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18443283"> <input type="hidden" name="email-subject-hash" value="03c7689a1ef71b384988919a31475ad4d5694b3bc2c1c3b3e09002e9a2faeb8f"> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap"><label for="email-to" class="action-panel-label required-field-asterisk"> To: </label> <input type="email" aria-label="Recipient Email Address" placeholder="email@example.com" id="email-to" class="email-to" pattern="^[a-zA-Z0-9_.+-]+@[a-zA-Z0-9-]+\.[a-zA-Z0-9-.]+$" maxlength="100" required> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap"><label for="email-from" class="action-panel-label"> From: </label> <input type="email" aria-label="Sender Email Address" placeholder="email@example.com" id="email-from" class="email-from" pattern="^[a-zA-Z0-9_.+-]+@[a-zA-Z0-9-]+\.[a-zA-Z0-9-.]+$" maxlength="256"> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap"><label for="email-citation-format" class="action-panel-label"> Format: </label> <select id="email-citation-format" name="citation-format" class="action-panel-selector email-citation-format"> <option selected value="summary">Summary</option> <option value="summary-text">Summary (text)</option> <option value="abstract">Abstract</option> <option value="abstract-text">Abstract (text)</option> </select> </div> <div class="include-supplemental-container"><input type="checkbox" aria-label="Include MeSH and other data" name="include-supplemental" id="email-include-supplemental" class="email-include-supplemental"> <label for="email-include-supplemental" class="email-include-supplemental-label">MeSH and other data</label> </div> <div class="form-field recaptcha "> <div class="g-recaptcha" id="id-recaptcha" data-sitekey="6LfsWHMdAAAAAClKbtOpjQ2pMjgsGxvv7NdZW9uI"></div> </div> <div id="captcha-error-message" class="usa-input-error-message captcha-validation-message" role="alert"></div> <div class="action-panel-actions"><button class="action-panel-submit" type="submit" data-loading-label="Sending..." data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="email" data-ga-label="send"> Send email </button> <button class="action-panel-cancel" aria-label="Close 'Email citations' panel" ref="linksrc=close_email_panel" aria-controls="email-action-panel" aria-expanded="false" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="email" data-ga-label="cancel"> Cancel </button> </div><input type="hidden" name="email-search-details" value=""> <input type="hidden" name="email-search-details-hash" value="0e42663a6c3bd85498fcb88798998fed7bfdc45d457db35281e41afe13cc0524"> </form> </div> </div> <div id="collections-action-panel" class="collections-action-panel action-panel in-progress-dots-panel" aria-hidden="true" data-collections-open-panel-enabled="false" data-collections-open-panel-url-hash="#open-collections-panel"> <div class="inner-wrap"> <h3 class="action-panel-heading">Add to Collections</h3> <form id="collections-action-panel-form" class="collections-action-panel-form action-panel-content action-form action-panel-smaller-selectors" data-existing-collections-url="/list-existing-collections/" data-add-to-existing-collection-url="/add-to-existing-collection/" data-create-and-add-to-new-collection-url="/create-and-add-to-new-collection/" data-get-article-ids-by-search-url="/get-article-ids-by-search/" data-myncbi-max-collection-name-length="100" data-add-to-collection-max-amount="1000" data-collections-root-url="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/myncbi/collections/"><input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="Ej4eJrjqbRMEKppiJ3pW7OBsg828abnuCRR7WWgeeOjH3icoFbAOX8EOB0KI53x5"> <div class="choice-group" role="radiogroup"> <ul class="radio-group-items"> <li><input type="radio" id="collections-action-panel-new" class="collections-new" name="collections" value="new" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="collections" data-ga-label="collections_radio_new"> <label for="collections-action-panel-new">Create a new collection</label></li> <li><input type="radio" id="collections-action-panel-existing" class="collections-existing" name="collections" value="existing" checked="true" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="collections" data-ga-label="collections_radio_existing"> <label for="collections-action-panel-existing">Add to an existing collection</label></li> </ul> </div> <div class="controls-wrapper"> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap new-collections-controls"><label for="collections-action-panel-add-to-new" class="action-panel-label required-field-asterisk"> Name your collection: </label> <input type="text" name="add-to-new-collection" id="collections-action-panel-add-to-new" class="collections-action-add-to-new" pattern="[^"&=<>\/]*" title="The following characters are not allowed in the Name field: "&=<>/" maxlength="100" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="create_collection" data-ga-label="non_favorties_collection"> <div class="collections-new-name-too-long usa-input-error-message selection-validation-message"> Name must be less than 100 characters </div> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap existing-collections-controls"><label for="collections-action-panel-add-to-existing" class="action-panel-label"> Choose a collection: </label> <select id="collections-action-panel-add-to-existing" class="action-panel-selector collections-action-add-to-existing" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="select_collection" data-ga-label="($('#collections-action-add-to-existing').val() === 'Favorites') ? 