on was the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Parma" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchy of Parma">Duchy of Parma</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamen2003407_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen2003407-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Catalonia">Catalonia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thirty_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Catalonia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Reapers%27_War" title="Reapers' War">Reapers' War</a></div> <p>Throughout the 1630s, tax increases levied to pay for the war led to protests throughout Spanish territories, which in 1640 resulted in revolts: first in Portugal, then in the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Principality of Catalonia</a>. Backed by France as part of Richelieu's 'war by diversion', in January 1641 the rebels proclaimed a <a href="/wiki/Catalan_Republic_(1641)" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalan Republic (1641)">Catalan Republic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker1997153_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker1997153-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Madrid government quickly assembled an army of 26,000 men to crush the revolt, which defeated the rebels at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Martorell_(1641)" title="Battle of Martorell (1641)">Martorell</a> on 23 January 1641. The French now persuaded the <a href="/wiki/Catalan_Courts" title="Catalan Courts">Catalan Courts</a> to recognise Louis XIII as <a href="/wiki/Count_of_Barcelona" title="Count of Barcelona">Count of Barcelona</a>, and ruler of Catalonia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Gelderen2002284_115-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Gelderen2002284-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 26 January, a combined French-Catalan force routed a larger Spanish army at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Montju%C3%AFc_(1641)" title="Battle of Montjuïc (1641)">Montjuïc</a> and secured <a href="/wiki/Barcelona" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a>. However, the rebels soon found the new French administration differed little from the old, turning the war into a three-sided contest between the Franco-Catalan elite, the rural peasantry, and the Spanish. There was little serious fighting after France took control of <a href="/wiki/Perpignan" title="Perpignan">Perpignan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roussillon" title="Roussillon">Roussillon</a>, establishing the current-day Franco-Spanish border in the Pyrenees. The revolt ended in 1651 with the Spanish capture of <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Barcelona_(1651)" title="Siege of Barcelona (1651)">Barcelona</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMitchell2005431–448_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchell2005431–448-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Outside_Europe">Outside Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thirty_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Outside Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png/220px-Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png/330px-Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png/440px-Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1303" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Union" title="Iberian Union">Iberian Union</a>; Spain's inability to protect Portuguese interests in the 1602 to 1663 <a href="/wiki/Dutch%E2%80%93Portuguese_War" title="Dutch–Portuguese War">Dutch–Portuguese War</a> was a key factor in the 1640 <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Restoration_War" title="Portuguese Restoration War">Portuguese Restoration War</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1580, <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II of Spain</a> also became ruler of the Portuguese Empire, creating the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Union" title="Iberian Union">Iberian Union</a>; long-standing commercial rivals, the 1602 to 1663 <a href="/wiki/Dutch%E2%80%93Portuguese_War" title="Dutch–Portuguese War">Dutch–Portuguese War</a> was an offshoot of the Dutch fight for independence from Spain. The Portuguese dominated the trans-<a href="/wiki/Atlantic" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic">Atlantic</a> economy known as the <a href="/wiki/Triangular_trade" title="Triangular trade">Triangular trade</a>, in which slaves were transported from <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Angola" title="Portuguese Angola">Portuguese Angola</a> to work on plantations in <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese Brazil">Portuguese Brazil</a>, which exported sugar and tobacco to Europe. Known by Dutch historians as the 'Great Design", control of this trade would not only be extremely profitable but also deprive the Spanish of funds needed to finance their war in the Netherlands.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThornton2016189–190_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton2016189–190-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1621, the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_West_India_Company" title="Dutch West India Company">Dutch West India Company</a> was formed to achieve this, and a Dutch fleet captured the Brazilian port of <a href="/wiki/Salvador,_Bahia" title="Salvador, Bahia">Salvador, Bahia</a> in 1624. After it was retaken by the Portuguese in 1625, a second fleet established <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Brazil" title="Dutch Brazil">Dutch Brazil</a> in 1630, which was not returned until 1654.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Groesen2011167–168_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Groesen2011167–168-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1641, the Dutch seized Portuguese slave trading hubs in Angola and <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9" title="São Tomé">São Tomé</a>, with support from the kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kongo" title="Kingdom of Kongo">Kongo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ndongo" title="Kingdom of Ndongo">Ndongo</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThornton2020?_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton2020?-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whose position was threatened by Portuguese expansion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThornton2016194–195_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton2016194–195-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although those gains proved short-lived, the Dutch retained territories elsewhere, like the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Cape_Colony" title="Dutch Cape Colony">Cape Colony</a>, as well as Portuguese trading posts on the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Gold_Coast" title="Portuguese Gold Coast">Gold Coast</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Malacca" title="Portuguese Malacca">Malacca</a>, on the <a href="/wiki/Malabar_Coast" title="Malabar Coast">Malabar Coast</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Moluccas" class="mw-redirect" title="Moluccas">Moluccas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Ceylon" title="Portuguese Ceylon">Ceylon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGnanaprakasar2003153–172_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGnanaprakasar2003153–172-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Peace_of_Westphalia_(1648)"><span id="Peace_of_Westphalia_.281648.29"></span>Peace of Westphalia (1648)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thirty_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Peace of Westphalia (1648)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Holy_Roman_Empire_1648.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Holy_Roman_Empire_1648.svg/220px-Holy_Roman_Empire_1648.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Holy_Roman_Empire_1648.svg/330px-Holy_Roman_Empire_1648.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Holy_Roman_Empire_1648.svg/440px-Holy_Roman_Empire_1648.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2283" data-file-height="1810" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> after the Peace of Westphalia, 1648</figcaption></figure> <p>The Peace of Westphalia actually consisted of three separate agreements; the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_M%C3%BCnster" title="Peace of Münster">Peace of Münster</a> between Spain and the Dutch Republic, the Treaty of Osnabrück between the Empire and Sweden, plus the Treaty of Münster between the Empire and France. Preliminary discussions began in 1642 but only became serious in 1646; a total of 109 delegations attended at one time or other, with talks split between Münster and Osnabrück. After the Swedes rejected Christian of Denmark as mediator, the negotiators finally agreed on <a href="/wiki/Papal_Legate" class="mw-redirect" title="Papal Legate">Papal Legate</a> <a href="/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VII" title="Pope Alexander VII">Fabio Chigi</a> and the Venetian envoy <a href="/wiki/Alvise_Contarini_(diplomat)" title="Alvise Contarini (diplomat)">Alvise Contarini</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECroxton20133–4_163-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECroxton20133–4-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first to be signed on 30 January 1648, the Peace of Münster forms part of the Westphalia settlement since the Dutch Republic was still considered Imperial territory. Although it officially confirmed Dutch independence, the Imperial Diet did not formally accept it was no longer part of the Empire until 1728.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009746_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009746-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Dutch were also given a monopoly over trade conducted through the Scheldt estuary, ensuring the commercial ascendancy of <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a>. <a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a>, capital of the Spanish Netherlands and previously the most important port in Northern Europe, would not recover until the late 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995a197–199_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995a197–199-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The terms of the separate treaties with France and Sweden had first to be agreed by Ferdinand and the Imperial Estates. It has been argued they were a "major turning point in German and European...legal history", because they went beyond normal peace settlements and effected major constitutional and religious changes to the Empire itself.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELesaffer199771_166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELesaffer199771-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since they required changes to the structure and governance of the Empire, these negotiations were complex, with states like Saxony and Bavaria having very different views on desired outcomes. Ferdinand finally signed the Peace on 24 October, after a crushing French victory over Spain at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lens" title="Battle of Lens">Lens</a>, and with Swedish troops on the verge of taking Prague.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938500–501_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938500–501-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009746–747_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009746–747-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Key elements of the Peace were provisions confirming the autonomy of states within the Empire, including Ferdinand's acceptance of the supremacy of the Imperial Diet, and those seeking to prevent future religious conflict. Article 5 reconfirmed the Augsburg settlement, established 1624 as the basis, or "Normaljahr", for determining the dominant religion of a state and guaranteed freedom of worship for religious minorities. Article 7 recognised Calvinism as a Reformed faith and removed the <i>ius reformandi</i>, the requirement that if a ruler changed his religion, his subjects had to follow suit. These terms did not apply to the hereditary lands of the Habsburg monarchy, such as Lower and Upper Austria.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Westfaelischer_Friede_in_Muenster_(Gerard_Terborch_1648).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Westfaelischer_Friede_in_Muenster_%28Gerard_Terborch_1648%29.jpg/220px-Westfaelischer_Friede_in_Muenster_%28Gerard_Terborch_1648%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Westfaelischer_Friede_in_Muenster_%28Gerard_Terborch_1648%29.jpg/330px-Westfaelischer_Friede_in_Muenster_%28Gerard_Terborch_1648%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Westfaelischer_Friede_in_Muenster_%28Gerard_Terborch_1648%29.jpg/440px-Westfaelischer_Friede_in_Muenster_%28Gerard_Terborch_1648%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4649" /></a><figcaption>Signing of the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_M%C3%BCnster" title="Peace of Münster">Peace of Münster</a> between <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain" title="Habsburg Spain">Spain</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a>, 30 January 1648</figcaption></figure> <p>In terms of territorial concessions, Brandenburg-Prussia received <a href="/wiki/Farther_Pomerania" title="Farther Pomerania">Farther Pomerania</a>, and the bishoprics of Magdeburg, Halberstadt, <a href="/wiki/Bishopric_of_Kammin" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishopric of Kammin">Kammin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bishopric_of_Minden" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishopric of Minden">Minden</a>. Frederick's son <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_Louis,_Elector_Palatine" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles I Louis, Elector Palatine">Charles Louis</a> regained the Lower Palatinate and became the eighth Imperial elector, although Bavaria kept the Upper Palatinate and its electoral vote.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009746_164-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009746-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Externally, Spain acknowledged the independence of the Dutch Republic, while the Emperor confirmed that of the <a href="/wiki/Old_Swiss_Confederacy" title="Old Swiss Confederacy">Old Swiss Confederacy</a>, effectively an autonomous part of the Empire since 1499. In Lorraine, the <a href="/wiki/Three_Bishoprics" title="Three Bishoprics">Three Bishoprics</a> of <a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Metz" title="Prince-Bishopric of Metz">Metz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Toul" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince-Bishopric of Toul">Toul</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Verdun" title="Prince-Bishopric of Verdun">Verdun</a>, occupied by France since 1552, were formally ceded, as were the cities of the <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9capole" title="Décapole">Décapole</a> in Alsace, with the exception of <a href="/wiki/Strasbourg" title="Strasbourg">Strasbourg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mulhouse" title="Mulhouse">Mulhouse</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009711_135-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009711-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sweden received an indemnity of five million <a href="/wiki/Thalers" class="mw-redirect" title="Thalers">thalers</a>, the Imperial territories of <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Pomerania" title="Swedish Pomerania">Swedish Pomerania</a>, and the Prince-bishoprics of Bremen and Verden, which also gave them a seat in the Imperial Diet.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009707_170-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009707-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Peace was later denounced by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_X" title="Pope Innocent X">Pope Innocent X</a>, who regarded the bishoprics ceded to France and Brandenburg as property of the Catholic church, and thus his to assign.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERyan1948597_171-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERyan1948597-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also disappointed many exiles by accepting Catholicism as the dominant religion in Bohemia, Upper and Lower Austria, all of which were Protestant strongholds prior to 1618. Fighting did not end immediately, since demobilising over 200,000 soldiers was a complex business, and the last Swedish garrison did not leave Germany until 1654.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938504_172-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938504-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, Mazarin insisted on excluding the <a href="/wiki/Burgundian_Circle" title="Burgundian Circle">Burgundian Circle</a> from the treaty of Münster, allowing France to continue its campaign against Spain in the Low Countries, a war that continued until the 1659 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_the_Pyrenees" title="Treaty of the Pyrenees">Treaty of the Pyrenees</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Deluge_(history)" title="Deluge (history)">political disintegration</a> of Poland-Lithuania led to the 1655 to 1660 <a href="/wiki/Second_Northern_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Northern War">Second Northern War</a> with Sweden, which also involved Denmark, Russia and Brandenburg, while two Swedish attempts to impose its control on the port of <a href="/wiki/Bremen" title="Bremen">Bremen</a> failed in <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Wars_on_Bremen" class="mw-redirect" title="Swedish Wars on Bremen">1654 and 1666</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009757_173-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009757-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It has been argued the Peace established the principle known as <a href="/wiki/Westphalian_sovereignty" class="mw-redirect" title="Westphalian sovereignty">Westphalian sovereignty</a>, the idea of non-interference in domestic affairs by outside powers, although this has since been challenged. The process, or 'Congress' model, was adopted for negotiations at <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Aix-la-Chapelle_(1668)" title="Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668)">Aix-la-Chapelle in 1668</a>, <a href="/wiki/Treaties_of_Nijmegen" title="Treaties of Nijmegen">Nijmegen in 1678</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Ryswick" title="Peace of Ryswick">Ryswick</a> in 1697; unlike the 19th century 'Congress' system, these were to end wars, rather than prevent them, so references to the 'balance of power' can be misleading.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECroxton2013331–332_174-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECroxton2013331–332-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Human_and_financial_cost_of_the_war">Human and financial cost of the war</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thirty_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Human and financial cost of the war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Second_plague_pandemic" title="Second plague pandemic">Second plague pandemic</a></div> <p>The Thirty Years' War forms part of what historians sometimes call "<a href="/wiki/The_General_Crisis" title="The General Crisis">The General Crisis</a>" of the mid-17th century. This term refers to a period of sustained conflict and unrest in areas ranging from <a href="/wiki/Ming_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ming China">Ming China</a> to the <a href="/wiki/British_Isles" title="British Isles">British Isles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsarist Russia</a> and the Holy Roman Empire. In each of these, fighting combined with <a href="/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">famine</a> and disease inflicted severe losses on local civilian populations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker20081053_175-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker20081053-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the war certainly ranks as one of the worst of these events, 19th century <a href="/wiki/German_nationalism" title="German nationalism">German nationalists</a> often exaggerated its impact to illustrate the dangers of a divided Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938510_176-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938510-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bev%C3%B6lkerkungsr%C3%BCckgang_im_HRRDN_nach_dem_Drei%C3%9Figj%C3%A4hrigen_Krieg.