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Your current IP address is 8.222.208.146. </p> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><div style="font-size: 16px;"> <p>Even while globally blocked, you will <i>usually</i> still be able to edit pages on <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/" class="extiw" title="m:">Meta-Wiki</a>. </p> </div> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><div style="font-size: 16px;"> <p>If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/No_open_proxies" class="extiw" title="m:Special:MyLanguage/No open proxies">No open proxies</a> global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Steward_requests/Global" class="extiw" title="m:Steward requests/Global">post a request for review on Meta-Wiki</a>. 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Following the [[Muslim conquest of Sicily]], from 902 the theme was limited to Calabria, but retained its original name until the middle of the 10th century. ==History== Ever since its reconquest from the [[Ostrogoths]] by [[Belisarius]] in 535–536, Sicily had formed a distinct [[Roman province|province]] under a ''[[praetor]]'', while the army was placed under a ''[[dux]]''.{{sfn|ODB|loc="Sicily" (A. Kazhdan), pp. 1891–1892}}{{sfn|Nesbitt|Oikonomides|1994|p=22}} A ''[[strategos]]'' (military governor) is attested on the island in [[Arabs|Arab]] sources between 687 and 695, and it is at that time that the island was probably made into a theme.{{sfn|Oikonomides|1972|p=351}} The theme was based in [[Syracuse, Sicily|Syracuse]], traditionally the chief city of Sicily. It comprised not only the island, which was divided into districts called ''[[tourma]]i'', but also the mainland duchy of [[Calabria]] (Greek: {{lang|grc|δουκᾶτον Καλαυρίας}}, ''doukaton Kalavrias''), which extended roughly up to the river [[Crati]].{{sfn|Oikonomides|1972|p=351}}{{sfn|Nesbitt|Oikonomides|1994|pp=19, 22}}{{sfn|Pertusi|1952|p=179}} The ''strategos'' of Sicily exercised some authority—varying according to the prevailing local political faction—over the autonomous duchies of [[Duchy of Naples|Naples]], [[Duchy of Gaeta|Gaeta]] and [[Duchy of Amalfi|Amalfi]].{{sfn|Brown|2008|pp=457–459}} The [[Muslim conquest of Sicily|Muslim conquest]] of the island began in 826. Following the [[Siege of Syracuse (877–878)|fall of Syracuse]] in 878 and the conquest of [[Taormina]] in 902, the ''strategos'' moved to [[Reggio di Calabria|Rhegion]], the capital of Calabria. During the first half of the 10th century, the Byzantines launched a number of failed expeditions to regain the island and maintained a few isolated strongholds near [[Messina]] until 965, when [[Rometta]], the last Byzantine outpost, [[Siege of Rometta|fell]]. The post of "''strategos'' of Sicily" was thus retained as the official title until the mid-10th century, when the "''strategos'' of Calabria" begins to appear in the lists.{{sfn|ODB|loc="Sicily" (A. Kazhdan), pp. 1891–1892}}{{sfn|Oikonomides|1972|pp=351, 356}}{{sfn|Pertusi|1952|pp=178–180}} ==List of ''strategoi''== Holders of the office known only from seals who can not be precisely dated are not included. Uncertain or conjectural entries are denoted in italics. {| class="wikitable" width="100%" |- bgcolor="#FFDEAD" |- ! width="12%" | Name ! width="11%" | Tenure ! width="12%" | Appointed by ! width="63%" | Notes ! width="2%" | Refs |- | ''Salventius'' | {{c.|687–695}} | [[Justinian II]] (?) | Only known through two seals dating to the late 7th century, which give his titles as ''[[patrikios]]'' and ''strategos'', without geographic qualification. His Latin name points to a Western origin, possibly from the senatorial aristocracy of [[Rome]]; as the only Western theme at the time was Sicily, he is held to have been ''strategos'' there, probably appointed by Justinian II during his first reign. | {{sfn|Prigent|Nichanian|2003|pp=98–99}} |- | ''Theophylact'' | {{c.