'Favorites' : 'non_favorites_collection'"> </select> <div class="collections-retry-load-on-error usa-input-error-message selection-validation-message"> Unable to load your collection due to an error<br><a href="https://pubmed-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.translate.goog/18443283/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#">Please try again</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="action-panel-actions"><button class="action-panel-submit" type="submit" data-loading-label="Adding..." data-pinger-ignore data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="collections" data-ga-label="add"> Add </button> <button class="action-panel-cancel" aria-label="Close 'Add to Collections' panel" ref="linksrc=close_collections_panel" aria-controls="collections-action-panel" aria-expanded="false" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="collections" data-ga-label="cancel"> Cancel </button> </div> </form> </div> </div> <div id="bibliography-action-panel" class="bibliography-action-panel action-panel in-progress-dots-panel" aria-hidden="true" data-bibliography-open-panel-enabled="false" data-bibliography-open-panel-url-hash="#open-bibliography-panel"> <div class="inner-wrap"> <h3 class="action-panel-heading">Add to My Bibliography</h3> <form id="bibliography-action-panel-form" class="bibliography-action-panel-form action-panel-content action-form action-panel-smaller-selectors" data-add-to-bibliography-max-amount="100" data-add-to-bibliography-batch-size="10" data-bibliography-delegates-url="/list-bibliography-delegates/" data-add-to-bibliography-url="/add-to-bibliography/" data-get-article-ids-by-search-url="/get-article-ids-by-search/" data-mybib-root-url="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/myncbi/collections/mybibliography/"><input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="Ej4eJrjqbRMEKppiJ3pW7OBsg828abnuCRR7WWgeeOjH3icoFbAOX8EOB0KI53x5"> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap bibliographies-controls"> <div class="choice-group"> <ul class="bibliographies-action-add radio-group-items"> <li><input name="bibliography" id="my-bibliography" class="my-bibliography" type="radio" checked> <label for="my-bibliography">My Bibliography</label></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class="bibliographies-retry-load-on-error usa-input-error-message selection-validation-message"> Unable to load your delegates due to an error<br><a href="https://pubmed-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.translate.goog/18443283/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#">Please try again</a> </div> <div class="action-panel-actions"><button class="action-panel-submit" type="submit" data-loading-label="Adding..." data-pinger-ignore> Add </button> <button class="action-panel-cancel" aria-label="Close 'Add to bibliography' panel" ref="linksrc=close_bibliography_panel" aria-controls="bibliography-action-panel" aria-expanded="false" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="mybib" data-ga-label="cancel"> Cancel </button> </div> </form> </div> </div> <div id="saved-search-action-panel" class="saved-search-action-panel action-panel " aria-hidden="true" data-saved-search-open-panel-enabled="false" data-saved-search-open-panel-url-hash="#open-saved-search-panel"> <div class="inner-wrap"> <h2 class="action-panel-heading">Your saved search</h2> <form id="saved-search-action-panel-form" class="saved-search-action-panel-form action-panel-content action-form" data-create-saved-search-url="/create-saved-search/" data-try-search-terms-url="/try-search-term/" data-saved-search-root-url="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/myncbi/searches/"><input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="Ej4eJrjqbRMEKppiJ3pW7OBsg828abnuCRR7WWgeeOjH3icoFbAOX8EOB0KI53x5"> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap"><label for="saved-search-name" class="action-panel-label saved-search-name-label required-field-asterisk"> Name of saved search: </label> <input maxlength="200" type="text" name="saved-search-name" id="saved-search-name" class="saved-search-name" value="" required pattern="[^"&=<>\/]*" title="The following characters are not allowed in the Name field: "&=<>/"> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap"><label for="saved-search-term" class="action-panel-label required-field-asterisk"> Search terms: </label> <textarea name="saved-search-term" id="saved-search-term" class="saved-search-term" required></textarea> </div> <div class="test-search-term-wrap"><a