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Bev%C3%B6lkerkungsr%C3%BCckgang_im_HRRDN_nach_dem_Drei%C3%9Figj%C3%A4hrigen_Krieg.PNG/220px-Bev%C3%B6lkerkungsr%C3%BCckgang_im_HRRDN_nach_dem_Drei%C3%9Figj%C3%A4hrigen_Krieg.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Bev%C3%B6lkerkungsr%C3%BCckgang_im_HRRDN_nach_dem_Drei%C3%9Figj%C3%A4hrigen_Krieg.PNG/330px-Bev%C3%B6lkerkungsr%C3%BCckgang_im_HRRDN_nach_dem_Drei%C3%9Figj%C3%A4hrigen_Krieg.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Bev%C3%B6lkerkungsr%C3%BCckgang_im_HRRDN_nach_dem_Drei%C3%9Figj%C3%A4hrigen_Krieg.PNG/440px-Bev%C3%B6lkerkungsr%C3%BCckgang_im_HRRDN_nach_dem_Drei%C3%9Figj%C3%A4hrigen_Krieg.PNG 2x" data-file-width="690" data-file-height="682" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Population_decline" title="Population decline">Population decline</a> within Germany, 1618 to 1648 <br /> <b>Note</b>: <i>Decline</i> includes factors such as emigration from rural to more secure urban areas and does not equate to <i>deaths</i> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ECC790; color:black;"> </span> 33–66%</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#B36567; color:black;"> </span> >66%</div></figcaption></figure> <p>Suggestions of up to 12 million deaths from a population of 18 million are no longer considered realistic. In addition, upper estimates of material losses are not supported by contemporary evidence, or in some cases exceed prewar tax records.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker1997188–189_177-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker1997188–189-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Regardless, modern commentators agree the war was a mortality disaster previously unknown in Europe. Estimates of total deaths range from 4.5 to 8 million, most incurred after 1630 when Sweden entered the war, the vast majority of which were civilian.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOutram2001156–159_178-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOutram2001156–159-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Battles generally featured armies of around 13,000 to 20,000 each, one of the largest being Alte Veste in 1632 with a combined 70,000 to 85,000. Estimates of the total deployed by both sides within Germany range from an average of 80,000 to 100,000 from 1618 to 1626, peaking at 250,000 in 1632 and falling to under 160,000 by 1648.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter200840_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter200840-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Casualty rates among those who actually did serve in the military could be extremely high. Of 230 men conscripted from the Swedish village of <a href="/wiki/Bygde%C3%A5" title="Bygdeå">Bygdeå</a> between 1621 and 1639, 215 are recorded as dead or missing, while another five returned home crippled.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker1997173_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker1997173-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aggregating figures from known battles and sieges, historian Peter Wilson estimates those either killed or wounded in combat totalled around 450,000. Since research shows disease either killed or incapacitated two to three times that number, that would suggest military casualties ranged from 1.3 to 1.8 million dead or otherwise rendered unfit for service.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009791_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009791-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although his methodology has been disputed, <a href="/wiki/Pitirim_Sorokin" title="Pitirim Sorokin">Pitirim Sorokin</a> calculates an upper limit of 2,071,000 military casualties.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevy198388–91_179-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevy198388–91-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Based on local records, military action accounted for less than 3% of civilian deaths, with the major causes being starvation (12%), <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">bubonic plague</a> (64%), <a href="/wiki/Typhus" title="Typhus">typhus</a> (4%), and <a href="/wiki/Dysentery" title="Dysentery">dysentery</a> (5%).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOutram2001160–161_180-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOutram2001160–161-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although regular outbreaks of disease were common for decades prior to 1618, the conflict greatly accelerated their spread, due to the influx of soldiers from foreign countries, the shifting locations of battle fronts and displacement of rural populations into already crowded cities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOutram2002250_181-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOutram2002250-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was not restricted to Germany; disease carried by French and Imperial soldiers allegedly sparked the <a href="/wiki/1629%E2%80%931631_Italian_plague" title="1629–1631 Italian plague">1629–1631 Italian plague</a>. Described as the "worst mortality crisis to affect Italy during the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a>",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlfaniPercoco20191175_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlfaniPercoco20191175-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it resulted in some 280,000 deaths, some estimates suggesting up to a million.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHays2005103_183-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHays2005103-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Poor harvests throughout the 1630s and repeated plundering of the same areas led to widespread famine; contemporaries record people eating grass, or too weak to accept alms, while instances of cannibalism were common.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009345_184-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009345-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern historians generally agree the Holy Roman Empire experienced an overall <a href="/wiki/Population_decline" title="Population decline">population decline</a> of between 30 to 40%, although this was not evenly spread. It fell from between 18 and 20 million in 1600, to between 11 and 13 million in 1650, and did not regain pre-war levels until 1750.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker20081058_185-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker20081058-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nearly 50% of these losses appear to have been incurred during the first period of Swedish intervention from 1630 to 1635. The high mortality rate compared to the <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Wars of the Three Kingdoms">Wars of the Three Kingdoms</a> in Britain may partly be due to the reliance of all sides on foreign mercenaries, often unpaid and required to live off the land.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker1997122_186-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker1997122-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lack of a sense of 'shared community' resulted in atrocities such as the destruction of Magdeburg, in turn creating large numbers of refugees who were extremely susceptible to sickness and hunger. While flight saved lives in the short-term, in the long run it often proved catastrophic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOutram2002245–246_187-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOutram2002245–246-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vrancx_Soldiers_Plundering.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Vrancx_Soldiers_Plundering.jpg/260px-Vrancx_Soldiers_Plundering.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Vrancx_Soldiers_Plundering.jpg/390px-Vrancx_Soldiers_Plundering.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Vrancx_Soldiers_Plundering.jpg/520px-Vrancx_Soldiers_Plundering.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1449" /></a><figcaption>Soldiers plundering a farm</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1940, agrarian historian <a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnther_Franz" title="Günther Franz">Günther Franz</a> published a detailed analysis of regional data from across Germany covering the period from 1618 to 1648. Broadly confirmed by more recent work, he concluded "about 40% of the rural population fell victim to the war and epidemics; in the cities,...33%".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOutram2002248_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOutram2002248-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These figures can be misleading, since Franz calculated the <i>absolute decline</i> in pre and post-war populations, or 'total demographic loss'. They therefore include factors unrelated to death or disease, such as permanent migration to areas outside the Empire or lower birthrates, a common but less obvious impact of extended warfare.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOutram2001152_188-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOutram2001152-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were also wide regional variations; some areas in Northwest Germany were relatively peaceful after 1630 and experienced almost no population loss, while those of Mecklenburg, <a href="/wiki/Pomerania" title="Pomerania">Pomerania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Duchy of Württemberg">Württemberg</a> fell by nearly 50%.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker1997188–189_177-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker1997188–189-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although some towns may have overstated their losses to avoid taxes, individual records confirm serious declines; from 1620 to 1650, the population of <a href="/wiki/Munich" title="Munich">Munich</a> fell from 22,000 to 17,000, that of <a href="/wiki/Augsburg" title="Augsburg">Augsburg</a> from 48,000 to 21,000.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938512_189-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938512-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The financial impact is less clear; while the war caused short-term economic dislocation, especially in the period <a href="/wiki/Kipper_und_Wipper" title="Kipper und Wipper">1618 to 1623</a>, overall it accelerated existing changes in trading patterns. It does not appear to have reversed ongoing macro-economic trends, such as the reduction of price differentials between regional markets, and a greater degree of market integration across Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchulzeVolckart201930_190-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchulzeVolckart201930-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The death toll may have improved living standards for the survivors; one study shows wages in Germany increased by 40% in real terms between 1603 and 1652.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPfisterRiedelUebele201218_191-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPfisterRiedelUebele201218-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military_developments">Military developments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thirty_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Military developments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Innovations made by Gustavus in particular are considered part of the tactical evolution known as the "<a href="/wiki/Military_Revolution" title="Military Revolution">Military Revolution</a>", although whether tactics or technology were at the heart of these changes is still debated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharman2018493–495_192-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharman2018493–495-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Introduced by <a href="/wiki/Maurice,_Prince_of_Orange" title="Maurice, Prince of Orange">Maurice of Orange</a> in the 1590s, these sought to increase infantry firepower by moving from massed <a href="/wiki/Column_(formation)" title="Column (formation)">columns</a> to <a href="/wiki/Line_(formation)" title="Line (formation)">line formation</a>. Gustavus further reduced the ten ranks used by Maurice to six, and increased the proportion of <a href="/wiki/Musketeer" title="Musketeer">musketeers</a> to <a href="/wiki/Pike_(weapon)" title="Pike (weapon)">pikemen</a>. He also enhanced their firepower by providing each unit with quick-firing light artillery pieces on either flank. The best example of their tactical application was in the victory over Tilly's traditionally organised army at Breitenfeld in September 1631.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker1997185_193-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker1997185-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Firing_Breitenfeld_formations.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Firing_Breitenfeld_formations.jpg/260px-Firing_Breitenfeld_formations.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Firing_Breitenfeld_formations.jpg/390px-Firing_Breitenfeld_formations.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Firing_Breitenfeld_formations.jpg/520px-Firing_Breitenfeld_formations.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1368" data-file-height="1007" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Breitenfeld_(1631)" title="Battle of Breitenfeld (1631)">Breitenfeld</a> 1631; Tilly's army <i>(left)</i> are deployed two companies deep, the Swedes <i>(right)</i> just one company deep.</figcaption></figure> <p>Line formations were often harder to co-ordinate, as demonstrated by the victory of the supposedly obsolete Spanish <a href="/wiki/Tercios" class="mw-redirect" title="Tercios">tercios</a> over the "new model" Swedish army <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_N%C3%B6rdlingen_(1634)" title="Battle of Nördlingen (1634)">at Nördlingen in 1634</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker1976200_194-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker1976200-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They lacked the offensive impact of columns, and Gustavus therefore compensated by requiring his cavalry to be far more aggressive, often employing his Finnish light cavalry or <i><a href="/wiki/Hakkapeliitta" title="Hakkapeliitta">Hakkapeliitta</a></i> as shock troops. He also used columns on occasion, including the failed assault at Alte Veste in September 1632. The line versus column debate continued into the early 19th century, and both were employed during the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChandler1990130–137_195-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChandler1990130–137-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Such tactics needed professional soldiers, who could retain formation, reload and fire disciplined <a href="/wiki/Salvo" title="Salvo">salvos</a> while under attack, as well as the use of standardised weapons. The first half of the 17th century saw the publication of numerous instruction manuals showing the movements required, thirty-two for pikemen and forty-two for musketeers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker1976202_196-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker1976202-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Training an infantryman to operate in this way was estimated as six months, although in reality many went into battle with far less experience.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker1997184_197-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker1997184-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also placed greater responsibility on junior officers who provided the vital links between senior commanders and the tactical unit. One of the first military schools designed to produce such men was set up at <a href="/wiki/Siegen" title="Siegen">Siegen</a> in 1616 and others soon followed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker1997184_197-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker1997184-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the other hand, strategic thinking failed to develop at the same pace. Historian <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Black_(historian)" title="Jeremy Black (historian)">Jeremy Black</a> claims most campaigns were "inconclusive" and almost exclusively concerned with control of territory, rather than focused strategic objectives. The lack of connection between military and diplomatic goals helps explain why the war lasted so long and why peace proved so elusive.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECroxton1998254_198-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECroxton1998254-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were a number of reasons for this. When the war ended in 1648, the Franco-Swedish alliance still had over 84,000 men under arms on Imperial territory, their opponents around 77,000. While relatively small in contemporary terms, such numbers were unprecedented at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009770_199-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009770-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the possible exception of Spain, the 17th century state could not support armies of this size, forcing them to depend on "contributions" levied or extorted from areas they passed through.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker1997177_200-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker1997177-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Obtaining supplies thus became the limiting factor in campaign planning, an issue that grew more acute later in the war when much of the Empire had already been fought over. Even when adequate provisions could be gathered, the next problem was getting them to the troops; to ensure security of supply, commanders were forced to stay close to rivers, then the primary means of bulk transportation, and could not move too far from their main bases.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECroxton1998255–256_201-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECroxton1998255–256-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many historians argue feeding the troops became an objective in itself, unconnected to diplomatic goals and largely uncontrolled by their central governments. The result was "armies increasingly devoid of intelligible political objectives...degenerating into travelling armed mobs, living in a symbiotic relationship with the countryside they passed through".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connell1990147_202-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connell1990147-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This often conflicted with the political aims of their employers; the devastation inflicted in 1628 and 1629 by Imperial troops on Brandenburg and Saxony, both nominally their allies, was a major factor in their subsequent support for Swedish intervention.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938257–258_203-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938257–258-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Social_and_cultural_impact">Social and cultural impact</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thirty_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Social and cultural impact"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It has been suggested the breakdown of social order caused by the war was often more significant and longer lasting than the immediate damage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938516_204-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938516-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The collapse of local government created landless peasants, who banded together to protect themselves from the soldiers of both sides, and led to widespread rebellions in <a href="/wiki/Peasants%27_War_in_Upper_Austria" class="mw-redirect" title="Peasants' War in Upper Austria">Upper Austria</a>, Bavaria and Brandenburg. Soldiers devastated one area before moving on, leaving large tracts of land empty of people and changing the ecosystem. Food shortages were worsened by an explosion in the rodent population, while Bavaria was overrun by wolves in the winter of 1638, and its crops destroyed by packs of wild pigs the following spring.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009784_205-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009784-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bondi_brennandi_hus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Bondi_brennandi_hus.jpg/220px-Bondi_brennandi_hus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Bondi_brennandi_hus.jpg/330px-Bondi_brennandi_hus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Bondi_brennandi_hus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="405" data-file-height="304" /></a><figcaption>A peasant begs for mercy in front of his burning farm; by the 1630s, being caught in the open by soldiers from either side was "tantamount to a death sentence".