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economics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marxian_economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neoclassical_economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neoclassical_economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Neoclassical economics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neoclassical_economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Keynesian_economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Keynesian_economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Keynesian economics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Keynesian_economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-WWII_economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-WWII_economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Post-WWII economics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-WWII_economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Monetarism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monetarism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6.1 Monetarism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monetarism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_classical_economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_classical_economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6.2 New classical economics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_classical_economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Keynesians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Keynesians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6.3 New Keynesians </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Keynesians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_neoclassical_synthesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_neoclassical_synthesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6.4 New neoclassical synthesis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_neoclassical_synthesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_the_financial_crisis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_the_financial_crisis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6.5 After the financial crisis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-After_the_financial_crisis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_schools_and_approaches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_schools_and_approaches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Other schools and approaches </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_schools_and_approaches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methodology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methodology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Methodology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Methodology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Methodology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Methodology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Theoretical_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theoretical_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Theoretical research </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theoretical_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Empirical_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Empirical_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Empirical research </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Empirical_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Microeconomics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microeconomics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Microeconomics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Microeconomics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Microeconomics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Microeconomics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Production,_cost,_and_efficiency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Production,_cost,_and_efficiency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Production, cost, and efficiency </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Production,_cost,_and_efficiency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Specialisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Specialisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Specialisation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Specialisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Supply_and_demand" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Supply_and_demand"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Supply and demand </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Supply_and_demand-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Firms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Firms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Firms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Firms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uncertainty_and_game_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uncertainty_and_game_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Uncertainty and game theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Uncertainty_and_game_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Market_failure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Market_failure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Market failure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Market_failure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Welfare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Welfare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 Welfare </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Welfare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Macroeconomics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Macroeconomics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Macroeconomics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Macroeconomics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Macroeconomics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Macroeconomics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Growth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Growth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Growth </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Growth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Business_cycle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Business_cycle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Business cycle </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Business_cycle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unemployment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unemployment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Unemployment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unemployment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Money_and_monetary_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Money_and_monetary_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Money and monetary policy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Money_and_monetary_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fiscal_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fiscal_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Fiscal policy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fiscal_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inequality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inequality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Inequality </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inequality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_branches_of_economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_branches_of_economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Other branches of economics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_branches_of_economics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Other branches of economics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Other_branches_of_economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Public_economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Public economics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 International economics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Labour_economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Labour_economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Labour economics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Labour_economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development_economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Development economics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development_economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Related_subjects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_subjects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Related subjects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Related_subjects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Profession" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Profession"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Profession </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Profession-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Profession subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Profession-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Women_in_economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women_in_economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Women in economics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women_in_economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle External links subsection </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General_information" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_information"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.1 General information </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_information-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Institutions_and_organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Institutions_and_organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.2 Institutions and organizations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Institutions_and_organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Study_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Study_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.3 Study resources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Study_resources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Economics</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 189 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-189" aria-hidden="true" > 189 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomie" title="Ekonomie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Ekonomie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wirtschaftswissenschaft" title="Wirtschaftswissenschaft – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Wirtschaftswissenschaft" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%A5%E1%8A%90_%E1%8A%95%E1%8B%8B%E1%8B%AD" title="ሥነ ንዋይ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሥነ ንዋይ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%AF_(%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85)" title="اقتصاد (علم) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اقتصاد (علم)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Econom%C3%ADa" title="Economía – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Economía" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%9D%DC%98%DC%A0%DC%A6%DC%A2_%DC%A1%DC%A1%DC%AB%DC%9A%DC%98%DC%AC%DC%90" title="ܝܘܠܦܢ ܡܡܫܚܘܬܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܝܘܠܦܢ ܡܡܫܚܘܬܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88conomia" title="Èconomia – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Èconomia" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF" title="অৰ্থনীতি – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="অৰ্থনীতি" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Econom%C3%ADa" title="Economía – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Economía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virurekokuaa" title="Virurekokuaa – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Virurekokuaa" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Экономика – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Экономика" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0qtisadiyyat_(elm)" title="İqtisadiyyat (elm) – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İqtisadiyyat (elm)" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bm mw-list-item"><a href="https://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nafas%C9%94r%C9%94sira" title="Nafasɔrɔsira – Bambara" lang="bm" hreflang="bm" data-title="Nafasɔrɔsira" data-language-autonym="Bamanankan" data-language-local-name="Bambara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bamanankan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF" title="অর্থনীতি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অর্থনীতি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikunumi" title="Ikunumi – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Ikunumi" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Banjar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keng-ch%C3%A8-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Keng-chè-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Keng-chè-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomi" title="Ekonomi – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Ekonomi" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Banyumasan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_(%D1%84%D3%99%D0%BD)" title="Экономика (фән) – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Экономика (фән)" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Эканоміка – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Эканоміка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Эканоміка – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Эканоміка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="अर्थशास्त्र – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="अर्थशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomika" title="Ekonomika – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Ekonomika" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_(%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Икономика (наука) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Икономика (наука)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%91%E0%BD%94%E0%BD%A3%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%96%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%A2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BC%8D" title="དཔལ་འབྱོར་རིག་པ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="དཔལ་འབྱོར་རིག་པ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomija" title="Ekonomija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Ekonomija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armerzh" title="Armerzh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Armerzh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B4%D1%8D%D0%B9_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B3" title="Эдэй засаг – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Эдэй засаг" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ci%C3%A8ncies_econ%C3%B2miques" title="Ciències econòmiques – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ciències econòmiques" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_(%C4%83%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2)" title="Экономика (ăслав) – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Экономика (ăслав)" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomiks" title="Ekonomiks – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Ekonomiks" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomie" title="Ekonomie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ekonomie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ch mw-list-item"><a href="https://ch.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomia" title="Ekonomia – Chamorro" lang="ch" hreflang="ch" data-title="Ekonomia" data-language-autonym="Chamoru" data-language-local-name="Chamorro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Chamoru</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upanganhundu" title="Upanganhundu – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Upanganhundu" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecunumia" title="Ecunumia – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Ecunumia" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economeg" title="Economeg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Economeg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%C3%B8konomi" title="Nationaløkonomi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Nationaløkonomi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%88%D9%86%D9%88%D9%85%D9%8A" title="إيكونومي – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="إيكونومي" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wirtschaftswissenschaft" title="Wirtschaftswissenschaft – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wirtschaftswissenschaft" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majandusteadus" title="Majandusteadus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Majandusteadus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9F%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AC" title="Οικονομικά – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Οικονομικά" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencia_econ%C3%B3mica" title="Ciencia económica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ciencia económica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomio" title="Ekonomio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ekonomio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economia" title="Economia – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Economia" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomia" title="Ekonomia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ekonomia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="علم اقتصاد – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="علم اقتصاد" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthsaastr" title="Arthsaastr – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Arthsaastr" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BAskapur" title="Búskapur – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Búskapur" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89conomie_(discipline)" title="Économie (discipline) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Économie (discipline)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomy" title="Ekonomy – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Ekonomy" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economie" title="Economie – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Economie" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eacnama%C3%ADocht" title="Eacnamaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Eacnamaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarmaynys" title="Tarmaynys – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Tarmaynys" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eaconomachd" title="Eaconomachd – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Eaconomachd" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Econom%C3%ADa" title="Economía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Economía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B6%93%E6%BF%9F%E5%AD%B8" title="經濟學 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="經濟學" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%85%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%A5%E0%AA%A4%E0%AA%82%E0%AA%A4%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0" title="અર્થતંત્ર – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="અર્થતંત્ર" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gom mw-list-item"><a href="https://gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="अर्थशास्त्र – Goan Konkani" lang="gom" hreflang="gom" data-title="अर्थशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni" data-language-local-name="Goan Konkani" class="interlanguage-link-target">गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%AEn-chi-ho%CC%8Dk" title="Kîn-chi-ho̍k – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Kîn-chi-ho̍k" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B2%BD%EC%A0%9C%ED%95%99" title="경제학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="경제학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8F%D5%B6%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Տնտեսագիտություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Տնտեսագիտություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="अर्थशास्त्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अर्थशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomska_znanost" title="Ekonomska znanost – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Ekonomska znanost" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomiko" title="Ekonomiko – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Ekonomiko" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomika" title="Ekonomika – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Ekonomika" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmu_ekonomi" title="Ilmu ekonomi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ilmu ekonomi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economia" title="Economia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Economia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economica" title="Economica – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Economica" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ezomnotho" title="Ezomnotho – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Ezomnotho" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Hagfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Hagfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienze_economiche" title="Scienze economiche – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Scienze economiche" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9B%D7%9C%D7%9B%D7%9C%D7%94" title="כלכלה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="כלכלה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89konomi" title="Ékonomi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Ékonomi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C9%94s%CA%8B%CA%8B_l%C9%9B%C9%A3t%CA%8B" title="Tɔsʋʋ lɛɣtʋ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Tɔsʋʋ lɛɣtʋ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A5%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಅರ್ಥಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಅರ್ಥಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A1mag%C3%A1ral_ekonom%C3%ADa" title="Pámagáral ekonomía – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Pámagáral ekonomía" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="ეკონომიკა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ეკონომიკა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ek%C3%B2nomij%C3%B4" title="Ekònomijô – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Ekònomijô" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kaszëbsczi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D2%93%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Экономикалық ғылымдар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Экономикалық ғылымдар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erbysieth" title="Erbysieth – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Erbysieth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somo_la_Uchumi" title="Somo la Uchumi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Somo la Uchumi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomi_(disiplin)" title="Ekonomi (disiplin) – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Ekonomi (disiplin)" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9konnonmi" title="Lékonnonmi – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Lékonnonmi" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abor%C3%AEnas%C3%AE" title="Aborînasî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Aborînasî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Экономика – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Экономика" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomiya" title="Ekonomiya – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Ekonomiya" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BB%80%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%96%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%94" title="ເສດຖະສາດ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ເສດຖະສາດ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oeconomica" title="Oeconomica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Oeconomica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomika" title="Ekonomika – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ekonomika" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomie" title="Ekonomie – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Ekonomie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomika" title="Ekonomika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Ekonomika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Econom%C3%ACa" title="Economìa – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Economìa" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economie" title="Economie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Economie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economia" title="Economia – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Economia" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/dinske" title="dinske – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="dinske" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6zgazdas%C3%A1gtan" title="Közgazdaságtan – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Közgazdaságtan" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E2%80%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="अर्थशास्‍त्र – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="अर्थशास्‍त्र" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Економија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Економија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toekarena_(taranja)" title="Toekarena (taranja) – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Toekarena (taranja)" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="സാമ്പത്തികശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സാമ്പത്തികശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="अर्थशास्त्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अर्थशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="ეკონომიკა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ეკონომიკა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmu_ekonomi" title="Ilmu ekonomi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Ilmu ekonomi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eiquenomie" title="Eiquenomie – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Eiquenomie" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Экономикась – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Экономикась" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%BB%D1%8D%D1%85_%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Эдийн засгийн шинжлэх ухаан – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Эдийн засгийн шинжлэх ухаан" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%98%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%82%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="ဘောဂဗေဒ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဘောဂဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vakailavo_(Vakadidike_veimaliwai)" title="Vakailavo (Vakadidike veimaliwai) – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Vakailavo (Vakadidike veimaliwai)" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Na Vosa Vakaviti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economie" title="Economie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Economie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomie" title="Ekonomie – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Ekonomie" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="अर्थशास्त्र – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="अर्थशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="अर्थशास्त्र – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="अर्थशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B5%8C%E6%B8%88%E5%AD%A6" title="経済学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="経済学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_(%D3%80%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B0)" title="Экономика (Ӏилма) – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Экономика (Ӏилма)" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiartskapswedenskap" title="Wiartskapswedenskap – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Wiartskapswedenskap" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samfunns%C3%B8konomi" title="Samfunnsøkonomi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Samfunnsøkonomi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samfunns%C3%B8konomi" title="Samfunnsøkonomi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Samfunnsøkonomi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Acononmie" title="Êcononmie – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Êcononmie" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomike" title="Ekonomike – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Ekonomike" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economia" title="Economia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Economia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinagdee" title="Dinagdee – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Dinagdee" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iqtisodiyot_(fan)" title="Iqtisodiyot (fan) – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Iqtisodiyot (fan)" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A5%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%B0" title="ਅਰਥਸ਼ਾਸਤਰ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਅਰਥਸ਼ਾਸਤਰ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="اقتصادیات – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="اقتصادیات" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85" title="د اقتصاد علم – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د اقتصاد علم" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikanamix" title="Ikanamix – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Ikanamix" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%8A%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8B%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%85%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%85" title="សេដ្ឋកិច្ច – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="សេដ្ឋកិច្ច" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cononmie" title="Écononmie – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Écononmie" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conom%C3%ACa" title="Conomìa – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Conomìa" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikonimikis" title="Ikonimikis – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Ikonimikis" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tok Pisin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weerdschopswetenschop" title="Weerdschopswetenschop – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Weerdschopswetenschop" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomia" title="Ekonomia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ekonomia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economia" title="Economia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Economia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomika" title="Ekonomika – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Ekonomika" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C8%98tiin%C8%9Be_economice" title="Științe economice – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Științe economice" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musiku" title="Musiku – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Musiku" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Економия – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Економия" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_(%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Экономика (наука) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Экономика (наука)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8D%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%8D" title="Экэниэмикэ – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Экэниэмикэ" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics" title="Economics – Samoan" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Economics" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="Samoan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gagana Samoa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D)" title="अर्थशास्त्रम् (शास्त्रम्) – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="अर्थशास्त्रम् (शास्त्रम्)" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A0%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9%E1%B1%A3%E1%B1%B0%E1%B1%A4_%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A4" title="ᱠᱟᱹᱣᱰᱤ ᱟᱹᱨᱤ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱠᱟᱹᱣᱰᱤ ᱟᱹᱨᱤ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economia" title="Economia – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Economia" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics" title="Economics – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Economics" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wirtskup" title="Wirtskup – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Wirtskup" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nso mw-list-item"><a href="https://nso.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thutothuo" title="Thutothuo – Northern Sotho" lang="nso" hreflang="nso" data-title="Thutothuo" data-language-autonym="Sesotho sa Leboa" data-language-local-name="Northern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sesotho sa Leboa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shkenca_ekonomike" title="Shkenca ekonomike – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Shkenca ekonomike" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecunum%C3%ACa" title="Ecunumìa – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Ecunumìa" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%86%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%AE%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="ආර්ථික විද්‍යාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ආර්ථික විද්‍යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics" title="Economics – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Economics" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="اقتصاديات – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="اقتصاديات" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekon%C3%B3mia" title="Ekonómia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Ekonómia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomija" title="Ekonomija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Ekonomija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhaqaale" title="Dhaqaale – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Dhaqaale" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="ئابوورناسی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئابوورناسی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Економија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Економија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomija" title="Ekonomija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Ekonomija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89konomi" title="Ékonomi – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Ékonomi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taloustiede" title="Taloustiede – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Taloustiede" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalekonomi" title="Nationalekonomi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Nationalekonomi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomika" title="Ekonomika – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Ekonomika" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="பொருளியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பொருளியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BA%D1%8A%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B4_(%D1%84%D3%99%D0%BD)" title="Икътисад (фән) – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Икътисад (фән)" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%86%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A5%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95_%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82" title="ఆర్థిక శాస్త్రం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఆర్థిక శాస్త్రం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%90%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="เศรษฐศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เศรษฐศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-din mw-list-item"><a href="https://din.