href="https://pubmed-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.translate.goog/18443283/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#" class="try-search-term">Test search terms</a> </div> <div class="choice-group action-panel-extra-margin-top"><span class="action-panel-label" id="fieldset-label"> Would you like email updates of new search results? </span> <fieldset id="saved-search-alert" aria-describedby="fieldset-label"><legend class="usa-sr-only">Saved Search Alert Radio Buttons</legend> <ul class="radio-group-items"> <li><input type="radio" id="saved-search-alert-yes" class="saved-search-alert-yes" name="saved-search-alert" value="yes" checked> <label for="saved-search-alert-yes" class="action-panel-label">Yes</label></li> <li><input aria-label="No radio input" type="radio" id="saved-search-alert-no" class="saved-search-alert-no" name="saved-search-alert" value="no"> <label for="saved-search-alert-no" class="action-panel-label">No</label></li> </ul> </fieldset> </div> <div class="alert-schedule-wrap"> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap"><label class="action-panel-label"> Email: </label> <span aria-label="Email address" id="saved-search-email" class="action-panel-label"><span class="action-panel-label-bold"></span> (<a class="myncbi-account-settings" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/account/settings/">change</a>)</span> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap action-panel-extra-margin-top"><label for="saved-search-frequency" class="action-panel-label"> Frequency: </label> <select id="saved-search-frequency" class="no-border-panel-selector saved-search-frequency"> <option value="monthly">Monthly</option> <option value="weekly">Weekly</option> <option value="daily">Daily</option> </select> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap saved-search-monthly-additional"><label for="saved-search-monthly-on-day" class="action-panel-label"> Which day? </label> <select id="saved-search-monthly-on-day" class="no-border-panel-selector"> <option value="Sunday">The first Sunday</option> <option value="Monday">The first Monday</option> <option value="Tuesday">The first Tuesday</option> <option value="Wednesday">The first Wednesday</option> <option value="Thursday">The first Thursday</option> <option value="Friday">The first Friday</option> <option value="Saturday">The first Saturday</option> <option value="day">The first day</option> <option value="weekday">The first weekday</option> </select> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap saved-search-weekly-additional"><label for="saved-search-weekly-on-day" class="action-panel-label"> Which day? </label> <select id="saved-search-weekly-on-day" class="no-border-panel-selector saved-search-weekly-on-day"> <option value="Sunday">Sunday</option> <option value="Monday">Monday</option> <option value="Tuesday">Tuesday</option> <option value="Wednesday">Wednesday</option> <option value="Thursday">Thursday</option> <option value="Friday">Friday</option> <option value="Saturday">Saturday</option> </select> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap"><label for="saved-search-report" class="action-panel-label"> Report format: </label> <select id="saved-search-report" class="no-border-panel-selector saved-search-report"> <option value="DocSum">Summary</option> <option value="DocSumText">Summary (text)</option> <option value="Abstract">Abstract</option> <option value="AbstractText">Abstract (text)</option> <option value="MEDLINE">PubMed</option> </select> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap"><label for="saved-search-amount" class="action-panel-label"> Send at most: </label> <select id="saved-search-amount" class="no-border-panel-selector saved-search-amount"> <option value="1">1 item</option> <option value="5" selected>5 items</option> <option value="10">10 items</option> <option value="20">20 items</option> <option value="50">50 items</option> <option value="100">100 items</option> <option value="200">200 items</option> </select> </div> <div><input type="checkbox" id="saved-search-send-if-no-result" class="saved-search-send-if-no-result" name="saved-search-send-if-no-result"> <label for="saved-search-send-if-no-result" class="action-panel-label smaller-checkbox"> Send even when there aren't any new results </label> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap option-text-in-email-wrap"><label for="saved-search-email-text" class="action-panel-label"> Optional text in email: </label> <textarea name="saved-search-email-text" id="saved-search-email-text" class="saved-search-email-text"></textarea> </div> </div> <div class="action-panel-actions"><button class="action-panel-submit" type="submit" data-loading-label="Saving..." data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="alert" data-ga-label="save"> Save </button> <button class="action-panel-cancel" aria-label="Close 'Your saved search' panel" ref="linksrc=close_saved_search_panel" aria-controls="saved-search-action-panel" aria-expanded="false" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="alert" data-ga-label="cancel"> Cancel </button> </div> </form> </div> </div> <div id="citation-manager-action-panel" class="citation-manager-action-panel action-panel" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="inner-wrap"> <h2 class="action-panel-heading">Create a file for external citation management software</h2> <form id="citation-manager-action-panel-form" class="action-panel-content action-form" action="/results-export-ids/" data-by-search-action="/results-export-search-data/" data-by-ids-action="/results-export-ids/" method="post" data-by-search-method="post" data-by-ids-method="post"><input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="Ej4eJrjqbRMEKppiJ3pW7OBsg828abnuCRR7WWgeeOjH3icoFbAOX8EOB0KI53x5"> <input name="results-format" type="hidden" value="pubmed"> <div class="action-panel-actions"><button class="action-panel-submit" type="submit" data-loading-label="Sending..." data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="citation_manager" data-ga-label="save"> Create file </button> <button class="action-panel-cancel" aria-label="Close 'Send citations to citation manager' panel" ref="linksrc=close_citation_manager_panel" aria-controls="citation-manager-action-panel" aria-expanded="false" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="citation_manager" data-ga-label="cancel"> Cancel </button> </div> </form> </div> </div> <div id="rss-action-panel" class="rss-action-panel action-panel " aria-hidden="true"> <div class="inner-wrap"> <h2 class="action-panel-heading">Your RSS Feed</h2> <form id="rss-action-panel-form" class="rss-action-panel-form action-panel-content action-form" data-create-rss-feed-url="/create-rss-feed-url/" data-search-form-term-value=""><input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="Ej4eJrjqbRMEKppiJ3pW7OBsg828abnuCRR7WWgeeOjH3icoFbAOX8EOB0KI53x5"> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap"><label for="rss-name" class="action-panel-label required-field-asterisk"> Name of RSS Feed: </label> <input maxlength="200" placeholder="Name" type="text" name="rss-name" id="rss-name" class="rss-name" value="" required pattern="[^"&=<>\/]*" title="The following characters are not allowed in the Name field: "&=<>/"> </div> <div class="rss-limit-wrap"> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap action-panel-extra-margin-top"><label for="rss-limit" class="action-panel-label"> Number of items displayed: </label> <select id="rss-limit" class="no-border-panel-selector rss-limit"> <option value="5">5</option> <option value="10">10</option> <option value="15" selected>15</option> <option value="20">20</option> <option value="50">50</option> <option value="100">100</option> </select> </div> </div> <div class="action-panel-actions"><button class="action-panel-submit" type="submit" data-loading-label="Creating..." data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="alert" data-ga-label="save"> Create RSS </button> <button class="action-panel-cancel" aria-label="Close 'Your RSS' panel" ref="linksrc=close_rss_panel" aria-controls="rss-action-panel" aria-expanded="false" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="alert" data-ga-label="cancel"> Cancel </button> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap rss-link-copy-wrap"><label for="rss-link" class="usa-sr-only">RSS Link</label> <input placeholder="Your RSS Feed Link" type="text" name="rss-link" id="rss-link" class="rss-link" title="RSS Link"> <button type="button" disabled class="rss-link-copy-button disabled" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="rss" data-ga-label="copy"> Copy </button> </div> </form> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="article-page" id="article-page" data-article-pmid="18443283"> <aside class="page-sidebar"> <div class="inner-wrap"> <div class="full-text-links"> <div class="full-view"> <h3 class="title">Full text links</h3> <div class="full-text-links-list"><a class="link-item dialog-focus" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.0801268105?url_ver%3DZ39.88-2003%26rfr_id%3Dori:rid:crossref.org%26rfr_dat%3Dcr_pub++0pubmed" target="_blank" rel="noopener" ref="linksrc=fulltextorjournal_fulltext&is_pmc=False&PrId=4487&itool=Abstract-def&log$=linkouticon&uid=18443283&db=pubmed&nlmid=7505876" title="See full text options at Atypon" data-ga-category="full_text" data-ga-action="Atypon" data-ga-label="18443283"><img src="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/corehtml/query/egifs/https:--pnas.org-pb-assets-images-pubmed-pnas-pubmed-fulltext.png" alt="full text provider logo"><span class="text"> Atypon </span></a><a class="link-item pmc " 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data-all-citations-url="/18443283/citations/" data-citation-style="nlm" data-pubmed-format-link="/18443283/export/"><span class="button-label">Cite</span></button> <link type="text/css" href="ncbi-overlay-block/src/overlay-block.css"> <div class="collections-button-container" data-article-id="18443283" data-article-db="pubmed"> <button class="collections-button collections-dialog-trigger" aria-label="Save article in MyNCBI collections." data-ga-category="collections_button" data-ga-action="click" data-ga-label="collections_button" data-collections-open-dialog-enabled="false" data-collections-open-dialog-url="https://account.