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOutram2002250_181-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOutram2002250-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Contemporaries spoke of a 'frenzy of despair' as people sought to make sense of the relentless and often random bloodshed unleashed by the war. Attributed by religious authorities to divine retribution for sin, attempts to identify a supernatural cause led to a series of <a href="/wiki/Witch-hunt" class="mw-redirect" title="Witch-hunt">witch-hunts</a>, beginning in Franconia in 1626 and quickly spreading to other parts of Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite2012220_206-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2012220-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They began in the <a href="/wiki/Bishopric_of_W%C3%BCrzburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishopric of Würzburg">Bishopric of Würzburg</a>, an area with a history of such events going back to 1616 and now re-ignited by <a href="/wiki/Philipp_Adolf_von_Ehrenberg" title="Philipp Adolf von Ehrenberg">Bishop von Ehrenberg</a>, a devout Catholic eager to assert the church's authority in his territories. By the time he died in 1631, <a href="/wiki/W%C3%BCrzburg_witch_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Würzburg witch trial">over 900 people</a> from all levels of society had been <a href="/wiki/Burned_at_the_stake" class="mw-redirect" title="Burned at the stake">executed</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJensen200793_207-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJensen200793-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Bamberg_witch_trials" title="Bamberg witch trials">Bamberg witch trials</a>, held in the nearby <a href="/wiki/Bishopric_of_Bamberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishopric of Bamberg">Bishopric of Bamberg</a> from 1626 to 1631, claimed over one thousand lives; in 1629, 274 died in the <a href="/wiki/Eichst%C3%A4tt_witch_trials" title="Eichstätt witch trials">Eichstätt witch trials</a>, plus another 50 in the adjacent Duchy of <a href="/wiki/Palatinate-Neuburg" title="Palatinate-Neuburg">Palatinate-Neuburg</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrevor-Roper200183–117_208-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrevor-Roper200183–117-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Elsewhere, persecution followed Imperial military success, expanding into <a href="/wiki/Margraviate_of_Baden" title="Margraviate of Baden">Baden</a> and the Palatinate following their reconquest by Tilly, then into the <a href="/wiki/Rhineland" title="Rhineland">Rhineland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriggs1996163_209-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriggs1996163-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the extent to which they were symptomatic of the impact of the conflict on society is debatable, since many took place in areas relatively untouched by the war. Concerned their brutality would discredit the Counter-Reformation, Ferdinand ensured active persecution largely ended by 1630.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriggs1996171–172_210-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriggs1996171–172-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the war caused immense destruction, it has also been credited with sparking a revival in German literature, including the creation of societies dedicated to "purging of foreign elements" from the German language.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFriehs_211-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFriehs-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One example is <i><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_Simplicissimus" title="Simplicius Simplicissimus">Simplicius Simplicissimus</a></i>, often suggested as one of the earliest examples of the <a href="/wiki/Picaresque_novel" title="Picaresque novel">picaresque novel</a>; written by <a href="/wiki/Hans_Jakob_Christoffel_von_Grimmelshausen" title="Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen">Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen</a> in 1668, it includes a realistic portrayal of a soldier's life based on his own experiences, many of which are verified by other sources.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETalbott20213–4_212-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbott20213–4-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other less famous examples include the diaries of <a href="/wiki/Peter_Hagendorf" title="Peter Hagendorf">Peter Hagendorf</a>, a participant in the <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Magdeburg" title="Sack of Magdeburg">Sack of Magdeburg</a> whose descriptions of the everyday brutalities of the war remain compelling.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHelfferich2009283–284_213-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHelfferich2009283–284-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For German, and to a lesser extent Czech writers, the war was remembered as a defining moment of national trauma, the 18th century poet and playwright <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Friedrich Schiller</a> being one of many to use it in their work. Variously known as the 'Great German War,' 'Great War' or 'Great Schism', for 19th and early 20th century German nationalists it showed the dangers of a divided Germany and was used to justify the creation of the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a> in 1871, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Greater_Germanic_Reich" title="Greater Germanic Reich">Greater Germanic Reich</a> envisaged by the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECramer200718–19_214-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECramer200718–19-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Bertolt_Brecht" title="Bertolt Brecht">Bertolt Brecht</a> used it as the backdrop for his 1939 anti-war play <i><a href="/wiki/Mother_Courage_and_Her_Children" title="Mother Courage and Her Children">Mother Courage and Her Children</a></i>, while its enduring cultural resonance is illustrated by the novel <i><a href="/wiki/Tyll_(novel)" title="Tyll (novel)">Tyll</a></i>; written by Austro-German author <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Kehlmann" title="Daniel Kehlmann">Daniel Kehlmann</a> and also set during the war, it was nominated for the 2020 <a href="/wiki/Booker_Prize" title="Booker Prize">Booker Prize</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETalbott20216_215-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbott20216-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_consequences">Political consequences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thirty_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Political consequences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europe_after_the_Peace_of_Westphalia,_1648.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Europe_after_the_Peace_of_Westphalia%2C_1648.jpg/220px-Europe_after_the_Peace_of_Westphalia%2C_1648.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Europe_after_the_Peace_of_Westphalia%2C_1648.jpg/330px-Europe_after_the_Peace_of_Westphalia%2C_1648.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Europe_after_the_Peace_of_Westphalia%2C_1648.jpg/440px-Europe_after_the_Peace_of_Westphalia%2C_1648.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4045" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Europe after the Peace of Westphalia, 1648</figcaption></figure> <p>The Peace reconfirmed "German liberties", ending Habsburg attempts to convert the Holy Roman Empire into a more centralised state similar to Spain. Over the next 50 years, Bavaria, Brandenburg-Prussia, Saxony and others increasingly pursued their own policies, while Sweden gained a permanent foothold in the Empire. Despite these setbacks, the Habsburg lands suffered less from the war than many others and became a far more coherent bloc with the absorption of Bohemia, and restoration of Catholicism throughout their territories.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcMurdie201465_216-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcMurdie201465-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pomerania_1653.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Pomerania_1653.PNG/220px-Pomerania_1653.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Pomerania_1653.PNG/330px-Pomerania_1653.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Pomerania_1653.PNG/440px-Pomerania_1653.PNG 2x" data-file-width="789" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Swedish sovereignty over <a href="/wiki/Western_Pomerania" title="Western Pomerania">Western Pomerania</a> (in blue) was confirmed in 1653, and finally ended only in 1815.</figcaption></figure> <p>By laying the foundations of the modern <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation state</a>, Westphalia changed the relationship between subjects and their rulers. Previously, many had overlapping, sometimes conflicting, political and religious allegiances; they were now understood to be subject first and foremost to the laws and edicts of their respective state authority, not the claims of any other entity, religious or secular. This made it easier to levy national forces of significant size, loyal to their state and its leader; one lesson learned from Wallenstein and the Swedish invasion was the need for their own permanent armies, and Germany as a whole became a far more militarised society.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonney200289–90_217-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonney200289–90-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For Sweden, the benefits ultimately proved short-lived. Unlike French gains which were incorporated into France, Swedish territories remained part of the Empire, and they became members of the Lower and Upper Saxon <i>kreis</i>. While this provided both seats and influence in the Imperial Diet, it also brought Sweden into direct conflict with Brandenburg-Prussia and Saxony, their competitors in Pomerania. The income from their German possessions was relatively minor, and although parts of Pomerania remained Swedish until 1815, much of it was ceded to Prussia in 1679 and 1720.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcMurdie201467–68_218-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcMurdie201467–68-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>France arguably gained more from the conflict than any other power, and by 1648, most of Richelieu's objectives had been achieved. These included separation of the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs, expansion of the French frontier into the Empire, and an end to Spanish military supremacy in Northern Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee200167–68_219-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee200167–68-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the Franco-Spanish war continued until 1659, Westphalia allowed Louis XIV to begin replacing Spain as the predominant European power.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStorrs20066–7_220-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStorrs20066–7-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While religion remained a divisive political issue in many countries, the Thirty Years' War is arguably the last major <a href="/wiki/Continental_Europe" title="Continental Europe">European</a> conflict where it was a primary driver. Future conflicts were either internal, such as the <a href="/wiki/Camisards" title="Camisards">Camisards</a> revolt in South-Western France, or relatively minor, like the 1712 <a href="/wiki/Toggenburg_War" title="Toggenburg War">Toggenburg War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutmann1988752–754_221-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutmann1988752–754-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The war created the outlines of a Europe that persisted until 1815 and beyond, most significantly the nation-state of France, along with the start of a split between Germany and a separate Austro-Hungarian bloc.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcMurdie201467–68_218-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcMurdie201467–68-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thirty_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">States that fought against the Emperor at some point between 1618 and 1635.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">States that allied at some point between 1618 and 1635.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Since officers were paid for each man "present", the numbers <i>Reported</i> frequently differed from <i>Actual</i>, or those available for duty. Variances between <i>Reported</i> and <i>Actual</i> are estimated as averaging up to 25% for the Dutch, 35% for the French and 50% for the Spanish.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParrott20018_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParrott20018-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most battles of the period were fought between opposing forces of 13,000 to 20,000 men, so the numbers reflect <i>Maximum</i> at any one time, and exclude citizen militia, who often formed a large proportion of garrisons.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">These figures show numbers "In Service of", rather than ethnicity, since all armies were multinational. An estimated 60,000 Scottish, English or Irish individuals fought on one side or the other during the period, while a high proportion were German. Based on an analysis of a mass grave discovered in 2011, a high proportion of "Swedish" forces at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_L%C3%BCtzen_(1632)" title="Battle of Lützen (1632)">Lützen</a> were ethnic Germans, while less than 50% even came from <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicklischRamsthalerMellerOthers2017_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicklischRamsthalerMellerOthers2017-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Approved 120,000, actual 80,000 to 90,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Nimwegen2014166_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Nimwegen2014166-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">1640 figures for the <a href="/wiki/Army_of_Flanders" title="Army of Flanders">Army of Flanders</a>, when it was at its maximum strength; these are Reported numbers, so as mentioned elsewhere, the actual number of soldiers would have been considerably lower.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker2004231_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2004231-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Spanish army officially had more than 200,000 soldiers in 1640, but most were second line troops in garrisons elsewhere in Europe, not facing the Dutch.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter200839_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter200839-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilson estimates a total of 450,000 combat deaths on all sides, the vast majority of whom were German. By one calculation, four times as many Germans died fighting for Sweden as Swedes, and so casualties are referred to as being "In service", rather than by nationality.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009791_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009791-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">France lost another 200,000 to 300,000 killed or wounded in the related <a href="/wiki/Franco-Spanish_War_(1635%E2%80%931659)" title="Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)">Franco-Spanish War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009790_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009790-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilson estimates that three soldiers died of disease for every one killed in combat.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009791_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009791-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <i lang="de">Dreißigjähriger Krieg</i>, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">pronounced</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="de-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">[ˈdʁaɪ̯sɪçˌjɛːʁɪɡɐ<span class="wrap"> </span>kʁiːk]</a></span> <span class="noprint"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/5\/59\/De-Drei%C3%9Figj%C3%A4hriger_Krieg.ogg\/De-Drei%C3%9Figj%C3%A4hriger_Krieg.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"De-Drei\u00dfigj\u00e4hriger Krieg.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/59/De-Drei%C3%9Figj%C3%A4hriger_Krieg.ogg/De-Drei%C3%9Figj%C3%A4hriger_Krieg.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:De-Drei%C3%9Figj%C3%A4hriger_Krieg.ogg" title="File:De-Dreißigjähriger Krieg.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Some commentators argue it began with the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_J%C3%BClich_Succession" title="War of the Jülich Succession">War of the Jülich Succession</a> in 1609.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">As explained below, the rulers of <a href="/wiki/Denmark-Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Denmark-Norway">Denmark-Norway</a> and <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Sweden</a> also held territories within the Empire, which allowed them to intervene in Imperial affairs <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHayden19731–23_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayden19731–23-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Although there were nearly 1,800 separate Imperial Estates, only <a href="/wiki/List_of_Imperial_Diet_participants_(1792)" title="List of Imperial Diet participants (1792)">300</a> were represented in the Imperial Diet or Circles. Most of the remaining 1,500 were <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Knight" title="Imperial Knight">Imperial Knights</a> or individual members of the lower nobility, who were excluded.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson200921_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson200921-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Its official title remains <i>Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">As well as being brother-in-law to Frederick of the Palatinate, James I was also linked to Christian IV of Denmark, having married his elder sister <a href="/wiki/Anne_of_Denmark" title="Anne of Denmark">Anne of Denmark</a> (1574–1619).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009382_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009382-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">While the death of Gustavus was greeted with dismay by most European Protestants, Richelieu was more ambivalent. The two were increasingly at odds over strategic objectives, and contemporary rumours claimed Richelieu was involved in the king's death, although there is no evidence for this.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938328_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938328-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Not to be confused with Freiberg in Saxony.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thirty_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECroxton2013225–226-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECroxton2013225–226_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCroxton2013">Croxton 2013</a>, pp. 225–226.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeitzRischer1995232-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeitzRischer1995232_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeitzRischer1995232_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeitzRischer1995">Heitz & Rischer 1995</a>, p. 232.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEParrott20018-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParrott20018_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParrott2001">Parrott 2001</a>, p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicklischRamsthalerMellerOthers2017-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicklischRamsthalerMellerOthers2017_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNicklischRamsthalerMellerOthers2017">Nicklisch et al. 2017</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009484-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009484_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2009">Wilson 2009</a>, p. 484.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter200840-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter200840_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter200840_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClodfelter2008">Clodfelter 2008</a>, p. 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009387-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009387_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009387_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2009">Wilson 2009</a>, p. 387.