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi%C3%B6cm%C3%A4%C3%A4c%C3%ABk%C3%A4%C5%8B" title="Piöcmääcëkäŋ – Dinka" lang="din" hreflang="din" data-title="Piöcmääcëkäŋ" data-language-autonym="Thuɔŋjäŋ" data-language-local-name="Dinka" class="interlanguage-link-target">Thuɔŋjäŋ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B8_%D0%B8%D2%9B%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Илми иқтисод – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Илми иқтисод" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy mw-list-item"><a href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A5%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಅರ್ಥಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Tulu" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy" data-title="ಅರ್ಥಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ತುಳು" data-language-local-name="Tulu" 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Economics" title="Category:Economics">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="border-top:1px #fafafa solid; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid; background:#efefef;padding:0.2em;font-size:200%;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Economics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg/120px-Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg/180px-Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg/240px-Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="217" data-file-height="217" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_economic_thought" title="History of economic thought">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_economics" title="Outline of economics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_economics_articles" title="Index of economics articles">Index</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;;color: var(--color-base)">Branches and <a href="/wiki/JEL_classification_codes" title="JEL classification codes">classifications</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_economics" title="Applied economics">Applied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">Econometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterodox_economics" title="Heterodox economics">Heterodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_economics" title="International economics">International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">Micro</a> / <a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">Macro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainstream_economics" title="Mainstream economics">Mainstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_methodology" title="Economic methodology">Methodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JEL_classification_codes" title="JEL classification codes">JEL classification codes</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts, theory and techniques</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_system" title="Economic system">Economic systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_growth" title="Economic growth">Economic growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_(economics)" title="Market (economics)">Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_accounts" title="National accounts">National accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_economics" title="Experimental economics">Experimental economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_economics" title="Computational economics">Computational economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">Game theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_income_trap" title="Middle income trap">Middle income trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_complex" title="Industrial complex">Industrial complex</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;;color: var(--color-base)">By application</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_economics" title="Agricultural economics">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_economics" title="Business economics">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_economics" title="Cultural economics">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_and_economic_growth" title="Democracy and economic growth">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_economics" title="Demographic economics">Demographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_economics" title="Development economics">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_digitization" title="Economics of digitization">Digitization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_economics" title="Education economics">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_economics" title="Engineering economics">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_economics" title="Environmental economics">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expeditionary_economics" title="Expeditionary economics">Expeditionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_economics" title="Feminist economics">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_economics" title="Financial economics">Financial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography" title="Economic geography">Geographical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness_economics" title="Happiness economics">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_economics" title="Health economics">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_economics" title="Humanistic economics">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_organization" title="Industrial organization">Industrial organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_economics" title="Information economics">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_economics" title="Institutional economics">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_economy" title="Knowledge economy">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_economics" title="Labour economics">Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managerial_economics" title="Managerial economics">Managerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monetary_economics" title="Monetary economics">Monetary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_economics" title="Natural resource economics">Natural resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_economics" title="Organizational economics">Organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_participation" title="Economics of participation">Participation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personnel_economics" title="Personnel economics">Personnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_planning" title="Economic planning">Planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_policy" title="Economic policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_economics" title="Public economics">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_choice" title="Public choice">Public choice</a> / <a href="/wiki/Social_choice_theory" title="Social choice theory">Social choice theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_economics" title="Regional economics">Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_economics" title="Rural economics">Rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_economy" title="Service economy">Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socioeconomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Socioeconomics">Socio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_sociology" title="Economic sociology">Sociological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_economy" title="Solidarity economy">Solidarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_statistics" title="Economic statistics">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_economics" title="Urban economics">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_economics" title="Welfare economics">Welfare</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;;color: var(--color-base)">Notable <a href="/wiki/Economist" title="Economist">economists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_de_Mandeville" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernard de Mandeville">de Mandeville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">Quesnay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus" title="Thomas Robert Malthus">Malthus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Say</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">Ricardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_von_Th%C3%BCnen" title="Johann Heinrich von Thünen">von Thünen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_List" title="Friedrich List">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Cournot" title="Antoine Augustin Cournot">Cournot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Heinrich_Gossen" title="Hermann Heinrich Gossen">Gossen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Walras" title="Léon Walras">Walras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Stanley_Jevons" title="William Stanley Jevons">Jevons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_George" title="Henry George">George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Menger" title="Carl Menger">Menger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Marshall" title="Alfred Marshall">Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Ysidro_Edgeworth" title="Francis Ysidro Edgeworth">Edgeworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bates_Clark" title="John Bates Clark">Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_von_B%C3%B6hm-Bawerk" title="Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk">von Böhm-Bawerk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_von_Wieser" title="Friedrich von Wieser">von Wieser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Veblen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Fisher" title="Irving Fisher">Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Cecil_Pigou" title="Arthur Cecil Pigou">Pigou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eli_Heckscher" title="Eli Heckscher">Heckscher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">von Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Schumpeter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Knight" title="Frank Knight">Knight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Frisch" title="Ragnar Frisch">Frisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piero_Sraffa" title="Piero Sraffa">Sraffa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunnar_Myrdal" title="Gunnar Myrdal">Myrdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Kalecki" title="Michał Kalecki">Kalecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Kuznets" title="Simon Kuznets">Kuznets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Tinbergen" title="Jan Tinbergen">Tinbergen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Robinson" title="Joan Robinson">Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">von Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hicks" title="John Hicks">Hicks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oskar_R._Lange" title="Oskar R. Lange">Lange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wassily_Leontief" title="Wassily Leontief">Leontief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Kenneth_Galbraith" title="John Kenneth Galbraith">Galbraith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tjalling_Koopmans" title="Tjalling Koopmans">Koopmans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._F._Schumacher" title="E. F. Schumacher">Schumacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Samuelson" title="Paul Samuelson">Samuelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_M._Buchanan" title="James M. Buchanan">Buchanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Arrow" title="Kenneth Arrow">Arrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Baumol" title="William Baumol">Baumol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Solow" title="Robert Solow">Solow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Greenspan" title="Alan Greenspan">Greenspan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Becker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elinor_Ostrom" title="Elinor Ostrom">Ostrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Lucas_Jr." title="Robert Lucas Jr.">Lucas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Stiglitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Thaler" title="Richard Thaler">Thaler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Krugman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Piketty" title="Thomas Piketty">Piketty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Economists" title="Category:Economists">more</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Economics_lists" title="Category:Economics lists">Lists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" title="Glossary of economics">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_economists" title="List of economists">Economists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_economics" title="List of important publications in economics">Publications</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_economics_journals" title="List of economics journals">journals</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_economic_thought" title="Schools of economic thought">Schools</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/16px-Emblem-money.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/24px-Emblem-money.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/32px-Emblem-money.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Business" title="Portal:Business">Business portal</a></li> <li><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Bills_and_coins.svg/16px-Bills_and_coins.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Bills_and_coins.svg/24px-Bills_and_coins.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Bills_and_coins.svg/32px-Bills_and_coins.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="465" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Money" title="Portal:Money">Money portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Economics_sidebar" title="Template:Economics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Economics_sidebar" title="Template talk:Economics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Economics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Economics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Economics (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˌɛkəˈnɒmɪks, ˌiːkə-/</a>)<a href="#cite_note-OED-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a> that studies the <a href="/wiki/Production_(economics)" title="Production (economics)">production</a>, <a href="/wiki/Distribution_(economics)" title="Distribution (economics)">distribution</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Consumption_(economics)" title="Consumption (economics)">consumption</a> of <a href="/wiki/Goods_and_services" title="Goods and services">goods and services</a>.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Economics focuses on the behaviour and interactions of <a href="/wiki/Agent_(economics)" title="Agent (economics)">economic agents</a> and how <a href="/wiki/Economy" title="Economy">economies</a> work. <a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">Microeconomics</a> analyses what is viewed as basic elements within <a href="/wiki/Economy" title="Economy">economies</a>, including individual agents and <a href="/wiki/Market_(economics)" title="Market (economics)">markets</a>, their interactions, and the outcomes of interactions. Individual agents may include, for example, households, firms, buyers, and sellers. <a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">Macroeconomics</a> analyses economies as systems where production, distribution, consumption, <a href="/wiki/Savings" class="mw-redirect" title="Savings">savings</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Expenditure" class="mw-redirect" title="Expenditure">investment expenditure</a> interact, and factors affecting it: <a href="/wiki/Factors_of_production" title="Factors of production">factors of production</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Labour_(human_activity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Labour (human activity)">labour</a>, <a href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">capital</a>, <a href="/wiki/Land_(economics)" title="Land (economics)">land</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Entrepreneurship" title="Entrepreneurship">enterprise</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inflation" title="Inflation">inflation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economic_growth" title="Economic growth">economic growth</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Public_policies" class="mw-redirect" title="Public policies">public policies</a> that have impact on <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" title="Glossary of economics">these elements</a>. It also seeks to <a href="/wiki/International_economics" title="International economics">analyse and describe the global economy</a>. Other broad distinctions within economics include those between <a href="/wiki/Positive_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive economics">positive economics</a>, describing "what is", and <a href="/wiki/Normative_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Normative economics">normative economics</a>, advocating "what ought to be";<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> between economic theory and <a href="/wiki/Applied_economics" title="Applied economics">applied economics</a>; between <a href="/wiki/Rational_choice_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational choice theory">rational</a> and <a href="/wiki/Behavioural_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioural economics">behavioural economics</a>; and between <a href="/wiki/Mainstream_economics" title="Mainstream economics">mainstream economics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heterodox_economics" title="Heterodox economics">heterodox economics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Economic analysis can be applied throughout society, including <a href="/wiki/Business_economics" title="Business economics">business</a>,<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> <a href="/wiki/Financial_economics" title="Financial economics">finance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economics_of_security" title="Economics of security">cybersecurity</a>,<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> <a href="/wiki/Health_economics" title="Health economics">health care</a>,<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> <a href="/wiki/Engineering_economics" title="Engineering economics">engineering</a><a href="#cite_note-Dharmaraj2010-10">[10]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Economic_policy" title="Economic policy">government</a>.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> It is also applied to such diverse subjects as <a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">crime</a>,<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> <a href="/wiki/Education_economics" title="Education economics">education</a>,<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Family_economics" title="Family economics">family</a>,<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> <a href="/wiki/Feminist_economics" title="Feminist economics">feminism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> <a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">law</a>,<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics">philosophy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> <a href="/wiki/Public_choice" title="Public choice">politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economics_of_religion" title="Economics of religion">religion</a>,<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> <a href="/wiki/Institutional_economics" title="Institutional economics">social institutions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economics_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Economics of war">war</a>,<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> <a href="/wiki/Economics_of_science" title="Economics of science">science</a>,<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Green_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Green economics">the environment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions_of_economics">Definitions of economics</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Definitions_of_economics" title="Definitions of economics">Definitions of economics</a></div> The earlier term for the discipline was "political economy", but since the late 19th century, it has commonly been called "economics".<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> The term is ultimately derived from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BF%E1%BC%B0%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%AF%CE%B1" class="extiw" title="wikt:οἰκονομία">οἰκονομία</a> (oikonomia) which is a term for the "way (nomos) to run a household (oikos)", or in other words the know-how of an οἰκονομικός (oikonomikos), or "household or homestead manager". Derived terms such as "economy" can therefore often mean "frugal" or "thrifty".<a href="#cite_note-etymology-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Free2010-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-MarshallMarshall1888-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jevons1879-26">[26]</a> By extension then, "political economy" was the way to manage a <a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">polis</a> or state. There are a variety of modern <a href="/wiki/Definitions_of_economics" title="Definitions of economics">definitions of economics</a>; some reflect evolving views of the subject or different views among economists.<a href="#cite_note-Backhouse-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-BackhouseMedema2009-28">[28]</a> <a href="/wiki/Scottish_people" title="Scottish people">Scottish</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> (1776) defined what was then called <a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">political economy</a> as "an inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations", in particular as: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">a branch of the science of a statesman or legislator [with the twofold objectives of providing] a plentiful revenue or subsistence for the people ... [and] to supply the state or commonwealth with a revenue for the publick services.<a href="#cite_note-Groenwegen-29">[29]</a></blockquote> <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Jean-Baptiste Say</a> (1803), distinguishing the subject matter from its <a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public-policy</a> uses, defined it as the science of production, distribution, and consumption of <a href="/wiki/Wealth" title="Wealth">wealth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Say1803-30">[30]</a> On the <a href="/wiki/Satirical" class="mw-redirect" title="Satirical">satirical</a> side, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a> (1849) coined "<a href="/wiki/The_dismal_science" title="The dismal science">the dismal science</a>" as an <a href="/wiki/Epithet#Alternative_contemporary_usage" title="Epithet">epithet</a> for <a href="/wiki/Classical_economics" title="Classical economics">classical economics</a>, in this context, commonly linked to the pessimistic analysis of <a href="/wiki/Malthus" class="mw-redirect" title="Malthus">Malthus</a> (1798).<a href="#cite_note-Dismal-31">[31]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a> (1844) delimited the subject matter further: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The science which traces the laws of such of the phenomena of society as arise from the combined operations of mankind for the production of wealth, in so far as those phenomena are not modified by the pursuit of any other object.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></blockquote> <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Marshall" title="Alfred Marshall">Alfred Marshall</a> provided a still widely cited definition in his textbook <a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Economics_(Marshall)" class="mw-redirect" title="Principles of Economics (Marshall)">Principles of Economics</a> (1890) that extended analysis beyond <a href="/wiki/Economic_wealth" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic wealth">wealth</a> and from the <a href="/wiki/Societal" class="mw-redirect" title="Societal">societal</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Microeconomic" class="mw-redirect" title="Microeconomic">microeconomic</a> level: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Economics is a study of man in the ordinary business of life. It enquires how he gets his income and how he uses it. Thus, it is on the one side, the study of wealth and on the other and more important side, a part of the study of man.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></blockquote> <a href="/wiki/Lionel_Robbins" title="Lionel Robbins">Lionel Robbins</a> (1932) developed implications of what has been termed "[p]erhaps the most commonly accepted current definition of the subject":<a href="#cite_note-BackhouseMedema2009-28">[28]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Economics is the science which studies <a href="/wiki/Human_behaviour" class="mw-redirect" title="Human behaviour">human behaviour</a> as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></blockquote> Robbins described the definition as not classificatory in "pick[ing] out certain kinds of behaviour" but rather analytical in "focus[ing] attention on a particular aspect of behaviour, the form imposed by the influence of <a href="/wiki/Scarcity" title="Scarcity">scarcity</a>."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobbins200716-35">[35]</a> He affirmed that previous economists have usually centred their studies on the analysis of wealth: how wealth is created (production), distributed, and consumed; and how wealth can grow.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobbins20074–7-36">[36]</a> But he said that economics can be used to study other things, such as war, that are outside its usual focus. This is because war has as the goal winning it (as a sought after end), generates both cost and benefits; and, resources (human life and other costs) are used to attain the goal. If the war is not winnable or if the expected costs outweigh the benefits, the deciding actors (assuming they are rational) may never go to war (a decision) but rather explore other alternatives. Economics cannot be defined as the science that studies wealth, war, crime, education, and any other field economic analysis can be applied to; but, as the science that studies a particular common aspect of each of those subjects (they all use scarce resources to attain a sought after end). Some subsequent comments criticised the definition as overly broad in failing to limit its subject matter to analysis of markets. From the 1960s, however, such comments abated as the economic theory of maximizing behaviour and <a href="/wiki/Rational_choice" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational choice">rational-choice</a> modelling <a href="/wiki/Economic_imperialism_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic imperialism (economics)">expanded the domain</a> of the subject to areas previously treated in other fields.<a href="#cite_note-Backhouse2009Stigler-37">[37]</a> There are other criticisms as well, such as in scarcity not accounting for the <a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">macroeconomics</a> of high unemployment.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Gary Becker</a>, a contributor to the expansion of economics into new areas, described the approach he favoured as "combin[ing the] assumptions of maximizing behaviour, stable <a href="/wiki/Preference_(economics)" title="Preference (economics)">preferences</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Economic_equilibrium" title="Economic equilibrium">market equilibrium</a>, used relentlessly and unflinchingly."<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> One commentary characterises the remark as making economics an approach rather than a subject matter but with great specificity as to the "choice process and the type of <a href="/wiki/Social_interaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Social interaction">social interaction</a> that [such] analysis involves." The same source reviews a range of definitions included in principles of economics textbooks and concludes that the lack of agreement need not affect the subject-matter that the texts treat. Among economists more generally, it argues that a particular definition presented may reflect the direction toward which the author believes economics is evolving, or should evolve.<a href="#cite_note-BackhouseMedema2009-28">[28]</a> Many economists including nobel prize winners <a href="/wiki/James_M._Buchanan" title="James M. Buchanan">James M. Buchanan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Coase" title="Ronald Coase">Ronald Coase</a> reject the method-based definition of Robbins and continue to prefer definitions like those of Say, in terms of its subject matter.<a href="#cite_note-Backhouse2009Stigler-37">[37]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ha-Joon_Chang" title="Ha-Joon Chang">Ha-Joon Chang</a> has for example argued that the definition of Robbins would make economics very peculiar because all other sciences define themselves in terms of the area of inquiry or object of inquiry rather than the methodology. In the biology department, it is not said that all biology should be studied with DNA analysis. People study living organisms in many different ways, so some people will perform DNA analysis, others might analyse anatomy, and still others might build game theoretic models of animal behaviour. But they are all called biology because they all study living organisms. According to Ha Joon Chang, this view that the economy can and should be studied in only one way (for example by studying only rational choices), and going even one step further and basically redefining economics as a theory of everything, is peculiar.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_economic_thought">History of economic thought</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_economic_thought" title="History of economic thought">History of economic thought</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_macroeconomic_thought" title="History of macroeconomic thought">History of macroeconomic thought</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Missing_information plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/44px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png" decoding="async" width="44" height="44" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/66px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/88px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="44" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section is missing information about information and behavioural economics, contemporary microeconomics. Please expand the section <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AEconomics&preload=Template%3ASubmit+an+edit+request%2Fpreload&action=edit&section=new&editintro=Template%3AEdit+protected%2Feditintro&preloadtitle=Protected+edit+request+on+2+December+2024&preloadparams%5B%5D=edit+fully-protected&preloadparams%5B%5D=Economics">by making an edit request</a>to include this information . Further details may exist on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Economics" title="Talk:Economics">talk page</a>. (September 2020)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="From_antiquity_through_the_physiocrats">From antiquity through the physiocrats</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lorrain.seaport.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A seaport with a ship arriving" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Lorrain.seaport.jpg/260px-Lorrain.seaport.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Lorrain.seaport.jpg/390px-Lorrain.seaport.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Lorrain.seaport.jpg/520px-Lorrain.seaport.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1089" data-file-height="818" /></a><figcaption>A 1638 painting of a French seaport during the heyday of <a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">mercantilism</a></figcaption></figure> Questions regarding distribution of resources are found throughout the writings of the <a href="/wiki/Boeotia" title="Boeotia">Boeotian</a> poet <a href="/wiki/Hesiod" title="Hesiod">Hesiod</a> and several economic historians have described Hesiod as the "first economist".<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> However, the word <a href="/wiki/Oikos" title="Oikos">Oikos</a>, the Greek word from which the word economy derives, was used for issues regarding how to manage a household (which was understood to be the landowner, his family, and his slaves<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a>) rather than to refer to some normative societal system of distribution of resources, which is a more recent phenomenon.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> <a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a>, the author of the <a href="/wiki/Oeconomicus" title="Oeconomicus">Oeconomicus</a>, is credited by <a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">philologues</a> for being the source of the word economy.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Joseph Schumpeter</a> described 16th and 17th century <a href="/wiki/Second_scholasticism" title="Second scholasticism">scholastic</a> writers, including <a href="/wiki/Tom%C3%A1s_de_Mercado" title="Tomás de Mercado">Tomás de Mercado</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luis_de_Molina" title="Luis de Molina">Luis de Molina</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Lugo" class="mw-redirect" title="Juan de Lugo">Juan de Lugo</a>, as "coming nearer than any other group to being the 'founders' of scientific economics" as to <a href="/wiki/Monetary_economics" title="Monetary economics">monetary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interest#Theories_of_interest" title="Interest">interest</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">value</a> theory within a <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural-law</a> perspective.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> Two groups, who later were called "mercantilists" and "physiocrats", more directly influenced the subsequent development of the subject. Both groups were associated with the rise of <a href="/wiki/Economic_nationalism" title="Economic nationalism">economic nationalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_capitalism#Merchant_capitalism_and_mercantilism" title="History of capitalism">modern capitalism</a> in Europe. <a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilism</a> was an economic doctrine that flourished from the 16th to 18th century in a prolific pamphlet literature, whether of merchants or statesmen. It held that a nation's wealth depended on its accumulation of gold and silver. Nations without access to mines could obtain gold and silver from trade only by selling goods abroad and restricting imports other than of gold and silver. The doctrine called for importing inexpensive raw materials to be used in manufacturing goods, which could be exported, and for state regulation to impose protective <a href="/wiki/Tariff" title="Tariff">tariffs</a> on foreign manufactured goods and prohibit manufacturing in the colonies.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> <a href="/wiki/Physiocrats" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiocrats">Physiocrats</a>, a group of 18th-century French thinkers and writers, developed the idea of the economy as a <a href="/wiki/Circular_flow" class="mw-redirect" title="Circular flow">circular flow</a> of income and output. Physiocrats believed that only agricultural production generated a clear surplus over cost, so that agriculture was the basis of all wealth.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Thus, they opposed the mercantilist policy of promoting manufacturing and trade at the expense of agriculture, including import tariffs. Physiocrats advocated replacing administratively costly tax collections with a single tax on income of land owners. In reaction against copious mercantilist trade regulations, the physiocrats advocated a policy of <a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">laissez-faire</a>,<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> which called for minimal government intervention in the economy.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> (1723–1790) was an early economic theorist.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> Smith was harshly critical of the mercantilists but described the physiocratic system "with all its imperfections" as "perhaps the purest approximation to the truth that has yet been published" on the subject.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_political_economy">Classical political economy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Classical_economics" title="Classical economics">Classical economics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AdamSmith.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Picture of Adam Smith facing to the right" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/AdamSmith.jpg/180px-AdamSmith.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/AdamSmith.jpg/270px-AdamSmith.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/AdamSmith.jpg/360px-AdamSmith.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1456" data-file-height="2173" /></a><figcaption>The publication of <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a> in 1776 is considered to be the first formalisation of economic thought.</figcaption></figure> The publication of <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a> in 1776, has been described as "the effective birth of economics as a separate discipline."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlaug2017343-54">[54]</a> The book identified land, labour, and capital as the three factors of production and the major contributors to a nation's wealth, as distinct from the physiocratic idea that only agriculture was productive. Smith discusses potential benefits of specialisation by <a href="/wiki/Division_of_labour" title="Division of labour">division of labour</a>, including increased <a href="/wiki/Labour_productivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Labour productivity">labour productivity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gains_from_trade" title="Gains from trade">gains from trade</a>, whether between town and country or across countries.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> His "theorem" that "the division of labor is limited by the extent of the market" has been described as the "core of a <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_the_firm" title="Theory of the firm">theory of the functions of firm</a> and <a href="/wiki/Industrial_organization" title="Industrial organization">industry</a>" and a "fundamental principle of economic organization."<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> To Smith has also been ascribed "the most important substantive proposition in all of economics" and foundation of <a href="/wiki/Allocation_of_resources" class="mw-redirect" title="Allocation of resources">resource-allocation</a> theory—that, under <a href="/wiki/Competition_(economics)" title="Competition (economics)">competition</a>, resource owners (of labour, land, and capital) seek their most profitable uses, resulting in an equal rate of return for all uses in <a href="/wiki/Economic_equilibrium" title="Economic equilibrium">equilibrium</a> (adjusted for apparent differences arising from such factors as training and unemployment).<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> In an argument that includes "one of the most famous passages in all economics,"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuelsonNordhaus201030ch._2,_"Markets_and_Government_in_a_Modern_Economy",_The_Invisible_Hand-58">[58]</a> Smith represents every individual as trying to employ any capital they might command for their own advantage, not that of the society,<a href="#cite_note-60">[a]</a> and for the sake of profit, which is necessary at some level for employing capital in domestic industry, and positively related to the value of produce.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1776Bk._IV:_Of_Systems_of_political_Œconomy,_ch._II,_"Of_Restraints_upon_the_Importation_from_Foreign_Countries_of_such_Goods_as_can_be_Produced_at_Home",_IV.2.3_para._3–5_and_8–9_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1776Bk._IV:_Of_Systems_of_political_Œconomy,_ch._II,_"Of_Restraints_upon_the_Importation_from_Foreign_Countries_of_such_Goods_as_can_be_Produced_at_Home",_IV.2.3_para._3–5_and_8–9-61">[60]</a> In this: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">He generally, indeed, neither intends to promote the public interest, nor knows how much he is promoting it. By preferring the support of domestic to that of foreign industry, he intends only his own security; and by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention. Nor is it always the worse for the society that it was no part of it. By pursuing his own interest he frequently promotes that of the society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1776Bk._IV:_Of_Systems_of_political_Œconomy,_ch._II,_"Of_Restraints_upon_the_Importation_from_Foreign_Countries_of_such_Goods_as_can_be_Produced_at_Home",_para._9_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1776Bk._IV:_Of_Systems_of_political_Œconomy,_ch._II,_"Of_Restraints_upon_the_Importation_from_Foreign_Countries_of_such_Goods_as_can_be_Produced_at_Home",_para._9-62">[61]</a> </blockquote> The <a href="/wiki/Reverend" class="mw-redirect" title="Reverend">Reverend</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus" title="Thomas Robert Malthus">Thomas Robert Malthus</a> (1798) used the concept of <a href="/wiki/Diminishing_returns" title="Diminishing returns">diminishing returns</a> to explain low living standards. <a href="/wiki/Human_population" class="mw-redirect" title="Human population">Human population</a>, he argued, tended to increase geometrically, outstripping the production of food, which increased arithmetically. The force of a rapidly growing population against a limited amount of land meant diminishing returns to labour. The result, he claimed, was chronically low wages, which prevented the standard of living for most of the population from rising above the subsistence level.<a href="#cite_note-63">[62]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] Economist <a href="/wiki/Julian_Simon" title="Julian Simon">Julian Simon</a> has criticised Malthus's conclusions.<a href="#cite_note-64">[63]</a> While Adam Smith emphasised production and income, <a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">David Ricardo</a> (1817) focused on the distribution of income among landowners, workers, and capitalists. Ricardo saw an inherent conflict between landowners on the one hand and labour and capital on the other. He posited that the growth of population and capital, pressing against a fixed supply of land, pushes up rents and holds down wages and profits. Ricardo was also the first to state and prove the principle of <a href="/wiki/Comparative_advantage" title="Comparative advantage">comparative advantage</a>, according to which each country should specialise in producing and exporting goods in that it has a lower relative cost of production, rather relying only on its own production.<a href="#cite_note-65">[64]</a> It has been termed a "fundamental analytical explanation" for <a href="/wiki/Gains_from_trade" title="Gains from trade">gains from trade</a>.<a href="#cite_note-66">[65]</a> Coming at the end of the classical tradition, <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a> (1848) parted company with the earlier classical economists on the inevitability of the distribution of income produced by the market system. Mill pointed to a distinct difference between the market's two roles: allocation of resources and distribution of income. The market might be efficient in allocating resources but not in distributing income, he wrote, making it necessary for society to intervene.<a href="#cite_note-67">[66]</a> Value theory was important in classical theory. Smith wrote that the "real price of every thing ... is the toil and trouble of acquiring it". Smith maintained that, with rent and profit, other costs besides wages also enter the price of a commodity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1776Bk._1,_Ch._5,_6-68">[67]</a> Other classical economists presented variations on Smith, termed the '<a href="/wiki/Labour_theory_of_value#The_theory's_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Labour theory of value">labour theory of value</a>'. Classical economics focused on the tendency of any market economy to settle in a <a href="/wiki/Steady-state_economy#Concept_of_the_stationary_state_in_classical_economics" title="Steady-state economy">final stationary state made up of a constant stock of physical wealth (capital) and a constant population size</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marxian_economics">Marxian economics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Marxian_economics" title="Marxian economics">Marxian economics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Karl_Marx_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photograph of Karl Marx facing the viewer" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Karl_Marx_001.jpg/180px-Karl_Marx_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Karl_Marx_001.jpg/270px-Karl_Marx_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Karl_Marx_001.jpg/360px-Karl_Marx_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1428" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Marxian_economics" title="Marxian economics">Marxist</a> <a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">critique of political economy</a> comes from the work of German philosopher <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>.