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?back_url=https%3A%2F%2Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2F18443283%2F%23open-collections-dialog" data-in-collections="false"><span class="button-label">Collections</span></button> <div class="overlay" role="dialog"> <div id="collections-action-dialog" class="dialog collections-dialog" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="title"> Add to Collections </div> <div 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data-ga-label="Susanne M Jaeggi">Susanne M Jaeggi</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, East Hall, 530 Church Street, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1043, USA. sjaeggi@umich.edu" href="https://pubmed-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.translate.goog/18443283/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#full-view-affiliation-1" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 1 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="https://pubmed-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.translate.goog/?term=Buschkuehl+M&cauthor_id=18443283&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Martin Buschkuehl">Martin Buschkuehl</a><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" 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id="short-view-expanded-authors"> <div class="authors"> <h3 class="title">Authors</h3> <div class="authors-list"><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="https://pubmed-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.translate.goog/?term=Jaeggi+SM&cauthor_id=18443283&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Susanne M Jaeggi">Susanne M Jaeggi</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, East Hall, 530 Church Street, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1043, USA. sjaeggi@umich.edu" href="https://pubmed-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.translate.goog/18443283/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#short-view-affiliation-1" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 1 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="https://pubmed-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.translate.goog/?term=Buschkuehl+M&cauthor_id=18443283&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Martin Buschkuehl">Martin Buschkuehl</a><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="https://pubmed-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.translate.goog/?term=Jonides+J&cauthor_id=18443283&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="John Jonides">John Jonides</a><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="https://pubmed-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.translate.goog/?term=Perrig+WJ&cauthor_id=18443283&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Walter J Perrig">Walter J Perrig</a></span> </div> </div> <div class="affiliations"> <h3 class="title">Affiliation</h3> <ul class="item-list"> <li data-affiliation-id="short-view-affiliation-1" id="short-view-affiliation-1"><sup class="key">1</sup> Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, East Hall, 530 Church Street, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1043, USA. sjaeggi@umich.edu</li> </ul> </div> </div> <ul class="identifiers" id="short-view-identifiers"> <li><span class="identifier pubmed"> <span class="id-label"> PMID: </span> <strong class="current-id" title="PubMed ID">18443283</strong> </span></li> <li><span class="identifier pmc"> <span class="id-label"> PMCID: </span> <a class="id-link" target="_blank" rel="noopener" ref="linksrc=article_id_link&article_id=PMC2383929&id_type=PMC" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2383929/" data-ga-category="full_text" data-ga-action="PMCID"> PMC2383929 </a> </span></li> <li><span class="identifier doi"> <span class="id-label"> DOI: </span> <a class="id-link" target="_blank" rel="noopener" ref="linksrc=article_id_link&article_id=10.1073/pnas.0801268105&id_type=DOI" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0801268105" data-ga-category="full_text" data-ga-action="DOI"> 10.1073/pnas.0801268105 </a> </span></li> </ul> <div class="in-clipboard-label " hidden> Item in Clipboard </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="actions-buttons inline"> <div class="inner-wrap"> <button class="full-text-links-button full-text-links-dialog-trigger" title="Open dialog with full text links" ref="linksrc=full_text_links"> Full text links </button><button class="citation-button citation-dialog-trigger" aria-label="Open dialog with citation text in different styles" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="cite" data-ga-label="open" data-all-citations-url="/18443283/citations/" data-citation-style="nlm" data-pubmed-format-link="/18443283/export/"><span 