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEParrott2001164–168-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParrott2001164–168_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParrott2001">Parrott 2001</a>, pp. 164–168.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Nimwegen2014166-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Nimwegen2014166_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Nimwegen2014166_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVan_Nimwegen2014">Van Nimwegen 2014</a>, p. 166.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009395-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009395_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2009">Wilson 2009</a>, p. 395.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2004231-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker2004231_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker2004231_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParker2004">Parker 2004</a>, p. 231.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter200839-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter200839_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter200839_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClodfelter2008">Clodfelter 2008</a>, p. 39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009791-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009791_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009791_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009791_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2009">Wilson 2009</a>, p. 791.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker1997173-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker1997173_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker1997173_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParker1997">Parker 1997</a>, p. 173.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009790-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009790_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009790_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009790_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009790_22-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009790_22-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009790_22-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009790_22-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2009">Wilson 2009</a>, p. 790.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009787-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2009787_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2009">Wilson 2009</a>, p. 787.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOutram2002248-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOutram2002248_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOutram2002248_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOutram2002">Outram 2002</a>, p. 248.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson20094,_787-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson20094,_787_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2009">Wilson 2009</a>, pp. 4, 787.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker1997189-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker1997189_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParker1997">Parker 1997</a>, p. 189.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESutherland1992589–590-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESutherland1992589–590_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSutherland1992">Sutherland 1992</a>, pp. 589–590.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker199717–18-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker199717–18_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParker1997">Parker 1997</a>, pp. 17–18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESutherland1992602–603-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESutherland1992602–603_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSutherland1992">Sutherland 1992</a>, pp. 602–603.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayden19731–23-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHayden19731–23_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHayden19731–23_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHayden1973">Hayden 1973</a>, pp. 1–23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood193822–24-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWedgwood193822–24_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWedgwood1938">Wedgwood 1938</a>, pp. 22–24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson200921-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson200921_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a 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id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thirty_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-0629-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-0629-7"><bdi>978-1-4094-0629-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Non-splendid+isolation%3A+the+Ottoman+Empire+and+the+Thirty+Years+War+in+The+Ashgate+Research+Companion+to+the+Thirty+Years%27+War&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4094-0629-7&rft.aulast=Baramova&rft.aufirst=Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBassett2015" class="citation book cs1">Bassett, Richard (2015). <i>For God and Kaiser; the Imperial Austrian Army</i>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-17858-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-17858-6"><bdi>978-0-300-17858-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=For+God+and+Kaiser%3B+the+Imperial+Austrian+Army&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-300-17858-6&rft.aulast=Bassett&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBely2014" class="citation book cs1">Bely, Lucien (2014). Asbach, Olaf; Schröder, Peter (eds.). <i>France and the Thirty Years War in The Ashgate Research Companion to the Thirty Years' War</i>. Ashgate. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-0629-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-0629-7"><bdi>978-1-4094-0629-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=France+and+the+Thirty+Years+War+in+The+Ashgate+Research+Companion+to+the+Thirty+Years%27+War&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4094-0629-7&rft.aulast=Bely&rft.aufirst=Lucien&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Nimwegen2014" class="citation book cs1">Van Nimwegen, Olaf (2014). Asbach, Olaf; Schröder, Peter (eds.). <i>The Dutch–Spanish War in the Low Countries 1621–1648 in The Ashgate Research Companion to the Thirty Years' War</i>. Ashgate. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-0629-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-0629-7"><bdi>978-1-4094-0629-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dutch%E2%80%93Spanish+War+in+the+Low+Countries+1621%E2%80%931648+in+The+Ashgate+Research+Companion+to+the+Thirty+Years%27+War&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4094-0629-7&rft.aulast=Van+Nimwegen&rft.aufirst=Olaf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBireley1976" class="citation journal cs1">Bireley, Robert (1976). "The Peace of Prague (1635) and the Counterreformation in Germany". <i>The Journal of Modern History</i>. <b>48</b> (1): 31–69. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F241519">10.1086/241519</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143376778">143376778</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Modern+History&rft.atitle=The+Peace+of+Prague+%281635%29+and+the+Counterreformation+in+Germany&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=31-69&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F241519&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143376778%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Bireley&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBonney2002" class="citation book cs1">Bonney, Richard (2002). <i>The Thirty Years' War 1618–1648</i>. Osprey Publishing.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Thirty+Years%27+War+1618%E2%80%931648&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Bonney&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBriggs1996" class="citation book cs1">Briggs, Robin (1996). <i>Witches & Neighbors: The Social And Cultural Context of European Witchcraft</i>. Viking. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-670-83589-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-670-83589-8"><bdi>978-0-670-83589-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Witches+%26+Neighbors%3A+The+Social+And+Cultural+Context+of+European+Witchcraft&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-670-83589-8&rft.aulast=Briggs&rft.aufirst=Robin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrzezinski2001" class="citation book cs1">Brzezinski, Richard (2001). <i>Lützen 1632: Climax of the Thirty Years War: The Clash of Empires</i>. Osprey. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85532-552-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85532-552-4"><bdi>978-1-85532-552-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%C3%BCtzen+1632%3A+Climax+of+the+Thirty+Years+War%3A+The+Clash+of+Empires&rft.pub=Osprey&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-85532-552-4&rft.aulast=Brzezinski&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandler1990" class="citation book cs1">Chandler, David (1990). <i>The Art of Warfare in the Age of Marlborough</i>. Spellmount Publishers Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0946771424" title="Special:BookSources/978-0946771424"><bdi>978-0946771424</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Warfare+in+the+Age+of+Marlborough&rft.pub=Spellmount+Publishers+Ltd&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0946771424&rft.aulast=Chandler&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClodfelter2008" class="citation book cs1">Clodfelter, Micheal (2008). <i>Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015</i> (2017 ed.). McFarland. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-7470-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-7470-7"><bdi>978-0-7864-7470-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warfare+and+Armed+Conflicts%3A+A+Statistical+Encyclopedia+of+Casualty+and+Other+Figures%2C+1492%E2%80%932015&rft.edition=2017&rft.pub=McFarland&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7864-7470-7&rft.aulast=Clodfelter&rft.aufirst=Micheal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCosta2005" class="citation journal cs1">Costa, Fernando Dores (2005). "Interpreting the Portuguese War of Restoration (1641–1668) in a European Context". <i>Journal of Portuguese History</i>. <b>3</b> (1).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Portuguese+History&rft.atitle=Interpreting+the+Portuguese+War+of+Restoration+%281641%E2%80%931668%29+in+a+European+Context&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Costa&rft.aufirst=Fernando+Dores&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCramer2007" class="citation book cs1">Cramer, Kevin (2007). <i>The Thirty Years' War & German Memory in the Nineteenth Century</i>. University of Nebraska. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-1562-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-1562-7"><bdi>978-0-8032-1562-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Thirty+Years%27+War+%26+German+Memory+in+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8032-1562-7&rft.aulast=Cramer&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCroxton2013" class="citation book cs1">Croxton, Derek (2013). <i>The Last Christian Peace: The Congress of Westphalia as A Baroque Event</i>. Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-33332-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-33332-2"><bdi>978-1-137-33332-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Last+Christian+Peace%3A+The+Congress+of+Westphalia+as+A+Baroque+Event&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-137-33332-2&rft.aulast=Croxton&rft.aufirst=Derek&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCroxton1998" class="citation journal cs1">Croxton, Derek (1998). "A Territorial Imperative? The Military Revolution, Strategy and Peacemaking in the Thirty Years War". <i>War in History</i>. <b>5</b> (3): 253–279. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F096834459800500301">10.1177/096834459800500301</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26007296">26007296</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159915965">159915965</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=War+in+History&rft.atitle=A+Territorial+Imperative%3F+The+Military+Revolution%2C+Strategy+and+Peacemaking+in+the+Thirty+Years+War&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=253-279&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159915965%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26007296%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F096834459800500301&rft.aulast=Croxton&rft.aufirst=Derek&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavenport1917" class="citation book cs1">Davenport, Frances Gardiner (1917). <i>European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and Its Dependencies</i> (2014 ed.). 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ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1851096589" title="Special:BookSources/978-1851096589"><bdi>978-1851096589</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epidemics+and+pandemics%3B+their+impacts+on+human+history&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1851096589&rft.aulast=Hays&rft.aufirst=J.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGnanaprakasar2003" class="citation book cs1">Gnanaprakasar, Nalloor Swamy (2003). <i>Critical History of Jaffna – The Tamil Era</i>. Asian Educational Services. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-206-1686-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-206-1686-8"><bdi>978-81-206-1686-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critical+History+of+Jaffna+%E2%80%93+The+Tamil+Era&rft.pub=Asian+Educational+Services&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-81-206-1686-8&rft.aulast=Gnanaprakasar&rft.aufirst=Nalloor+Swamy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGutmann1988" class="citation journal cs1">Gutmann, Myron P. (1988). "The Origins of the Thirty Years' War". <i>Journal of Interdisciplinary History</i>. <b>18</b> (4): 749–770. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F204823">10.2307/204823</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/204823">204823</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Interdisciplinary+History&rft.atitle=The+Origins+of+the+Thirty+Years%27+War&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=749-770&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F204823&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F204823%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Gutmann&rft.aufirst=Myron+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanlon2016" class="citation book cs1">Hanlon, Gregory (2016). <i>The Twilight Of A Military Tradition: Italian Aristocrats And European Conflicts, 1560–1800</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-15827-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-138-15827-6"><bdi>978-1-138-15827-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Twilight+Of+A+Military+Tradition%3A+Italian+Aristocrats+And+European+Conflicts%2C+1560%E2%80%931800&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-138-15827-6&rft.aulast=Hanlon&rft.aufirst=Gregory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHayden1973" class="citation journal cs1">Hayden, J. Michael (1973). "Continuity in the France of Henry IV and Louis XIII: French Foreign Policy, 1598–1615". <i>The Journal of Modern History</i>. <b>45</b> (1): 1–23. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F240888">10.1086/240888</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1877591">1877591</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144914347">144914347</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Modern+History&rft.atitle=Continuity+in+the+France+of+Henry+IV+and+Louis+XIII%3A+French+Foreign+Policy%2C+1598%E2%80%931615&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-23&rft.date=1973&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144914347%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1877591%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F240888&rft.aulast=Hayden&rft.aufirst=J.+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHelfferich2009" class="citation book cs1">Helfferich, Tryntje (2009). <i>The Thirty Years War: A Documentary History</i>. Hackett Publishing Co, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0872209398" title="Special:BookSources/978-0872209398"><bdi>978-0872209398</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Thirty+Years+War%3A+A+Documentary+History&rft.pub=Hackett+Publishing+Co%2C+Inc&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0872209398&rft.aulast=Helfferich&rft.aufirst=Tryntje&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeitzRischer1995" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Heitz, Gerhard; Rischer, Henning (1995). <i>Geschichte in Daten. Mecklenburg-Vorpommern; History in data; Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania</i> (in German). Koehler&Amelang. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-7338-0195-4" title="Special:BookSources/3-7338-0195-4"><bdi>3-7338-0195-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geschichte+in+Daten.+Mecklenburg-Vorpommern%3B+History+in+data%3B+Mecklenburg-Western+Pomerania&rft.pub=Koehler%26Amelang&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=3-7338-0195-4&rft.aulast=Heitz&rft.aufirst=Gerhard&rft.au=Rischer%2C+Henning&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsrael1995a" class="citation book cs1">Israel, Jonathan (1995a). <i>Spain in the Low Countries, (1635–1643) in Spain, Europe and the Atlantic: Essays in Honour of John H. Elliott</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47045-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47045-2"><bdi>978-0-521-47045-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spain+in+the+Low+Countries%2C+%281635%E2%80%931643%29+in+Spain%2C+Europe+and+the+Atlantic%3A+Essays+in+Honour+of+John+H.+Elliott&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-521-47045-2&rft.aulast=Israel&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsrael1995b" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Israel" title="Jonathan Israel">Israel, Jonathan</a> (1995b). <i>The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall 1477–1806</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-873072-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-873072-1"><bdi>0-19-873072-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dutch+Republic%3A+Its+Rise%2C+Greatness%2C+and+Fall+1477%E2%80%931806&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-19-873072-1&rft.aulast=Israel&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJensen2007" class="citation book cs1">Jensen, Gary F. (2007). <i>The Path of the Devil: Early Modern Witch Hunts</i>. Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-4697-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-4697-4"><bdi>978-0-7425-4697-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Path+of+the+Devil%3A+Early+Modern+Witch+Hunts&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-4697-4&rft.aulast=Jensen&rft.aufirst=Gary+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamen2003" class="citation book cs1">Kamen, Henry (2003). <i>Spain's Road to Empire</i>. Allen Lane. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0140285284" title="Special:BookSources/978-0140285284"><bdi>978-0140285284</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spain%27s+Road+to+Empire&rft.pub=Allen+Lane&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0140285284&rft.aulast=Kamen&rft.aufirst=Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKohn1995" class="citation book cs1">Kohn, George (1995). <i>Encyclopedia of Plague and Pestilence: From Ancient Times to the Present</i>. Facts on file. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-2758-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-2758-3"><bdi>978-0-8160-2758-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Plague+and+Pestilence%3A+From+Ancient+Times+to+the+Present&rft.pub=Facts+on+file&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-2758-3&rft.aulast=Kohn&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2001" class="citation book cs1">Lee, Stephen (2001). <i>The Thirty Years War (Lancaster Pamphlets)</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-26862-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-26862-2"><bdi>978-0-415-26862-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Thirty+Years+War+%28Lancaster+Pamphlets%29&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-415-26862-2&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLesaffer1997" class="citation journal cs1">Lesaffer, Randall (1997). 