|700}} | [[Tiberios III]] | Four seals attest to the existence of a ''[[koubikoularios]]'', ''[[parakoimomenos]]'', and ''strategos'' of Sicily with that name. The dating, as well as the attribution of the seals to the same person, are uncertain, but some scholars (e.g., [[Vitalien Laurent]] and [[Nicolas Oikonomides]]) identify him with the [[Theophylactus (exarch)|namesake]] [[Exarch of Ravenna]], who was appointed in October 701 and came from Sicily. This attribution would also make him the first known ''parakoimomenos''. | {{sfn|Prigent|Nichanian|2003|pp=99–101}}{{sfn|PmbZ|loc=Theophylaktos (#8270); Theophylaktos (#8291)}} |- | [[Theodore (general of Justinian II)|Theodore]] | {{c.|710–713}} | [[Justinian II]] | First attested in October 710, when [[Pope Constantine]] healed him from an illness. Following the murder of Exarch [[John III Rizocopus]] in 711, he was sent to Italy to restore order. He killed or captured the rebels, many of whom were exiled to [[Constantinople]], including Archbishop [[Felix of Ravenna]]. He probably remained in charge of the Exarchate until the arrival of a new exarch, [[Scholasticus]], in 713. | {{sfn|Prigent|Nichanian|2003|pp=101–103}}{{sfn|PmbZ|loc=Theodoros (#7521)}} |- | Sergios | 717–718 | [[Leo III the Isaurian]] | The ''patrikios'' Sergios was ''strategos'' of Sicily in 717, when false news reached the island that Constantinople [[Second Arab Siege of Constantinople|had fallen]] to the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyads]]. He then proclaimed one of his aides, [[Basil Onomagoulos]], as emperor. Emperor Leo III quickly sent a new ''strategos'' to the island to suppress the inadvertent revolt. Sergius managed to flee to the [[Lombards]], but later secured a pardon and returned to Byzantine territory. Some scholars have proposed an identification with the namesake ''strategos'' of 731. | {{sfn|Prigent|Nichanian|2003|pp=103–105}}{{sfn|PmbZ|loc=Sergios (#6594)}} |- | [[Paul (exarch)|Paul]] | 718–723 (?) | [[Leo III the Isaurian]] | Originally the personal ''[[chartoularios]]'' of the emperor, he was sent to suppress the revolt of Sergios and [[Basil Onomagoulos]]. He is commonly identified as the Paul who became Exarch of Ravenna in 723, and may have remained in office in Sicily until then, but neither is certain. The Exarch Paul was killed during a rebellion in Ravenna in 726/27. | {{sfn|Prigent|Nichanian|2003|pp=105–106}}{{sfn|PmbZ|loc=Paulos (#5815)}} |- | Sergios | {{c.|730–735}} | [[Leo III the Isaurian]] | Sometimes identified with the ''strategos'' of 717. He was involved in promoting Leo's [[Byzantine Iconoclasm|iconoclast]] policies with the Pope, as well as implementing his administrative and fiscal reforms, in Sicily and Calabria. He was possibly the Byzantine commander in a naval defeat at the hands of the Umayyads under [[Ubayd Allah ibn al-Habhab al-Mawsili]] in 734/35, and may have been the author of a truce concluded in 728. | {{sfn|Prigent|Nichanian|2003|p=107}}{{sfn|PmbZ|loc=Sergios (#6596)}} |- | [[Antiochos (strategos of Sicily)|Antiochos]] | {{c.|760–763}} (?) | [[Constantine V]] | He was ''strategos'' of Sicily, and the chief imperial commander (''monostrategos'') in Italy, probably in {{c.|760–763}}, perhaps as late as 766. He also occupied the post of ''[[logothetes tou dromou]]'', unusually in tandem with the post of ''strategos''. He was implicated in a conspiracy of nineteen of the highest state officials, headed by the brothers [[Strategios Podopagouros|Strategios]] and [[Constantine Podopagouros]], against Constantine V. After the plot's discovery, the conspirators were publicly paraded and humiliated at the [[Hippodrome of Constantinople]] on 25 August 766, following which Antiochos and most of the other conspirators were [[political mutilation in Byzantine culture|blinded]] and exiled. | {{sfn|Prigent|Nichanian|2003|pp=107–114}}{{sfn|PmbZ|loc=Antiochos (#513); Antiochos (#518)}} |- | [[Elpidius (rebel)|Elpidios]] | {{circa|778–780}} (?)