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id="abstract"> <h2 class="title">Abstract</h2> <div class="abstract-content selected" id="eng-abstract"> <p>Fluid intelligence (Gf) refers to the ability to reason and to solve new problems independently of previously acquired knowledge. Gf is critical for a wide variety of cognitive tasks, and it is considered one of the most important factors in learning. Moreover, Gf is closely related to professional and educational success, especially in complex and demanding environments. Although performance on tests of Gf can be improved through direct practice on the tests themselves, there is no evidence that training on any other regimen yields increased Gf in adults. Furthermore, there is a long history of research into cognitive training showing that, although performance on trained tasks can increase dramatically, transfer of this learning to other tasks remains poor. Here, we present evidence for transfer from training on a demanding working memory task to measures of Gf. This transfer results even though the trained task is entirely different from the intelligence test itself. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the extent of gain in intelligence critically depends on the amount of training: the more training, the more improvement in Gf. That is, the training effect is dosage-dependent. Thus, in contrast to many previous studies, we conclude that it is possible to improve Gf without practicing the testing tasks themselves, opening a wide range of applications.</p> </div> </div> <p class="disclaimer" id="disclaimer"><a href="https://pubmed-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.translate.goog/disclaimer/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" target="_blank" ga_category="literature_resources" ga_action="disclaimer_link" ga_label="under_abstract">PubMed Disclaimer</a></p> <div class="conflict-of-interest" id="conflict-of-interest"> <h2 class="title">Conflict of interest statement</h2> <div class="statement"> <p xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:p1="http://pubmed.gov/pub-one">The authors declare no conflict of interest.</p> </div> </div> <div class="figures" id="figures"> <h2 class="title">Figures</h2> <div class="figures-list" id="slides-container" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageGallery"> <figure class="figure-item " itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="associatedMedia" data-slide-index="0" data-label-slug="fig-1"><a class="figure-link" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/f768/2383929/cdb694969325/zpq0160803150001.jpg" itemprop="contentUrl" aria-describedby="figure-caption-0" role="button" data-image-width="410" data-image-height="280" data-image-alt="Fig. 1." data-pmc-id="PMC2383929" data-figure-id="F1"> <img class="figure-thumb" itemprop="thumbnail" id="article-image-0" src="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/f768/2383929/8938a7c4f550/zpq0160803150001.gif" alt="Fig. 1."> </a> <meta itemprop="width" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" content="410"> <meta itemprop="height" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" content="280"> <div class="figure-caption figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="caption" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="caption-wrap"><strong class="figure-label"> <p>Fig. 1.</p></strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents"> <p>The <i> n </i> -back task that…</p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="figure-caption-medium figure-caption-text" aria-hidden="true"><strong class="figure-label"> <p>Fig. 1.</p></strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents"> <p>The <i> n </i> -back task that was used as the training task, illustrated for…</p> </div> </div> <figcaption id="figure-caption-0" class="figure-caption-full figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="description"><strong class="figure-label"> Fig. 1. </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents"> The <i>n</i>-back task that was used as the training task, illustrated for a 2-back condition. The letters were presented auditorily at the same rate as the spatial material was presented visually. </div> </figcaption> </figure> <figure class="figure-item " itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="associatedMedia" data-slide-index="1" data-label-slug="fig-2"><a class="figure-link" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/f768/2383929/9661f6fd8309/zpq0160803150002.jpg" itemprop="contentUrl" aria-describedby="figure-caption-1" role="button" data-image-width="410" data-image-height="321" data-image-alt="Fig. 2." data-pmc-id="PMC2383929" data-figure-id="F2"> <img class="figure-thumb" itemprop="thumbnail" id="article-image-1" src="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/f768/2383929/898d84da14da/zpq0160803150002.gif" alt="Fig. 2."