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University Press of Kentucky.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+in+the+Modern+Great+Power+System%3A+1495+to+1975&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Levy&rft.aufirst=Jack+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLockhart2007" class="citation book cs1">Lockhart, Paul D (2007). <i>Denmark, 1513–1660: the rise and decline of a Renaissance monarchy</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-927121-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-927121-4"><bdi>978-0-19-927121-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Denmark%2C+1513%E2%80%931660%3A+the+rise+and+decline+of+a+Renaissance+monarchy&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-19-927121-4&rft.aulast=Lockhart&rft.aufirst=Paul+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaland1980" class="citation book cs1">Maland, David (1980). <i>Europe at War, 1600–50</i>. Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-23446-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-23446-4"><bdi>978-0-333-23446-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Europe+at+War%2C+1600%E2%80%9350&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-333-23446-4&rft.aulast=Maland&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcMurdie2014" class="citation thesis cs1">McMurdie, Justin (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1016&context=seminary_masters&httpsredir=1&referer="><i>The Thirty Years' War: Examining the Origins and Effects of </i>Corpus Christianum<i>'s Defining Conflict</i></a> (MA thesis). George Fox University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220407135116/https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1016&context=seminary_masters&httpsredir=1&referer=">Archived</a> from the original on 7 April 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=The+Thirty+Years%27+War%3A+Examining+the+Origins+and+Effects+of+Corpus+Christianum%27s+Defining+Conflict&rft.degree=MA&rft.inst=George+Fox+University&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=McMurdie&rft.aufirst=Justin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.georgefox.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1016%26context%3Dseminary_masters%26httpsredir%3D1%26referer%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiltonAxworthySimms2018" class="citation book cs1">Milton, Patrick; Axworthy, Michael; Simms, Brendan (2018). <i>Towards The Peace Congress of Münster and Osnabrück (1643–1648) and the Westphalian Order (1648–1806) in "A Westphalia for the Middle East"</i>. C Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78738-023-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78738-023-3"><bdi>978-1-78738-023-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Towards+The+Peace+Congress+of+M%C3%BCnster+and+Osnabr%C3%BCck+%281643%E2%80%931648%29+and+the+Westphalian+Order+%281648%E2%80%931806%29+in+%22A+Westphalia+for+the+Middle+East%22&rft.pub=C+Hurst+%26+Co+Publishers+Ltd&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-78738-023-3&rft.aulast=Milton&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft.au=Axworthy%2C+Michael&rft.au=Simms%2C+Brendan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitchell2005" class="citation thesis cs1">Mitchell, Andrew Joseph (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1123962229"><i>Religion, revolt, and creation of regional identity in Catalonia, 1640–1643</i></a> (PhD thesis). Ohio State University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230417110404/https://etd.ohiolink.edu/apexprod/rws_olink/r/1501/10?clear=10&p10_accession_num=osu1123962229">Archived</a> from the original on 17 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Religion%2C+revolt%2C+and+creation+of+regional+identity+in+Catalonia%2C+1640%E2%80%931643&rft.degree=PhD&rft.inst=Ohio+State+University&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=Andrew+Joseph&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frave.ohiolink.edu%2Fetdc%2Fview%3Facc_num%3Dosu1123962229&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurdoch2000" class="citation book cs1">Murdoch, Steve (2000). <i>Britain, Denmark-Norway and the House of Stuart 1603–1660</i>. Tuckwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86232-182-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86232-182-3"><bdi>978-1-86232-182-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britain%2C+Denmark-Norway+and+the+House+of+Stuart+1603%E2%80%931660&rft.pub=Tuckwell&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-86232-182-3&rft.aulast=Murdoch&rft.aufirst=Steve&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurdochZickermanMarks2012" class="citation journal cs1">Murdoch, S.; Zickerman, K; Marks, H (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/2441539">"The Battle of Wittstock 1636: Conflicting Reports on a Swedish Victory in Germany"</a>. <i>Northern Studies</i>. <b>43</b>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220708212425/https://www.academia.edu/2441539">Archived</a> from the original on 8 July 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Northern+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Battle+of+Wittstock+1636%3A+Conflicting+Reports+on+a+Swedish+Victory+in+Germany&rft.volume=43&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Murdoch&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Zickerman%2C+K&rft.au=Marks%2C+H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F2441539&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurdochGrosjean2014" class="citation book cs1">Murdoch, Steve; Grosjean, Alexia (2014). <i>Alexander Leslie and the Scottish generals of the Thirty Years' War, 1618–1648</i>. London: Pickering & Chatto.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+Leslie+and+the+Scottish+generals+of+the+Thirty+Years%27+War%2C+1618%E2%80%931648&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Pickering+%26+Chatto&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Murdoch&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft.au=Grosjean%2C+Alexia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicklischRamsthalerMellerOthers2017" class="citation journal cs1">Nicklisch, Nicole; Ramsthaler, Frank; Meller, Harald; Others (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5439951">"The face of war: Trauma analysis of a mass grave from the Battle of Lützen (1632)"</a>. <i>PLOS ONE</i>. <b>12</b> (5): e0178252. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017PLoSO..1278252N">2017PLoSO..1278252N</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0178252">10.1371/journal.pone.0178252</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5439951">5439951</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28542491">28542491</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=The+face+of+war%3A+Trauma+analysis+of+a+mass+grave+from+the+Battle+of+L%C3%BCtzen+%281632%29&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=e0178252&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5439951%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28542491&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0178252&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017PLoSO..1278252N&rft.aulast=Nicklisch&rft.aufirst=Nicole&rft.au=Ramsthaler%2C+Frank&rft.au=Meller%2C+Harald&rft.au=Others&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5439951&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorrhem2019" class="citation book cs1">Norrhem, Svante (2019). <i>Mercenary Swedes; French subsidies to Sweden 1631–1796</i>. Translated by Merton, Charlotte. Nordic Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-91-88661-82-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-91-88661-82-1"><bdi>978-91-88661-82-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mercenary+Swedes%3B+French+subsidies+to+Sweden+1631%E2%80%931796&rft.pub=Nordic+Academic+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-91-88661-82-1&rft.aulast=Norrhem&rft.aufirst=Svante&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Connell1968" class="citation book cs1">O'Connell, Daniel Patrick (1968). <i>Richelieu</i>. Weidenfeld & Nicolson.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Richelieu&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=O%27Connell&rft.aufirst=Daniel+Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Connell1990" class="citation book cs1">O'Connell, Robert L (1990). <i>Of Arms and Men: A History of War, Weapons, and Aggression</i>. OUP. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195053593" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195053593"><bdi>978-0195053593</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Of+Arms+and+Men%3A+A+History+of+War%2C+Weapons%2C+and+Aggression&rft.pub=OUP&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0195053593&rft.aulast=O%27Connell&rft.aufirst=Robert+L&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOutram2001" class="citation journal cs1">Outram, Quentin (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/385/1/outramq1.pdf">"The Socio-Economic Relations of Warfare and the Military Mortality Crises of the Thirty Years' War"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Medical History</i>. <b>45</b> (2): 151–184. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025727300067703">10.1017/S0025727300067703</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1044352">1044352</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11373858">11373858</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220625143210/https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/385/1/outramq1.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 25 June 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medical+History&rft.atitle=The+Socio-Economic+Relations+of+Warfare+and+the+Military+Mortality+Crises+of+the+Thirty+Years%27+War&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=151-184&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1044352%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11373858&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025727300067703&rft.aulast=Outram&rft.aufirst=Quentin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feprints.whiterose.ac.uk%2F385%2F1%2Foutramq1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOutram2002" class="citation journal cs1">Outram, Quentin (2002). "The Demographic impact of early modern warfare". <i>Social Science History</i>. <b>26</b> (2): 245–272. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F01455532-26-2-245">10.1215/01455532-26-2-245</a> (inactive 1 November 2024).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Science+History&rft.atitle=The+Demographic+impact+of+early+modern+warfare&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=245-272&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1215%2F01455532-26-2-245&rft.aulast=Outram&rft.aufirst=Quentin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParker2008" class="citation journal cs1">Parker, Geoffrey (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2Fahr.113.4.1053">"Crisis and Catastrophe: The global crisis of the seventeenth century reconsidered"</a>. <i>American Historical Review</i>. <b>113</b> (4): 1053–1079. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2Fahr.113.4.1053">10.1086/ahr.113.4.1053</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Crisis+and+Catastrophe%3A+The+global+crisis+of+the+seventeenth+century+reconsidered&rft.volume=113&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1053-1079&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2Fahr.113.4.1053&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1086%252Fahr.113.4.1053&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParker1976" class="citation journal cs1">Parker, Geoffrey (1976). "The 'Military Revolution', 1560–1660 – a Myth?". <i>The Journal of Modern History</i>. <b>48</b> (2): 195–214. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F241429">10.1086/241429</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1879826">1879826</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143661971">143661971</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Modern+History&rft.atitle=The+%27Military+Revolution%27%2C+1560%E2%80%931660+%E2%80%93+a+Myth%3F&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=195-214&rft.date=1976&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143661971%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1879826%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F241429&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParker1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Parker_(historian)" title="Geoffrey Parker (historian)">Parker, Geoffrey</a> (1997) [1984]. <i>The Thirty Years' War</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-12883-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-12883-4"><bdi>978-0-415-12883-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Thirty+Years%27+War&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-415-12883-4&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span> (with several contributors)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParker2004" class="citation book cs1">Parker, Geoffrey (2004) [1972]. <i>Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road, 1567–1659: The Logistics of Spanish Victory and Defeat in the Low Countries' Wars</i>. CUP. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-54392-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-54392-7"><bdi>978-0-521-54392-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Army+of+Flanders+and+the+Spanish+Road%2C+1567%E2%80%931659%3A+The+Logistics+of+Spanish+Victory+and+Defeat+in+the+Low+Countries%27+Wars&rft.pub=CUP&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-54392-7&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParrott2001" class="citation book cs1">Parrott, David (2001). <i>Richelieu's Army: War, Government and Society in France, 1624–1642</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-79209-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-79209-7"><bdi>978-0-521-79209-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Richelieu%27s+Army%3A+War%2C+Government+and+Society+in+France%2C+1624%E2%80%931642&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-521-79209-7&rft.aulast=Parrott&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPazos2011" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Pazos, Conde Miguel (2011). "El tradado de Nápoles. El encierro del príncipe Juan Casimiro y la leva de Polacos de Medina de las Torres (1638–1642): The Treaty of Naples; the imprisonment of John Casimir and the Polish Levy of Medina de las Torres". <i>Studia Histórica, Historia Moderna</i> (in Spanish). <b>33</b>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studia+Hist%C3%B3rica%2C+Historia+Moderna&rft.atitle=El+tradado+de+N%C3%A1poles.+El+encierro+del+pr%C3%ADncipe+Juan+Casimiro+y+la+leva+de+Polacos+de+Medina+de+las+Torres+%281638%E2%80%931642%29%3A+The+Treaty+of+Naples%3B+the+imprisonment+of+John+Casimir+and+the+Polish+Levy+of+Medina+de+las+Torres&rft.volume=33&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Pazos&rft.aufirst=Conde+Miguel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPfisterRiedelUebele2012" class="citation journal cs1">Pfister, Ulrich; Riedel, Jana; Uebele, Martin (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220511081135/http://www.ehes.org/EHES_No17.pdf">"Real Wages and the Origins of Modern Economic Growth in Germany, 16th to 19th Centuries"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>European Historical Economics Society</i>. <b>17</b>. 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Liberty Fund. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86597-278-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86597-278-0"><bdi>978-0-86597-278-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Crisis+of+the+Seventeenth+Century%3A+Religion%2C+the+Reformation+and+Social+Change&rft.pub=Liberty+Fund&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-86597-278-0&rft.aulast=Trevor-Roper&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Gelderen2002" class="citation book cs1">Van Gelderen, Martin (2002). <i>Republicanism and Constitutionalism in Early Modern Europe: A Shared European Heritage Volume I</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-80203-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-80203-1"><bdi>978-0-521-80203-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Republicanism+and+Constitutionalism+in+Early+Modern+Europe%3A+A+Shared+European+Heritage+Volume+I&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-80203-1&rft.aulast=Van+Gelderen&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Groesen2011" class="citation journal cs1">Van Groesen, Michiel (2011). "Lessons Learned: The Second Dutch Conquest of Brazil and the Memory of the First". <i>Colonial Latin American Review</i>. <b>20</b> (2): 167–193. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10609164.2011.585770">10.1080/10609164.2011.585770</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:218574377">218574377</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Colonial+Latin+American+Review&rft.atitle=Lessons+Learned%3A+The+Second+Dutch+Conquest+of+Brazil+and+the+Memory+of+the+First&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=167-193&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10609164.2011.585770&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A218574377%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Van+Groesen&rft.aufirst=Michiel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Nimwegen2010" class="citation book cs1">Van Nimwegen, Olaf (2010). <i>The Dutch Army and the Military Revolutions, 1588–1688</i>. Boydell Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84383-575-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84383-575-2"><bdi>978-1-84383-575-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dutch+Army+and+the+Military+Revolutions%2C+1588%E2%80%931688&rft.pub=Boydell+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-84383-575-2&rft.aulast=Van+Nimwegen&rft.aufirst=Olaf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWedgwood1938" class="citation book cs1">Wedgwood, C.V. (1938). <i>The Thirty Years War</i> (2005 ed.). New York Review of Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59017-146-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59017-146-2"><bdi>978-1-59017-146-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Thirty+Years+War&rft.edition=2005&rft.pub=New+York+Review+of+Books&rft.date=1938&rft.isbn=978-1-59017-146-2&rft.aulast=Wedgwood&rft.aufirst=C.V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite2012" class="citation book cs1">White, Matthew (2012). <i>The Great Big Book of Horrible Things</i>. W.W. Norton & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-08192-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-08192-3"><bdi>978-0-393-08192-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Big+Book+of+Horrible+Things&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Co&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-393-08192-3&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson2009" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, Peter H. (2009). <i>Europe's Tragedy: A History of the Thirty Years War</i>. Allen Lane. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7139-9592-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7139-9592-3"><bdi>978-0-7139-9592-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Europe%27s+Tragedy%3A+A+History+of+the+Thirty+Years+War&rft.pub=Allen+Lane&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7139-9592-3&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Peter+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson2018" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, Peter H. (2018). <i>Lützen: Great Battles Series</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199642540" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199642540"><bdi>978-0199642540</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%C3%BCtzen%3A+Great+Battles+Series&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0199642540&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Peter+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson2008" class="citation journal cs1">Wilson, Peter (2008). "The Causes of the Thirty Years War 1618–48". <i>The English Historical Review</i>. <b>123</b> (502): 554–586. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fehr%2Fcen160">10.1093/ehr/cen160</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20108541">20108541</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+English+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Causes+of+the+Thirty+Years+War+1618%E2%80%9348&rft.volume=123&rft.issue=502&rft.pages=554-586&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fehr%2Fcen160&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20108541%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZaller1974" class="citation journal cs1">Zaller, Robert (1974). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Interest of State': James I and the Palatinate". <i>Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies</i>. <b>6</b> (2): 144–175. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4048141">10.2307/4048141</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4048141">4048141</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Albion%3A+A+Quarterly+Journal+Concerned+with+British+Studies&rft.atitle=%27Interest+of+State%27%3A+James+I+and+the+Palatinate&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=144-175&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F4048141&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4048141%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Zaller&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thirty_Years%27_War&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 40em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÅberg1973" class="citation book cs1">Åberg, A. (1973). "The Swedish Army from Lützen to Narva". In Roberts, M. (ed.). <i>Sweden's Age of Greatness, 1632–1718</i>. St. Martin's Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Swedish+Army+from+L%C3%BCtzen+to+Narva&rft.btitle=Sweden%27s+Age+of+Greatness%2C+1632%E2%80%931718&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.aulast=%C3%85berg&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenecke1978" class="citation book cs1">Benecke, Gerhard (1978). <i>Germany in the Thirty Years War</i>. St. Martin's Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germany+in+the+Thirty+Years+War&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Benecke&rft.aufirst=Gerhard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDukes1995" class="citation book cs1">Dukes, Paul, ed. (1995). <i>Muscovy and Sweden in the Thirty Years' War 1630–1635</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45139-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45139-0"><bdi>978-0-521-45139-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muscovy+and+Sweden+in+the+Thirty+Years%27+War+1630%E2%80%931635&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-521-45139-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrosjean2003" class="citation book cs1">Grosjean, Alexia (2003). <i>An Unofficial Alliance: Scotland and Sweden, 1569–1654</i>. Leiden: Brill.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Unofficial+Alliance%3A+Scotland+and+Sweden%2C+1569%E2%80%931654&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Grosjean&rft.aufirst=Alexia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamen1968" class="citation journal cs1">Kamen, Henry (1968). "The Economic and Social Consequences of the Thirty Years' War". <i>Past and Present</i> (39): 44–61. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpast%2F39.1.44">10.1093/past/39.1.44</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/649855">649855</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Past+and+Present&rft.atitle=The+Economic+and+Social+Consequences+of+the+Thirty+Years%27+War&rft.issue=39&rft.pages=44-61&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fpast%2F39.1.44&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F649855%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Kamen&rft.aufirst=Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLanger1980" class="citation book cs1">Langer, Herbert (1980). <i>The Thirty Years' War</i> (1990 ed.). Dorset Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88029-262-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88029-262-7"><bdi>978-0-88029-262-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Thirty+Years%27+War&rft.edition=1990&rft.pub=Dorset+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-88029-262-7&rft.aulast=Langer&rft.aufirst=Herbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLynn1999" class="citation book cs1">Lynn, John A. (1999). <i>The Wars of Louis XIV: 1667–1714</i>. Harlow, England: Longman.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wars+of+Louis+XIV%3A+1667%E2%80%931714&rft.place=Harlow%2C+England&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Lynn&rft.aufirst=John+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurdoch2001" class="citation book cs1">Murdoch, Steve (2001). <i>Scotland and the Thirty Years' War, 1618–1648</i>. Brill.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scotland+and+the+Thirty+Years%27+War%2C+1618%E2%80%931648&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Murdoch&rft.aufirst=Steve&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolišenský1954" class="citation journal cs1">Polišenský, J. V. (1954). "The Thirty Years' War". <i>Past and Present</i> (6): 31–43. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpast%2F6.1.31">10.1093/past/6.1.31</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/649813">649813</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Past+and+Present&rft.atitle=The+Thirty+Years%27+War&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=31-43&rft.date=1954&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fpast%2F6.1.31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F649813%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Poli%C5%A1ensk%C3%BD&rft.aufirst=J.+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolišenský1968" class="citation journal cs1">Polišenský, J. V. (1968). "The Thirty Years' War and the Crises and Revolutions of Seventeenth-Century Europe". <i>Past and Present</i> (39): 34–43. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpast%2F39.1.34">10.1093/past/39.1.34</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/649854">649854</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Past+and+Present&rft.atitle=The+Thirty+Years%27+War+and+the+Crises+and+Revolutions+of+Seventeenth-Century+Europe&rft.issue=39&rft.pages=34-43&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fpast%2F39.1.34&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F649854%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Poli%C5%A1ensk%C3%BD&rft.aufirst=J.+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolisensky2001" class="citation book cs1">Polisensky, Joseph (2001). "A Note on Scottish Soldiers in the Bohemian War, 1619–1622". In Murdoch, Steve (ed.). <i>A Note on Scottish Soldiers in the Bohemian War, 1619–1622 in 'Scotland and the Thirty Years' war, 1618–1648</i>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12086-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12086-0"><bdi>978-90-04-12086-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Note+on+Scottish+Soldiers+in+the+Bohemian+War%2C+1619%E2%80%931622&rft.btitle=A+Note+on+Scottish+Soldiers+in+the+Bohemian+War%2C+1619%E2%80%931622+in+%27Scotland+and+the+Thirty+Years%27+war%2C+1618%E2%80%931648&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-90-04-12086-0&rft.aulast=Polisensky&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrinzing1916" class="citation book cs1">Prinzing, Friedrich (1916). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/epidemicsresulti00prin"><i>Epidemics Resulting from Wars</i></a>. Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epidemics+Resulting+from+Wars&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1916&rft.aulast=Prinzing&rft.aufirst=Friedrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fepidemicsresulti00prin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRabb1962" class="citation journal cs1">Rabb, Theodore K. (1962). "The Effects of the Thirty Years' War on the German Economy". <i>Journal of Modern History</i>. <b>34</b> (1): 40–51. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F238995">10.1086/238995</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1874817">1874817</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154709047">154709047</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Modern+History&rft.atitle=The+Effects+of+the+Thirty+Years%27+War+on+the+German+Economy&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=40-51&rft.date=1962&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154709047%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1874817%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F238995&rft.aulast=Rabb&rft.aufirst=Theodore+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReilly1959" class="citation journal cs1">Reilly, Pamela (1959). "Friedrich von Spee's Belief in Witchcraft: Some Deductions from the 'Cautio Criminalis'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>The Modern Language Review</i>. <b>54</b> (1): 51–55. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3720833">10.2307/3720833</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3720833">3720833</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Modern+Language+Review&rft.atitle=Friedrich+von+Spee%27s+Belief+in+Witchcraft%3A+Some+Deductions+from+the+%27Cautio+Criminalis%27&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=51-55&rft.date=1959&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3720833&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3720833%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Reilly&rft.aufirst=Pamela&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRingmar1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Erik_Ringmar" title="Erik Ringmar">Ringmar, Erik</a> (1996). <i>Identity, Interest and Action: A Cultural Explanation of the Swedish Intervention in the Thirty Years War</i> (2008 ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-02603-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-02603-1"><bdi>978-0-521-02603-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Identity%2C+Interest+and+Action%3A+A+Cultural+Explanation+of+the+Swedish+Intervention+in+the+Thirty+Years+War&rft.edition=2008&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-521-02603-1&rft.aulast=Ringmar&rft.aufirst=Erik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts1958" class="citation book cs1">Roberts, Michael (1958). <i>Gustavus Adolphus: A History of Sweden, 1611–1632</i>. Longmans, Green and Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gustavus+Adolphus%3A+A+History+of+Sweden%2C+1611%E2%80%931632&rft.pub=Longmans%2C+Green+and+Co&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchiller1799" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller, Frederic</a> (1799). <i>The History of the Thirty Years War in Germany</i>. London, printed for W. Miller.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Thirty+Years+War+in+Germany&rft.pub=London%2C+printed+for+W.+Miller&rft.date=1799&rft.aulast=Schiller&rft.aufirst=Frederic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span> in 2 vols; translation by William Blaquiere.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinberg1966" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/S._H._Steinberg" title="S. H. Steinberg">Steinberg, S. H.</a> (1966). <i>The 'Thirty Years War' and the Conflict for European Hegemony 1600–1660</i>. Edward Arnold.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+%27Thirty+Years+War%27+and+the+Conflict+for+European+Hegemony+1600%E2%80%931660&rft.pub=Edward+Arnold&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Steinberg&rft.aufirst=S.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTheibault1997" class="citation journal cs1">Theibault, John (1997). "The Demography of the Thirty Years War Re-revisited: Günther Franz and his Critics". <i>German History</i>. <b>15</b> (1): 1–21. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgh%2F15.1.1">10.1093/gh/15.1.1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=German+History&rft.atitle=The+Demography+of+the+Thirty+Years+War+Re-revisited%3A+G%C3%BCnther+Franz+and+his+Critics&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-21&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fgh%2F15.1.1&rft.aulast=Theibault&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWard1902" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Adolphus_Ward" title="Adolphus Ward">Ward, A.W.</a> (1902). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=100053841"><i>The Cambridge Modern History</i></a>. Vol. 4: The Thirty Years War. Cambridge University Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110628214610/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=100053841">Archived</a> from the original on 28 June 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Modern+History&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1902&rft.aulast=Ward&rft.aufirst=A.W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2FPM.qst%3Fa%3Do%26d%3D100053841&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThirty+Years%27+War" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Links_to_related_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Links_to_related_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Links to related articles</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Treaties_of_the_Thirty_Years&#039;_War_(1618–1648)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#B0C4DE"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Thirty_Years%27_War_treaties" title="Template:Thirty Years' War treaties"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Thirty_Years%27_War_treaties" title="Template talk:Thirty Years' War treaties"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Thirty_Years%27_War_treaties" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Thirty Years' War treaties"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Treaties_of_the_Thirty_Years&#039;_War_(1618–1648)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Treaties of the <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Thirty Years' War</a> (1618–1648)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Munich_(1619)" title="Treaty of Munich (1619)">Munich</a> (1619)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Ulm_(1620)" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Ulm (1620)">Ulm</a> (1620)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Nikolsburg" title="Peace of Nikolsburg">Nikolsburg</a> (1621)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_The_Hague_(1625)" title="Treaty of The Hague (1625)">The Hague</a> (1625)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Pressburg_(1626)" title="Peace of Pressburg (1626)">Pressburg</a> (1626)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty_of_K%C3%B6nigsberg_(1627)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Treaty of Königsberg (1627) (page does not exist)">Königsberg</a> (1627)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitulation_of_Franzburg" title="Capitulation of Franzburg">Franzburg</a> (1627)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Munich_(1628)" title="Treaty of Munich (1628)">Munich</a> (1628)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_L%C3%BCbeck" title="Treaty of Lübeck">Lübeck</a> (1629)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Stettin_(1630)" title="Treaty of Stettin (1630)">Stettin</a> (1630)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_B%C3%A4rwalde" title="Treaty of Bärwalde">Bärwalde</a> (1631)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fontainebleau_(1631)" title="Treaty of Fontainebleau (1631)">Fontainebleau</a> (1631)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heilbronn_League" title="Heilbronn League">Heilbronn</a> (1633)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty_of_Ebersdorf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Treaty of Ebersdorf (page does not exist)">Ebersdorf</a> (1634)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Compi%C3%A8gne_(1635)" title="Treaty of Compiègne (1635)">Compiègne</a> (1635)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Prague_(1635)" title="Peace of Prague (1635)">Prague</a> (1635)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Wismar" title="Treaty of Wismar">Wismar</a> (1636)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty_of_Wesel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Treaty of Wesel (page does not exist)">Wesel</a> (1636)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Hamburg_(1638)" title="Treaty of Hamburg (1638)">Hamburg</a> (1638)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty_of_Dorsten&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Treaty of Dorsten (page does not exist)">Dorsten</a> (1639)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty_of_Goslar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Treaty of Goslar (page does not exist)">Goslar</a> (1642)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Treaty_of_Br%C3%B6msebro_(1645)" title="Second Treaty of Brömsebro (1645)">Brömsebro</a> (1645)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty_of_Linz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Treaty of Linz (page does not exist)">Linz</a> (1645)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty_of_Eulenberg&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Treaty of Eulenberg (page does not exist)">Eulenberg</a> (1646)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truce_of_Ulm_(1647)" title="Truce of Ulm (1647)">Ulm</a> (1647)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Westphalia</a> (1648)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#B0C4DE"><div><sub><b><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Template:Campaignbox Thirty Years' War">Campaigns</a></b></sub></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Lutheranism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Lutheranism" title="Template:History of Lutheranism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Lutheranism" title="Template talk:History of Lutheranism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Lutheranism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Lutheranism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Lutheranism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lutheranism" title="History of Lutheranism">History</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther#The_start_of_the_Reformation" title="Martin Luther">Start of the<br />Reformation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.0em;font-weight:normal;">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heidelberg_Disputation" title="Heidelberg Disputation">Heidelberg Disputation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leipzig_Debate" title="Leipzig Debate">Leipzig Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marburg_Colloquy" title="Marburg Colloquy">Marburg Colloquy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Speyer_(1529)" title="Diet of Speyer (1529)">Diet of Speyer (1529)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestation_at_Speyer" title="Protestation at Speyer">Protestation at Speyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Schwabach" title="Articles of Schwabach">Articles of Schwabach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augsburg_Confession" title="Augsburg Confession">Presentation of the <i>Augsburg Confession</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Religious_Peace" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuremberg Religious Peace">Nuremberg Religious Peace</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Reformation in</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_Denmark%E2%80%93Norway_and_Holstein" title="Reformation in Denmark–Norway and Holstein">Denmark–Norway and Holstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Finland#The_Reformation" title="Religion in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany#Reformation_and_Thirty_Years_War" title="History of Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iceland#The_Reformation" title="Religion in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_Sweden" title="Reformation in Sweden">Sweden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Category:16th-century_German_Protestant_theologians" title="Category:16th-century German Protestant theologians">Reformers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katharina_von_Bora" title="Katharina von Bora">Katharina von Bora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Melanchthon" title="Philip Melanchthon">Philip Melanchthon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Bugenhagen" title="Johannes Bugenhagen">Johannes Bugenhagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Brenz" title="Johannes Brenz">Johannes Brenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justus_Jonas" title="Justus Jonas">Justus Jonas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argula_von_Grumbach" title="Argula von Grumbach">Argula von Grumbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrus_S%C3%A4rkilahti" title="Petrus Särkilahti">Petrus Särkilahti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikael_Agricola" title="Mikael Agricola">Mikael Agricola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephan_Agricola" title="Stephan Agricola">Stephan Agricola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_von_Amsdorf" title="Nicolaus von Amsdorf">Nicolaus von Amsdorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurentius_Andreae" title="Laurentius Andreae">Laurentius Andreae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olaus_Petri" title="Olaus Petri">Olaus Petri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurentius_Petri" title="Laurentius