<br>781–782 | [[Leo IV the Khazar]]<br>[[Irene of Athens]] | Appointed as ''strategos'' of Sicily in February 781 by Empress-regent Irene of Athens. He is noted to have held the office previously, most likely in the late 770s, so that Irene's appointment may simply have been a reconfirmation. He was soon accused of participating in the abortive conspiracy of the previous October to depose Irene and raise Leo IV's brother [[Nikephoros (Caesar)|Nikephoros]] to the throne. Irene sent an emissary to Sicily, but the locals refused to hand him over, so that the Empress had to dispatch an expedition against him in 782. Elpidios fled to the [[Aghlabids]], who crowned him Byzantine emperor (''[[basileus]]''). | {{sfn|Prigent|Nichanian|2003|pp=114–117}}{{sfn|PmbZ|loc=Elpidios (#1515/corr.)}} |- | [[Theodore (general of Irene)|Theodore]] | 782–788 | [[Irene of Athens]] | A [[eunuch]], he was sent by Empress Irene to depose Elpidios. He remained in Sicily as the local ''strategos'' and was active in the affairs of Italy. He participated, under the command of the ''[[protospatharios]]'' and ''[[sakellarios]]'' John, in the expedition in support of the former [[King of the Lombards]] [[Adelchis]], who intended to recover his realm from [[Charlemagne]]. The expedition was defeated by the Franks, and Theodore was executed "in cruel fashion". | {{sfn|Prigent|Nichanian|2003|pp=117–122}}{{sfn|PmbZ|loc=Theodoros (#7578)}} |- | [[Niketas Monomachos]] | {{circa|797}} | [[Irene of Athens]] | Born in [[Paphlagonia]], he was castrated as a child. He is attested as ''strategos'' of Sicily in 797, when he accompanied [[Theoktistos]] in an embassy to Charlemagne. He remained in office until 798/9, when his successor is named. After 811 he became a monk and abbot, and a defender of the veneration of [[icon]]s during the second period of iconoclasm. He died in 836 and is venerated as a saint. | {{sfn|Prigent|Nichanian|2003|pp=122–125}}{{sfn|PmbZ|loc=Niketas (#5424)}} |- | ''[[Michael Ganglianos]]'' | {{circa|798/9}} | [[Irene of Athens]] | Mentioned in Frankish sources as a former governor of [[Phrygia]] (likely ''strategos'' of the [[Anatolic Theme]]), who led an embassy to the court of Charlemagne along with the presbyter Theophilos in 798. He is equated by some scholars, notably [[Paul Speck]], with the "''Michahel Siciliae praefectus''" mentioned in the ''[[Annales regni Francorum]]'' as an envoy to Charlemagne in 799, as well as with the owner of a seal mentioning "Michael, ''patrikios'', ''[[praipositos]]'', and ''strategos'' of Sicily". If so, the title of ''praipositos'' indicates that he was a eunuch. | {{sfn|Prigent|Nichanian|2003|pp=126–128}}{{sfn|PmbZ|loc=Michael Ganglianos (#5045); Michael (#5046)}} |- | Constantine | {{circa|804/5}} | [[Nikephoros I]] | Constantine is only known from a letter by [[Pope Leo III]] from 813, as having concluded a ten-year truce with the Arabs (probably the [[Aghlabids]]) in spring 804, which was broken by the latter. He was probably sent to the island soon after the overthrow of Irene in October 802, to replace the governor appointed by her, hence in 803. A number of seals mentioning Constantine, ''patrikios'' and ''strategos'' of Sicily, are attributed to him, including one found on [[Cyprus]], perhaps linked with the short-lived recovery of the island under Nikephoros I in 805–806. | {{sfn|Prigent|Nichanian|2003|pp=128–129}}{{sfn|PmbZ|loc=Konstantinos (#3917)}} |- | ''Theognostos'' | {{circa|812}} | [[Michael I Rhangabe]] | Mentioned as one of the envoys sent in 811/2 by Michael I to [[Aachen]] to negotiate