</figcaption></figure> Marxist (later, Marxian) economics descends from classical economics and it derives from the work of <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>. The first volume of Marx's major work, <a href="/wiki/Das_Kapital" title="Das Kapital">Das Kapital</a>, was published in 1867. Marx focused on the <a href="/wiki/Labour_theory_of_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Labour theory of value">labour theory of value</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_surplus_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of surplus value">theory of surplus value</a>. Marx wrote that they were mechanisms used by capital to exploit labour.<a href="#cite_note-Roemer-69">[68]</a> The labour theory of value held that the value of an exchanged commodity was determined by the labour that went into its production, and the theory of surplus value demonstrated how workers were only paid a proportion of the value their work had created.<a href="#cite_note-THOMAS_FULLER-70">[69]</a> Marxian economics was further developed by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Karl Kautsky</a> (1854–1938)'s The Economic Doctrines of Karl Marx and <a href="/wiki/The_Class_Struggle_(Erfurt_Program)" title="The Class Struggle (Erfurt Program)">The Class Struggle (Erfurt Program)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Hilferding" title="Rudolf Hilferding">Rudolf Hilferding</a>'s (1877–1941) <a href="/wiki/Finance_Capital" class="mw-redirect" title="Finance Capital">Finance Capital</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a> (1870–1924)'s <a href="/wiki/The_Development_of_Capitalism_in_Russia" title="The Development of Capitalism in Russia">The Development of Capitalism in Russia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Imperialism,_the_Highest_Stage_of_Capitalism" title="Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism">Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Rosa Luxemburg</a> (1871–1919)'s <a href="/wiki/The_Accumulation_of_Capital" title="The Accumulation of Capital">The Accumulation of Capital</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neoclassical_economics">Neoclassical economics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">Neoclassical economics</a></div> At its inception as a social science, economics was defined and discussed at length as the study of production, distribution, and consumption of wealth by Jean-Baptiste Say in his Treatise on Political Economy or, The Production, Distribution, and Consumption of Wealth (1803). These three items were considered only in relation to the increase or diminution of wealth, and not in reference to their processes of execution.<a href="#cite_note-71">[b]</a> Say's definition has survived in part up to the present, modified by substituting the word "wealth" for "goods and services" meaning that wealth may include non-material objects as well. One hundred and thirty years later, <a href="/wiki/Lionel_Robbins,_Baron_Robbins" class="mw-redirect" title="Lionel Robbins, Baron Robbins">Lionel Robbins</a> noticed that this definition no longer sufficed,<a href="#cite_note-72">[c]</a> because many economists were making theoretical and philosophical inroads in other areas of human activity. In his <a href="/wiki/An_Essay_on_the_Nature_and_Significance_of_Economic_Science" title="An Essay on the Nature and Significance of Economic Science">Essay on the Nature and Significance of Economic Science</a>, he proposed a definition of economics as a study of human behaviour, subject to and constrained by scarcity,<a href="#cite_note-73">[d]</a> which forces people to choose, allocate scarce resources to competing ends, and economise (seeking the greatest welfare while avoiding the wasting of scarce resources). According to Robbins: "Economics is the science which studies human behavior as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobbins200716-35">[35]</a> Robbins' definition eventually became widely accepted by mainstream economists, and found its way into current textbooks.<a href="#cite_note-74">[70]</a> Although far from unanimous, most mainstream economists would accept some version of Robbins' definition, even though many have raised serious objections to the scope and method of economics, emanating from that definition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBackhouseMedema2007223-75">[71]</a> A body of theory later termed "neoclassical economics" formed from about 1870 to 1910. The term "economics" was popularised by such neoclassical economists as <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Marshall" title="Alfred Marshall">Alfred Marshall</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mary_Paley_Marshall" title="Mary Paley Marshall">Mary Paley Marshall</a> as a concise synonym for "economic science" and a substitute for the earlier "<a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">political economy</a>".<a href="#cite_note-MarshallMarshall1888-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jevons1879-26">[26]</a> This corresponded to the influence on the subject of mathematical methods used in the <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Clark-76">[72]</a> Neoclassical economics systematically integrated <a href="/wiki/Supply_and_demand" title="Supply and demand">supply and demand</a> as joint determinants of both price and quantity in market equilibrium, influencing the allocation of output and income distribution. It rejected the classical economics' <a href="/wiki/Labour_theory_of_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Labour theory of value">labour theory of value</a> in favour of a <a href="/wiki/Marginal_utility" title="Marginal utility">marginal utility</a> theory of value on the demand side and a more comprehensive theory of costs on the supply side.<a href="#cite_note-77">[73]</a> In the 20th century, neoclassical theorists departed from an earlier idea that suggested measuring total utility for a society, opting instead for <a href="/wiki/Ordinal_utility" title="Ordinal utility">ordinal utility</a>, which posits behaviour-based relations across individuals.<a href="#cite_note-Hicks-78">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[75]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">microeconomics</a>, neoclassical economics represents incentives and costs as playing a pervasive role in shaping <a href="/wiki/Decision_making" class="mw-redirect" title="Decision making">decision making</a>. An immediate example of this is the <a href="/wiki/Consumer_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Consumer theory">consumer theory</a> of individual demand, which isolates how prices (as costs) and income affect quantity demanded.<a href="#cite_note-Hicks-78">[74]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">macroeconomics</a> it is reflected in an early and lasting <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_synthesis" title="Neoclassical synthesis">neoclassical synthesis</a> with Keynesian macroeconomics.<a href="#cite_note-Blanchard2008-80">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hicks-78">[74]</a> Neoclassical economics is occasionally referred as orthodox economics whether by its critics or sympathisers. Modern <a href="/wiki/Mainstream_economics" title="Mainstream economics">mainstream economics</a> builds on neoclassical economics but with many refinements that either supplement or generalise earlier analysis, such as <a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">econometrics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">game theory</a>, analysis of <a href="/wiki/Market_failure" title="Market failure">market failure</a> and <a href="/wiki/Imperfect_competition" title="Imperfect competition">imperfect competition</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoclassical model">neoclassical model</a> of <a href="/wiki/Economic_growth" title="Economic growth">economic growth</a> for analysing long-run variables affecting <a href="/wiki/National_income" class="mw-redirect" title="National income">national income</a>. Neoclassical economics studies the behaviour of <a href="/wiki/Individual" title="Individual">individuals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Household" title="Household">households</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Organisation">organisations</a> (called economic actors, players, or agents), when they manage or use <a href="/wiki/Scarcity" title="Scarcity">scarce</a> resources, which have alternative uses, to achieve desired ends. Agents are assumed to act rationally, have multiple desirable ends in sight, limited resources to obtain these ends, a set of stable preferences, a definite overall guiding objective, and the capability of making a choice. There exists an economic problem, subject to study by economic science, when a <a href="/wiki/Decision_theory" title="Decision theory">decision</a> (choice) is made by one or more players to attain the best possible outcome.<a href="#cite_note-81">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Keynesian_economics">Keynesian economics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesian economics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lopokova_and_Keynes_1920s_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="John Maynard Keynes" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Lopokova_and_Keynes_1920s_cropped.jpg/180px-Lopokova_and_Keynes_1920s_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Lopokova_and_Keynes_1920s_cropped.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="248" data-file-height="313" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a>, a key economics theorist</figcaption></figure> Keynesian economics derives from <a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a>, in particular his book <a href="/wiki/The_General_Theory_of_Employment,_Interest_and_Money" title="The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money">The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money</a> (1936), which ushered in contemporary <a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">macroeconomics</a> as a distinct field.<a href="#cite_note-82">[78]</a> The book focused on determinants of national income in the short run when prices are relatively inflexible. Keynes attempted to explain in broad theoretical detail why high labour-market unemployment might not be self-correcting due to low "<a href="/wiki/Effective_demand" title="Effective demand">effective demand</a>" and why even price flexibility and monetary policy might be unavailing. The term "revolutionary" has been applied to the book in its impact on economic analysis.<a href="#cite_note-83">[79]</a> During the following decades, many economists followed Keynes' ideas and expanded on his works. <a href="/wiki/John_Hicks" title="John Hicks">John Hicks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Hansen" title="Alvin Hansen">Alvin Hansen</a> developed the <a href="/wiki/IS%E2%80%93LM_model" title="IS–LM model">IS–LM model</a> which was a simple formalisation of some of Keynes' insights on the economy's short-run equilibrium. <a href="/wiki/Franco_Modigliani" title="Franco Modigliani">Franco Modigliani</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Tobin" title="James Tobin">James Tobin</a> developed important theories of <a href="/wiki/Consumption_(economics)" title="Consumption (economics)">private consumption</a> and <a href="/wiki/Investment" title="Investment">investment</a>, respectively, two major components of <a href="/wiki/Aggregate_demand" title="Aggregate demand">aggregate demand</a>. <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Klein" title="Lawrence Klein">Lawrence Klein</a> built the first <a href="/wiki/Large-scale_macroeconometric_model" title="Large-scale macroeconometric model">large-scale macroeconometric model</a>, applying the Keynesian thinking systematically to the <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Economy of the United States">US economy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-84">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-WWII_economics">Post-WWII economics</h3></div> Immediately after World War II, Keynesian was the dominant economic view of the United States establishment and its allies, Marxian economics was the dominant economic view of the Soviet Union nomenklatura and its allies. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Monetarism">Monetarism</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Monetarism" title="Monetarism">Monetarism</a></div> Monetarism appeared in the 1950s and 1960s, its intellectual leader being <a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a>. Monetarists contended that monetary policy and other monetary shocks, as represented by the growth in the money stock, was an important cause of economic fluctuations, and consequently that monetary policy was more important than fiscal policy for <a href="/wiki/Stabilization_policy" title="Stabilization policy">purposes of stabilisation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-85">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-fed-86">[82]</a> Friedman was also skeptical about the ability of central banks to conduct a sensible active monetary policy in practice, advocating instead using simple rules such as a steady rate of money growth.<a href="#cite_note-87">[83]</a> Monetarism rose to prominence in the 1970s and 1980s, when several major central banks followed a monetarist-inspired policy, but was later abandoned because the results were unsatisfactory.<a href="#cite_note-88">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-Historical-89">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="New_classical_economics">New classical economics</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/New_classical_macroeconomics" title="New classical macroeconomics">New classical macroeconomics</a></div> A more fundamental challenge to the prevailing Keynesian paradigm came in the 1970s from <a href="/wiki/New_classical_macroeconomics" title="New classical macroeconomics">new classical economists</a> like <a href="/wiki/Robert_Lucas_Jr." title="Robert Lucas Jr.">Robert Lucas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sargent" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Sargent">Thomas Sargent</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Prescott" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Prescott">Edward Prescott</a>. They introduced the notion of <a href="/wiki/Rational_expectations" title="Rational expectations">rational expectations</a> in economics, which had profound implications for many economic discussions, among which were the so-called <a href="/wiki/Lucas_critique" title="Lucas critique">Lucas critique</a> and the presentation of <a href="/wiki/Real_business-cycle_theory" title="Real business-cycle theory">real business cycle models</a>.<a href="#cite_note-90">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="New_Keynesians">New Keynesians</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/New_Keynesian_economics" title="New Keynesian economics">New Keynesian economics</a></div> During the 1980s, a group of researchers appeared being called <a href="/wiki/New_Keynesian_economics" title="New Keynesian economics">New Keynesian economists</a>, including among others <a href="/wiki/George_Akerlof" title="George Akerlof">George Akerlof</a>, <a href="/wiki/Janet_Yellen" title="Janet Yellen">Janet Yellen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Mankiw" class="mw-redirect" title="Gregory Mankiw">Gregory Mankiw</a> and <a href="/wiki/Olivier_Blanchard" title="Olivier Blanchard">Olivier Blanchard</a>. They adopted the principle of rational expectations and other monetarist or new classical ideas such as building upon models employing micro foundations and optimizing behaviour, but simultaneously emphasised the importance of various <a href="/wiki/Market_failure" title="Market failure">market failures</a> for the functioning of the economy, as had Keynes.<a href="#cite_note-91">[87]</a> Not least, they proposed various reasons that potentially explained the empirically observed features of <a href="/wiki/Nominal_rigidity" title="Nominal rigidity">price and wage rigidity</a>, usually made to be endogenous features of the models, rather than simply assumed as in older Keynesian-style ones. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="New_neoclassical_synthesis">New neoclassical synthesis</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/New_neoclassical_synthesis" title="New neoclassical synthesis">New neoclassical synthesis</a></div> After decades of often heated discussions between Keynesians, monetarists, new classical and new Keynesian economists, a synthesis emerged by the 2000s, often given the name the <a href="/wiki/New_neoclassical_synthesis" title="New neoclassical synthesis">new neoclassical synthesis</a>. It integrated the rational expectations and optimizing framework of the new classical theory with a new Keynesian role for nominal rigidities and other market imperfections like <a href="/wiki/Imperfect_information" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperfect information">imperfect information</a> in goods, labour and credit markets. The monetarist importance of monetary policy in stabilizing<a href="#cite_note-92">[88]</a> the economy and in particular controlling inflation was recognised as well as the traditional Keynesian insistence that fiscal policy could also play an influential role in affecting <a href="/wiki/Aggregate_demand" title="Aggregate demand">aggregate demand</a>. Methodologically, the synthesis led to a new class of applied models, known as <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_stochastic_general_equilibrium" title="Dynamic stochastic general equilibrium">dynamic stochastic general equilibrium</a> or DSGE models, descending from real business cycles models, but extended with several new Keynesian and other features. These models proved useful and influential in the design of modern monetary policy and are now standard workhorses in most central banks.<a href="#cite_note-93">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="After_the_financial_crisis">After the financial crisis</h4></div> After the <a href="/wiki/2007%E2%80%932008_financial_crisis" title="2007–2008 financial crisis">2007–2008 financial crisis</a>, macroeconomic research has put greater emphasis on understanding and integrating the financial system into models of the general economy and shedding light on the ways in which problems in the financial sector can turn into major macroeconomic recessions. In this and other research branches, inspiration from <a href="/wiki/Behavioural_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioural economics">behavioural economics</a> has started playing a more important role in mainstream economic theory.<a href="#cite_note-94">[90]</a> Also, <a href="/wiki/Heterogeneity_in_economics" title="Heterogeneity in economics">heterogeneity</a> among the economic agents, e.g. differences in income, plays an increasing role in recent economic research.<a href="#cite_note-95">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_schools_and_approaches">Other schools and approaches</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Schools_of_economic_thought" title="Schools of economic thought">Schools of economic thought</a></div> Other schools or trends of thought referring to a particular style of economics practised at and disseminated from well-defined groups of academicians that have become known worldwide, include the <a href="/wiki/Freiburg_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Freiburg School">Freiburg School</a>, the <a href="/wiki/School_of_Lausanne" class="mw-redirect" title="School of Lausanne">School of Lausanne</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Stockholm_school_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stockholm school (economics)">Stockholm school</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_of_economics" title="Chicago school of economics">Chicago school of economics</a>. During the 1970s and 1980s <a href="/wiki/Mainstream_economics" title="Mainstream economics">mainstream economics</a> was sometimes separated into the <a href="/wiki/Saltwater_and_freshwater_economics" title="Saltwater and freshwater economics">Saltwater approach</a> of those universities along the <a href="/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="East Coast of the United States">Eastern</a> and <a href="/wiki/West_coast_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="West coast of the United States">Western</a> coasts of the US, and the Freshwater, or <a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicago school (economics)">Chicago school</a> approach.<a href="#cite_note-gordonessays-96">[92]</a> Within macroeconomics there is, in general order of their historical appearance in the literature; <a href="/wiki/Classical_economics" title="Classical economics">classical economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">neoclassical economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesian economics</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_synthesis" title="Neoclassical synthesis">neoclassical synthesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monetarism" title="Monetarism">monetarism</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_classical_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="New classical economics">new classical economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Keynesian_economics" title="New Keynesian economics">New Keynesian economics</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[93]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/New_neoclassical_synthesis" title="New neoclassical synthesis">new neoclassical synthesis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-98">[94]</a> Beside the <a href="/wiki/Mainstream_economics" title="Mainstream economics">mainstream</a> development of economic thought, various alternative or <a href="/wiki/Heterodox_economics" title="Heterodox economics">heterodox economic theories</a> have evolved over time, positioning themselves in contrast to mainstream theory.<a href="#cite_note-Lee-99">[95]</a> These include:<a href="#cite_note-Lee-99">[95]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian School">Austrian School</a>, emphasizing <a href="/wiki/Human_action" class="mw-redirect" title="Human action">human action</a>, <a href="/wiki/Property_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Property rights">property rights</a> and the freedom to contract and transact to have a thriving and successful economy.<a href="#cite_note-100">[96]</a> It also emphasises that the state should play as small role as possible (if any role) in the regulation of economic activity between two transacting parties.<a href="#cite_note-101">[97]</a> <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Friedrich Hayek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Ludwig von Mises</a> are the two most prominent representatives of the Austrian school.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Keynesian_economics" title="Post-Keynesian economics">Post-Keynesian economics</a> concentrates on macroeconomic rigidities and adjustment processes. It is generally associated with the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a> and the work of <a href="/wiki/Joan_Robinson" title="Joan Robinson">Joan Robinson</a>.<a href="#cite_note-102">[98]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a> like <a href="/wiki/Environmental_economics" title="Environmental economics">environmental economics</a> studies the interactions between human economies and the ecosystems in which they are embedded,<a href="#cite_note-103">[99]</a> but in contrast to environmental economics takes an oppositional position towards general mainstream economic principles. A major difference between the two subdisciplines is their assumptions about the <a href="/wiki/Substitute_good" title="Substitute good">substitution possibilities</a> between human-made and <a href="/wiki/Natural_capital" title="Natural capital">natural capital</a>.<a href="#cite_note-104">[100]</a></li></ul> Additionally, alternative developments include <a href="/wiki/Marxian_economics" title="Marxian economics">Marxian economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_economics" title="Constitutional economics">constitutional economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Institutional_economics" title="Institutional economics">institutional economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">evolutionary economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dependency_theory" title="Dependency theory">dependency theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Structuralist_economics" title="Structuralist economics">structuralist economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/World_systems_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="World systems theory">world systems theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Econophysics" title="Econophysics">econophysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Econodynamics" title="Econodynamics">econodynamics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feminist_economics" title="Feminist economics">feminist economics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biophysical_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Biophysical economics">biophysical economics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-105">[101]</a> <a href="/wiki/Feminist_economics" title="Feminist economics">Feminist economics</a> emphasises the role that gender plays in economies, challenging analyses that render gender invisible or support gender-oppressive economic systems.<a href="#cite_note-106">[102]</a> The goal is to create economic research and policy analysis that is inclusive and gender-aware to encourage gender equality and improve the well-being of marginalised groups. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methodology">Methodology</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theoretical_research">Theoretical research</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">Microeconomics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">Macroeconomics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">Mathematical economics</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Economic theory" redirects here. For the publication, see <a href="/wiki/Economic_Theory_(journal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic Theory (journal)">Economic Theory (journal)</a>.</div> Mainstream economic theory relies upon analytical <a href="/wiki/Model_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Model (economics)">economic models</a>. When creating theories, the objective is to find assumptions which are at least as simple in information requirements, more precise in predictions, and more fruitful in generating additional research than prior theories.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFriedman195310-107">[103]</a> While <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">neoclassical</a> economic theory constitutes both the dominant or orthodox theoretical as well as <a href="/wiki/General_equilibrium_theory" title="General equilibrium theory">methodological framework</a>, economic theory can also take the form of other <a href="/wiki/Schools_of_economic_thought" title="Schools of economic thought">schools of thought</a> such as in <a href="/wiki/Heterodox_economics" title="Heterodox economics">heterodox economic theories</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">microeconomics</a>, principal concepts include <a href="/wiki/Supply_and_demand" title="Supply and demand">supply and demand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marginalism" title="Marginalism">marginalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rational_choice_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational choice theory">rational choice theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Opportunity_cost" title="Opportunity cost">opportunity cost</a>, <a href="/wiki/Budget_constraint" title="Budget constraint">budget constraints</a>, <a href="/wiki/Utility" title="Utility">utility</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_the_firm" title="Theory of the firm">theory of the firm</a>.<a href="#cite_note-108">[104]</a> Early <a href="/wiki/Macroeconomic" class="mw-redirect" title="Macroeconomic">macroeconomic</a> models focused on modelling the relationships between aggregate variables, but as the relationships appeared to change over time macroeconomists, including <a href="/wiki/New_Keynesian" class="mw-redirect" title="New Keynesian">new Keynesians</a>, reformulated their models with <a href="/wiki/Microfoundations" title="Microfoundations">microfoundations</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Dixon2008-109">[105]</a> in which microeconomic concepts play a major part. Sometimes an economic hypothesis is only <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_economics" title="Qualitative economics">qualitative</a>, not quantitative.<a href="#cite_note-110">[106]</a> Expositions of economic reasoning often use two-dimensional graphs to illustrate theoretical relationships. At a higher level of generality, <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">mathematical economics</a> is the application of <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematical</a> methods to represent theories and analyse problems in economics. <a href="/wiki/Paul_Samuelson" title="Paul Samuelson">Paul Samuelson</a>'s treatise <a href="/wiki/Foundations_of_Economic_Analysis" title="Foundations of Economic Analysis">Foundations of Economic Analysis</a> (1947) exemplifies the method, particularly as to maximizing behavioural relations of agents reaching equilibrium. The book focused on examining the class of statements called operationally meaningful theorems in economics, which are <a href="/wiki/Theorem" title="Theorem">theorems</a> that can conceivably be refuted by empirical data.<a href="#cite_note-Foundations-111">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Empirical_research">Empirical research</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">Econometrics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Experimental_economics" title="Experimental economics">Experimental economics</a></div> Economic theories are frequently tested <a href="/wiki/Empirical" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical">empirically</a>, largely through the use of <a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">econometrics</a> using <a href="/wiki/Economic_data" title="Economic data">economic data</a>.<a href="#cite_note-112">[108]</a> The controlled experiments common to the <a href="/wiki/Physical_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical science">physical sciences</a> are difficult and uncommon in economics,<a href="#cite_note-113">[109]</a> and instead broad data is <a href="/wiki/Observational_study" title="Observational study">observationally studied</a>; this type of testing is typically regarded as less rigorous than controlled experimentation, and the conclusions typically more tentative. However, the field of <a href="/wiki/Experimental_economics" title="Experimental economics">experimental economics</a> is growing, and increasing use is being made of <a href="/wiki/Natural_experiments" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural experiments">natural experiments</a>. <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">Statistical methods</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">regression analysis</a> are common. Practitioners use such methods to estimate the size, economic significance, and <a href="/wiki/Statistical_significance" title="Statistical significance">statistical significance</a> ("signal strength") of the hypothesised relation(s) and to adjust for noise from other variables. By such means, a hypothesis may gain acceptance, although in a probabilistic, rather than certain, sense. Acceptance is dependent upon the <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">falsifiable</a> hypothesis surviving tests. Use of commonly accepted methods need not produce a final conclusion or even a consensus on a particular question, given different tests, <a href="/wiki/Data_set" title="Data set">data sets</a>, and prior beliefs. <a href="/wiki/Experimental_economics" title="Experimental economics">Experimental economics</a> has promoted the use of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_control" title="Scientific control">scientifically controlled</a> <a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">experiments</a>. This has reduced the long-noted distinction of economics from <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</a> because it allows direct tests of what were previously taken as axioms.<a href="#cite_note-114">[110]</a> In some cases these have found that the axioms are not entirely correct. In <a href="/wiki/Behavioural_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioural economics">behavioural economics</a>, psychologist <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Kahneman" title="Daniel Kahneman">Daniel Kahneman</a> won the Nobel Prize in economics in 2002 for his and <a href="/wiki/Amos_Tversky" title="Amos Tversky">Amos Tversky</a>'s empirical discovery of several <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">cognitive biases</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heuristics_in_judgment_and_decision_making" class="mw-redirect" title="Heuristics in judgment and decision making">heuristics</a>. Similar empirical testing occurs in <a href="/wiki/Neuroeconomics" title="Neuroeconomics">neuroeconomics</a>. Another example is the assumption of narrowly selfish preferences versus a model that tests for selfish, altruistic, and cooperative preferences.<a href="#cite_note-115">[111]</a> These techniques have led some to argue that economics is a "genuine science".<a href="#cite_note-116">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Microeconomics">Microeconomics</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">Microeconomics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Market_(economics)" title="Market (economics)">Market (economics)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ballard_Farmers%27_Market_-_vegetables.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A vegetable vendor in a marketplace." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Ballard_Farmers%27_Market_-_vegetables.jpg/220px-Ballard_Farmers%27_Market_-_vegetables.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Ballard_Farmers%27_Market_-_vegetables.jpg/330px-Ballard_Farmers%27_Market_-_vegetables.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Ballard_Farmers%27_Market_-_vegetables.jpg/440px-Ballard_Farmers%27_Market_-_vegetables.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2518" data-file-height="1861" /></a><figcaption>Economists study trade, production, and consumption decisions, including those that occur in a traditional <a href="/wiki/Marketplace" title="Marketplace">marketplace</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sao_Paulo_Stock_Exchange.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two traders sit at computer monitors with financial information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Sao_Paulo_Stock_Exchange.jpg/220px-Sao_Paulo_Stock_Exchange.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Sao_Paulo_Stock_Exchange.jpg/330px-Sao_Paulo_Stock_Exchange.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Sao_Paulo_Stock_Exchange.jpg/440px-Sao_Paulo_Stock_Exchange.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3612" data-file-height="1918" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo_Stock_Exchange" class="mw-redirect" title="São Paulo Stock Exchange">São Paulo Stock Exchange</a> in <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Electronic_trading" title="Electronic trading">electronic trading</a> network that brings together buyers and sellers through an <a href="/wiki/Electronic_trading_platform" title="Electronic trading platform">electronic trading platform</a></figcaption></figure> Microeconomics examines how entities, forming a <a href="/wiki/Market_structure" title="Market structure">market structure</a>, interact within a <a href="/wiki/Market_(economics)" title="Market (economics)">market</a> to create a <a href="/wiki/Market_system" title="Market system">market system</a>. These entities include private and public players with various classifications, typically operating under scarcity of tradable units and <a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">regulation</a>. The item traded may be a tangible <a href="/wiki/Product_(business)" title="Product (business)">product</a> such as apples or a <a href="/wiki/Service_(economics)" title="Service (economics)">service</a> such as repair services, legal counsel, or entertainment. Various market structures exist. In <a href="/wiki/Perfect_competition" title="Perfect competition">perfectly competitive markets</a>, no participants are large enough to have the <a href="/wiki/Market_power" title="Market power">market power</a> to set the price of a homogeneous product. In other words, every participant is a "price taker" as no participant influences the price of a product. In the real world, markets often experience <a href="/wiki/Imperfect_competition" title="Imperfect competition">imperfect competition</a>. Forms of imperfect competition include <a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">monopoly</a> (in which there is only one seller of a good), <a href="/wiki/Duopoly" title="Duopoly">duopoly</a> (in which there are only two sellers of a good), oligopoly (in which there are few sellers of a good), <a href="/wiki/Monopolistic_competition" title="Monopolistic competition">monopolistic competition</a> (in which there are many sellers producing highly differentiated goods), <a href="/wiki/Monopsony" title="Monopsony">monopsony</a> (in which there is only one buyer of a good), and <a href="/wiki/Oligopsony" title="Oligopsony">oligopsony</a> (in which there are few buyers of a good). Firms under imperfect competition have the potential to be "price makers", which means that they can influence the prices of their products. In <a href="/wiki/Partial_equilibrium" title="Partial equilibrium">partial equilibrium</a> method of analysis, it is assumed that activity in the market being analysed does not affect other markets. This method aggregates (the sum of all activity) in only one market. <a href="/wiki/General_equilibrium" class="mw-redirect" title="General equilibrium">General-equilibrium</a> theory studies various markets and their behaviour. It aggregates (the sum of all activity) across all markets. This method studies both changes in markets and their interactions leading towards equilibrium.<a href="#cite_note-117">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Production,_cost,_and_efficiency">Production, cost, and efficiency</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Production_(economics)" title="Production (economics)">Production (economics)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Opportunity_cost" title="Opportunity cost">Opportunity cost</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economic_efficiency" title="Economic efficiency">Economic efficiency</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Production%E2%80%93possibility_frontier" title="Production–possibility frontier">Production–possibility frontier</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Production_Possibilities_Frontier_Curve.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Production_Possibilities_Frontier_Curve.svg/220px-Production_Possibilities_Frontier_Curve.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Production_Possibilities_Frontier_Curve.svg/330px-Production_Possibilities_Frontier_Curve.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Production_Possibilities_Frontier_Curve.svg/440px-Production_Possibilities_Frontier_Curve.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="470" data-file-height="475" /></a><figcaption>An example <a href="/wiki/Production%E2%80%93possibility_frontier" title="Production–possibility frontier">production–possibility frontier</a> with illustrative points marked</figcaption></figure> In microeconomics, <a href="/wiki/Production_(economics)" title="Production (economics)">production</a> is the conversion of <a href="/wiki/Factor_of_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Factor of production">inputs</a> into <a href="/wiki/Output_(economics)" title="Output (economics)">outputs</a>. It is an economic process that uses inputs to create a <a href="/wiki/Good_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Good (economics)">commodity</a> or a service for <a href="/wiki/Trade" title="Trade">exchange</a> or direct use. Production is a <a href="/wiki/Stock_and_flow" title="Stock and flow">flow</a> and thus a rate of output per period of time. Distinctions include such production alternatives as for <a href="/wiki/Consumption_(economics)" title="Consumption (economics)">consumption</a> (food, haircuts, etc.) vs. <a href="/wiki/Investment#In_economics_or_macroeconomics" title="Investment">investment goods</a> (new tractors, buildings, roads, etc.), <a href="/wiki/Public_good_(economics)" title="Public good (economics)">public goods</a> (national defence, smallpox vaccinations, etc.) or <a href="/wiki/Private_good" title="Private good">private goods</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Guns_versus_butter_model" title="Guns versus butter model">"guns" vs "butter"</a>. Inputs used in the production process include such primary <a href="/wiki/Factors_of_production" title="Factors of production">factors of production</a> as <a href="/wiki/Labour_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Labour (economics)">labour services</a>, <a href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">capital</a> (durable produced goods used in production, such as an existing factory), and <a href="/wiki/Land_(economics)" title="Land (economics)">land</a> (including natural resources). Other inputs may include <a href="/wiki/Intermediate_good" title="Intermediate good">intermediate goods</a> used in production of final goods, such as the steel in a new car. <a href="/wiki/Economic_efficiency" title="Economic efficiency">Economic efficiency</a> measures how well a system generates desired output with a given set of inputs and available <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technology</a>. Efficiency is improved if more output is generated without changing inputs. A widely accepted general standard is <a href="/wiki/Pareto_efficiency" title="Pareto efficiency">Pareto efficiency</a>, which is reached when no further change can make someone better off without making someone else worse off. The <a href="/wiki/Production%E2%80%93possibility_frontier" title="Production–possibility frontier">production–possibility frontier</a> (PPF) is an expository figure for representing scarcity, cost, and efficiency. In the simplest case an <a href="/wiki/Economy" title="Economy">economy</a> can produce just two goods (say "guns" and "butter"). The PPF is a table or graph (as at the right) showing the different quantity combinations of the two goods producible with a given technology and total factor inputs, which limit feasible total output. Each point on the curve shows <a href="/wiki/Potential_output" title="Potential output">potential total output</a> for the economy, which is the maximum feasible output of one good, given a feasible output quantity of the other good. <a href="/wiki/Scarcity" title="Scarcity">Scarcity</a> is represented in the figure by people being willing but unable in the aggregate to consume beyond the PPF (such as at X) and by the negative slope of the curve.