> </a> <meta itemprop="width" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" content="410"> <meta itemprop="height" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" content="321"> <div class="figure-caption figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="caption" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="caption-wrap"><strong class="figure-label"> <p>Fig. 2.</p></strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents"> <p>Performance increase in the trained…</p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="figure-caption-medium figure-caption-text" aria-hidden="true"><strong class="figure-label"> <p>Fig. 2.</p></strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents"> <p>Performance increase in the trained task shown separately for each training group. For…</p> </div> </div> <figcaption id="figure-caption-1" class="figure-caption-full figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="description"><strong class="figure-label"> Fig. 2. </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents"> Performance increase in the trained task shown separately for each training group. For each session, the mean level of <i>n</i> achieved by the participants is presented. The level of <i>n</i> depends on the participants' performance. </div> </figcaption> </figure> <figure class="figure-item " itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="associatedMedia" data-slide-index="2" data-label-slug="fig-3"><a class="figure-link" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/f768/2383929/c3d392221cee/zpq0160803150003.jpg" itemprop="contentUrl" aria-describedby="figure-caption-2" role="button" data-image-width="664" data-image-height="251" data-image-alt="Fig. 3." data-pmc-id="PMC2383929" data-figure-id="F3"> <img class="figure-thumb" itemprop="thumbnail" id="article-image-2" src="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/f768/2383929/e11f4514ca35/zpq0160803150003.gif" alt="Fig. 3."> </a> <meta itemprop="width" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" content="664"> <meta itemprop="height" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" content="251"> <div class="figure-caption figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="caption" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="caption-wrap"><strong class="figure-label"> <p>Fig. 3.</p></strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents"> <p>Transfer effects. ( <i> a </i> )…</p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="figure-caption-medium figure-caption-text" aria-hidden="true"><strong class="figure-label"> <p>Fig. 3.</p></strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents"> <p>Transfer effects. ( <i> a </i> ) Mean values and corresponding standard errors of the…</p> </div> </div> <figcaption id="figure-caption-2" class="figure-caption-full figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="description"><strong class="figure-label"> Fig. 3. </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents"> Transfer effects. (<i>a</i>) Mean values and corresponding standard errors of the fluid intelligence test scores for the control and the trained groups, collapsed over training time. (<i>b</i>) The gain scores (posttest minus pretest scores) of the intelligence improvement plotted for training group as a function of training time. Error bars represent standard errors. </div> </figcaption> </figure> </div> <div class="pswp figures-dialog" id="figures-dialog" tabindex="-1" role="dialog" aria-hidden="true" data-image-gallery-uid="article-figures" aria-label="Figures Dialog"> <div class="pswp__bg"></div> <div class="pswp__scroll-wrap"> <div class="pswp__container"> <div class="pswp__item"></div> <div class="pswp__item"></div> <div class="pswp__item"></div> </div> <div class="pswp__ui pswp__ui--hidden"> <div class="pswp__top-bar"> <div class="pswp__counter"></div><button class="pswp__button pswp__button--close" title="Close (Esc)"></button> <button class="pswp__button pswp__button--share" title="Share"></button> <button class="pswp__button pswp__button--fs" title="Toggle fullscreen"></button> <button class="pswp__button pswp__button--zoom" title="Zoom in/out"></button>   <div class="pswp__preloader"> <div class="pswp__preloader__icn"> <div class="pswp__preloader__cut"> <div class="pswp__preloader__donut"></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="pswp__share-modal pswp__share-modal--hidden pswp__single-tap"> <div class="pswp__share-tooltip"></div> </div><button class="pswp__button pswp__button--arrow--left" title="Previous (arrow left)"> </button> <button class="pswp__button pswp__button--arrow--right" title="Next (arrow right)"> </button> <div class="pswp__caption"> <div class="pswp__caption__center"></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="figure-dialog-caption"> <div class="figure-caption-link-container"><a class="figure-caption-link" href="https://pubmed-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.translate.goog/18443283/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#">See this image and copyright information