peace and arrange a marriage between his son [[Theophylact (son of Michael I)|Theophylact]] and a Frankish princess. Given the frequency with which the ''strategoi'' of Sicily were eomployed in such embassies, he may be the owner of an unpublished seal mentioning "Theognostos, ''patrikios'' and ''strategos'' of Sicily", which on stylistic grounds is to be dated in the early 9th century. | {{sfn|Prigent|Nichanian|2003|pp=129–131}}{{sfn|PmbZ|loc=Theognostos (#8011)}} |- | Gregory | 813–821 | [[Leo V the Armenian]] | Mentioned in two letters by Pope Leo III in August and November 813. He led a fleet to Sicily to help repel an Arab attack, but soon concluded a truce with the Arabs of [[Ifriqiya]]. He restored imperial control over the [[Duchy of Naples]], installing his own nominees [[Theoctistus of Naples|Theoctistus]] and [[Theodore II of Naples|Theodore]] as dukes. After the murder of Leo V in December 820, he did not recognize his successor, [[Michael II the Amorian]], and was assassinated by local aristocrats under [[Euphemius (Sicily)|Euphemius]]. | {{sfn|Prigent|Nichanian|2003|p=131}}{{sfn|PmbZ|loc=Gregorios (#2466)}} |- | [[Constantine Soudas]] | 826 | [[Michael II the Amorian]] | Appointed by Michael II in 826, Constantine appointed Euphemius as his fleet commander, but was overthrown and executed by the latter, when orders came from Constantinople for his arrest. Facing resistance in the island, Euphemius turned to the Aghlabids for aid. The affair marked the beginning of the [[Muslim conquest of Sicily]]. | {{sfn|PmbZ|loc=Konstantinos (#3928/corr.); Euphemios (#1701/corr.)}} |- | ''Palata or Balata'' | 826–827 | [[Michael II the Amorian]] | Known only from Arabic sources, his actual name is unknown; ''Palata'' may be the corrupted form of a title (perhaps ''[[kouropalates]]''). Initially a partisan of Euphemios, he turned against him and evicted him from Syracuse; alternatively he may have been a general sent from Constantinople. When Euphemios returned with Aghlabid troops, Palata, who was the ''de facto'' governor of Sicily, was defeated and withdrew to [[Calabria]], where he died. | {{sfn|PmbZ|loc=Balāṭa (#738); Euphemios (#1701/corr.)}} |- | [[Photeinos (strategos)|Photeinos]] | {{c.|826/7}} (?) | [[Michael II the Amorian]] | As ''strategos'' of the Anatolic Theme, he led an expedition to recover Crete from the [[Saracens]] but was defeated. He was then appointed to command in Sicily. No details about his activities there are known. | {{sfn|PmbZ|loc=Photeinos (#6241))}} |- | [[Constantine Kontomytes]] | 859 | [[Michael III]] | The ''patrikios'' Constantine Kontomytes was a former ''strategos'' of the [[Thracesian Theme]] and relative by marriage to the Empress [[Theodora (wife of Theophilos)|Theodora]] and [[Patriarch of Constantinople|Patriarch]] [[Photios]]. In 859, Emperor Michael III sent him to Sicily at the head of 300 ships. The Byzantines were defeated by the Arabs under Abbas ibn Fad and forced back onto their ships. | {{sfn|PmbZ|loc=Konstantinos Kontomytes (#3929/corr.)}} |- | Eupraxios | {{c.|880}} | [[Basil I the Macedonian]] | Mentioned only in the chronicle of [[Symeon the Logothete]] as governor of Sicily in 880, in connection with the dispatch of reinforcements under [[Prokopios (protovestiarios)|Prokopios]] to southern Italy. | {{sfn|PmbZ|loc=Eupraxios (#21805)}} |- | [[Barsakios]] | {{c.|881}} | [[Basil I the Macedonian]] | Of Armenian origin, the imperial ''protospatharios'' and ''strategos'' Barsakios was defeated by the Aghlabid commander [[al-Hasan ibn al-Abbas]] near [[Taormina]] in spring 881 and recalled to Constantinople. Probably identical with the ''patrikios'' of the same name who in 894/5 became ''strategos'' of [[Longibardia]] in southern Italy. | {{sfn|PmbZ|loc=Barsakios (#20819)}} |- | ''Polites'' | {{c.