<a href="#cite_note-118">[114]</a> If production of one good increases along the curve, production of the other good decreases, an <a href="/wiki/Inverse_relationship" class="mw-redirect" title="Inverse relationship">inverse relationship</a>. This is because increasing output of one good requires transferring inputs to it from production of the other good, decreasing the latter. The <a href="/wiki/Slope" title="Slope">slope</a> of the curve at a point on it gives the <a href="/wiki/Trade-off#Examples_from_common_life" title="Trade-off">trade-off</a> between the two goods. It measures what an additional unit of one good costs in units forgone of the other good, an example of a real opportunity cost. Thus, if one more Gun costs 100 units of butter, the opportunity cost of one Gun is 100 Butter. Along the PPF, scarcity implies that choosing more of one good in the aggregate entails doing with less of the other good. Still, in a <a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">market economy</a>, movement along the curve may indicate that the <a href="/wiki/Utility" title="Utility">choice</a> of the increased output is anticipated to be worth the cost to the agents. By construction, each point on the curve shows <a href="/wiki/Productive_efficiency" title="Productive efficiency">productive efficiency</a> in maximizing output for given total inputs. A point inside the curve (as at A), is feasible but represents production inefficiency (wasteful use of inputs), in that output of one or both goods could increase by moving in a northeast direction to a point on the curve. Examples cited of such inefficiency include high <a href="/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">unemployment</a> during a <a href="/wiki/Business_cycle" title="Business cycle">business-cycle</a> <a href="/wiki/Recession" title="Recession">recession</a> or economic organisation of a country that discourages full use of resources. Being on the curve might still not fully satisfy <a href="/wiki/Allocative_efficiency" title="Allocative efficiency">allocative efficiency</a> (also called <a href="/wiki/Pareto_efficiency" title="Pareto efficiency">Pareto efficiency</a>) if it does not produce a mix of goods that consumers prefer over other points. Much <a href="/wiki/Applied_economics" title="Applied economics">applied economics</a> in <a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a> is concerned with determining how the efficiency of an economy can be improved. Recognizing the reality of scarcity and then figuring out how to organise society for the most efficient use of resources has been described as the "essence of economics", where the subject "makes its unique contribution."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuelsonNordhaus2010ch._1,_p._5_(quotation)_and_sect._C,_"The_Production-Possibility_Frontier",_pp._9–15;_ch._2,_"Efficiency"_sect.;_ch._8,_sect._D,_"The_Concept_of_Efficiency_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuelsonNordhaus2010ch._1,_p._5_(quotation)_and_sect._C,_"The_Production-Possibility_Frontier",_pp._9–15;_ch._2,_"Efficiency"_sect.;_ch._8,_sect._D,_"The_Concept_of_Efficiency-119">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Specialisation">Specialisation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Division_of_labour" title="Division of labour">Division of labour</a>, <a href="/wiki/Comparative_advantage" title="Comparative advantage">Comparative advantage</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gains_from_trade" title="Gains from trade">Gains from trade</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Late_Medieval_Trade_Routes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Late_Medieval_Trade_Routes.jpg/310px-Late_Medieval_Trade_Routes.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Late_Medieval_Trade_Routes.jpg/465px-Late_Medieval_Trade_Routes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Late_Medieval_Trade_Routes.jpg/620px-Late_Medieval_Trade_Routes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1457" data-file-height="1088" /></a><figcaption>A map showing the main <a href="/wiki/Trade_route" title="Trade route">trade routes</a> for goods within <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">late medieval Europe</a></figcaption></figure> Specialisation is considered key to economic efficiency based on theoretical and <a href="/wiki/Empirical" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical">empirical</a> considerations. Different individuals or nations may have different real opportunity costs of production, say from differences in <a href="/wiki/Stock_and_flow" title="Stock and flow">stocks</a> of <a href="/wiki/Human_capital" title="Human capital">human capital</a> per worker or <a href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">capital</a>/<a href="/wiki/Labor_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor force">labour</a> ratios. According to theory, this may give a <a href="/wiki/Comparative_advantage" title="Comparative advantage">comparative advantage</a> in production of goods that make more intensive use of the relatively more abundant, thus relatively cheaper, input. Even if one region has an <a href="/wiki/Absolute_advantage" title="Absolute advantage">absolute advantage</a> as to the ratio of its outputs to inputs in every type of output, it may still specialise in the output in which it has a comparative advantage and thereby gain from trading with a region that lacks any absolute advantage but has a comparative advantage in producing something else. It has been observed that a high volume of trade occurs among regions even with access to a similar technology and mix of factor inputs, including high-income countries. This has led to investigation of economies of <a href="/wiki/Returns_to_scale" title="Returns to scale">scale</a> and <a href="/wiki/Economies_of_agglomeration" title="Economies of agglomeration">agglomeration</a> to explain specialisation in similar but differentiated product lines, to the overall benefit of respective trading parties or regions.<a href="#cite_note-120">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[117]</a> The general theory of specialisation applies to trade among individuals, farms, manufacturers, <a href="/wiki/Service_(economics)" title="Service (economics)">service</a> providers, and <a href="/wiki/Economy" title="Economy">economies</a>. Among each of these production systems, there may be a corresponding <a href="/wiki/Division_of_labour" title="Division of labour">division of labour</a> with different work groups specializing, or correspondingly different types of <a href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">capital equipment</a> and differentiated <a href="/wiki/Land_(economics)" title="Land (economics)">land</a> uses.<a href="#cite_note-122">[118]</a> An example that combines features above is a country that specialises in the production of high-tech knowledge products, as developed countries do, and trades with developing nations for goods produced in factories where labour is relatively cheap and plentiful, resulting in different in opportunity costs of production. More total output and utility thereby results from specializing in production and trading than if each country produced its own high-tech and low-tech products. Theory and observation set out the conditions such that market <a href="/wiki/Price" title="Price">prices</a> of outputs and productive inputs select an allocation of factor inputs by comparative advantage, so that (relatively) <a href="/wiki/Production-possibility_frontier#Opportunity_cost" class="mw-redirect" title="Production-possibility frontier">low-cost</a> inputs go to producing low-cost outputs. In the process, aggregate output may increase as a <a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">by-product</a> or by <a href="/wiki/Mechanism_design" title="Mechanism design">design</a>.<a href="#cite_note-123">[119]</a> Such specialisation of production creates opportunities for <a href="/wiki/Gains_from_trade" title="Gains from trade">gains from trade</a> whereby resource owners benefit from <a href="/wiki/Trade" title="Trade">trade</a> in the sale of one type of output for other, more highly valued goods. A measure of gains from trade is the increased income levels that trade may facilitate.<a href="#cite_note-124">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Supply_and_demand">Supply and demand</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Supply_and_demand" title="Supply and demand">Supply and demand</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Supply-demand-right-shift-demand.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A graph depicting Quantity on the X-axis and Price on the Y-axis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Supply-demand-right-shift-demand.svg/220px-Supply-demand-right-shift-demand.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Supply-demand-right-shift-demand.svg/330px-Supply-demand-right-shift-demand.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Supply-demand-right-shift-demand.svg/440px-Supply-demand-right-shift-demand.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="217" data-file-height="217" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Supply_and_demand" title="Supply and demand">supply and demand</a> model describes how prices vary as a result of a balance between product availability and demand. The graph depicts an increase in demand from D1 to D2 and the resulting increase in price and quantity required to reach a new equilibrium point on the supply curve (S).</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Prices_and_quantities" class="mw-redirect" title="Prices and quantities">Prices and quantities</a> have been described as the most directly observable attributes of goods produced and exchanged in a <a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">market economy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-125">[121]</a> The theory of supply and demand is an organizing principle for explaining how prices coordinate the amounts produced and consumed. In <a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">microeconomics</a>, it applies to price and output determination for a market with <a href="/wiki/Perfect_competition" title="Perfect competition">perfect competition</a>, which includes the condition of no buyers or sellers large enough to have price-setting <a href="/wiki/Market_power" title="Market power">power</a>. For a given market of a <a href="/wiki/Good_(economics_and_accounting)" class="mw-redirect" title="Good (economics and accounting)">commodity</a>, demand is the relation of the quantity that all buyers would be prepared to purchase at each unit price of the good. Demand is often represented by a table or a graph showing price and quantity demanded (as in the figure). <a href="/wiki/Consumer_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Consumer theory">Demand theory</a> describes individual consumers as <a href="/wiki/Rational_choice_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational choice theory">rationally</a> choosing the most preferred quantity of each good, given income, prices, tastes, etc. A term for this is "constrained utility maximisation" (with income and <a href="/wiki/Wealth_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wealth (economics)">wealth</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Budget_constraint" title="Budget constraint">constraints</a> on demand). Here, <a href="/wiki/Utility" title="Utility">utility</a> refers to the hypothesised relation of each individual consumer for ranking different commodity bundles as more or less preferred. The <a href="/wiki/Law_of_demand" title="Law of demand">law of demand</a> states that, in general, price and quantity demanded in a given market are inversely related. That is, the higher the price of a product, the less of it people would be prepared to buy (other things <a href="/wiki/Ceteris_paribus" title="Ceteris paribus">unchanged</a>). As the price of a commodity falls, consumers move toward it from relatively more expensive goods (the <a href="/wiki/Substitution_effect" title="Substitution effect">substitution effect</a>). In addition, <a href="/wiki/Purchasing_power" title="Purchasing power">purchasing power</a> from the price decline increases ability to buy (the <a href="/wiki/Income_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Income effect">income effect</a>). Other factors can change demand; for example an increase in income will shift the demand curve for a <a href="/wiki/Normal_good" title="Normal good">normal good</a> outward relative to the origin, as in the figure. All determinants are predominantly taken as constant factors of demand and supply. Supply is the relation between the price of a good and the quantity available for sale at that price. It may be represented as a table or graph relating price and quantity supplied. Producers, for example business firms, are hypothesised to be profit maximisers, meaning that they attempt to produce and supply the amount of goods that will bring them the highest profit. Supply is typically represented as a function relating price and quantity, if other factors are unchanged. That is, the higher the price at which the good can be sold, the more of it producers will supply, as in the figure. The higher price makes it profitable to increase production. Just as on the demand side, the position of the supply can shift, say from a change in the price of a productive input or a technical improvement. The "Law of Supply" states that, in general, a rise in price leads to an expansion in supply and a fall in price leads to a contraction in supply. Here as well, the determinants of supply, such as price of substitutes, cost of production, technology applied and various factors inputs of production are all taken to be constant for a specific time period of evaluation of supply. <a href="/wiki/Market_equilibrium" class="mw-redirect" title="Market equilibrium">Market equilibrium</a> occurs where quantity supplied equals quantity demanded, the intersection of the supply and demand curves in the figure above. At a price below equilibrium, there is a shortage of quantity supplied compared to quantity demanded. This is posited to bid the price up. At a price above equilibrium, there is a surplus of quantity supplied compared to quantity demanded. This pushes the price down. The <a href="/wiki/Model_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Model (economics)">model</a> of supply and demand predicts that for given supply and demand curves, price and quantity will stabilise at the price that makes quantity supplied equal to quantity demanded. Similarly, demand-and-supply theory predicts a new price-quantity combination from a shift in demand (as to the figure), or in supply. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Firms">Firms</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_the_firm" title="Theory of the firm">Theory of the firm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Industrial_organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial organisation">Industrial organisation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Business_economics" title="Business economics">Business economics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Managerial_economics" title="Managerial economics">Managerial economics</a></div> People frequently do not trade directly on markets. Instead, on the supply side, they may work in and produce through firms. The most obvious kinds of firms are <a href="/wiki/Corporation" title="Corporation">corporations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Partnerships" class="mw-redirect" title="Partnerships">partnerships</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trusts" class="mw-redirect" title="Trusts">trusts</a>. According to <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Coase" title="Ronald Coase">Ronald Coase</a>, people begin to organise their production in firms when the costs of doing business becomes lower than doing it on the market.<a href="#cite_note-126">[122]</a> Firms combine labour and capital, and can achieve far greater <a href="/wiki/Economies_of_scale" title="Economies of scale">economies of scale</a> (when the average cost per unit declines as more units are produced) than individual market trading. In <a href="/wiki/Perfect_competition" title="Perfect competition">perfectly competitive</a> markets studied in the theory of supply and demand, there are many producers, none of which significantly influence price. <a href="/wiki/Industrial_organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial organisation">Industrial organisation</a> generalises from that special case to study the strategic behaviour of firms that do have significant control of price. It considers the structure of such markets and their interactions. Common market structures studied besides perfect competition include monopolistic competition, various forms of oligopoly, and monopoly.<a href="#cite_note-127">[123]</a> <a href="/wiki/Managerial_economics" title="Managerial economics">Managerial economics</a> applies <a href="/wiki/Microeconomic" class="mw-redirect" title="Microeconomic">microeconomic</a> analysis to specific decisions in business firms or other management units. It draws heavily from quantitative methods such as <a href="/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">operations research</a> and programming and from statistical methods such as <a href="/wiki/Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">regression analysis</a> in the absence of certainty and perfect knowledge. A unifying theme is the attempt to <a href="/wiki/Optimization_(mathematics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Optimization (mathematics)">optimise</a> business decisions, including unit-cost minimisation and profit maximisation, given the firm's objectives and constraints imposed by technology and market conditions.<a href="#cite_note-128">[124]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Uncertainty_and_game_theory">Uncertainty and game theory</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Information_economics" title="Information economics">Information economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">Game theory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Financial_economics" title="Financial economics">Financial economics</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Uncertainty" title="Uncertainty">Uncertainty</a> in economics is an unknown prospect of gain or loss, whether quantifiable as <a href="/wiki/Risk#Risk_and_uncertainty" title="Risk">risk</a> or not. Without it, household behaviour would be unaffected by uncertain employment and income prospects, <a href="/wiki/Financial_market" title="Financial market">financial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Capital_market" title="Capital market">capital markets</a> would reduce to exchange of a single <a href="/wiki/Financial_instrument" title="Financial instrument">instrument</a> in each market period, and there would be no <a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">communications</a> industry.<a href="#cite_note-129">[125]</a> Given its different forms, there are various ways of representing uncertainty and modelling economic agents' responses to it.<a href="#cite_note-130">[126]</a> <a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">Game theory</a> is a branch of <a href="/wiki/Applied_mathematics" title="Applied mathematics">applied mathematics</a> that considers <a href="/wiki/Strategy#Strategies_in_game_theory" title="Strategy">strategic interactions</a> between agents, one kind of uncertainty. It provides a mathematical <a href="/wiki/Microfoundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Microfoundation">foundation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Industrial_organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial organisation">industrial organisation</a>, discussed above, to model different types of firm behaviour, for example in a solipsistic industry (few sellers), but equally applicable to wage negotiations, <a href="/wiki/Bargaining#Game_theory" title="Bargaining">bargaining</a>, <a href="/wiki/Contract_theory" title="Contract theory">contract design</a>, and any situation where individual agents are few enough to have perceptible effects on each other. In <a href="/wiki/Behavioural_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioural economics">behavioural economics</a>, it has been used to model the strategies <a href="/wiki/Agent_(economics)" title="Agent (economics)">agents</a> choose when interacting with others whose interests are at least partially adverse to their own.<a href="#cite_note-131">[127]</a> In this, it generalises maximisation approaches developed to analyse market actors such as in the <a href="/wiki/Supply_and_demand" title="Supply and demand">supply and demand</a> model and allows for incomplete information of actors. The field dates from the 1944 classic <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Games_and_Economic_Behavior" title="Theory of Games and Economic Behavior">Theory of Games and Economic Behavior</a> by <a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oskar_Morgenstern" title="Oskar Morgenstern">Oskar Morgenstern</a>. It has significant applications seemingly outside of economics in such diverse subjects as the formulation of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_strategies" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear strategies">nuclear strategies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Game_theory#Philosophy" title="Game theory">ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Game_theory#Political_science" title="Game theory">political science</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">evolutionary biology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-132">[128]</a> <a href="/wiki/Risk_aversion" title="Risk aversion">Risk aversion</a> may stimulate activity that in well-functioning markets smooths out risk and communicates information about risk, as in markets for <a href="/wiki/Insurance" title="Insurance">insurance</a>, commodity <a href="/wiki/Futures_market" class="mw-redirect" title="Futures market">futures contracts</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Financial_instruments" class="mw-redirect" title="Financial instruments">financial instruments</a>. <a href="/wiki/Financial_economics" title="Financial economics">Financial economics</a> or simply <a href="/wiki/Finance" title="Finance">finance</a> describes the allocation of financial resources. It also analyses the pricing of financial instruments, the <a href="/wiki/Capital_structure" title="Capital structure">financial structure</a> of companies, the efficiency and fragility of <a href="/wiki/Financial_market" title="Financial market">financial markets</a>,<a href="#cite_note-133">[129]</a> <a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis" title="Financial crisis">financial crises</a>, and related government policy or <a href="/wiki/Financial_regulation" title="Financial regulation">regulation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-134">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-137">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-138">[134]</a> Some market organisations may give rise to inefficiencies associated with uncertainty. Based on <a href="/wiki/George_Akerlof" title="George Akerlof">George Akerlof</a>'s "<a href="/wiki/Market_for_Lemons" class="mw-redirect" title="Market for Lemons">Market for Lemons</a>" article, the <a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">paradigm</a> example is of a dodgy second-hand car market. Customers without knowledge of whether a car is a "lemon" depress its price below what a quality second-hand car would be.<a href="#cite_note-139">[135]</a> <a href="/wiki/Information_asymmetry" title="Information asymmetry">Information asymmetry</a> arises here, if the seller has more relevant information than the buyer but no incentive to disclose it. Related problems in insurance are <a href="/wiki/Adverse_selection" title="Adverse selection">adverse selection</a>, such that those at most risk are most likely to insure (say reckless drivers), and <a href="/wiki/Moral_hazard" title="Moral hazard">moral hazard</a>, such that insurance results in riskier behaviour (say more reckless driving).<a href="#cite_note-sciencedirect-140">[136]</a> Both problems may raise insurance costs and reduce efficiency by driving otherwise willing transactors from the market ("<a href="/wiki/Incomplete_markets" title="Incomplete markets">incomplete markets</a>"). Moreover, attempting to reduce one problem, say adverse selection by mandating insurance, may add to another, say moral hazard. <a href="/wiki/Information_economics" title="Information economics">Information economics</a>, which studies such problems, has relevance in subjects such as insurance, <a href="/wiki/Contract_theory" title="Contract theory">contract law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mechanism_design" title="Mechanism design">mechanism design</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monetary_economics" title="Monetary economics">monetary economics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Health_economics" title="Health economics">health care</a>.<a href="#cite_note-sciencedirect-140">[136]</a> Applied subjects include market and legal remedies to spread or reduce risk, such as warranties, government-mandated partial insurance, <a href="/wiki/Restructuring" title="Restructuring">restructuring</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bankruptcy_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Bankruptcy law">bankruptcy law</a>, inspection, and <a href="/wiki/Regulatory_economics" title="Regulatory economics">regulation</a> for quality and information disclosure.<a href="#cite_note-141">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-145">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Market_failure">Market failure</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Market_failure" title="Market failure">Market failure</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Government_failure" title="Government failure">Government failure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Information_economics" title="Information economics">Information economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Environmental_economics" title="Environmental economics">Environmental economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_economics" title="Agricultural economics">Agricultural economics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Smokestack_in_Detroit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A smokestack releasing smoke" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Smokestack_in_Detroit.jpg/220px-Smokestack_in_Detroit.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Smokestack_in_Detroit.jpg/330px-Smokestack_in_Detroit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Smokestack_in_Detroit.jpg/440px-Smokestack_in_Detroit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a> can be a simple example of market failure; if <a href="/wiki/Costs_of_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Costs of production">costs of production</a> are not borne by producers but are by the environment, accident victims or others, then prices are distorted.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Field_Trip-_water_sampling.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A woman takes samples of water from a river." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Field_Trip-_water_sampling.jpg/220px-Field_Trip-_water_sampling.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Field_Trip-_water_sampling.jpg/330px-Field_Trip-_water_sampling.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Field_Trip-_water_sampling.jpg/440px-Field_Trip-_water_sampling.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Environmental_scientist" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental scientist">environmental scientist</a> sampling water</figcaption></figure> The term "<a href="/wiki/Market_failure" title="Market failure">market failure</a>" encompasses several problems which may undermine standard economic assumptions. Although economists categorise market failures differently, the following categories emerge in the main texts.<a href="#cite_note-146">[e]</a> <a href="/wiki/Information_asymmetries" class="mw-redirect" title="Information asymmetries">Information asymmetries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Incomplete_markets" title="Incomplete markets">incomplete markets</a> may result in economic inefficiency but also a possibility of improving efficiency through market, legal, and regulatory remedies, as discussed above. <a href="/wiki/Natural_monopoly" title="Natural monopoly">Natural monopoly</a>, or the overlapping concepts of "practical" and "technical" monopoly, is an extreme case of failure of competition as a restraint on producers. Extreme <a href="/wiki/Economies_of_scale" title="Economies of scale">economies of scale</a> are one possible cause. <a href="/wiki/Public_goods" class="mw-redirect" title="Public goods">Public goods</a> are goods which are under-supplied in a typical market. The defining features are that people can consume public goods without having to pay for them and that more than one person can consume the good at the same time. <a href="/wiki/Externalities" class="mw-redirect" title="Externalities">Externalities</a> occur where there are significant social costs or benefits from production or consumption that are not reflected in market prices. For example, air pollution may generate a negative externality, and education may generate a positive externality (less crime, etc.). Governments often tax and otherwise restrict the sale of goods that have negative externalities and subsidise or otherwise promote the purchase of goods that have positive externalities in an effort to correct the price <a href="/wiki/Distortions_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Distortions (economics)">distortions</a> caused by these externalities.<a href="#cite_note-147">[142]</a> Elementary demand-and-supply theory predicts equilibrium but not the speed of adjustment for changes of equilibrium due to a shift in demand or supply.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlaug2017347-148">[143]</a> In many areas, some form of <a href="/wiki/Price_stickiness" class="mw-redirect" title="Price stickiness">price stickiness</a> is postulated to account for quantities, rather than prices, adjusting in the short run to changes on the demand side or the supply side. This includes standard analysis of the <a href="/wiki/Business_cycle" title="Business cycle">business cycle</a> in <a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">macroeconomics</a>. Analysis often revolves around causes of such price stickiness and their implications for reaching a hypothesised long-run equilibrium. Examples of such price stickiness in particular markets include wage rates in labour markets and posted prices in markets <a href="/wiki/Imperfect_competition" title="Imperfect competition">deviating</a> from <a href="/wiki/Perfect_competition" title="Perfect competition">perfect competition</a>. Some specialised fields of economics deal in market failure more than others. The <a href="/wiki/Economics_of_the_public_sector" class="mw-redirect" title="Economics of the public sector">economics of the public sector</a> is one example. Much <a href="/wiki/Environmental_economics" title="Environmental economics">environmental economics</a> concerns externalities or "<a href="/wiki/Public_bad" title="Public bad">public bads</a>". <a href="/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">Policy</a> options include regulations that reflect <a href="/wiki/Cost%E2%80%93benefit_analysis" title="Cost–benefit analysis">cost–benefit analysis</a> or market solutions that change incentives, such as <a href="/wiki/Emissions_trading" title="Emissions trading">emission fees</a> or redefinition of property rights.<a href="#cite_note-149">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Welfare">Welfare</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Welfare_economics" title="Welfare economics">Welfare economics</a></div> Welfare economics uses microeconomics techniques to evaluate <a href="/wiki/Well-being" title="Well-being">well-being</a> from <a href="/wiki/Allocation_of_resources" class="mw-redirect" title="Allocation of resources">allocation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Factors_of_production" title="Factors of production">productive factors</a> as to desirability and <a href="/wiki/Economic_efficiency" title="Economic efficiency">economic efficiency</a> within an <a href="/wiki/Economy" title="Economy">economy</a>, often relative to competitive <a href="/wiki/General_equilibrium" class="mw-redirect" title="General equilibrium">general equilibrium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-150">[145]</a> It analyses social <a href="/wiki/Welfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Welfare">welfare</a>, however <a href="/wiki/Social_welfare_function" title="Social welfare function">measured</a>, in terms of economic activities of the individuals that compose the theoretical society considered. Accordingly, individuals, with associated economic activities, are the <a href="/wiki/Methodological_individualism" title="Methodological individualism">basic units</a> for aggregating to social welfare, whether of a group, a community, or a society, and there is no "social welfare" apart from the "welfare" associated with its individual units. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Macroeconomics">Macroeconomics</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">Macroeconomics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DiagFuncMacroSyst.pdf" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/DiagFuncMacroSyst.pdf/page1-310px-DiagFuncMacroSyst.pdf.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="438" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/DiagFuncMacroSyst.pdf/page1-465px-DiagFuncMacroSyst.pdf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/DiagFuncMacroSyst.pdf/page1-620px-DiagFuncMacroSyst.pdf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1239" data-file-height="1752" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Circular_flow_of_income" title="Circular flow of income">The circulation of money in an economy</a> in a macroeconomic model. In this model, the use of <a href="/wiki/Natural_resources" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural resources">natural resources</a> and the generation of <a href="/wiki/Waste" title="Waste">waste</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gases</a>, is not included.</figcaption></figure> Macroeconomics, another branch of economics, examines the economy as a whole to explain broad aggregates and their interactions "top down", that is, using a simplified form of <a href="/wiki/General_equilibrium" class="mw-redirect" title="General equilibrium">general-equilibrium</a> theory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlaug2017345-151">[146]</a> Such aggregates include <a href="/wiki/Measures_of_national_income_and_output" title="Measures of national income and output">national income and output</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Unemployment_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Unemployment rate">unemployment rate</a>, and price <a href="/wiki/Inflation" title="Inflation">inflation</a> and subaggregates like total consumption and investment spending and their components. It also studies effects of <a href="/wiki/Monetary_policy" title="Monetary policy">monetary policy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fiscal_policy" title="Fiscal policy">fiscal policy</a>. Since at least the 1960s, macroeconomics has been characterised by further integration as to <a href="/wiki/Microfoundations" title="Microfoundations">micro-based</a> modelling of sectors, including <a href="/wiki/Rational_expectations" title="Rational expectations">rationality</a> of players, <a href="/wiki/Efficient_market_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Efficient market hypothesis">efficient use</a> of market information, and <a href="/wiki/Imperfect_competition" title="Imperfect competition">imperfect competition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-152">[147]</a> This has addressed a long-standing concern about inconsistent developments of the same subject.<a href="#cite_note-153">[148]</a> Macroeconomic analysis also considers factors affecting the long-term level and <a href="/wiki/Economic_growth" title="Economic growth">growth</a> of national income. Such factors include <a href="/wiki/Capital_accumulation" title="Capital accumulation">capital accumulation</a>, technological change and <a href="/wiki/Labour_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Labour force">labour force</a> growth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlaug2017349-154">[149]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Growth">Growth</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Economic_growth" title="Economic growth">Economic growth</a></div> Growth economics studies factors that explain <a href="/wiki/Economic_growth" title="Economic growth">economic growth</a> – the increase in output <a href="/wiki/Per_capita" title="Per capita">per capita</a> of a country over a long period of time. The same factors are used to explain differences in the level of output per capita between countries, in particular why some countries grow faster than others, and whether countries <a href="/wiki/Catch-up_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Catch-up effect">converge</a> at the same rates of growth. Much-studied factors include the rate of <a href="/wiki/Investment_(macroeconomics)" title="Investment (macroeconomics)">investment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Population_growth" title="Population growth">population growth</a>, and technological change. These are represented in theoretical and <a href="/wiki/Empirical" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical">empirical</a> forms (as in the <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_growth_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoclassical growth model">neoclassical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Endogenous_growth_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Endogenous growth model">endogenous</a> growth models) and in <a href="/wiki/Growth_accounting" title="Growth accounting">growth accounting</a>.<a href="#cite_note-155">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Business_cycle">Business cycle</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Business_cycle" title="Business cycle">Business cycle</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Circular_flow_of_income" title="Circular flow of income">Circular flow of income</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aggregate_supply" title="Aggregate supply">Aggregate supply</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aggregate_demand" title="Aggregate demand">Aggregate demand</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">Unemployment</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Economic_cycle.