in PMC</a> </div> <div class="figure-caption-center" data-expand-title="click to show full caption" data-collapse-title="click to hide full caption"> </div><button class="figure-caption-toggle-btn" aria-label="show full caption" data-expand-text="show full caption" data-collapse-text="hide full caption">  </button> </div> </div> <div class="linked-articles" id="linked-commentary"> <h2 class="title">Comment in</h2> <ul class="item-list usa-unstyled-list"> <li class="full-docsum"> <div class="docsum-content" style="display:inline;"><a class="docsum-title" href="https://pubmed-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.translate.goog/18474863/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" ref="article_id=18474863&linksrc=comments_link" data-ga-category="comment_correction" data-ga-action="abstract_page_link" data-ga-label="linked-commentary"> Increasing fluid intelligence is possible after all. </a> <div class="docsum-citation full-citation"><span class="docsum-authors full-authors">Sternberg RJ.</span> <span class="docsum-authors short-authors">Sternberg RJ.</span> <span class="docsum-journal-citation full-journal-citation">Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008 May 13;105(19):6791-2. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0803396105. Epub 2008 May 12.</span> <span class="docsum-journal-citation short-journal-citation">Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008.</span> <span class="citation-part">PMID: <span class="docsum-pmid">18474863</span></span> <span class="free-resources spaced-citation-item citation-part">Free PMC article.</span> <span class="no-abstract spaced-citation-item citation-part">No abstract available.</span> </div> </div></li> </ul> </div> <div class="similar-articles" id="similar"> <h2 class="title">Similar articles</h2> <ul class="articles-list" id="similar-articles-list"> <li class="full-docsum"> <div class="docsum-content" style="display:inline;"><a class="docsum-title" href="https://pubmed-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.translate.goog/25102926/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" ref="article_id=25102926&linksrc=similar_articles_link&ordinalpos=1" data-ga-category="similar_article" data-ga-action="25102926" data-ga-label=""> Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory: a meta-analysis. </a> <div class="docsum-citation full-citation"><span class="docsum-authors full-authors">Au J, Sheehan E, Tsai N, Duncan GJ, Buschkuehl M, Jaeggi SM.</span> <span class="docsum-authors short-authors">Au J, et al.</span> <span class="docsum-journal-citation full-journal-citation">Psychon Bull Rev. 2015 Apr;22(2):366-77. doi: 10.3758/s13423-014-0699-x.</span> <span class="docsum-journal-citation short-journal-citation">Psychon Bull Rev. 2015.</span> <span class="citation-part">PMID: <span class="docsum-pmid">25102926</span></span> </div> </div></li> <li class="full-docsum"> <div class="docsum-content" style="display:inline;"><a class="docsum-title" href="https://pubmed-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.translate.goog/21477197/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" ref="article_id=21477197&linksrc=similar_articles_link&ordinalpos=2" data-ga-category="similar_article" data-ga-action="21477197" data-ga-label=""> Gains in fluid intelligence after training non-verbal reasoning in 4-year-old children: a controlled, randomized study. </a> <div class="docsum-citation full-citation"><span class="docsum-authors full-authors">Bergman Nutley S, Söderqvist S, Bryde S, Thorell LB, Humphreys K, Klingberg T.</span> <span class="docsum-authors short-authors">Bergman Nutley S, et al.</span> <span class="docsum-journal-citation full-journal-citation">Dev Sci. 2011 May;14(3):591-601. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2010.01022.x.</span> <span class="docsum-journal-citation short-journal-citation">Dev Sci. 2011.</span> <span class="citation-part">PMID: <span class="docsum-pmid">21477197</span></span> <span class="publication-type spaced-citation-item citation-part">Clinical Trial.</span> </div> </div></li> <li class="full-docsum"> <div class="docsum-content" style="display:inline;"><a class="docsum-title" href="https://pubmed-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.translate.goog/20853101/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" ref="article_id=20853101&linksrc=similar_articles_link&ordinalpos=3" data-ga-category="similar_article" data-ga-action="20853101" data-ga-label=""> Similar prefrontal cortical activities between general fluid intelligence and visuospatial working memory tasks in preschool children as revealed by optical topography. </a> <div class="docsum-citation full-citation"><span class="docsum-authors full-authors">Kuwajima M, Sawaguchi T.</span> <span class="docsum-authors short-authors">Kuwajima M, et al.</span> <span class="docsum-journal-citation full-journal-citation">Exp Brain Res. 2010 Oct;206(4):381-97. doi: 10.1007/s00221-010-2415-z. 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