|884/5}} | [[Basil I the Macedonian]] | Name known only from Arabic sources. Either himself the governor, or, according to [[Ibn al-Athir]], the envoy of the governor, who negotiated a three-month truce and the ransoming of 300 Muslim prisoners, in exchange for Byzantine captives from Syracuse. | {{sfn|PmbZ|loc=Polites (#26710)}} |- | ''[[Constantine Karamallos]]'' | {{c.|902}} | [[Leo VI the Wise]] | The ''patrikios'' Constantine Karamallos is attested as the commander of [[Taormina]] during its [[Siege of Taormina (902)|siege]] by the Aghlabids in 902. He escaped its fall with the fleet, and went to Constantinople, where he was tried and condemned to death for negligence. He was pardoned and allowed to retire as a monk. Based on an inscription from [[Castel Mola]], a fort near Taormina, mentioning a "Constantine, ''patrikios'' and ''strategos'' of Sicily", which stylistically belongs to the same period, he is identified as a ''strategos''. | {{sfn|PmbZ|loc=Konstantinos Karamallos (#23816)}} |- | Eustathios | {{c.|914}} | [[Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos]] | An imperial chamberlain (hence a eunuch), who negotiated a peace treaty with [[Ahmad ibn Qurhub]], in exchange for an annual tribute of 22,000 gold coins. His seal carries his titles as "''[[primikerios]]'', imperial ''protospatharios'', and ''strategos'' of Sicily"; in reality he was probably the first ''strategos'' of Calabria. | {{sfn|PmbZ|loc=Eustathios (#21845)}} |- |} ==See also== *[[Exarchate of Ravenna]] *[[History of Islam in southern Italy]] ==References== {{reflist|24em}} ==Sources== *{{cite book|last=Brown|first=Thomas S.|chapter=Byzantine Italy (680–876)|pages=433–464|title=The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire c. 500–1492|editor-first=Jonathan|editor-last=Sheppard|year=2008 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-83231-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ehh6hiqpaDsC}} *{{Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium|ref={{harvid|ODB}}}} *{{Prosopographie der mittelbyzantinischen Zeit|volume=online}} * {{Catalogue of Byzantine Seals at Dumbarton Oaks and in the Fogg Museum of Art|volume=2}} *{{cite book|last=Oikonomides|first=Nicolas|author-link=Nicolas Oikonomides|year=1972|title=Les listes de préséance byzantines des IXe et Xe siècles|location=Paris|publisher=Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique |language=fr |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RFdmAAAAMAAJ}} *{{cite book|last=Pertusi|first=A.|title=Constantino Porfirogenito: De Thematibus|location=Rome |publisher=Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana|year=1952|language=it}} *{{cite journal|last1=Prigent|first1=Vivien|last2=Nichanian|first2=Mikaël|year=2003|title=Les stratèges de Sicile. De la naissance du thème au règne de Léon V|journal=Revue des études byzantines|volume=61 |language=fr |doi=10.3406/rebyz.2003.2273|pages=97–141}} {{Byzantine themes in De Thematibus}} {{Former monarchies Italian peninsula}} [[Category:Byzantine Italy]] [[Category:Byzantine Sicily]] [[Category:States and territories established in the 7th century]] [[Category:Themes of the Byzantine Empire]] </textarea><div class="templatesUsed"><div class="mw-templatesUsedExplanation"><p><span id="templatesused">Pages transcluded onto the current version of this page<span class="posteditwindowhelplinks"> (<a href="/wiki/Help:Transclusion" title="Help:Transclusion">help</a>)</span>:</span> </p></div><ul> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Byzantine_themes_in_De_Thematibus" title="Template:Byzantine themes in De Thematibus">Template:Byzantine themes in De Thematibus</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Byzantine_themes_in_De_Thematibus&action=edit" title="Template:Byzantine themes in De 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