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Economic_cycle.svg/220px-Economic_cycle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Economic_cycle.svg/330px-Economic_cycle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Economic_cycle.svg/440px-Economic_cycle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="413" data-file-height="200" /></a><figcaption>A basic illustration of a <a href="/wiki/Business_cycle" title="Business cycle">business cycle</a></figcaption></figure> The economics of a depression were the spur for the creation of "macroeconomics" as a separate discipline. During the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> of the 1930s, <a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a> authored a book entitled <a href="/wiki/The_General_Theory_of_Employment,_Interest_and_Money" title="The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money">The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money</a> outlining the key theories of <a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesian economics</a>. Keynes contended that <a href="/wiki/Aggregate_demand" title="Aggregate demand">aggregate demand</a> for goods might be insufficient during economic downturns, leading to unnecessarily high unemployment and losses of potential output. He therefore advocated active policy responses by the <a href="/wiki/Public_sector" title="Public sector">public sector</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Monetary_policy" title="Monetary policy">monetary policy</a> actions by the <a href="/wiki/Central_bank" title="Central bank">central bank</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fiscal_policy" title="Fiscal policy">fiscal policy</a> actions by the government to stabilise output over the <a href="/wiki/Business_cycle" title="Business cycle">business cycle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-156">[151]</a> Thus, a central conclusion of Keynesian economics is that, in some situations, no strong automatic mechanism moves output and employment towards <a href="/wiki/Full_employment" title="Full employment">full employment</a> levels. <a href="/wiki/John_Hicks" title="John Hicks">John Hicks</a>' <a href="/wiki/IS/LM" class="mw-redirect" title="IS/LM">IS/LM</a> model has been the most influential interpretation of The General Theory. Over the years, understanding of the <a href="/wiki/Business_cycle" title="Business cycle">business cycle</a> has branched into various <a href="/wiki/Research_program" title="Research program">research programmes</a>, mostly related to or distinct from Keynesianism. The <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_synthesis" title="Neoclassical synthesis">neoclassical synthesis</a> refers to the reconciliation of Keynesian economics with <a href="/wiki/Classical_economics" title="Classical economics">classical economics</a>, stating that Keynesianism is correct in the <a href="/wiki/Short_run" class="mw-redirect" title="Short run">short run</a> but qualified by classical-like considerations in the intermediate and <a href="/wiki/Long_run" class="mw-redirect" title="Long run">long run</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Blanchard2008-80">[76]</a> <a href="/wiki/New_classical_macroeconomics" title="New classical macroeconomics">New classical macroeconomics</a>, as distinct from the Keynesian view of the business cycle, posits <a href="/wiki/Market_clearing" title="Market clearing">market clearing</a> with <a href="/wiki/Imperfect_information" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperfect information">imperfect information</a>. It includes Friedman's <a href="/wiki/Permanent_income_hypothesis" title="Permanent income hypothesis">permanent income hypothesis</a> on consumption and "<a href="/wiki/Rational_expectations" title="Rational expectations">rational expectations</a>" theory,<a href="#cite_note-157">[152]</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Lucas,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Lucas, Jr.">Robert Lucas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Real_business_cycle_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Real business cycle theory">real business cycle theory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-158">[153]</a> In contrast, the <a href="/wiki/New_Keynesian_economics" title="New Keynesian economics">new Keynesian</a> approach retains the rational expectations assumption, however it assumes a variety of <a href="/wiki/Market_failures" class="mw-redirect" title="Market failures">market failures</a>. In particular, New Keynesians assume prices and wages are "<a href="/wiki/Sticky_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sticky (economics)">sticky</a>", which means they do not adjust instantaneously to changes in economic conditions.<a href="#cite_note-Dixon2008-109">[105]</a> Thus, the new classicals assume that prices and wages adjust automatically to attain full employment, whereas the new Keynesians see full employment as being automatically achieved only in the long run, and hence government and central-bank policies are needed because the "long run" may be very long. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unemployment">Unemployment</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">Unemployment</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Unemployment_rate_1990_to_present.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/US_Unemployment_rate_1990_to_present.png/310px-US_Unemployment_rate_1990_to_present.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/US_Unemployment_rate_1990_to_present.png/465px-US_Unemployment_rate_1990_to_present.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/US_Unemployment_rate_1990_to_present.png/620px-US_Unemployment_rate_1990_to_present.png 2x" data-file-width="1168" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>The U.S. <a href="/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">unemployment</a> rate from 1990 to 2022</figcaption></figure> The amount of unemployment in an economy is measured by the unemployment rate, the percentage of workers without jobs in the labour force. The labour force only includes workers actively looking for jobs. People who are retired, pursuing education, or <a href="/wiki/Discouraged_worker" title="Discouraged worker">discouraged from seeking work</a> by a lack of job prospects are excluded from the labour force. Unemployment can be generally broken down into several types that are related to different causes.<a href="#cite_note-Dwivedi443-159">[154]</a> Classical models of unemployment occurs when wages are too high for employers to be willing to hire more workers. Consistent with classical unemployment, frictional unemployment occurs when appropriate job vacancies exist for a worker, but the length of time needed to search for and find the job leads to a period of unemployment.<a href="#cite_note-Dwivedi443-159">[154]</a> <a href="/wiki/Structural_unemployment" title="Structural unemployment">Structural unemployment</a> covers a variety of possible causes of unemployment including a mismatch between workers' skills and the skills required for open jobs.<a href="#cite_note-160">[155]</a> Large amounts of structural unemployment can occur when an economy is transitioning industries and workers find their previous set of skills are no longer in demand. Structural unemployment is similar to frictional unemployment since both reflect the problem of matching workers with job vacancies, but structural unemployment covers the time needed to acquire new skills not just the short term search process.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwivedi2005444–445-161">[156]</a> While some types of unemployment may occur regardless of the condition of the economy, cyclical unemployment occurs when growth stagnates. <a href="/wiki/Okun%27s_law" title="Okun's law">Okun's law</a> represents the empirical relationship between unemployment and economic growth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwivedi2005445–446-162">[157]</a> The original version of Okun's law states that a 3% increase in output would lead to a 1% decrease in unemployment.<a href="#cite_note-163">[158]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Money_and_monetary_policy">Money and monetary policy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Monetary_policy" title="Monetary policy">Monetary policy</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Monetary_economics" title="Monetary economics">Monetary economics</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_money" title="History of money">History of money</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Money" title="Money">Money</a> is a means of final payment for goods in most <a href="/wiki/Price_system" title="Price system">price system</a> economies, and is the <a href="/wiki/Unit_of_account" title="Unit of account">unit of account</a> in which prices are typically stated. Money has general acceptability, relative consistency in value, divisibility, durability, portability, elasticity in supply, and longevity with mass public confidence. It includes currency held by the nonbank public and checkable deposits. It has been described as a <a href="/wiki/Social_convention" class="mw-redirect" title="Social convention">social convention</a>, like language, useful to one largely because it is useful to others. In the words of <a href="/wiki/Francis_Amasa_Walker" title="Francis Amasa Walker">Francis Amasa Walker</a>, a well-known 19th-century economist, "Money is what money does" ("Money is that money does" in the original).<a href="#cite_note-Walker1891-164">[159]</a> As a <a href="/wiki/Medium_of_exchange" title="Medium of exchange">medium of exchange</a>, money facilitates trade. It is essentially a measure of value and more importantly, a store of value being a basis for credit creation. Its economic function can be contrasted with <a href="/wiki/Barter" title="Barter">barter</a> (non-monetary exchange). Given a diverse array of produced goods and specialised producers, barter may entail a hard-to-locate double <a href="/wiki/Coincidence_of_wants" title="Coincidence of wants">coincidence of wants</a> as to what is exchanged, say apples and a book. Money can reduce the <a href="/wiki/Transaction_cost" title="Transaction cost">transaction cost</a> of exchange because of its ready acceptability. Then it is less costly for the seller to accept money in exchange, rather than what the buyer produces.<a href="#cite_note-165">[160]</a> Monetary policy is the policy that central banks conduct to accomplish their broader objectives. Most central banks in developed countries follow <a href="/wiki/Inflation_targeting" title="Inflation targeting">inflation targeting</a>,<a href="#cite_note-166">[161]</a> whereas the main objective for many central banks in development countries is to uphold a <a href="/wiki/Fixed_exchange_rate_system" title="Fixed exchange rate system">fixed exchange rate system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-IMF-167">[162]</a> The primary monetary tool is normally the adjustment of interest rates,<a href="#cite_note-RBA-168">[163]</a> either directly via administratively changing the central bank's own interest rates or indirectly via <a href="/wiki/Open_market_operation" title="Open market operation">open market operations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-169">[164]</a> Via the <a href="/wiki/Monetary_transmission_mechanism" title="Monetary transmission mechanism">monetary transmission mechanism</a>, interest rate changes affect <a href="/wiki/Investment" title="Investment">investment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Consumption_(economics)" title="Consumption (economics)">consumption</a> and <a href="/wiki/Net_export" class="mw-redirect" title="Net export">net export</a>, and hence <a href="/wiki/Aggregate_demand" title="Aggregate demand">aggregate demand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Output_(economics)" title="Output (economics)">output</a> and employment, and ultimately the development of wages and inflation. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fiscal_policy">Fiscal policy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Fiscal_policy" title="Fiscal policy">Fiscal policy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Government_spending" title="Government spending">Government spending</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">Tax</a></div> Governments implement fiscal policy to influence macroeconomic conditions by adjusting spending and taxation policies to alter aggregate demand. When aggregate demand falls below the potential output of the economy, there is an <a href="/wiki/Output_gap" title="Output gap">output gap</a> where some productive capacity is left unemployed. Governments increase spending and cut taxes to boost aggregate demand. Resources that have been idled can be used by the government. For example, unemployed home builders can be hired to expand highways. Tax cuts allow consumers to increase their spending, which boosts aggregate demand. Both tax cuts and spending have <a href="/wiki/Fiscal_multiplier" title="Fiscal multiplier">multiplier effects</a> where the initial increase in demand from the policy percolates through the economy and generates additional economic activity. The effects of fiscal policy can be limited by <a href="/wiki/Crowding_out_(economics)" title="Crowding out (economics)">crowding out</a>. When there is no output gap, the economy is producing at full capacity and there are no excess productive resources. If the government increases spending in this situation, the government uses resources that otherwise would have been used by the private sector, so there is no increase in overall output. Some economists think that crowding out is always an issue while others do not think it is a major issue when output is depressed. Sceptics of fiscal policy also make the argument of <a href="/wiki/Ricardian_equivalence" title="Ricardian equivalence">Ricardian equivalence</a>. They argue that an increase in debt will have to be paid for with future tax increases, which will cause people to reduce their consumption and save money to pay for the future tax increase. Under Ricardian equivalence, any boost in demand from tax cuts will be offset by the increased saving intended to pay for future higher taxes. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inequality">Inequality</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">Economic inequality</a></div> Economic inequality includes <a href="/wiki/Income_inequality" class="mw-redirect" title="Income inequality">income inequality</a>, measured using the <a href="/wiki/Distribution_of_income" class="mw-redirect" title="Distribution of income">distribution of income</a> (the amount of money people receive), and <a href="/wiki/Wealth_inequality" class="mw-redirect" title="Wealth inequality">wealth inequality</a> measured using the <a href="/wiki/Distribution_of_wealth" title="Distribution of wealth">distribution of wealth</a> (the amount of wealth people own), and other measures such as consumption, land ownership, and <a href="/wiki/Human_capital" title="Human capital">human capital</a>. Inequality exists at different extents between countries or states, groups of people, and individuals.<a href="#cite_note-urlWealth_Distribution_and_Income_Inequality_by_Country_2018_|_Global_Finance_Magazine-170">[165]</a> There are <a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_metrics" title="Income inequality metrics">many methods</a> for measuring inequality,<a href="#cite_note-171">[166]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Gini_coefficient" title="Gini coefficient">Gini coefficient</a> being widely used for income differences among individuals. An example measure of inequality between countries is the <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_inequality-adjusted_HDI" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries by inequality-adjusted HDI">Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index</a>, a composite index that takes inequality into account.<a href="#cite_note-172">[167]</a> Important concepts of equality include <a href="/wiki/Equity_(economics)" title="Equity (economics)">equity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Equality_of_outcome" title="Equality of outcome">equality of outcome</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Equality_of_opportunity" class="mw-redirect" title="Equality of opportunity">equality of opportunity</a>. Research has linked economic inequality to political and social instability, including <a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">revolution</a>, democratic breakdown and civil conflict.<a href="#cite_note-MacCulloch-173">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-174">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-Acemoglu-175">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-176">[171]</a> Research suggests that greater inequality hinders economic growth and macroeconomic stability, and that land and <a href="/wiki/Human_capital" title="Human capital">human capital</a> inequality reduce growth more than inequality of income.<a href="#cite_note-MacCulloch-173">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-177">[172]</a> Inequality is at the centre stage of <a href="/wiki/Economic_policy" title="Economic policy">economic policy</a> debate across the globe, as government tax and spending policies have significant effects on income distribution.<a href="#cite_note-MacCulloch-173">[168]</a> In advanced economies, taxes and transfers decrease income inequality by one-third, with most of this being achieved via public social spending (such as pensions and family benefits.)<a href="#cite_note-MacCulloch-173">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_branches_of_economics">Other branches of economics</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_economics">Public economics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Public_economics" title="Public economics">Public economics</a></div> Public economics is the field of economics that deals with economic activities of a <a href="/wiki/Public_sector" title="Public sector">public sector</a>, usually government. The subject addresses such matters as <a href="/wiki/Tax_incidence" title="Tax incidence">tax incidence</a> (who really pays a particular tax), cost–benefit analysis of government programmes, effects on <a href="/wiki/Economic_efficiency" title="Economic efficiency">economic efficiency</a> and <a href="/wiki/Income_distribution" title="Income distribution">income distribution</a> of different kinds of spending and taxes, and fiscal politics. The latter, an aspect of <a href="/wiki/Public_choice_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Public choice theory">public choice theory</a>, models public-sector behaviour analogously to microeconomics, involving interactions of self-interested voters, politicians, and bureaucrats.<a href="#cite_note-178">[173]</a> Much of economics is <a href="/wiki/Positive_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive economics">positive</a>, seeking to describe and predict economic phenomena. <a href="/wiki/Normative_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Normative economics">Normative economics</a> seeks to identify what economies ought to be like. Welfare economics is a normative branch of economics that uses <a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">microeconomic</a> techniques to simultaneously determine the <a href="/wiki/Allocative_efficiency" title="Allocative efficiency">allocative efficiency</a> within an economy and the income <a href="/wiki/Distribution_(economics)" title="Distribution (economics)">distribution</a> associated with it. It attempts to measure <a href="/wiki/Social_welfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Social welfare">social welfare</a> by examining the economic activities of the individuals that comprise society.<a href="#cite_note-179">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_economics">International economics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/International_economics" title="International economics">International economics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)_per_capita_in_2022_by_IMF.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Map_of_countries_by_GDP_%28PPP%29_per_capita_in_2022_by_IMF.png/220px-Map_of_countries_by_GDP_%28PPP%29_per_capita_in_2022_by_IMF.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Map_of_countries_by_GDP_%28PPP%29_per_capita_in_2022_by_IMF.png/330px-Map_of_countries_by_GDP_%28PPP%29_per_capita_in_2022_by_IMF.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Map_of_countries_by_GDP_%28PPP%29_per_capita_in_2022_by_IMF.png/440px-Map_of_countries_by_GDP_%28PPP%29_per_capita_in_2022_by_IMF.png 2x" data-file-width="2192" data-file-height="1135" /></a><figcaption>List of countries by <a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">gross domestic product</a> (PPP) per capita in April 2022</figcaption></figure> International trade studies determinants of goods-and-services flows across international boundaries. It also concerns the size and distribution of <a href="/wiki/Gains_from_trade" title="Gains from trade">gains from trade</a>. Policy applications include estimating the effects of changing <a href="/wiki/Tariff" title="Tariff">tariff</a> rates and trade quotas. <a href="/wiki/International_finance" title="International finance">International finance</a> is a macroeconomic field which examines the flow of capital across international borders, and the effects of these movements on <a href="/wiki/Exchange_rate" title="Exchange rate">exchange rates</a>. Increased trade in goods, services and capital between countries is a major effect of contemporary <a href="/wiki/Globalisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Globalisation">globalisation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-180">[175]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Labour_economics">Labour economics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Labour_economics" title="Labour economics">Labour economics</a></div> Labour economics seeks to understand the functioning and dynamics of the <a href="/wiki/Market_(economics)" title="Market (economics)">markets</a> for <a href="/wiki/Wage_labour" title="Wage labour">wage labour</a>. Labour markets function through the interaction of workers and employers. Labour economics looks at the suppliers of labour services (workers), the demands of labour services (employers), and attempts to understand the resulting pattern of wages, employment, and income. In economics, labour is a measure of the work done by human beings. It is conventionally contrasted with such other <a href="/wiki/Factors_of_production" title="Factors of production">factors of production</a> as <a href="/wiki/Land_(economics)" title="Land (economics)">land</a> and <a href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">capital</a>. There are theories which have developed a concept called <a href="/wiki/Human_capital" title="Human capital">human capital</a> (referring to the skills that workers possess, not necessarily their actual work), although there are also counter posing macro-economic system theories that think human capital is a contradiction in terms.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development_economics">Development economics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Development_economics" title="Development economics">Development economics</a></div> Development economics examines economic aspects of the <a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">economic development</a> process in relatively <a href="/wiki/Developing_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing countries">low-income countries</a> focusing on <a href="/wiki/Structural_change" title="Structural change">structural change</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">poverty</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Economic_growth" title="Economic growth">economic growth</a>. Approaches in development economics frequently incorporate social and political factors.<a href="#cite_note-181">[176]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related_subjects">Related subjects</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law and economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_economics" title="Natural resource economics">Natural resource economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics">Philosophy and economics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></div> Economics is one <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a> among several and has fields bordering on other areas, including <a href="/wiki/Economic_geography" title="Economic geography">economic geography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">economic history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Public_choice" title="Public choice">public choice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Energy_economics" title="Energy economics">energy economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/JEL_classification_codes#Other_special_topics_(economics)_JEL:_Z_Subcategories" title="JEL classification codes">cultural economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Family_economics" title="Family economics">family economics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Institutional_economics" title="Institutional economics">institutional economics</a>. Law and economics, or economic analysis of law, is an approach to legal theory that applies methods of economics to law. It includes the use of economic concepts to explain the effects of legal rules, to assess which legal rules are <a href="/wiki/Economic_efficiency" title="Economic efficiency">economically efficient</a>, and to predict what the legal rules will be.<a href="#cite_note-182">[177]</a> A seminal article by <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Coase" title="Ronald Coase">Ronald Coase</a> published in 1961 suggested that well-defined property rights could overcome the problems of <a href="/wiki/Externalities" class="mw-redirect" title="Externalities">externalities</a>.<a href="#cite_note-183">[178]</a> <a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a> is the interdisciplinary study that combines economics, law, and <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a> in explaining how political institutions, the political environment, and the economic system (capitalist, <a href="/wiki/Socialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist">socialist</a>, mixed) influence each other. It studies questions such as how monopoly, <a href="/wiki/Rent-seeking" title="Rent-seeking">rent-seeking</a> behaviour, and <a href="/wiki/Externalities" class="mw-redirect" title="Externalities">externalities</a> should impact government policy.<a href="#cite_note-184">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-185">[180]</a> <a href="/wiki/Historian" title="Historian">Historians</a> have employed political economy to explore the ways in the past that persons and groups with common economic interests have used politics to effect changes beneficial to their interests.<a href="#cite_note-186">[181]</a> <a href="/wiki/Energy_economics" title="Energy economics">Energy economics</a> is a broad <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">scientific</a> subject area which includes topics related to <a href="/wiki/Energy_supply" title="Energy supply">energy supply</a> and <a href="/wiki/Energy_demand" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy demand">energy demand</a>. <a href="/wiki/Georgescu-Roegen" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgescu-Roegen">Georgescu-Roegen</a> reintroduced the concept of <a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">entropy</a> in relation to economics and energy from <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a>, as distinguished from what he viewed as the mechanistic foundation of neoclassical economics drawn from Newtonian physics. His work contributed significantly to <a href="/wiki/Thermoeconomics" title="Thermoeconomics">thermoeconomics</a> and to <a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">ecological economics</a>. He also did foundational work which later developed into <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">evolutionary economics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-187">[182]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sociological" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociological">sociological</a> subfield of <a href="/wiki/Economic_sociology" title="Economic sociology">economic sociology</a> arose, primarily through the work of <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a>, <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a> and <a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Georg Simmel</a>, as an approach to analysing the effects of economic phenomena in relation to the overarching social paradigm (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modernity</a>).<a href="#cite_note-188">[183]</a> Classic works include <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Protestant_Ethic_and_the_Spirit_of_Capitalism" title="The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism">The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism</a> (1905) and <a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Georg Simmel</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Philosophy_of_Money" title="The Philosophy of Money">The Philosophy of Money</a> (1900). More recently, the works of <a href="/wiki/James_Samuel_Coleman" title="James Samuel Coleman">James S. Coleman</a>,<a href="#cite_note-189">[184]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mark_Granovetter" title="Mark Granovetter">Mark Granovetter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Hedstr%C3%B6m_(sociologist)" title="Peter Hedström (sociologist)">Peter Hedstrom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Swedberg" title="Richard Swedberg">Richard Swedberg</a> have been influential in this field. <a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Gary Becker</a> in 1974 presented an economic theory of social interactions, whose applications included the <a href="/wiki/Family_economics" title="Family economics">family</a>, charity, <a href="/wiki/Merit_good" title="Merit good">merit goods</a> and multiperson interactions, and envy and hatred.<a href="#cite_note-190">[185]</a> He and <a href="/wiki/Kevin_M._Murphy" title="Kevin M. Murphy">Kevin Murphy</a> authored a book in 2001 that analysed market behaviour in a social environment.<a href="#cite_note-191">[186]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Profession">Profession</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Economist" title="Economist">Economist</a></div> The professionalisation of economics, reflected in the growth of graduate programmes on the subject, has been described as "the main change in economics since around 1900".<a href="#cite_note-192">[187]</a> Most major <a href="/wiki/Universities" class="mw-redirect" title="Universities">universities</a> and many colleges have a major, school, or department in which <a href="/wiki/Academic_degrees" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic degrees">academic degrees</a> are awarded in the subject, whether in the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal arts">liberal arts</a>, business, or for professional study. See <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Economics" title="Bachelor of Economics">Bachelor of Economics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Economics" title="Master of Economics">Master of Economics</a>. In the private sector, professional economists are employed as consultants and in industry, including <a href="/wiki/Banking" class="mw-redirect" title="Banking">banking</a> and <a href="/wiki/Finance" title="Finance">finance</a>. Economists also work for various government departments and agencies, for example, the national <a href="/wiki/Treasury" title="Treasury">treasury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_bank" title="Central bank">central bank</a> or <a href="/wiki/List_of_national_and_international_statistical_services" title="List of national and international statistical services">National Bureau of Statistics</a>. See <a href="/wiki/Economic_analyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic analyst">Economic analyst</a>. There are dozens of prizes awarded to economists each year for outstanding intellectual contributions to the field, the most prominent of which is the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Memorial_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences" title="Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences">Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences</a>, though it is not a <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a>. Contemporary economics uses mathematics. Economists draw on the tools of <a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">calculus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linear_algebra" title="Linear algebra">linear algebra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">game theory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>.<a href="#cite_note-193">[188]</a> Professional economists are expected to be familiar with these tools, while a minority specialise in econometrics and mathematical methods. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women_in_economics">Women in economics</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Martineau" title="Harriet Martineau">Harriet Martineau</a> (1802–1876) was a widely-read populariser of classical economic thought. <a href="/wiki/Mary_Paley_Marshall" title="Mary Paley Marshall">Mary Paley Marshall</a> (1850–1944), the first women lecturer at a British economics faculty, wrote The Economics of Industry with her husband <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Marshall" title="Alfred Marshall">Alfred Marshall</a>. <a href="/wiki/Joan_Robinson" title="Joan Robinson">Joan Robinson</a> (1903–1983) was an important <a href="/wiki/Post-Keynesian" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-Keynesian">post-Keynesian</a> economist. The economic historian <a href="/wiki/Anna_Schwartz" title="Anna Schwartz">Anna Schwartz</a> (1915–2012) coauthored <a href="/wiki/A_Monetary_History_of_the_United_States,_1867%E2%80%931960" class="mw-redirect" title="A Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960">A Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960</a> with <a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a>.<a href="#cite_note-194">[189]</a> Three women have received the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize in Economics">Nobel Prize in Economics</a>: <a href="/wiki/Elinor_Ostrom" title="Elinor Ostrom">Elinor Ostrom</a> (2009), <a href="/wiki/Esther_Duflo" title="Esther Duflo">Esther Duflo</a> (2019) and <a href="/wiki/Claudia_Goldin" title="Claudia Goldin">Claudia Goldin</a> (2023). Five have received the <a href="/wiki/John_Bates_Clark_Medal" title="John Bates Clark Medal">John Bates Clark Medal</a>: <a href="/wiki/Susan_Athey" title="Susan Athey">Susan Athey</a> (2007), Esther Duflo (2010), <a href="/wiki/Amy_Finkelstein" title="Amy Finkelstein">Amy Finkelstein</a> (2012), <a href="/wiki/Emi_Nakamura" title="Emi Nakamura">Emi Nakamura</a> (2019) and <a href="/wiki/Melissa_Dell" title="Melissa Dell">Melissa Dell</a> (2020). Women's authorship share in prominent economic journals reduced from 1940 to the 1970s, but has subsequently risen, with different patterns of gendered coauthorship.<a href="#cite_note-195">[190]</a> Women remain globally under-represented in the profession (19% of authors in the <a href="/wiki/RePEc" class="mw-redirect" title="RePEc">RePEc</a> database in 2018), with national variation.<a href="#cite_note-196">[191]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/28px-Emblem-money.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/42px-Emblem-money.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/56px-Emblem-money.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Business_and_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Business and economics">Business and economics portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asymmetric_cointegration" title="Asymmetric cointegration">Asymmetric cointegration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_juncture_theory" title="Critical juncture theory">Critical juncture theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_and_economic_growth" title="Democracy and economic growth">Democracy and economic growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_democracy" title="Economic democracy">Economic democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_ideology" title="Economic ideology">Economic ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_union" title="Economic union">Economic union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_terminology_that_differs_from_common_usage" title="Economics terminology that differs from common usage">Economics terminology that differs from common usage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">Free trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" title="Glossary of economics">Glossary of economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness_economics" title="Happiness economics">Happiness economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_economics" title="Humanistic economics">Humanistic economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_economics_articles" title="Index of economics articles">Index of economics articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_academic_fields#Economics" title="List of academic fields">List of academic fields § Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_economics_awards" title="List of economics awards">List of economics awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_economics_films" title="List of economics films">List of economics films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_economics" title="Outline of economics">Outline of economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socioeconomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Socioeconomics">Socioeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_economy" title="Solidarity economy">Solidarity economy</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> "Capital" in Smith's usage includes <a href="/wiki/Fixed_capital" title="Fixed capital">fixed capital</a> and <a href="/wiki/Circulating_capital" title="Circulating capital">circulating capital</a>. The latter includes wages and labour maintenance, money, and inputs from land, mines, and fisheries associated with production.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1776Bk._II:_ch._1,_2,_and_5-59">[59]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> "This science indicates the cases in which commerce is truly productive, where whatever is gained by one is lost by another, and where it is profitable to all; it also teaches us to appreciate its several processes, but simply in their results, at which it stops. Besides this knowledge, the merchant must also understand the processes of his art. He must be acquainted with the commodities in which he deals, their qualities and defects, the countries from which they are derived, their markets, the means of their transportation, the values to be given for them in exchange, and the method of keeping accounts. The same remark is applicable to the agriculturist, to the manufacturer, and to the practical man of business; to acquire a thorough knowledge of the causes and consequences of each phenomenon, the study of political economy is essentially necessary to them all; and to become expert in his particular pursuit, each one must add thereto a knowledge of its processes." (<a href="#CITEREFSay1803">Say 1803</a>, p. XVI) </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> "And when we submit the definition in question to this test, it is seen to possess deficiencies which, so far from being marginal and subsidiary, amount to nothing less than a complete failure to exhibit either the scope or the significance of the most central generalisations of all." (<a href="#CITEREFRobbins2007">Robbins 2007</a>, p. 5) </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> "The conception we have adopted may be described as analytical. It does not attempt to pick out certain kinds of behaviour, but focuses attention on a particular aspect of behaviour, the form imposed by the influence of scarcity. (<a href="#CITEREFRobbins2007">Robbins 2007</a>, p. 17) </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> Compare with <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Barr" title="Nicholas Barr">Nicholas Barr</a> (2004), whose list of market failures is melded with failures of economic assumptions, which are (1) producers as price takers (i.e. presence of oligopoly or monopoly; but why is this not a product of the following?) (2) equal power of consumers (what labour lawyers call an imbalance of bargaining power) (3) complete markets (4) public goods (5) external effects (i.e. externalities?) (6) increasing returns to scale (i.e. practical monopoly) (7) perfect information (in <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gWxfQgAACAAJ&pg=PP1">The Economics of the Welfare State</a> (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. 2004. pp. 72–79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926497-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926497-1"><bdi>978-0-19-926497-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Economics+of+the+Welfare+State&rft.pages=72-79&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-19-926497-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgWxfQgAACAAJ%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988">).    • <a href="/wiki/Joseph_E._Stiglitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph E. Stiglitz">Joseph E. Stiglitz</a> (2015) classifies market failures as from failure of competition (including <a href="/wiki/Natural_monopoly" title="Natural monopoly">natural monopoly</a>), <a href="/wiki/Information_asymmetries" class="mw-redirect" title="Information asymmetries">information asymmetries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Incomplete_markets" title="Incomplete markets">incomplete markets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Externalities" class="mw-redirect" title="Externalities">externalities</a>, <a href="/wiki/Public_good_(economics)" title="Public good (economics)">public good</a> situations, and <a href="/wiki/Macroeconomic" class="mw-redirect" title="Macroeconomic">macroeconomic</a> disturbances (in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=miPeCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1">"Chapter 4: Market Failure"</a>. Economics of the Public Sector (4th International Student ed.). W.W. Norton & Company. 2015. pp. 81–100. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-93709-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-93709-1"><bdi>978-0-393-93709-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+4%3A+Market+Failure&rft.btitle=Economics+of+the+Public+Sector&rft.pages=81-100&rft.edition=4th+International+Student&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-393-93709-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmiPeCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988">). </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-OED-1"><a href="#cite_ref-OED_1-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReference-OED-economics" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/270555">"economics"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a> (Online ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=economics&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=Online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fview%2FEntry%2F270555&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> (Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary">participating institution membership</a> required.) </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220824032001/https://lexico.com/definition/economics">"ECONOMICS | Meaning & Definition for UK English"</a>. Lexico.