Petri">Laurentius Petri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephan_Praetorius" title="Stephan Praetorius">Stephan Praetorius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Pfeffinger" title="Johann Pfeffinger">Johann Pfeffinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_III,_Elector_of_Saxony" title="Frederick III, Elector of Saxony">Frederick the Wise</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early turmoil</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.0em;font-weight:normal;">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augsburg_Confession_Variata" title="Augsburg Confession Variata">Dissemination of the <i>Augsburg Confession Variata</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colloquy_of_Worms_(1540%E2%80%931541)" title="Colloquy of Worms (1540–1541)">Colloquy of Worms (1540–1541)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Regensburg_(1541)" title="Diet of Regensburg (1541)">Diet of Regensburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regensburg_Interim" title="Regensburg Interim">Regensburg Interim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schmalkaldic_War" title="Schmalkaldic War">Schmalkaldic War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augsburg_Interim" title="Augsburg Interim">Augsburg Interim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leipzig_Interim" title="Leipzig Interim">Leipzig Interim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Passau" title="Peace of Passau">Peace of Passau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Augsburg" title="Peace of Augsburg">Peace of Augsburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colloquy_of_Worms_(1557)" title="Colloquy of Worms (1557)">Colloquy of Worms (1557)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation#Politics" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent#Protestant_response" title="Council of Trent">Council of Trent § Protestant response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magdeburg_Centuries" title="Magdeburg Centuries">Publication of the <i>Magdeburg Centuries</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adiaphora#Adiaphoristic_Controversy_in_Lutheranism" title="Adiaphora">Adiaphoristic controversies (first</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antinomianism#Second_Antinomian_Controversy" title="Antinomianism">second)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harrowing_of_Hell#Lutheran" title="Harrowing of Hell">Controversy on the Descent into Hell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremias_II_of_Constantinople#The_Greek_Augsburg_Confession" title="Jeremias II of Constantinople">Presentation of the <i>Greek Augsburg Confession</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formula_of_Concord" title="Formula of Concord">Signing of the <i>Formula of Concord</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liturgical_struggle" title="Liturgical struggle">Liturgical struggle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uppsala_Synod" title="Uppsala Synod">Uppsala Synod</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.0em;font-weight:normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Melanchthon" title="Philip Melanchthon">Philip Melanchthon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthias_Flacius" title="Matthias Flacius">Matthias Flacius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Gallus" title="Nicolaus Gallus">Nicolaus Gallus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyriacus_Spangenberg" title="Cyriacus Spangenberg">Cyriacus Spangenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Westphal_(of_Hamburg)" title="Joachim Westphal (of Hamburg)">Joachim Westphal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Musculus" title="Andreas Musculus">Andreas Musculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorinus_Strigel" title="Victorinus Strigel">Victorinus Strigel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Agricola" title="Johannes Agricola">Johannes Agricola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Osiander" title="Andreas Osiander">Andreas Osiander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Frederick_I,_Elector_of_Saxony" title="John Frederick I, Elector of Saxony">John the Magnanimous</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.0em;font-weight:normal;">Factions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crypto-Calvinism" title="Crypto-Calvinism">Crypto-Calvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacramentarians" title="Sacramentarians">Sacramentarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippists" title="Philippists">Philippists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubiquitarians" title="Ubiquitarians">Ubiquitarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnesio-Lutherans" title="Gnesio-Lutherans">Gnesio-Lutherans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crypto-protestantism" class="mw-redirect" title="Crypto-protestantism">Crypto-Lutherans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_orthodoxy" title="Lutheran orthodoxy">Orthodox</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_scholasticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran scholasticism">Scholastic</a><br />periods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.0em;font-weight:normal;">Early</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Concord" title="Book of Concord">Acceptance of the <i>Book of Concord</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Chemnitz" title="Martin Chemnitz">Martin Chemnitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Beza#The_Colloquy_of_Mumpelgart" title="Theodore Beza">Colloquy of Mumpelgart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakob_Andreae" title="Jakob Andreae">Jakob Andreae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolaus_Selnecker" title="Nikolaus Selnecker">Nikolaus Selnecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Chytraeus" title="David Chytraeus">David Chytraeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthias_Hafenreffer" title="Matthias Hafenreffer">Matthias Hafenreffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonhard_Hutter" title="Leonhard Hutter">Leonhard Hutter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aegidius_Hunnius" title="Aegidius Hunnius">Aegidius Hunnius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephan_Praetorius" title="Stephan Praetorius">Stephan Praetorius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.0em;font-weight:normal;">High</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gerhard" title="Johann Gerhard">Johann Gerhard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Andreas_Quenstedt" title="Johannes Andreas Quenstedt">J. A. Quenstedt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Calovius" title="Abraham Calovius">Abraham Calovius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Calixtus" title="Georg Calixtus">Georg Calixtus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Hunnius" title="Nicolaus Hunnius">Nicolaus Hunnius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesper_Brochmand" title="Jesper Brochmand">Jesper Brochmand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salomo_Glassius" title="Salomo Glassius">Salomo Glassius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_H%C3%BClsemann" title="Johann Hülsemann">Johann Hülsemann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Conrad_Dannhauer" title="Johann Conrad Dannhauer">J. C. Dannhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_K%C3%B6nig" title="Johann Friedrich König">J. F. König</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Musaeus" title="Johannes Musaeus">Johannes Musaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wilhelm_Baier" title="Johann Wilhelm Baier">J. W. Baier</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Thirty Years' War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.0em;font-weight:normal;">Late</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Hollatz_(dogmatician)" title="David Hollatz (dogmatician)">David Hollatz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Scriver" title="Christian Scriver">Christian Scriver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valentin_Ernst_L%C3%B6scher" title="Valentin Ernst Löscher">V. E. Löscher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Melchior_Goeze" title="Johann Melchior Goeze">J. M. Goeze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salzburg_Protestants" title="Salzburg Protestants">Salzburg Protestants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transylvanian_Landler" class="mw-redirect" title="Transylvanian Landler">Landlers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Speculative <p>or critical </p> theologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolffian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Salomo_Semler" title="Johann Salomo Semler">Johann Salomo Semler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_David_Michaelis" title="Johann David Michaelis">Johann David Michaelis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Christoph_D%C3%B6derlein" title="Johann Christoph Döderlein">Johann Christoph Döderlein</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.0em;font-weight:normal;">Old Tübingen school</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Christian_Storr" title="Gottlob Christian Storr">Gottlob Christian Storr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Gottlieb_S%C3%BCskind" title="Friedrich Gottlieb Süskind">Friedrich Gottlieb Süskind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Flatt" title="Johann Friedrich Flatt">Johann Friedrich Flatt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kantian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christoph_Friedrich_von_Ammon" title="Christoph Friedrich von Ammon">Christoph Friedrich von Ammon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Wegscheider" title="Julius Wegscheider">Julius Wegscheider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Gesenius" title="Wilhelm Gesenius">Wilhelm Gesenius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Ritschl" title="Albrecht Ritschl">Albrecht Ritschl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_von_Harnack" title="Adolf von Harnack">Adolf von Harnack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Herrmann" title="Wilhelm Herrmann">Wilhelm Herrmann</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Daub" title="Karl Daub">Karl Daub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Marheineke" title="Philip Marheineke">Philip Marheineke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Strauss" title="David Strauss">David Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Christian_Baur" title="Ferdinand Christian Baur">Ferdinand Christian Baur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Adelbert_Lipsius" title="Richard Adelbert Lipsius">Richard Adelbert Lipsius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Pfleiderer" title="Otto Pfleiderer">Otto Pfleiderer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.0em;font-weight:normal;">Moderate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Volkmar_Reinhard" title="Franz Volkmar Reinhard">Franz Volkmar Reinhard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Gottlieb_Bretschneider" title="Karl Gottlieb Bretschneider">Karl Gottlieb Bretschneider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Martin_Leberecht_de_Wette" title="Wilhelm Martin Leberecht de Wette">Wilhelm Martin Leberecht de Wette</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.0em;font-weight:normal;">Transitional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann Gottfried Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Heinrich_Jacobi" title="Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi">Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Friedrich Schleiermacher</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Revivals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Moller" title="Martin Moller">Martin Moller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Arndt" title="Johann Arndt">Johann Arndt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakob_B%C3%B6hme" title="Jakob Böhme">Jakob Böhme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Valentinus_Andreae" title="Johannes Valentinus Andreae">J. V. Andreae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philipp_Spener" title="Philipp Spener">P. J. Spener</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wilhelm_Petersen" title="Johann Wilhelm Petersen">J. W. Petersen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Hermann_Francke" title="August Hermann Francke">A. H. Francke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Franz_Buddeus" title="Johann Franz Buddeus">J. F. Buddeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Albrecht_Bengel" title="Johann Albrecht Bengel">J. A. Bengel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Christian_Knapp" title="Georg Christian Knapp">G. C. Knapp</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Counter-Enlightenment#The_Counter-Enlightenment_Movement_vs_Counter-Enlightenments" title="Counter-Enlightenment">Awakening</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Georg_Hamann" title="Johann Georg Hamann">J. G. Hamann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Nielsen_Hauge" title="Hans Nielsen Hauge">Hans Nielsen Hauge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haugean" class="mw-redirect" title="Haugean">Haugeanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paavo_Ruotsalainen" title="Paavo Ruotsalainen">Paavo Ruotsalainen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awakening_(Finnish_religious_movement)" title="Awakening (Finnish religious movement)">Finnish Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claus_Harms" title="Claus Harms">Claus Harms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lars_Levi_Laestadius" title="Lars Levi Laestadius">Lars Levi Laestadius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laestadianism" title="Laestadianism">Laestadianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Olof_Rosenius" title="Carl Olof Rosenius">Carl Olof Rosenius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N._F._S._Grundtvig" title="N. F. S. Grundtvig">N. F. S. Grundtvig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Tholuck" title="August Tholuck">August Tholuck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zillertal#History" title="Zillertal">Zillertal Valley expulsion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Lutheranism" title="Neo-Lutheranism">Neo-Lutheran</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Lutheranism#Repristination_versus_Erlangen_school" title="Neo-Lutheranism">Repristination</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Wilhelm_Hengstenberg" title="Ernst Wilhelm Hengstenberg">E. W. Hengstenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Adolf_Philippi" title="Friedrich Adolf Philippi">F. A. Philippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fredrik_Gabriel_Hedberg" title="Fredrik Gabriel Hedberg">F. G. Hedberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Paul_Caspari" title="Carl Paul Caspari">Carl Paul Caspari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Porterfield_Krauth" title="Charles Porterfield Krauth">C. P. Krauth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_Alexander_Gotwald" title="Luther Alexander Gotwald">L .A. Gotwald</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Lutheranism#Repristination_versus_Erlangen_school" title="Neo-Lutheranism">Erlangen</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gottlieb_Christoph_Adolf_von_Harless" title="Gottlieb Christoph Adolf von Harless">G. C. A. von Harless</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wilhelm_Friedrich_H%C3%B6fling" title="Johann Wilhelm Friedrich Höfling">J. W. F. Höfling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Thomasius" title="Gottfried Thomasius">Gottfried Thomasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Christian_Konrad_von_Hofmann" title="Johann Christian Konrad von Hofmann">J. C. K. von Hofmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Delitzsch" title="Franz Delitzsch">Franz Delitzsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Friedrich_August_Kahnis" title="Karl Friedrich August Kahnis">K. F. A. Kahnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodosius_Harnack" title="Theodosius Harnack">Theodosius Harnack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christoph_Ernst_Luthardt" title="Christoph Ernst Luthardt">C. E. Luthardt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Hermann_Reinhold_von_Frank" title="Franz Hermann Reinhold von Frank">F. H. R. von Frank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Althaus" title="Paul Althaus">Paul Althaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Elert" title="Werner Elert">Werner Elert</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/High_Church_Lutheranism" class="mw-redirect" title="High Church Lutheranism">High Church</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/August_Friedrich_Christian_Vilmar" title="August Friedrich Christian Vilmar">A. F. C. Vilmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Julius_Stahl" title="Friedrich Julius Stahl">F. J. Stahl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Friedrich_Otto_M%C3%BCnchmeyer" class="mw-redirect" title="August Friedrich Otto Münchmeyer">A. F. O. Münchmeyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Konrad_Wilhelm_L%C3%B6he" title="Johann Konrad Wilhelm Löhe">J. K. W. Löhe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Kliefoth" title="Theodor Kliefoth">Theodor Kliefoth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Hansen_(theologian)" title="Heinrich Hansen (theologian)">Heinrich Hansen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Old_Lutherans" title="Old Lutherans">Old Lutheran</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prussian_Union_of_churches#Quarrels_over_the_union" class="mw-redirect" title="Prussian Union of churches">Old Lutheran schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Evangelical_Church#Background" title="German Evangelical Church">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Scheibel" title="Johann Gottfried Scheibel">J. G. Scheibel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Huschke" title="Eduard Huschke">Eduard Huschke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henrik_Steffens" title="Henrik Steffens">Henrik Steffens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Ernst_Ferdinand_Guericke" title="Heinrich Ernst Ferdinand Guericke">H. E. F. Guericke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Huschke" title="Eduard Huschke">G. P. E. Huschke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_church" title="Free church">Free churches</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Australia / New Guinea</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/August_Kavel" title="August Kavel">August Kavel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gotthard_Fritzsche" title="Gotthard Fritzsche">Gotthard Fritzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Flierl" title="Johann Flierl">Johann Flierl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_Church_of_Australia" title="Lutheran Church of Australia">Lutheran Church of Australia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">United States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Stephan" title="Martin Stephan">Martin Stephan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Andreas_August_Grabau" title="Johannes Andreas August Grabau">J. A. A. Grabau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Sihler" title="Wilhelm Sihler">Wilhelm Sihler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F._C._D._Wyneken" title="F. C. D. Wyneken">F. C. D. Wyneken</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._F._W._Walther" title="C. F. W. Walther">C. F. W. Walther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herman_Amberg_Preus" title="Herman Amberg Preus">H. A. Preus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_William_Stellhorn" title="Frederick William Stellhorn">F. W. Stellhorn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelical_Lutheran_Synodical_Conference_of_North_America" title="Evangelical Lutheran Synodical Conference of North America">Synodical Conference of North America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.0em;font-weight:normal;">Present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confessional_Lutheranism" title="Confessional Lutheranism">Confessional Lutheranism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_and_Lutheranism" title="Homosexuality and Lutheranism">Homosexuality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_the_Catholic_Church" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color: gold"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Template:History of the Catholic Church"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Template talk:History of the Catholic Church"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the Catholic Church"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_the_Catholic_Church" class="wraplinks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">History</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">General</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">History of the Catholic Church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_Catholic_Church_by_country" title="Category:History of the Catholic Church by country">By country or region</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_history_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church">Ecclesiastical history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Timeline of the Catholic Church">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_papacy" title="History of the papacy">Papacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_papal_primacy" title="History of papal primacy">Papal primacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_ecumenical_councils" title="Catholic ecumenical councils">Catholic ecumenical councils</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">First seven</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Bible" title="Catholic Bible">Catholic Bible</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_Christian_biblical_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Development of the Christian biblical canon">Biblical canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Curia" title="History of the Roman Curia">History of the Roman Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_institute" title="Religious institute">Religious institutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Christian monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic culture">Catholic culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_art" title="Catholic art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization" title="Role of Christianity in civilization">Role in civilization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatican_City" title="Vatican City">Vatican City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern Catholic Churches</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Church</a><br />(30–325/476)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Origins of Christianity">Origins</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Apostolic Age">Apostolic Age</a> (30–100)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Jesus_in_the_New_Testament" class="mw-redirect" title="Life of Jesus in the New Testament">Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">Great Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary,_mother_of_Jesus" title="Mary, mother of Jesus">Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_the_Baptist" title="John the Baptist">John the Baptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles in the New Testament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commissioning_of_the_Twelve_Apostles" title="Commissioning of the Twelve Apostles">Commissioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter" title="Saint Peter">Peter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_the_Apostle" title="John the Apostle">John</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Stephen" title="Saint Stephen">Stephen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Jerusalem" title="Council of Jerusalem">Council of Jerusalem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Split_of_Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Split of Christianity and Judaism">Split with Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament" title="Historical background of the New Testament">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauline_epistles" title="Pauline epistles">Pauline epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_epistles" title="Catholic epistles">General epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Revelation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ante-Nicene_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Ante-Nicene period">Ante-Nicene period</a> (100–325)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic Fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Pope Clement I">Pope Clement I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycarp" title="Polycarp">Polycarp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_New_Testament_canon" title="Development of the New Testament canon">Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Late antiquity</a><br />(313–476)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Great_Church(180–451)Romanstate_church(380–451)" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a><br />(180–451)<br /><a href="/wiki/State_church_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="State church of the Roman Empire">Roman<br />state church</a><br />(380–451)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Christianity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arian_controversy" title="Arian controversy">Arian controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archbasilica_of_Saint_John_Lateran" title="Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran">Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_St._Peter%27s_Basilica" title="Old St. Peter's Basilica">Old St. Peter's Basilica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">First Council of Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Sylvester_I" title="Pope Sylvester I">Pope Sylvester I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Constantinople" title="First Council of Constantinople">First Council of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Biblical canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ephesus" title="Council of Ephesus">Council of Ephesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Council of Chalcedon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benedict_of_Nursia" title="Benedict of Nursia">Benedict of Nursia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_Constantinople" title="Second Council of Constantinople">Second Council of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Pope Gregory I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_chant" title="Gregorian chant">Gregorian chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Council_of_Constantinople" title="Third Council of Constantinople">Third Council of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Boniface" title="Saint Boniface">Saint Boniface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Byzantine Iconoclasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_Nicaea" title="Second Council of Nicaea">Second Council of Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_III" title="Pope Leo III">Pope Leo III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Council_of_Constantinople_(Catholic_Church)" title="Fourth Council of Constantinople (Catholic Church)">Fourth Council of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Urban_II" title="Pope Urban II">Pope Urban II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_clash_between_the_Church_and_the_Empire" title="The clash between the Church and the Empire">Clash against the empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">Universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="First Council of the Lateran">First Council of the Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Second Council of the Lateran">Second Council of the Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Third Council of the Lateran">Third Council of the Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_III" title="Pope Innocent III">Pope Innocent III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_of_Assisi" title="Francis of Assisi">Francis of Assisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Fourth Council of the Lateran">Fourth Council of the Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Lyon" title="First Council of Lyon">First Council of Lyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_Lyon" title="Second Council of Lyon">Second Council of Lyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvaux" title="Bernard of Clairvaux">Bernard of Clairvaux</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Boniface_VIII" title="Pope Boniface VIII">Pope Boniface VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Avignon Papacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_V" title="Pope Clement V">Pope Clement V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Vienne" title="Council of Vienne">Council of Vienne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knights_Templar" title="Knights Templar">Knights Templar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_of_Siena" title="Catherine of Siena">Catherine of Siena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VI" title="Pope Alexander VI">Pope Alexander VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_the_Age_of_Discovery" title="Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Catholic Counter-Reformation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Exsurge_Domine" title="Exsurge Domine">Exsurge Domine</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_monasteries" title="Dissolution of the monasteries">Dissolution of the monasteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Council of Trent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">Thomas More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_X" title="Pope Leo X">Pope Leo X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Society of Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Loyola" title="Ignatius of Loyola">Ignatius of Loyola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Xavier" title="Francis Xavier">Francis Xavier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_V" title="Pope Pius V">Pope Pius V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tridentine_Mass" title="Tridentine Mass">Tridentine Mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teresa_of_%C3%81vila" title="Teresa of Ávila">Teresa of Ávila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_of_the_Cross" title="John of the Cross">John of the Cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Canisius" title="Peter Canisius">Peter Canisius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Neri" title="Philip Neri">Philip Neri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bellarmine" title="Robert Bellarmine">Robert Bellarmine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">European wars of religion</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Thirty Years' War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque period</a> to the<br /><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_XI" title="Pope Innocent XI">Pope Innocent XI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XIV" title="Pope Benedict XIV">Pope Benedict XIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppression_of_the_Society_of_Jesus" title="Suppression of the Society of Jesus">Suppression of the Society of Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-clericalism" title="Anti-clericalism">Anti-clericalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_VI" title="Pope Pius VI">Pope Pius VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shimabara_Rebellion" title="Shimabara Rebellion">Shimabara Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Nantes" title="Edict of Nantes">Edict of Nantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dechristianization_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution" title="Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution">Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_VII" title="Pope Pius VII">Pope Pius VII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_IX" title="Pope Pius IX">Pope Pius IX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_politics_in_the_United_States" title="Catholic Church and politics in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immaculate_Conception" title="Immaculate Conception">Dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_La_Salette" title="Our Lady of La Salette">Our Lady of La Salette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Lourdes" title="Our Lady of Lourdes">Our Lady of Lourdes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Vatican_Council" title="First Vatican Council">First Vatican Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_infallibility" title="Papal infallibility">Papal infallibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_XIII" title="Pope Leo XIII">Pope Leo XIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_of_the_Divine_Heart" title="Mary of the Divine Heart">Mary of the Divine Heart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_of_Consecration_to_the_Sacred_Heart" class="mw-redirect" title="Prayer of Consecration to the Sacred Heart">Prayer of Consecration to the Sacred Heart</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rerum_novarum" title="Rerum novarum">Rerum novarum</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_the_20th_century" title="Catholic Church in the 20th century">20th century</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_X" title="Pope Pius X">Pope Pius X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_F%C3%A1tima" title="Our Lady of Fátima">Our Lady of Fátima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecutions_of_the_Catholic_Church_and_Pius_XII" title="Persecutions of the Catholic Church and Pius XII">Persecutions of the Catholic Church and Pius XII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII" title="Pope Pius XII">Pope Pius XII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII_1942_consecration_to_the_Immaculate_Heart_of_Mary" title="Pope Pius XII 1942 consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary">Pope Pius XII 1942 consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assumption_of_Mary" title="Assumption of Mary">Dogma of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateran_Treaty" title="Lateran Treaty">Lateran Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Nazi_Germany" title="Catholic Church and Nazi Germany">Nazism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mit_brennender_Sorge" title="Mit brennender Sorge">Mit brennender Sorge</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_XXIII" title="Pope John XXIII">Pope John XXIII</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pacem_in_terris" title="Pacem in terris">Pacem in terris</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council" title="Second Vatican Council">Second Vatican Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_ecumenism" title="Catholic Church and ecumenism">Ecumenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Judaism" title="Catholic Church and Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Paul_VI" title="Pope Paul VI">Pope Paul VI</a> (<a href="/wiki/Coronation_of_Pope_Paul_VI" title="Coronation of Pope Paul VI">coronation</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_I" title="Pope John Paul I">Pope John Paul I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother_Teresa" title="Mother Teresa">Mother Teresa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_See%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations" title="Holy See–Soviet Union relations">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_HIV/AIDS" title="Catholic Church and HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day" title="World Youth Day">World Youth Day</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_1995" title="World Youth Day 1995">1995</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%">21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_sexual_abuse_cases" title="Catholic Church sexual abuse cases">Sexual abuse scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Islam" title="Catholic Church and Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day" title="World Youth Day">World Youth Day</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2000" title="World Youth Day 2000">2000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2002" title="World Youth Day 2002">2002</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2005" title="World Youth Day 2005">2005</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2008" title="World Youth Day 2008">2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2011" title="World Youth Day 2011">2011</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2013" title="World Youth Day 2013">2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2016" title="World Youth Day 2016">2016</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2019" title="World Youth Day 2019">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2023" title="World Youth Day 2023">2023</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI" title="Pope Benedict XVI">Pope Benedict XVI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Francis" title="Pope Francis">Pope Francis</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laudato_si%27" title="Laudato si'">Laudato si'</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Declaration_of_Pope_Francis_and_Patriarch_Kirill" title="Joint Declaration of Pope Francis and Patriarch Kirill">Patriarch Kirill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_Catholic_Church" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the Catholic Church">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background-color: gold"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg/16px-Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg/24px-Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg/32px-Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Vatican_City" title="Portal:Vatican City">Vatican City portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:046CupolaSPietro.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/16px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/24px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/32px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Catholicism">Catholicism portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Europe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Europe" title="Template talk:History of Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of Europe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Europe" title="Prehistoric Europe">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_Europe" title="Paleolithic Europe">Paleolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze Age Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Christianity in late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li>Bulgarian Empire <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Valencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Majorca</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Christianity in the modern era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Europe">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2487#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2487#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2487#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4012985-8">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Thirty Years' War, 1618-1648"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85134910">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Guerre de Trente ans (1618-1648)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119385761">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Guerre de Trente ans (1618-1648)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119385761">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00570202">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="třicetiletá válka (1618-1648)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph126846&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Guerra de los Treinta Años, 1618-1648"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX529044">Spain</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007534009205171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kulturnav.org/f0a37482-3736-4dd0-b56c-c7d26fb32a95">KulturNav</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/008907">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thirty_Years%27_War&oldid=1257159095">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thirty_Years%27_War&oldid=1257159095</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" 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alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-6d94db5ff4-84vcw","wgBackendResponseTime":168,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.666","walltime":"3.063","ppvisitednodes":{"value":29890,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":658495,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":152242,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":28,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":424664,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2392.774 1 -total"," 28.11% 672.662 229 Template:Sfn"," 17.04% 407.784 1 Template:Infobox_military_conflict"," 14.47% 346.284 63 Template:Cite_book"," 9.17% 219.468 8 Template:Plainlist"," 8.94% 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