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lexico.com/definition/economics">the original</a> on 24 August 2022. Retrieved 13 April 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lexico.com&rft.atitle=ECONOMICS+%7C+Meaning+%26+Definition+for+UK+English&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flexico.com%2Fdefinition%2Feconomics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrugmanWells2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Krugman, Paul</a>; Wells, Robin (2012). Economics (3rd ed.). Worth Publishers. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1464128738" title="Special:BookSources/978-1464128738"><bdi>978-1464128738</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economics&rft.pages=2&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Worth+Publishers&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1464128738&rft.aulast=Krugman&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Wells%2C+Robin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBackhouse2002" class="citation book cs1">Backhouse, Roger (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/59475581">The Penguin history of economics</a>. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-026042-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-026042-0"><bdi>0-14-026042-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/59475581">59475581</a>. <q>The boundaries of what constitutes economics are further blurred by the fact that economic issues are analysed not only by 'economists' but also by historians, geographers, ecologists, management scientists, and engineers.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Penguin+history+of+economics&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F59475581&rft.isbn=0-14-026042-0&rft.aulast=Backhouse&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F59475581&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedman1953" class="citation book cs1">Friedman, Milton (1953). "<a href="/wiki/Essays_in_Positive_Economics#The_Methodology_of_Positive_Economics" title="Essays in Positive Economics">The Methodology of Positive Economics</a>". Essays in Positive Economics. University of Chicago Press. p. 5.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Methodology+of+Positive+Economics&rft.btitle=Essays+in+Positive+Economics&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1953&rft.aulast=Friedman&rft.aufirst=Milton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaplinSchotter2008" class="citation book cs1">Caplin, Andrew; Schotter, Andrew, eds. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k2d8SFFyeNEC&pg=PP1">The Foundations of Positive and Normative Economics: A Handbook</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532831-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532831-8"><bdi>978-0-19-532831-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Foundations+of+Positive+and+Normative+Economics%3A+A+Handbook&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-532831-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dk2d8SFFyeNEC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDielman2001" class="citation book cs1">Dielman, Terry E. (2001). Applied regression analysis for business and economics. Duxbury/Thomson Learning. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-534-37955-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-534-37955-9"><bdi>0-534-37955-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/44118027">44118027</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Applied+regression+analysis+for+business+and+economics&rft.pub=Duxbury%2FThomson+Learning&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F44118027&rft.isbn=0-534-37955-9&rft.aulast=Dielman&rft.aufirst=Terry+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKianpourKowalskiØverby2021" class="citation journal cs1">Kianpour, Mazaher; Kowalski, Stewart; Øverby, Harald (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fsu132413677">"Systematically Understanding Cybersecurity Economics: A Survey"</a>. Sustainability. 13 (24): 13677. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fsu132413677">10.3390/su132413677</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11250%2F2978306">11250/2978306</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sustainability&rft.atitle=Systematically+Understanding+Cybersecurity+Economics%3A+A+Survey&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=24&rft.pages=13677&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11250%2F2978306&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fsu132413677&rft.aulast=Kianpour&rft.aufirst=Mazaher&rft.au=Kowalski%2C+Stewart&rft.au=%C3%98verby%2C+Harald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Fsu132413677&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTarricone2006" class="citation journal cs1">Tarricone, Rosanna (2006). "Cost-of-illness analysis". Health Policy. 77 (1): 51–63. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.healthpol.2005.07.016">10.1016/j.healthpol.2005.07.016</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16139925">16139925</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Health+Policy&rft.atitle=Cost-of-illness+analysis&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=51-63&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.healthpol.2005.07.016&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16139925&rft.aulast=Tarricone&rft.aufirst=Rosanna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dharmaraj2010-10"><a href="#cite_ref-Dharmaraj2010_10-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDharmaraj2010" class="citation book cs1">Dharmaraj, E. (2010). Engineering Economics. Mumbai: Himalaya Publishing House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9350432471" title="Special:BookSources/978-9350432471"><bdi>978-9350432471</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1058341272">1058341272</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Engineering+Economics&rft.place=Mumbai&rft.pub=Himalaya+Publishing+House&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1058341272&rft.isbn=978-9350432471&rft.aulast=Dharmaraj&rft.aufirst=E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing2018" class="citation book cs1">King, David (2018). Fiscal Tiers: the economics of multi-level government. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-64813-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-138-64813-5"><bdi>978-1-138-64813-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1020440881">1020440881</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fiscal+Tiers%3A+the+economics+of+multi-level+government&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1020440881&rft.isbn=978-1-138-64813-5&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBecker1974" class="citation book cs1">Becker, Gary S (January 1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nber.org/system/files/chapters/c3625/c3625.pdf">"Crime and Punishment: An Economic Approach"</a> (PDF). In Becker, Gary S.; Landes, William M. (eds.). Essays in the Economics of Crime and Punishment. <a href="/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Economic_Research" title="National Bureau of Economic Research">National Bureau of Economic Research</a>. pp. 1–54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87014-263-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-87014-263-1"><bdi>0-87014-263-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210913194049/https://www.nber.org/system/files/chapters/c3625/c3625.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 13 September 2021. Retrieved 1 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Crime+and+Punishment%3A+An+Economic+Approach&rft.btitle=Essays+in+the+Economics+of+Crime+and+Punishment&rft.pages=1-54&rft.pub=National+Bureau+of+Economic+Research&rft.date=1974-01&rft.isbn=0-87014-263-1&rft.aulast=Becker&rft.aufirst=Gary+S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nber.org%2Fsystem%2Ffiles%2Fchapters%2Fc3625%2Fc3625.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanushekWoessmannr2007" class="citation web cs1">Hanushek, Eric A.; Woessmannr, Ludger (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/7154">"Economics of Education"</a>. Policy Research Working Papers. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Bank" class="mw-redirect" title="The World Bank">The World Bank</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1596%2F1813-9450-4122">10.1596/1813-9450-4122</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12323%2F2954">20.500.12323/2954</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13912607">13912607</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220106142511/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/7154">Archived</a> from the original on 6 January 2022. Retrieved 17 December 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Economics+of+Education&rft.series=Policy+Research+Working+Papers&rft.pub=The+World+Bank&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F20.500.12323%2F2954&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A13912607%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1596%2F1813-9450-4122&rft.aulast=Hanushek&rft.aufirst=Eric+A.&rft.au=Woessmannr%2C+Ludger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenknowledge.worldbank.org%2Fhandle%2F10986%2F7154&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBecker1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Becker, Gary S.</a> (1991) [1981]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NLB1Ty75DOIC">A Treatise on the Family</a> (Enlarged ed.). Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-90698-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-90698-5"><bdi>0-674-90698-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220730075050/https://books.google.com/books?id=NLB1Ty75DOIC">Archived</a> from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 1 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Treatise+on+the+Family&rft.edition=Enlarged&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-674-90698-5&rft.aulast=Becker&rft.aufirst=Gary+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNLB1Ty75DOIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNelson1995" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Julie_A._Nelson" title="Julie A. Nelson">Nelson, Julie A.</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1257/jep.9.2.131">"Feminism and Economics"</a>. Journal of Economic Perspectives. 9 (2): 131–148. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2Fjep.9.2.131">10.1257/jep.9.2.131</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220407203919/https://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1257/jep.9.2.131">Archived</a> from the original on 7 April 2022. Retrieved 1 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+Perspectives&rft.atitle=Feminism+and+Economics&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=131-148&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1257%2Fjep.9.2.131&rft.aulast=Nelson&rft.aufirst=Julie+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubs.aeaweb.org%2Fdoi%2Fpdfplus%2F10.1257%2Fjep.9.2.131&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerberNelson2003" class="citation book cs1">Ferber, Marianne A.; Nelson, Julie A., eds. (October 2003) [1993]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DeWgyqLvmfsC">Feminist Economics Today: Beyond Economic Man</a>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226242071" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226242071"><bdi>978-0226242071</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220730075049/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Feminist_Economics_Today/DeWgyqLvmfsC">Archived</a> from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 1 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Feminist+Economics+Today%3A+Beyond+Economic+Man&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2003-10&rft.isbn=978-0226242071&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDeWgyqLvmfsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPosner2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_A._Posner" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard A. Posner">Posner, Richard A.</a> (2007) [1972]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ooFDAQAAIAAJ">Economic Analysis of Law</a> (7th ed.). Wolters Kluwer – Aspen Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0735563544" title="Special:BookSources/978-0735563544"><bdi>978-0735563544</bdi></a>. Retrieved 1 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economic+Analysis+of+Law&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Wolters+Kluwer+%E2%80%93+Aspen+Publishers&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0735563544&rft.aulast=Posner&rft.aufirst=Richard+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DooFDAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPosner1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_A._Posner" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard A. Posner">Posner, Richard A.</a> (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CKEN0F07ChUC">The Economics of Justice</a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674235267" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674235267"><bdi>978-0674235267</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220730075050/https://books.google.com/books?id=CKEN0F07ChUC">Archived</a> from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 1 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Economics+of+Justice&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0674235267&rft.aulast=Posner&rft.aufirst=Richard+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCKEN0F07ChUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith, Adam</a> (1982) [1759]. Raphael, D. D.; Macfie, A. L. (eds.). <a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments" title="The Theory of Moral Sentiments">The Theory of Moral Sentiments</a>. Indianapolis: Liberty Classics 1976. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86597-012-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86597-012-0"><bdi>978-0-86597-012-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Theory+of+Moral+Sentiments&rft.place=Indianapolis&rft.pub=Liberty+Classics+1976&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-86597-012-0&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://storage.googleapis.com/catalog.libertyfund.org/PDFPreview/Smith_TheoryofMoralSentiments_1757_preview.pdf">Introduction only</a>.</li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoulding1969" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_E._Boulding" title="Kenneth E. Boulding">Boulding, Kenneth E.</a> (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en-econ.tau.ac.il/sites/economy_en.tau.ac.il/files/media_server/Economics/grad/mini%20courses/David%20Colander/Boulding.pdf">"Economics as a Moral Science"</a> (PDF). American Economic Review. 59 (1): 1–12. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1811088">1811088</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211005213945/https://en-econ.tau.ac.il/sites/economy_en.tau.ac.il/files/media_server/Economics/grad/mini%20courses/David%20Colander/Boulding.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 5 October 2021. Retrieved 1 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Economic+Review&rft.atitle=Economics+as+a+Moral+Science&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-12&rft.date=1969&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1811088%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Boulding&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen-econ.tau.ac.il%2Fsites%2Feconomy_en.tau.ac.il%2Ffiles%2Fmedia_server%2FEconomics%2Fgrad%2Fmini%2520courses%2FDavid%2520Colander%2FBoulding.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeilbroner1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Heilbroner" title="Robert Heilbroner">Heilbroner, Robert L.</a> (1999) [1953]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vIxtW9cw-DQC">The Worldly Philosophers: The Lives, Times, and Ideas of the Great Economic Thinkers</a> (7th ed.). Touchstone. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-86214-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-86214-X"><bdi>0-684-86214-X</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220730075050/https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Worldly_Philosophers/vIxtW9cw-DQC">Archived</a> from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 1 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Worldly+Philosophers%3A+The+Lives%2C+Times%2C+and+Ideas+of+the+Great+Economic+Thinkers&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Touchstone&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-684-86214-X&rft.aulast=Heilbroner&rft.aufirst=Robert+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvIxtW9cw-DQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSen2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Sen, Amartya</a> (2009). <a href="/wiki/The_Idea_of_Justice" title="The Idea of Justice">The Idea of Justice</a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674036130" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674036130"><bdi>978-0674036130</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Idea+of+Justice&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0674036130&rft.aulast=Sen&rft.aufirst=Amartya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIannaccone1998" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Laurence_R._Iannaccone" class="mw-redirect" title="Laurence R. Iannaccone">Iannaccone, Laurence R.</a> (September 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/262957/mod_resource/content/2/Iannaccone%20-%20Economics%20of%20Religion.pdf">"Introduction to the Economics of Religion"</a> (PDF). Journal of Economic Literature. 36 (3): 1465–1495. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2564806">2564806</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200209225107/https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/262957/mod_resource/content/2/Iannaccone%20-%20Economics%20of%20Religion.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 9 February 2020. Retrieved 1 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+Literature&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+the+Economics+of+Religion&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=1465-1495&rft.date=1998-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2564806%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Iannaccone&rft.aufirst=Laurence+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fedisciplinas.usp.br%2Fpluginfile.php%2F262957%2Fmod_resource%2Fcontent%2F2%2FIannaccone%2520-%2520Economics%2520of%2520Religion.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNordhaus2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_D._Nordhaus" class="mw-redirect" title="William D. Nordhaus">Nordhaus WD</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070202005510/http://nordhaus.econ.yale.edu/AAAS_War_Iraq_2.pdf">"The Economic Consequences of a War with Iraq"</a> (PDF). In Kaysen C, Miller SE, Malin MB, Nordhaus WD, Steinbruner JD (eds.). War with Iraq: Costs, Consequences, and Alternatives. Cambridge, Massachusetts: American Academy of Arts and Sciences. pp. 51–85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87724-036-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87724-036-5"><bdi>978-0-87724-036-5</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nordhaus.econ.yale.edu/AAAS_War_Iraq_2.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2 February 2007. Retrieved 21 October 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Economic+Consequences+of+a+War+with+Iraq&rft.btitle=War+with+Iraq%3A+Costs%2C+Consequences%2C+and+Alternatives&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=51-85&rft.pub=American+Academy+of+Arts+and+Sciences&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-87724-036-5&rft.aulast=Nordhaus&rft.aufirst=William+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnordhaus.econ.yale.edu%2FAAAS_War_Iraq_2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiamond2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Diamond, Arthur M. Jr. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170929232007/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_E000222">"Science, economics of"</a>. In Durlauf, Steven N.; Blume, Lawrence E. (eds.). <a href="/wiki/The_New_Palgrave_Dictionary_of_Economics" title="The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics">The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics</a> (2nd ed.). pp. 328–334. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.1491">10.1057/9780230226203.1491</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5"><bdi>978-0-333-78676-5</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_E000222">the original</a> on 29 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Science%2C+economics+of&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.pages=328-334&rft.edition=2nd&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230226203.1491&rft.isbn=978-0-333-78676-5&rft.aulast=Diamond&rft.aufirst=Arthur+M.+Jr.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde2008_E000222&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> (Note the page is broken in some browsers but is still readable through the source.) </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/126GER_synthesis_en.pdf">Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradication</a> (PDF) (Report). <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Environment_Programme" title="United Nations Environment Programme">United Nations Environment Programme</a>. 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170326154152/https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/126GER_synthesis_en.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 26 March 2017. Retrieved 1 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Towards+a+Green+Economy%3A+Pathways+to+Sustainable+Development+and+Poverty+Eradication&rft.pub=United+Nations+Environment+Programme&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsustainabledevelopment.un.org%2Fcontent%2Fdocuments%2F126GER_synthesis_en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBackhouse2002" class="citation book cs1">Backhouse, Roger (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/59475581">The Penguin history of economics</a>. Penguin Adult. p. 117. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-026042-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-026042-0"><bdi>0-14-026042-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/59475581">59475581</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Penguin+history+of+economics&rft.pages=117&rft.pub=Penguin+Adult&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F59475581&rft.isbn=0-14-026042-0&rft.aulast=Backhouse&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F59475581&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-etymology-23"><a href="#cite_ref-etymology_23-0">^</a> The terms derive ultimately from <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BF%E1%BC%B6%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%82" class="extiw" title="wikt:οἶκος">οἶκος</a> (oikos "house") and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BD%CF%8C%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82" class="extiw" title="wikt:νόμος">νόμος</a> (nomos, "custom" or "law"). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarper2007" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Harper" title="Douglas Harper">Harper, Douglas</a> (February 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=economic">"Economy"</a>. Online Etymology Dictionary. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130512162853/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=economic">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2013. Retrieved 27 October 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Economy&rft.btitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.date=2007-02&rft.aulast=Harper&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3Deconomic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Free2010-24"><a href="#cite_ref-Free2010_24-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFree2010" class="citation book cs1">Free, Rhona C., ed. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hRFadIRMaMsC&pg=PA8">21st Century Economics: A Reference Handbook</a>. Vol. 1. Sage Publications. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-6142-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-6142-4"><bdi>978-1-4129-6142-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=21st+Century+Economics%3A+A+Reference+Handbook&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Sage+Publications&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4129-6142-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhRFadIRMaMsC%26pg%3DPA8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MarshallMarshall1888-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MarshallMarshall1888_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MarshallMarshall1888_25-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarshallMarshall1888" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Marshall" title="Alfred Marshall">Marshall, Alfred</a>; <a href="/wiki/Mary_Paley_Marshall" title="Mary Paley Marshall">Marshall, Mary Paley</a> (1888) [1879]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/economicsindust00marsgoog">The Economics of Industry</a>. 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Macmillan and Co. p. XIV.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Theory+of+Political+Economy&rft.pages=XIV&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Macmillan+and+Co&rft.date=1879&rft.aulast=Jevons&rft.aufirst=William+Stanley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftheorypolitical00jevogoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Backhouse-27"><a href="#cite_ref-Backhouse_27-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBackhouseMedema2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_E._Backhouse" class="mw-redirect" title="Roger E. Backhouse">Backhouse, Roger E.</a>; Medema, Steven (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_E000291">"Economics, definition of"</a>. In Durlauf, Steven N.; Blume, Lawrence E. (eds.). 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University of Chicago Press. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-04112-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-04112-4"><bdi>978-0-226-04112-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Economic+Approach+to+Human+Behavior&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-226-04112-4&rft.aulast=Becker&rft.aufirst=Gary+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiwEOFKSKbMgC%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeung-Yoon_Lee2014" class="citation web cs1">Seung-Yoon Lee (4 September 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.huffpost.com/entry/ha-joon-chang-economics_n_5120030">"Ha-Joon Chang: Economics Is A Political Argument"</a>. huffpost.com. Huffington Post. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211019151027/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/ha-joon-chang-economics_n_5120030">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=huffpost.com&rft.atitle=Ha-Joon+Chang%3A+Economics+Is+A+Political+Argument&rft.date=2014-09-04&rft.au=Seung-Yoon+Lee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.huffpost.com%2Fentry%2Fha-joon-chang-economics_n_5120030&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordan1975" class="citation book cs1">Gordan, Barry J. (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YReyCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3">Economic analysis before Adam Smith: Hesiod to Lessius</a>. MacMillan. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-349-02116-1">10.1007/978-1-349-02116-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-02116-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-349-02116-1"><bdi>978-1-349-02116-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economic+analysis+before+Adam+Smith%3A+Hesiod+to+Lessius&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=MacMillan&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-349-02116-1&rft.isbn=978-1-349-02116-1&rft.aulast=Gordan&rft.aufirst=Barry+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYReyCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrockway2001" class="citation book cs1">Brockway, George P. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=i8ZhZFqUl7kC">The End of Economic Man: An Introduction to Humanistic Economics</a> (4th ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. p. 128. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-05039-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-05039-4"><bdi>978-0-393-05039-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414142715/https://books.google.com/books?id=i8ZhZFqUl7kC">Archived</a> from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 18 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+End+of+Economic+Man%3A+An+Introduction+to+Humanistic+Economics&rft.pages=128&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-393-05039-4&rft.aulast=Brockway&rft.aufirst=George+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Di8ZhZFqUl7kC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBackhouse2002" class="citation book cs1">Backhouse, Roger (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/59475581">The Penguin history of economics</a>. Penguin Adult. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-026042-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-026042-0"><bdi>0-14-026042-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/59475581">59475581</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220730075150/https://www.worldcat.org/title/penguin-history-of-economics/oclc/59475581">Archived</a> from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 3 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Penguin+history+of+economics&rft.pub=Penguin+Adult&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F59475581&rft.isbn=0-14-026042-0&rft.aulast=Backhouse&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F59475581&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> Cameron, Gregory. (2008). Oikos and Economy: The Greek Legacy in Economic Thought. </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblestudytools.com/lexicons/greek/nas/oikos.html">"Oikos Meaning in Bible – New Testament Greek Lexicon – New American Standard"</a>. biblestudytools.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211119121115/https://www.biblestudytools.com/lexicons/greek/nas/oikos.html">Archived</a> from the original on 19 November 2021. Retrieved 19 November 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=biblestudytools.com&rft.atitle=Oikos+Meaning+in+Bible+%E2%80%93+New+Testament+Greek+Lexicon+%E2%80%93+New+American+Standard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biblestudytools.com%2Flexicons%2Fgreek%2Fnas%2Foikos.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJameson2015" class="citation web cs1">Jameson, Michael H. (22 December 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxfordre.com/classics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-3169">"houses, Greek"</a>. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.013.3169">10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.3169</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-938113-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-938113-5"><bdi>978-0-19-938113-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211119121120/https://oxfordre.com/classics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-3169">Archived</a> from the original on 19 November 2021. 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Xenophons Oikonomikos, Über einen Klassiker der Haushaltsökonomie (in German). <a href="/wiki/D%C3%BCsseldorf" title="Düsseldorf">Düsseldorf</a>: Verlag Wirtschaft und Finanzen. p. 77. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3878811276" title="Special:BookSources/3878811276"><bdi>3878811276</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Xenophons+Oikonomikos%2C+%C3%9Cber+einen+Klassiker+der+Haushalts%C3%B6konomie&rft.place=D%C3%BCsseldorf&rft.pages=77&rft.pub=Verlag+Wirtschaft+und+Finanzen&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=3878811276&rft.aulast=Lowry&rft.aufirst=S.+Todd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchumpeter1954" class="citation book cs1">Schumpeter, Joseph A. 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Routledge. pp. 97, 101, 112. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-10888-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-10888-1"><bdi>978-0-415-10888-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Economic+Analysis&rft.pages=97%2C+101%2C+112&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1954&rft.isbn=978-0-415-10888-1&rft.aulast=Schumpeter&rft.aufirst=Joseph+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dpl4DABZfGREC%26pg%3DPA97&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/mercantilism">"Mercantilism"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 August 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171031160310/https://www.britannica.com/topic/mercantilism">Archived</a> from the original on 31 October 2017. Retrieved 24 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mercantilism&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2016-08-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fmercantilism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBlaug2017">Blaug (2017)</a>, p. 343.</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBertholet2021" class="citation journal cs1">Bertholet, Auguste (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.slatkine.com/fr/editions-slatkine/75250-book-05077807-3600120175625.html">"Constant, Sismondi et la Pologne"</a>. Annales Benjamin Constant. 46: 78–81. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220512143530/https://www.slatkine.com/fr/editions-slatkine/75250-book-05077807-3600120175625.html">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2022. Retrieved 20 January 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annales+Benjamin+Constant&rft.atitle=Constant%2C+Sismondi+et+la+Pologne&rft.volume=46&rft.pages=78-81&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Bertholet&rft.aufirst=Auguste&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.slatkine.com%2Ffr%2Feditions-slatkine%2F75250-book-05077807-3600120175625.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBertholetKapossy2023" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bertholet, Auguste; Kapossy, Béla (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.slatkine.com/fr/slatkine-reprints-erudition/75939-book-07102939-9782051029391.html">La Physiocratie et la Suisse</a> (in French). Geneva: Slatkine. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782051029391" title="Special:BookSources/9782051029391"><bdi>9782051029391</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+Physiocratie+et+la+Suisse&rft.place=Geneva&rft.pub=Slatkine&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=9782051029391&rft.aulast=Bertholet&rft.aufirst=Auguste&rft.au=Kapossy%2C+B%C3%A9la&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.slatkine.com%2Ffr%2Fslatkine-reprints-erudition%2F75939-book-07102939-9782051029391.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/physiocrat">"Physiocrat"</a>. 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Cambridge University Press. pp. 24–29, 82–84. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57701-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57701-4"><bdi>978-0-521-57701-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economic+Theory+in+Retrospect&rft.pages=24-29%2C+82-84&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-521-57701-4&rft.aulast=Blaug&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4nd6alor2goC%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunt2002" class="citation book cs1">Hunt, E. K. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=duYaugxYHdIC&pg=PA36">History of Economic Thought: A Critical Perspective</a>. M.E. Sharpe. p. 36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7656-0606-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7656-0606-8"><bdi>978-0-7656-0606-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Economic+Thought%3A+A+Critical+Perspective&rft.pages=36&rft.pub=M.E.+Sharpe&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7656-0606-8&rft.aulast=Hunt&rft.aufirst=E.+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DduYaugxYHdIC%26pg%3DPA36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkousen2001" class="citation book cs1">Skousen, Mark (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/makingo_sko_2001_00_5649">The Making of Modern Economics: The Lives and Ideas of the Great Thinkers</a>. M.E. Sharpe. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/makingo_sko_2001_00_5649/page/36">36</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7656-0479-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7656-0479-8"><bdi>978-0-7656-0479-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+Modern+Economics%3A+The+Lives+and+Ideas+of+the+Great+Thinkers&rft.pages=36&rft.pub=M.E.+Sharpe&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7656-0479-8&rft.aulast=Skousen&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmakingo_sko_2001_00_5649&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlaug2017343-54"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlaug2017343_54-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlaug2017">Blaug (2017)</a>, p. 343. </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeardorff2016" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Deardorff" title="Alan Deardorff">Deardorff, Alan V.</a> (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-personal.umich.edu/~alandear/glossary/d.html#DivisionOfLabor">"Division of labor"</a>. Deardorffs' Glossary of International Economics. University of Michigan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200316082342/http://www-personal.umich.edu/~alandear/glossary/d.html#DivisionOfLabor">Archived</a> from the original on 16 March 2020. Retrieved 1 March 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Deardorffs%27+Glossary+of+International+Economics&rft.atitle=Division+of+labor&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Deardorff&rft.aufirst=Alan+V.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-personal.umich.edu%2F~alandear%2Fglossary%2Fd.html%23DivisionOfLabor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStigler1951" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_J._Stigler" class="mw-redirect" title="George J. Stigler">Stigler, George J.</a> (June 1951). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sfu.ca/~allen/stigler.pdf">"The Division of Labor Is Limited by the Extent of the Market"</a> (PDF). Journal of Political Economy. 59 (3): 185–193. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F257075">10.1086/257075</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1826433">1826433</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:36014630">36014630</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160825225559/http://www.sfu.ca/~allen/stigler.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 25 August 2016. Retrieved 26 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Political+Economy&rft.atitle=The+Division+of+Labor+Is+Limited+by+the+Extent+of+the+Market&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=185-193&rft.date=1951-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A36014630%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1826433%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F257075&rft.aulast=Stigler&rft.aufirst=George+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sfu.ca%2F~allen%2Fstigler.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStigler1976" class="citation journal cs1">Stigler, George J. (December 1976). "The Successes and Failures of Professor Smith". Journal of Political Economy. 84 (6): 1199–1213. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F260508">10.1086/260508</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1831274">1831274</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:41691663">41691663</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Political+Economy&rft.atitle=The+Successes+and+Failures+of+Professor+Smith&rft.volume=84&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1199-1213&rft.date=1976-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A41691663%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1831274%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F260508&rft.aulast=Stigler&rft.aufirst=George+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> Also published as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://testwww.chicagobooth.edu/research/selectedpapers/sp50c.pdf">The Successes and Failures of Professor Smith</a> (PDF). Selected Papers, No. 50 (Report). Graduate School of Business, University of Chicago. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160825213630/http://testwww.chicagobooth.edu/research/selectedpapers/sp50c.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 25 August 2016. Retrieved 16 August 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=The+Successes+and+Failures+of+Professor+Smith&rft.pub=Graduate+School+of+Business%2C+University+of+Chicago&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftestwww.chicagobooth.edu%2Fresearch%2Fselectedpapers%2Fsp50c.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuelsonNordhaus201030ch._2,_"Markets_and_Government_in_a_Modern_Economy",_The_Invisible_Hand-58"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuelsonNordhaus201030ch._2,_"Markets_and_Government_in_a_Modern_Economy",_The_Invisible_Hand_58-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSamuelsonNordhaus2010">Samuelson & Nordhaus (2010)</a>, p. 30, ch. 2, "Markets and Government in a Modern Economy", The Invisible Hand. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1776Bk._II:_ch._1,_2,_and_5-59"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1776Bk._II:_ch._1,_2,_and_5_59-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith1776">Smith 1776</a>, Bk. II: ch. 1, 2, and 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1776Bk._IV:_Of_Systems_of_political_Œconomy,_ch._II,_"Of_Restraints_upon_the_Importation_from_Foreign_Countries_of_such_Goods_as_can_be_Produced_at_Home",_IV.2.3_para._3–5_and_8–9-61"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1776Bk._IV:_Of_Systems_of_political_Œconomy,_ch._II,_"Of_Restraints_upon_the_Importation_from_Foreign_Countries_of_such_Goods_as_can_be_Produced_at_Home",_IV.2.3_para._3–5_and_8–9_61-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith1776">Smith (1776)</a>, Bk. IV: Of Systems of political Œconomy, ch. II, "Of Restraints upon the Importation from Foreign Countries of such Goods as can be Produced at Home", IV.2.3 para. 3–5 and 8–9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1776Bk._IV:_Of_Systems_of_political_Œconomy,_ch._II,_"Of_Restraints_upon_the_Importation_from_Foreign_Countries_of_such_Goods_as_can_be_Produced_at_Home",_para._9-62"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1776Bk._IV:_Of_Systems_of_political_Œconomy,_ch._II,_"Of_Restraints_upon_the_Importation_from_Foreign_Countries_of_such_Goods_as_can_be_Produced_at_Home",_para._9_62-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith1776">Smith (1776)</a>, Bk. IV: Of Systems of political Œconomy, ch. II, "Of Restraints upon the Importation from Foreign Countries of such Goods as can be Produced at Home", para. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalthus1798" class="citation book cs1">Malthus, Thomas (1798). <a href="/wiki/An_Essay_on_the_Principle_of_Population" title="An Essay on the Principle of Population">An Essay on the Principle of Population</a>. J. Johnson Publisher.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Essay+on+the+Principle+of+Population&rft.pub=J.+Johnson+Publisher&rft.date=1798&rft.aulast=Malthus&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimon1981" class="citation book cs1">Simon, Julian Lincoln (1981). <a href="/wiki/The_Ultimate_Resource" title="The Ultimate Resource">The Ultimate Resource</a>. Princeton University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ultimate+Resource&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Simon&rft.aufirst=Julian+Lincoln&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988">; and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimon1996" class="citation book cs1">Simon, Julian Lincoln (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wVyDwYqq5fMC&pg=PP1">The Ultimate Resource 2</a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00381-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00381-8"><bdi>978-0-691-00381-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ultimate+Resource+2&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-691-00381-8&rft.aulast=Simon&rft.aufirst=Julian+Lincoln&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwVyDwYqq5fMC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRicardo1817" class="citation book cs1">Ricardo, David (1817). <a href="/wiki/On_the_Principles_of_Political_Economy_and_Taxation" title="On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation">On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation</a>. 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Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 28–33. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.0274">10.1057/9780230226203.0274</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5"><bdi>978-0-333-78676-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171011021521/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_C000254">Archived</a> from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 16 August 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Comparative+advantage&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.pages=28-33&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+UK&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230226203.0274&rft.isbn=978-0-333-78676-5&rft.aulast=Findlay&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde2008_C000254&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMill1848" class="citation book cs1">Mill, John Stuart (1848). <a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Political_Economy" title="Principles of Political Economy">Principles of Political Economy</a>. John W. Parker Publisher.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Political+Economy&rft.pub=John+W.+Parker+Publisher&rft.date=1848&rft.aulast=Mill&rft.aufirst=John+Stuart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1776Bk._1,_Ch._5,_6-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1776Bk._1,_Ch._5,_6_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith1776">Smith (1776)</a>, Bk. 1, Ch. 5, 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-Roemer-69"><a href="#cite_ref-Roemer_69-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoemer1987" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Roemer" title="John Roemer">Roemer, J. E.</a> (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X001420">"Marxian value analysis"</a>. In Eatwell, John; Milgate, Murray; Newman, Peter (eds.). The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 1–6. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.3052">10.1057/9780230226203.3052</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5"><bdi>978-0-333-78676-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171020033131/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X001420">Archived</a> from the original on 20 October 2017. Retrieved 19 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Marxian+value+analysis&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.pages=1-6&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230226203.3052&rft.isbn=978-0-333-78676-5&rft.aulast=Roemer&rft.aufirst=J.+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde1987_X001420&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMandel1987" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Mandel" title="Ernest Mandel">Mandel, Ernest</a> (1987). "Marx, Karl Heinrich (1818–1883)". In Eatwell, John; Milgate, Murray; Newman, Peter (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X001419">The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics</a>. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 372, 376. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.3051">10.1057/9780230226203.3051</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5"><bdi>978-0-333-78676-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171020032814/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X001419">Archived</a> from the original on 20 October 2017. Retrieved 19 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Marx%2C+Karl+Heinrich+%281818%E2%80%931883%29&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.pages=372%2C+376&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230226203.3051&rft.isbn=978-0-333-78676-5&rft.aulast=Mandel&rft.aufirst=Ernest&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde1987_X001419&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-THOMAS_FULLER-70"><a href="#cite_ref-THOMAS_FULLER_70-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFuller2009" class="citation news cs1">Fuller, Thomas (17 September 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/18/world/asia/18laos.html">"Communism and Capitalism Are Mixing in Laos"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170222010636/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/18/world/asia/18laos.html">Archived</a> from the original on 22 February 2017. Retrieved 24 February 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Communism+and+Capitalism+Are+Mixing+in+Laos&rft.date=2009-09-17&rft.aulast=Fuller&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2009%2F09%2F18%2Fworld%2Fasia%2F18laos.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBackhouseMedema2007" class="citation conference cs1">Backhouse, Roger E.; Medema, Steven G. (10 December 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darp.lse.ac.uk/papersdb/LionelRobbinsConferenceProveedingsVolume.pdf#page=213">Defining Economics: the Long Road to Acceptance of the Robbins Definition</a> (PDF). Lionel Robbins's essay on the Nature and Significance of Economic Science, 75th anniversary conference proceedings. pp. 209–230. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304060656/http://darp.lse.ac.uk/papersdb/LionelRobbinsConferenceProveedingsVolume.pdf#page=213">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 30 July 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=conference&rft.jtitle=Lionel+Robbins%27s+essay+on+the+Nature+and+Significance+of+Economic+Science%2C+75th+anniversary+conference+proceedings&rft.atitle=Defining+Economics%3A+the+Long+Road+to+Acceptance+of+the+Robbins+Definition&rft.pages=209-230&rft.date=2007-12-10&rft.aulast=Backhouse&rft.aufirst=Roger+E.&rft.au=Medema%2C+Steven+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdarp.lse.ac.uk%2Fpapersdb%2FLionelRobbinsConferenceProveedingsVolume.pdf%23page%3D213&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> also published in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBackhouseMedema2009" class="citation journal cs1">Backhouse, Roger E; Medema, Steve G (October 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-0335.2009.00789.x">"Defining Economics: The Long Road to Acceptance of the Robbins Definition"</a>. Economica. 76 (Supplement 1): 805–820. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-0335.2009.00789.x">10.1111/j.1468-0335.2009.00789.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40268907">40268907</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:148506444">148506444</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Economica&rft.atitle=Defining+Economics%3A+The+Long+Road+to+Acceptance+of+the+Robbins+Definition&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=Supplement+1&rft.pages=805-820&rft.date=2009-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A148506444%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40268907%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1468-0335.2009.00789.x&rft.aulast=Backhouse&rft.aufirst=Roger+E&rft.au=Medema%2C+Steve+G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1468-0335.2009.00789.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBackhouseMedema2007223-75"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBackhouseMedema2007223_75-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBackhouseMedema2007">Backhouse & Medema (2007)</a>, p. 223: "There remained division over whether economics was defined by a method or a subject matter but both sides in that debate could increasingly accept some version of the Robbins definition." </li> <li id="cite_note-Clark-76"><a href="#cite_ref-Clark_76-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark1998" class="citation book cs1">Clark, Barry (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3wpiDzS45PsC&pg=PP1">Political Economy: A Comparative Approach</a> (2nd ed.). Praeger. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-95869-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-95869-5"><bdi>978-0-275-95869-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+Economy%3A+A+Comparative+Approach&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Praeger&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-275-95869-5&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Barry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3wpiDzS45PsC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampus1987" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Campus, Antonietta (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X001393">"Marginalist economics"</a>. In Eatwell, John; Milgate, Murray; Newman, Peter (eds.). The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. Vol. III (first ed.). pp. 1–6. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.3031">10.1057/9780230226203.3031</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5"><bdi>978-0-333-78676-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171027231849/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X001393">Archived</a> from the original on 27 October 2017. Retrieved 27 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Marginalist+economics&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.pages=1-6&rft.edition=first&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230226203.3031&rft.isbn=978-0-333-78676-5&rft.aulast=Campus&rft.aufirst=Antonietta&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde1987_X001393&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hicks-78">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hicks_78-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hicks_78-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hicks_78-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHicks1937" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Hicks" title="John Hicks">Hicks, J.R.</a> (April 1937). "Mr. Keynes and the "Classics": A Suggested Interpretation". Econometrica. 5 (2): 147–159. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1907242">10.2307/1907242</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1907242">1907242</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Econometrica&rft.atitle=Mr.+Keynes+and+the+%22Classics%22%3A+A+Suggested+Interpretation&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=147-159&rft.date=1937-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1907242&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1907242%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hicks&rft.aufirst=J.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlack2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Black, R.D. Collison (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_U000047">"Utility"</a>. In Durlauf, Steven N.; Blume, Lawrence E. (eds.). The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 577–581. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.1781">10.1057/9780230226203.1781</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5"><bdi>978-0-333-78676-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171028042451/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_U000047">Archived</a> from the original on 28 October 2017. Retrieved 27 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Utility&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.pages=577-581&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+UK&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230226203.1781&rft.isbn=978-0-333-78676-5&rft.aulast=Black&rft.aufirst=R.D.+Collison&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde2008_U000047&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Blanchard2008-80">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Blanchard2008_80-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blanchard2008_80-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlanchard2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Olivier_J._Blanchard" class="mw-redirect" title="Olivier J. Blanchard">Blanchard, Olivier Jean</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_N000041">"Neoclassical synthesis"</a>. In Durlauf, Steven N.; Blume, Lawrence E. (eds.). The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics (2nd ed.). pp. 896–899. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.1172">10.1057/9780230226203.1172</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5"><bdi>978-0-333-78676-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171018013510/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_N000041">Archived</a> from the original on 18 October 2017. Retrieved 17 November 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Neoclassical+synthesis&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.pages=896-899&rft.edition=2nd&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230226203.1172&rft.isbn=978-0-333-78676-5&rft.aulast=Blanchard&rft.aufirst=Olivier+Jean&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde2008_N000041&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTesfatsion2002" class="citation journal cs1">Tesfatsion, Leigh (Winter 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.econ.iastate.edu/tesfatsi/acealife.pdf">"Agent-Based Computational Economics: Growing Economies from the Bottom Up"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Artificial_Life_(journal)" title="Artificial Life (journal)">Artificial Life</a>. 8 (1): 55–82. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.194.4605">10.1.1.194.4605</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2F106454602753694765">10.1162/106454602753694765</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12020421">12020421</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1345062">1345062</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201126182912/https://www2.econ.iastate.edu/tesfatsi/acealife.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 26 November 2020. Retrieved 24 June 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Artificial+Life&rft.atitle=Agent-Based+Computational+Economics%3A+Growing+Economies+from+the+Bottom+Up&rft.ssn=winter&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=55-82&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.194.4605%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1345062%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12020421&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2F106454602753694765&rft.aulast=Tesfatsion&rft.aufirst=Leigh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww2.econ.iastate.edu%2Ftesfatsi%2Facealife.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeynes1936" class="citation book cs1">Keynes, John Maynard (1936). <a href="/wiki/The_General_Theory_of_Employment,_Interest_and_Money" title="The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money">The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money</a>. 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I. W. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.diw.de/sixcms/detail.php?id=diw_01.c.450284.de">"DIW Berlin: A Matter of Opinion : How Ecological and Neoclassical Environmental Economists Think about Sustainability and Economics"</a>. www.diw.de (in German). Retrieved 29 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.diw.de&rft.atitle=DIW+Berlin%3A+A+Matter+of+Opinion+%3A+How+Ecological+and+Neoclassical+Environmental+Economists+Think+about+Sustainability+and+Economics&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Berlin&rft.aufirst=D.+I.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.diw.de%2Fsixcms%2Fdetail.php%3Fid%3Ddiw_01.c.450284.de&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenwolde2009" class="citation news cs1">Greenwolde, Nathanial (23 October 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/gwire/2009/10/23/23greenwire-new-school-of-thought-brings-energy-to-the-dis-63367.html">"New School of Thought Brings Energy to 'the Dismal Science'"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161129124417/http://www.nytimes.com/gwire/2009/10/23/23greenwire-new-school-of-thought-brings-energy-to-the-dis-63367.html">Archived</a> from the original on 29 November 2016. Retrieved 24 February 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=New+School+of+Thought+Brings+Energy+to+%27the+Dismal+Science%27&rft.date=2009-10-23&rft.aulast=Greenwolde&rft.aufirst=Nathanial&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Fgwire%2F2009%2F10%2F23%2F23greenwire-new-school-of-thought-brings-energy-to-the-dis-63367.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJulie_A._Nelson2016" class="citation book cs1">Julie A. Nelson (1 January 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1057/978-1-349-95121-5_2210-1">"Feminist Economics"</a>. The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. pp. 1–6. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F978-1-349-95121-5_2210-1">10.1057/978-1-349-95121-5_2210-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-95121-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-349-95121-5"><bdi>978-1-349-95121-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 7 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Feminist+Economics&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.pages=1-6&rft.date=2016-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F978-1-349-95121-5_2210-1&rft.isbn=978-1-349-95121-5&rft.au=Julie+A.+Nelson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Freferenceworkentry%2F10.1057%2F978-1-349-95121-5_2210-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFriedman195310-107"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFriedman195310_107-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFriedman1953">Friedman 1953</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoland1987" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Boland, Lawrence A. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X001456">"Methodology"</a>. In Eatwell, John; Milgate, Murray; Newman, Peter (eds.). The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. Vol. III. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 455–458. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.3083">10.1057/9780230226203.3083</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5"><bdi>978-0-333-78676-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171024043230/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X001456">Archived</a> from the original on 24 October 2017. Retrieved 23 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Methodology&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.pages=455-458&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230226203.3083&rft.isbn=978-0-333-78676-5&rft.aulast=Boland&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde1987_X001456&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreyPommerehneSchneiderGilbert1984" class="citation journal cs1">Frey, Bruno S.; Pommerehne, Werner W.; Schneider, Friedrich; Gilbert, Guy (December 1984). "Consensus and Dissension among Economists: An Empirical Inquiry". <a href="/wiki/The_American_Economic_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="The American Economic Review">The American Economic Review</a>. 74 (5): 986–994. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-8282">0002-8282</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/557">557</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Economic+Review&rft.atitle=Consensus+and+Dissension+among+Economists%3A+An+Empirical+Inquiry&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=986-994&rft.date=1984-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F557%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0002-8282&rft.aulast=Frey&rft.aufirst=Bruno+S.&rft.au=Pommerehne%2C+Werner+W.&rft.au=Schneider%2C+Friedrich&rft.au=Gilbert%2C+Guy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dixon2008-109">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dixon2008_109-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dixon2008_109-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDixon2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Dixon, Huw David (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_N000166">"New Keynesian macroeconomics"</a>. In Durlauf, Steven N.; Blume, Lawrence E. (eds.). The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 40–45. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.1184">10.1057/9780230226203.1184</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5"><bdi>978-0-333-78676-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171018013536/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_N000166">Archived</a> from the original on 18 October 2017. Retrieved 17 November 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=New+Keynesian+macroeconomics&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.pages=40-45&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+UK&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230226203.1184&rft.isbn=978-0-333-78676-5&rft.aulast=Dixon&rft.aufirst=Huw+David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde2008_N000166&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuirk1987" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Quirk, James (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X001811">"Qualitative economics"</a>. In Eatwell, John; Milgate, Murray; Newman, Peter (eds.). The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics. Vol. IV. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 1–3. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.3369">10.1057/9780230226203.3369</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5"><bdi>978-0-333-78676-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171023230514/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X001811">Archived</a> from the original on 23 October 2017. Retrieved 23 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Qualitative+economics&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave%3A+A+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.pages=1-3&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+UK&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230226203.3369&rft.isbn=978-0-333-78676-5&rft.aulast=Quirk&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde1987_X001811&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Foundations-111"><a href="#cite_ref-Foundations_111-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamuelson1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Samuelson" title="Paul Samuelson">Samuelson, Paul A.</a> (1983) [1947]. <a href="/wiki/Foundations_of_Economic_Analysis" title="Foundations of Economic Analysis">Foundations of Economic Analysis</a> (enlarged ed.). Boston: Harvard University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/foundationsofeco0000samu/page/4">4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-31301-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-31301-9"><bdi>978-0-674-31301-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+Economic+Analysis&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=4&rft.edition=enlarged&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-674-31301-9&rft.aulast=Samuelson&rft.aufirst=Paul+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHashem1987" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Hashem, M. Pesaren (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X000646">"Econometrics"</a>. In Eatwell, John; Milgate, Murray; Newman, Peter (eds.). The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics. Vol. II. Palgrave Macmillan UK. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.2430">10.1057/9780230226203.2430</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5"><bdi>978-0-333-78676-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171024100955/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X000646">Archived</a> from the original on 24 October 2017. Retrieved 23 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Econometrics&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave%3A+A+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+UK&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230226203.2430&rft.isbn=978-0-333-78676-5&rft.aulast=Hashem&rft.aufirst=M.+Pesaren&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde1987_X000646&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeuzenkamp2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugo_A._Keuzenkamp" class="mw-redirect" title="Hugo A. Keuzenkamp">Keuzenkamp, Hugo A.</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/probabilityecono0000keuz">Probability, Econometrics and Truth: The Methodology of Econometrics</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/probabilityecono0000keuz/page/13">13</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-55359-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-55359-9"><bdi>978-0-521-55359-9</bdi></a>. <q>... in economics, controlled experiments are rare and reproducible controlled experiments even more so ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Probability%2C+Econometrics+and+Truth%3A+The+Methodology+of+Econometrics&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-521-55359-9&rft.aulast=Keuzenkamp&rft.aufirst=Hugo+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprobabilityecono0000keuz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBastable2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Bastable, C. F. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X000762">"Experimental methods in economics (i)"</a>. In Eatwell, John; Milgate, Murray; Newman, Peter (eds.). The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. Vol. II. pp. 1–2. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.2512">10.1057/9780230226203.2512</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5"><bdi>978-0-333-78676-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171024101031/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X000762">Archived</a> from the original on 24 October 2017. Retrieved 23 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Experimental+methods+in+economics+%28i%29&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.pages=1-2&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230226203.2512&rft.isbn=978-0-333-78676-5&rft.aulast=Bastable&rft.aufirst=C.+F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde1987_X000762&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Vernon_L._Smith" title="Vernon L. Smith">Smith, Vernon L.</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X000763">"Experimental methods in economics (ii)"</a>. In Eatwell, John; Milgate, Murray; Newman, Peter (eds.). The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. Vol. II. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 241–242. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.2513">10.1057/9780230226203.2513</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5"><bdi>978-0-333-78676-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171024101020/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X000763">Archived</a> from the original on 24 October 2017. Retrieved 23 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Experimental+methods+in+economics+%28ii%29&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.pages=241-242&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230226203.2513&rft.isbn=978-0-333-78676-5&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Vernon+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde1987_X000763&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFehrFischbacher2003" class="citation journal cs1">Fehr, Ernst; Fischbacher, Urs (23 October 2003). "The Nature of Human Altruism". <a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a>. 425 (6960): 785–791. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003Natur.425..785F">2003Natur.425..785F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature02043">10.1038/nature02043</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14574401">14574401</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4305295">4305295</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+Nature+of+Human+Altruism&rft.volume=425&rft.issue=6960&rft.pages=785-791&rft.date=2003-10-23&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature02043&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4305295%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14574401&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003Natur.425..785F&rft.aulast=Fehr&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rft.au=Fischbacher%2C+Urs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSigmundFehrNowak2002" class="citation journal cs1">Sigmund, Karl; Fehr, Ernst; Nowak, Martin A. 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Quarterly Journal of Economics. 115 (1): 99–146. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2F003355300554683">10.1162/003355300554683</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2586936">2586936</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quarterly+Journal+of+Economics&rft.atitle=Economic+Imperialism&rft.volume=115&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=99-146&rft.date=2000-02-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2F003355300554683&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2586936%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Lazear&rft.aufirst=Edward+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBlaug2017">Blaug (2017)</a>, pp. 347–349.</li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVarian1987" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hal_R._Varian" class="mw-redirect" title="Hal R. Varian">Varian, Hal R.</a> (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X001460">"Microeconomics"</a>. In Eatwell, John; Milgate, Murray; Newman, Peter (eds.). The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 1–5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.3086">10.1057/9780230226203.3086</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5"><bdi>978-0-333-78676-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171005051338/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X001460">Archived</a> from the original on 5 October 2017. Retrieved 4 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Microeconomics&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.pages=1-5&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230226203.3086&rft.isbn=978-0-333-78676-5&rft.aulast=Varian&rft.aufirst=Hal+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde1987_X001460&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMontani1987" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Montani, Guido (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X001949">"Scarcity"</a>. In Eatwell, John; Milgate, Murray; Newman, Peter (eds.). The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics. pp. 1–4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.3485">10.1057/9780230226203.3485</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5"><bdi>978-0-333-78676-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171005051007/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X001949">Archived</a> from the original on 5 October 2017. Retrieved 4 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave%3A+A+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.pages=1-4&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230226203.3485&rft.isbn=978-0-333-78676-5&rft.aulast=Montani&rft.aufirst=Guido&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde1987_X001949&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuelsonNordhaus2010ch._1,_p._5_(quotation)_and_sect._C,_"The_Production-Possibility_Frontier",_pp._9–15;_ch._2,_"Efficiency"_sect.;_ch._8,_sect._D,_"The_Concept_of_Efficiency-119"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuelsonNordhaus2010ch._1,_p._5_(quotation)_and_sect._C,_"The_Production-Possibility_Frontier",_pp._9–15;_ch._2,_"Efficiency"_sect.;_ch._8,_sect._D,_"The_Concept_of_Efficiency_119-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSamuelsonNordhaus2010">Samuelson & Nordhaus (2010)</a>, ch. 1, p. 5 (quotation) and sect. C, "The Production-Possibility Frontier", pp. 9–15; ch. 2, "Efficiency" sect.; ch. 8, sect. D, "The Concept of Efficiency. </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrugman1980" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Krugman, Paul</a> (December 1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.princeton.edu/~pkrugman/scale_econ.pdf">"Scale Economies, Product Differentiation, and the Pattern of Trade"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/American_Economic_Review" title="American Economic Review">American Economic Review</a>. 70 (5): 950–959. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1805774">1805774</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130518075839/http://www.princeton.edu/~pkrugman/scale_econ.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 18 May 2013. Retrieved 16 August 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Economic+Review&rft.atitle=Scale+Economies%2C+Product+Differentiation%2C+and+the+Pattern+of+Trade&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=950-959&rft.date=1980-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1805774%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Krugman&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.princeton.edu%2F~pkrugman%2Fscale_econ.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrange2008" class="citation journal cs1">Strange, William C. (2008). Durlauf, Steven N.; Blume, Lawrence E. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_U000064">"Urban agglomeration"</a>. The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan: 533–536. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.1769">10.1057/9780230226203.1769</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5"><bdi>978-0-333-78676-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171010211747/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_U000064">Archived</a> from the original on 10 October 2017. 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Durlauf, Steven N.; Blume, Lawrence E. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_D000176">"Division of labour"</a>. The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics (2nd ed.): 517–526. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.0401">10.1057/9780230226203.0401</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5"><bdi>978-0-333-78676-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171010211714/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_D000176">Archived</a> from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 16 August 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.atitle=Division+of+labour&rft.pages=517-526&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230226203.0401&rft.isbn=978-0-333-78676-5&rft.aulast=Groenewegen&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde2008_D000176&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson2005" class="citation web cs1">Johnson, Paul M. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.auburn.edu/~johnspm/gloss/specialization">"Specialization"</a>. A Glossary of Political Economy Terms. 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Retrieved 27 March 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=A+Glossary+of+Political+Economy+Terms&rft.atitle=Specialization&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Paul+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.auburn.edu%2F~johnspm%2Fgloss%2Fspecialization&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYangNg1993" class="citation book cs1">Yang, Xiaokai; Ng, Yew-Kwang (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xuG4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PP1">Specialization and Economic Organization: A New Classical Microeconomic Framework</a>. North-Holland. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-444-88698-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-444-88698-9"><bdi>978-0-444-88698-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Specialization+and+Economic+Organization%3A+A+New+Classical+Microeconomic+Framework&rft.pub=North-Holland&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-444-88698-9&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Xiaokai&rft.au=Ng%2C+Yew-Kwang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxuG4AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCameron1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rondo_Cameron" title="Rondo Cameron">Cameron, Rondo E.</a> (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aEHX63g1XsYC&pg=PA25">A Concise Economic History of the World: From Paleolithic Times to the Present</a> (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 25–25, 32, 276–280. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507445-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507445-1"><bdi>978-0-19-507445-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200801065517/https://books.google.com/books?id=aEHX63g1XsYC&pg=PA25">Archived</a> from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 10 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+Economic+History+of+the+World%3A+From+Paleolithic+Times+to+the+Present&rft.pages=25-25%2C+32%2C+276-280&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-19-507445-1&rft.aulast=Cameron&rft.aufirst=Rondo+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaEHX63g1XsYC%26pg%3DPA25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSamuelsonNordhaus2010">Samuelson & Nordhaus (2010)</a>, pp. 37, 433, 435.</li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFindlay2008" class="citation journal cs1">Findlay, Ronald (2008). Durlauf, Steven N.; Blume, Lawrence E. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_C000254">"Comparative advantage"</a>. The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan: 28–33. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.0274">10.1057/9780230226203.0274</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5"><bdi>978-0-333-78676-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171011021521/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_C000254">Archived</a> from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 16 August 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.atitle=Comparative+advantage&rft.pages=28-33&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230226203.0274&rft.isbn=978-0-333-78676-5&rft.aulast=Findlay&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde2008_C000254&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKemp1987" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Kemp, Murray C. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X000902">"Gains from trade"</a>. In Eatwell, John; Milgate, Murray; Newman, Peter (eds.). The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 1–3. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.2613">10.1057/9780230226203.2613</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5"><bdi>978-0-333-78676-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171010211136/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X000902">Archived</a> from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 10 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gains+from+trade&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.pages=1-3&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230226203.2613&rft.isbn=978-0-333-78676-5&rft.aulast=Kemp&rft.aufirst=Murray+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde1987_X000902&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrody1987" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Brody, A. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X001748">"Prices and quantities"</a>. In Eatwell, John; Milgate, Murray; Newman, Peter (eds.). The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics. pp. 1–7. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.3325">10.1057/9780230226203.3325</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5"><bdi>978-0-333-78676-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171011071908/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X001748">Archived</a> from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 10 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave%3A+A+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.pages=1-7&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230226203.3325&rft.isbn=978-0-333-78676-5&rft.aulast=Brody&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde1987_X001748&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoase1937" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Coase" title="Ronald Coase">Coase, Ronald</a> (1937). <a href="/wiki/The_Nature_of_the_Firm" title="The Nature of the Firm">"The Nature of the Firm"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Economica" title="Economica">Economica</a>. 4 (16): 386–405. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-0335.1937.tb00002.x">10.1111/j.1468-0335.1937.tb00002.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2626876">2626876</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Economica&rft.atitle=The+Nature+of+the+Firm&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=16&rft.pages=386-405&rft.date=1937&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1468-0335.1937.tb00002.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2626876%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Coase&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmalensee1987" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_L._Schmalensee" title="Richard L. Schmalensee">Schmalensee, Richard</a> (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X001118">"Industrial organization"</a>. In Eatwell, John; Milgate, Murray; Newman, Peter (eds.). The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics. Students business book series. Chicago. pp. 1–9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.2788">10.1057/9780230226203.2788</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fuc1.%24b37792">2027/uc1.$b37792</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5"><bdi>978-0-333-78676-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171011022150/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X001118">Archived</a> from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 10 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave%3A+A+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.series=Students+business+book+series&rft.pages=1-9&rft.pub=Chicago&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fuc1.%24b37792&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230226203.2788&rft.isbn=978-0-333-78676-5&rft.aulast=Schmalensee&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde1987_X001118&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/managerial-economics">"Managerial Economics"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171011023121/https://www.britannica.com/topic/managerial-economics">Archived</a> from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 10 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Managerial+Economics&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Online&rft.date=2013-05-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fmanagerial-economics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHughes1987" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Hughes, Alan (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X001379">"Managerial capitalism"</a>. In Eatwell, John; Milgate, Murray; Newman, Peter (eds.). The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. London: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 1–5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.3017">10.1057/9780230226203.3017</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5"><bdi>978-0-333-78676-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171011072045/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X001379">Archived</a> from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 10 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Managerial+capitalism&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.place=London&rft.pages=1-5&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230226203.3017&rft.isbn=978-0-333-78676-5&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde1987_X001379&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMachinaRothschild2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mark_J._Machina" title="Mark J. Machina">Machina, Mark J.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Michael_Rothschild" title="Michael Rothschild">Rothschild, Michael</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_R000152">"Risk"</a>. In Durlauf, Steven N.; Blume, Lawrence E. (eds.). The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 190–197. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.1442">10.1057/9780230226203.1442</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5"><bdi>978-0-333-78676-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171011071806/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_R000152">Archived</a> from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 2 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Risk&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.pages=190-197&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+UK&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230226203.1442&rft.isbn=978-0-333-78676-5&rft.aulast=Machina&rft.aufirst=Mark+J.&rft.au=Rothschild%2C+Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde2008_R000152&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWakker2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Wakker, Peter P. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_U000005">"Uncertainty"</a>. In Durlauf, Steven N.; Blume, Lawrence E. (eds.). The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics (second ed.). Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 428–439. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.1753">10.1057/9780230226203.1753</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5"><bdi>978-0-333-78676-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101230071633/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_U000005">Archived</a> from the original on 30 December 2010. Retrieved 2 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Uncertainty&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.pages=428-439&rft.edition=second&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+UK&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230226203.1753&rft.isbn=978-0-333-78676-5&rft.aulast=Wakker&rft.aufirst=Peter+P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde2008_U000005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSamuelsonNordhaus2010">Samuelson & Nordhaus (2010)</a>, ch. 11, "Uncertainty and Game Theory" and [end] Glossary of Terms, "Economics of information", "Game theory", and "Regulation".</li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCamerer2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Colin_F._Camerer" class="mw-redirect" title="Colin F. 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J.</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_G000007">"Game Theory"</a>. In Durlauf, Steven N.; Blume, Lawrence E. (eds.). The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics (2nd ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101229164520/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_G000007">Archived</a> from the original on 29 December 2010. Retrieved 2 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Game+Theory&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.edition=2nd&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Aumann&rft.aufirst=R.+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde2008_G000007&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernankeGertler1990" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ben_Bernanke" title="Ben Bernanke">Bernanke, Ben</a>; <a href="/wiki/Mark_Gertler_(economist)" title="Mark Gertler (economist)">Gertler, Mark</a> (February 1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nber.org/papers/w2318.pdf">"Financial Fragility and Economic Performance"</a> (PDF). Quarterly Journal of Economics. 105 (1): 87–114. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2937820">10.2307/2937820</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2937820">2937820</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:155048192">155048192</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191126210951/https://www.nber.org/papers/w2318.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 26 November 2019. Retrieved 3 September 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quarterly+Journal+of+Economics&rft.atitle=Financial+Fragility+and+Economic+Performance&rft.volume=105&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=87-114&rft.date=1990-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A155048192%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2937820%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2937820&rft.aulast=Bernanke&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft.au=Gertler%2C+Mark&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nber.org%2Fpapers%2Fw2318.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurlaufBlume2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Durlauf, Steven N.; Blume, Lawrence E., eds. (2008). The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics (2nd ed.).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.edition=2nd&rft.date=2008&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Ross_(economist)" title="Stephen Ross (economist)">Ross, Stephen A.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_F000071">Finance</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Finance&rft.aulast=Ross&rft.aufirst=Stephen+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde2008_F000071&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurnsideEichenbaumRebelo" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Burnside, Craig; Eichenbaum, Martin; Rebelo, Sergio. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_S000204">Currency Crises Models</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120326015628/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_S000204">Archived</a> from the original on 26 March 2012. Retrieved 2 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Currency+Crises+Models&rft.aulast=Burnside&rft.aufirst=Craig&rft.au=Eichenbaum%2C+Martin&rft.au=Rebelo%2C+Sergio&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde2008_S000204&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaminsky" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Kaminsky, Graciela Laura. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_C000468">Currency Crises</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120326015551/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_C000468">Archived</a> from the original on 26 March 2012. Retrieved 2 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Currency+Crises&rft.aulast=Kaminsky&rft.aufirst=Graciela+Laura&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde2008_C000468&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalomiris" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Calomiris, Charles W. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_B000051">Banking Crises</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150103021252/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_B000051">Archived</a> from the original on 3 January 2015. Retrieved 2 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Banking+Crises&rft.aulast=Calomiris&rft.aufirst=Charles+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde2008_B000051&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkerlof1970" class="citation journal cs1">Akerlof, George A. (August 1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110818045155/http://hydrogen.its.ucdavis.edu/eec/education/EEC-classes/eeclimate/class-readings/akerlof-the%20market%20for%20lemons.pdf">"The Market for 'Lemons': Quality Uncertainty and the Market Mechanism"</a> (PDF). Quarterly Journal of Economics. 84 (3): 488–500. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1879431">10.2307/1879431</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1879431">1879431</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6738765">6738765</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hydrogen.its.ucdavis.edu/eec/education/EEC-classes/eeclimate/class-readings/akerlof-the%20market%20for%20lemons.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 18 August 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quarterly+Journal+of+Economics&rft.atitle=The+Market+for+%27Lemons%27%3A+Quality+Uncertainty+and+the+Market+Mechanism&rft.volume=84&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=488-500&rft.date=1970-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6738765%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1879431%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1879431&rft.aulast=Akerlof&rft.aufirst=George+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhydrogen.its.ucdavis.edu%2Feec%2Feducation%2FEEC-classes%2Feeclimate%2Fclass-readings%2Fakerlof-the%2520market%2520for%2520lemons.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-sciencedirect-140">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sciencedirect_140-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sciencedirect_140-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLippmanMcCall2001" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Lippman, S.S.; McCall, J.J. 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Retrieved 2 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Adverse+Selection&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde2008_A000040&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKotowitz" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Kotowitz, Y. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_M000259">Moral Hazard</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171017041859/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_M000259">Archived</a> from the original on 17 October 2017. Retrieved 2 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Moral+Hazard&rft.aulast=Kotowitz&rft.aufirst=Y.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde2008_M000259&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMyerson" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_B._Myerson" class="mw-redirect" title="Roger B. Myerson">Myerson, Roger B.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_R000137">Revelation Principle</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101229164407/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_R000137">Archived</a> from the original on 29 December 2010. Retrieved 2 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revelation+Principle&rft.aulast=Myerson&rft.aufirst=Roger+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde2008_R000137&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaffont1987" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Laffont" title="Jean-Jacques Laffont">Laffont, J.J.</a> (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X000773">"Externalities"</a>. In Eatwell, John; Milgate, Murray; Newman, Peter (eds.). The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. pp. 263–265. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.2520">10.1057/9780230226203.2520</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5"><bdi>978-0-333-78676-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171016230115/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X000773">Archived</a> from the original on 16 October 2017. Retrieved 16 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Externalities&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.pages=263-265&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230226203.2520&rft.isbn=978-0-333-78676-5&rft.aulast=Laffont&rft.aufirst=J.J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde1987_X000773&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlaug2017347-148"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlaug2017347_148-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlaug2017">Blaug 2017</a>, p. 347. </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKneeseRussell1987" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Allen_V._Kneese" title="Allen V. 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Retrieved 16 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Environmental+economics&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.pages=159-164&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230226203.2480&rft.isbn=978-0-333-78676-5&rft.aulast=Kneese&rft.aufirst=Allen+V.&rft.au=Russell%2C+Clifford+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde1987_X000715&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li><li><a href="#CITEREFSamuelsonNordhaus2010">Samuelson & Nordhaus (2010)</a>, ch. 18, "Protecting the Environment."</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeardorff2016" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Deardorff, Alan V. 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Reserve Bank of Australia. Retrieved 13 September 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=An+International+Perspective+on+Monetary+Policy+Implementation+Systems+%7C+Bulletin+%E2%80%93+June+2022&rft.pub=Reserve+Bank+of+Australia&rft.date=2022-06-16&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft.au=Rafter%2C+Sally&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rba.gov.au%2Fpublications%2Fbulletin%2F2022%2Fjun%2Fan-international-perspective-on-monetary-policy-implementation-systems.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bis.org/publ/mc_compendium.pdf">MC Compendium Monetary policy frameworks and central bank market operations</a> (PDF). Bank for International Settlements. October 2019. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-9259-298-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-9259-298-1"><bdi>978-92-9259-298-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=MC+Compendium+Monetary+policy+frameworks+and+central+bank+market+operations&rft.pub=Bank+for+International+Settlements&rft.date=2019-10&rft.isbn=978-92-9259-298-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bis.org%2Fpubl%2Fmc_compendium.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-urlWealth_Distribution_and_Income_Inequality_by_Country_2018_|_Global_Finance_Magazine-170"><a href="#cite_ref-urlWealth_Distribution_and_Income_Inequality_by_Country_2018_|_Global_Finance_Magazine_170-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVentura2022" class="citation web cs1">Ventura, Luca (12 January 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gfmag.com/global-data/economic-data/wealth-distribution-income-inequality">"World Wealth Distribution And Income Inequality 2022"</a>. Global Finance Magazine.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Global+Finance+Magazine&rft.atitle=World+Wealth+Distribution+And+Income+Inequality+2022&rft.date=2022-01-12&rft.aulast=Ventura&rft.aufirst=Luca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gfmag.com%2Fglobal-data%2Feconomic-data%2Fwealth-distribution-income-inequality&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrapeznikova2019" class="citation journal cs1">Trapeznikova, Ija (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wol.iza.org/articles/measuring-income-inequality">"Measuring income inequality"</a>. IZA World of Labor. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15185%2Fizawol.462">10.15185/izawol.462</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IZA+World+of+Labor&rft.atitle=Measuring+income+inequality&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.15185%2Fizawol.462&rft.aulast=Trapeznikova&rft.aufirst=Ija&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwol.iza.org%2Farticles%2Fmeasuring-income-inequality&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> Human Development Reports. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/inequality-adjusted-human-development-index-ihdi">Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190712222023/http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/inequality-adjusted-human-development-index-ihdi">Archived</a> July 12, 2019, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. United Nations Development Programme. Retrieved: March 3, 2019. </li> <li id="cite_note-MacCulloch-173">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MacCulloch_173-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MacCulloch_173-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MacCulloch_173-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MacCulloch_173-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imf.org/en/Topics/Inequality/introduction-to-inequality">"Introduction to Inequality"</a>. IMF. Retrieved 9 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IMF&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+Inequality&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.imf.org%2Fen%2FTopics%2FInequality%2Fintroduction-to-inequality&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacCulloch2005" class="citation journal cs1">MacCulloch, Robert (2005). "Income Inequality and the Taste for Revolution". The Journal of Law and Economics. 48 (1): 93–123. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F426881">10.1086/426881</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/426881">10.1086/426881</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154993058">154993058</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Law+and+Economics&rft.atitle=Income+Inequality+and+the+Taste+for+Revolution&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=93-123&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154993058%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.1086%2F426881%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F426881&rft.aulast=MacCulloch&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Acemoglu-175"><a href="#cite_ref-Acemoglu_175-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAcemogluRobinson2005" class="citation book cs1">Acemoglu, Daron; Robinson, James A. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/economic-origins-of-dictatorship-and-democracy/3F29DF90519971B183CAA16ED0203507">Economic Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9780511510809">10.1017/cbo9780511510809</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521855266" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521855266"><bdi>978-0521855266</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economic+Origins+of+Dictatorship+and+Democracy&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9780511510809&rft.isbn=978-0521855266&rft.aulast=Acemoglu&rft.aufirst=Daron&rft.au=Robinson%2C+James+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Feconomic-origins-of-dictatorship-and-democracy%2F3F29DF90519971B183CAA16ED0203507&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCedermanGleditschBuhaug2013" class="citation book cs1">Cederman, Lars-Erik; Gleditsch, Kristian Skrede; Buhaug, Halvard (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/inequality-grievances-and-civil-war/39F26D12EFEE2D7D621A59DF74DED496">Inequality, Grievances, and Civil War</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9781139084161">10.1017/cbo9781139084161</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1107017429" title="Special:BookSources/978-1107017429"><bdi>978-1107017429</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inequality%2C+Grievances%2C+and+Civil+War&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9781139084161&rft.isbn=978-1107017429&rft.aulast=Cederman&rft.aufirst=Lars-Erik&rft.au=Gleditsch%2C+Kristian+Skrede&rft.au=Buhaug%2C+Halvard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Finequality-grievances-and-civil-war%2F39F26D12EFEE2D7D621A59DF74DED496&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNevesAfonsoSilva2016" class="citation journal cs1">Neves, Pedro Cunha; Afonso, Óscar; Silva, Sandra Tavares (2016). 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World Development. 78: 386–400. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.worlddev.2015.10.038">10.1016/j.worlddev.2015.10.038</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Development&rft.atitle=A+Meta-Analytic+Reassessment+of+the+Effects+of+Inequality+on+Growth&rft.volume=78&rft.pages=386-400&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.worlddev.2015.10.038&rft.aulast=Neves&rft.aufirst=Pedro+Cunha&rft.au=Afonso%2C+%C3%93scar&rft.au=Silva%2C+Sandra+Tavares&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMusgrave1987" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Musgrave_(economist)" title="Richard Musgrave (economist)">Musgrave, Richard A.</a> (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X001795">"Public finance"</a>. In Eatwell, John; Milgate, Murray; Newman, Peter (eds.). The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. pp. 1055–1060. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.3360">10.1057/9780230226203.3360</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5"><bdi>978-0-333-78676-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171016230041/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X001795">Archived</a> from the original on 16 October 2017. Retrieved 16 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Public+finance&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.pages=1055-1060&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230226203.3360&rft.isbn=978-0-333-78676-5&rft.aulast=Musgrave&rft.aufirst=Richard+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde1987_X001795&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeldman1987" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Feldman, Allan M. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X002306">"Welfare economics"</a>. In Eatwell, John; Milgate, Murray; Newman, Peter (eds.). The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. pp. 889–095. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.3785">10.1057/9780230226203.3785</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5"><bdi>978-0-333-78676-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171017041911/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X002306">Archived</a> from the original on 17 October 2017. Retrieved 16 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Welfare+economics&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.pages=889-095&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230226203.3785&rft.isbn=978-0-333-78676-5&rft.aulast=Feldman&rft.aufirst=Allan+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde1987_X002306&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Anderson, James E. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_I000263">"International trade theory"</a>. In Durlauf, Steven N.; Blume, Lawrence E. (eds.). The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 516–522. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.0839">10.1057/9780230226203.0839</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5"><bdi>978-0-333-78676-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171020033352/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_I000263">Archived</a> from the original on 20 October 2017. Retrieved 6 June 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=International+trade+theory&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.pages=516-522&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+UK&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230226203.0839&rft.isbn=978-0-333-78676-5&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=James+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde2008_I000263&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVenables2001" class="citation journal cs1">Venables, A. (2001). "International Trade: Economic Integration". <a href="/wiki/International_Encyclopedia_of_the_Social_%26_Behavioral_Sciences" title="International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences">International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences</a>: 7843–7848. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB0-08-043076-7%2F02259-2">10.1016/B0-08-043076-7/02259-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0080430768" title="Special:BookSources/978-0080430768"><bdi>978-0080430768</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Encyclopedia+of+the+Social+%26+Behavioral+Sciences&rft.atitle=International+Trade%3A+Economic+Integration&rft.pages=7843-7848&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB0-08-043076-7%2F02259-2&rft.isbn=978-0080430768&rft.aulast=Venables&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFObstfeld2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Obstfeld, Maurice (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_I000169">"International finance"</a>. In Durlauf, Steven N.; Blume, Lawrence E. (eds.). The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 439–451. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.0828">10.1057/9780230226203.0828</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5"><bdi>978-0-333-78676-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219381371">219381371</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171020032606/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_I000169">Archived</a> from the original on 20 October 2017. Retrieved 6 June 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=International+finance&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.pages=439-451&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+UK&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A219381371%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230226203.0828&rft.isbn=978-0-333-78676-5&rft.aulast=Obstfeld&rft.aufirst=Maurice&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde2008_I000169&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBell1987" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Bell, Clive (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X000565">"Development economics"</a>. In Eatwell, John; Milgate, Murray; Newman, Peter (eds.). The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. Vol. 1. pp. 818–826. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.2366">10.1057/9780230226203.2366</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5"><bdi>978-0-333-78676-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171020033009/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X000565">Archived</a> from the original on 20 October 2017. Retrieved 19 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Development+economics&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.pages=818-826&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230226203.2366&rft.isbn=978-0-333-78676-5&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=Clive&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde1987_X000565&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBlaug2017">Blaug (2017)</a>, p. 351</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedman1987" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_D._Friedman" title="David D. Friedman">Friedman, David</a> (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X001281">"Law and economics"</a>. In Eatwell, John; Milgate, Murray; Newman, Peter (eds.). The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. Vol. III. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 1–8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.2937">10.1057/9780230226203.2937</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5"><bdi>978-0-333-78676-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171024101008/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X001281">Archived</a> from the original on 24 October 2017. Retrieved 23 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Law+and+economics&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.pages=1-8&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230226203.2937&rft.isbn=978-0-333-78676-5&rft.aulast=Friedman&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde1987_X001281&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPosner2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Posner" title="Richard Posner">Posner, Richard A.</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ooFDAQAAIAAJ">Economic Analysis of Law</a> (7th ed.). Aspen. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7355-6354-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7355-6354-4"><bdi>978-0-7355-6354-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economic+Analysis+of+Law&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Aspen&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7355-6354-4&rft.aulast=Posner&rft.aufirst=Richard+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DooFDAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoase1960" class="citation journal cs1">Coase, Ronald (October 1960). <a href="/wiki/The_Problem_of_Social_Cost" title="The Problem of Social Cost">"The Problem of Social Cost"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Law_and_Economics" title="The Journal of Law and Economics">The Journal of Law and Economics</a>. 3 (1): 1–44. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F466560">10.1086/466560</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/724810">724810</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:222331226">222331226</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Law+and+Economics&rft.atitle=The+Problem+of+Social+Cost&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-44&rft.date=1960-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A222331226%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F724810%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F466560&rft.aulast=Coase&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGroenewegen2008" class="citation journal cs1">Groenewegen, Peter (2008). Durlauf, Steven N.; Blume, Lawrence E. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_P000114">"Political Economy"</a>. The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics (2nd ed.): 476–480. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.1300">10.1057/9780230226203.1300</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5"><bdi>978-0-333-78676-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171005000524/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_P000114">Archived</a> from the original on 5 October 2017. Retrieved 4 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.atitle=Political+Economy&rft.pages=476-480&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230226203.1300&rft.isbn=978-0-333-78676-5&rft.aulast=Groenewegen&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde2008_P000114&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrueger1974" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anne_Osborn_Krueger" title="Anne Osborn Krueger">Krueger, Anne O.</a> (June 1974). "The Political Economy of the Rent-Seeking Society". American Economic Review. 64 (3): 291–303. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1808883">1808883</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Economic+Review&rft.atitle=The+Political+Economy+of+the+Rent-Seeking+Society&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=291-303&rft.date=1974-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1808883%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Krueger&rft.aufirst=Anne+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCoy1980" class="citation book cs1">McCoy, Drew R. (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0aDqCQAAQBAJ">The Elusive Republic: Political Economy in Jeffersonian America</a>. University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-1416-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-1416-1"><bdi>978-0-8078-1416-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Elusive+Republic%3A+Political+Economy+in+Jeffersonian+America&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-1416-1&rft.aulast=McCoy&rft.aufirst=Drew+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0aDqCQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClevelandRuth1997" class="citation journal cs1">Cleveland, Cutler J.; Ruth, Matthius (September 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0921-8009%2897%2900079-7">"When, where, and by how much do biophysical limits constrain the economic process? A survey of Georgescu-Roegen's contribution to ecological economics"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ecological_Economics_(journal)" title="Ecological Economics (journal)">Ecological Economics</a>. 22 (3): 203–223. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0921-8009%2897%2900079-7">10.1016/S0921-8009(97)00079-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecological+Economics&rft.atitle=When%2C+where%2C+and+by+how+much+do+biophysical+limits+constrain+the+economic+process%3F+A+survey+of+Georgescu-Roegen%27s+contribution+to+ecological+economics&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=203-223&rft.date=1997-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0921-8009%2897%2900079-7&rft.aulast=Cleveland&rft.aufirst=Cutler+J.&rft.au=Ruth%2C+Matthius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252FS0921-8009%252897%252900079-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaly1995" class="citation journal cs1">Daly, Herman E. (June 1995). "On Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen's Contributions to Economics: An Obituary essay". Ecological Economics. 13 (3): 149–154. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995EcoEc..13..149D">1995EcoEc..13..149D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0921-8009%2895%2900011-W">10.1016/0921-8009(95)00011-W</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecological+Economics&rft.atitle=On+Nicholas+Georgescu-Roegen%27s+Contributions+to+Economics%3A+An+Obituary+essay&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=149-154&rft.date=1995-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0921-8009%2895%2900011-W&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995EcoEc..13..149D&rft.aulast=Daly&rft.aufirst=Herman+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayumi1995" class="citation journal cs1">Mayumi, Kozo (August 1995). "Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen (1906–1994): an admirable epistemologist". Structural Change and Economic Dynamics. 6 (3): 115–120. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0954-349X%2895%2900014-E">10.1016/0954-349X(95)00014-E</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Structural+Change+and+Economic+Dynamics&rft.atitle=Nicholas+Georgescu-Roegen+%281906%E2%80%931994%29%3A+an+admirable+epistemologist&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=115-120&rft.date=1995-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0954-349X%2895%2900014-E&rft.aulast=Mayumi&rft.aufirst=Kozo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayumiGowdy1999" class="citation book cs1">Mayumi, Kozo; Gowdy, John M., eds. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_Hd08ju9UG4C&pg=PP1">Bioeconomics and Sustainability: Essays in Honor of Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen</a>. Edward Elgar Publishering. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85898-667-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85898-667-8"><bdi>978-1-85898-667-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bioeconomics+and+Sustainability%3A+Essays+in+Honor+of+Nicholas+Georgescu-Roegen&rft.pub=Edward+Elgar+Publishering&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-85898-667-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_Hd08ju9UG4C%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayumi2001" class="citation book cs1">Mayumi, Kozo (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mCiCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1">The Origins of Ecological Economics: The Bioeconomics of Georgescu-Roegen</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-23523-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-23523-5"><bdi>978-0-415-23523-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Ecological+Economics%3A+The+Bioeconomics+of+Georgescu-Roegen&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-415-23523-5&rft.aulast=Mayumi&rft.aufirst=Kozo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmCiCAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwedberg2003" class="citation book cs1">Swedberg, Richard (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=is7NGpu93NwC&pg=PP1">Principles of Economic Sociology</a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-07439-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-07439-9"><bdi>978-0-691-07439-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Economic+Sociology&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-691-07439-9&rft.aulast=Swedberg&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dis7NGpu93NwC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColeman1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Samuel_Coleman" title="James Samuel Coleman">Coleman, James S.</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2_64AAAAIAAJ">Foundations of Social Theory</a>. Belknap – Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674312265" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674312265"><bdi>978-0674312265</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220730075147/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Social_Economics/2_64AAAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 12 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+Social+Theory&rft.pub=Belknap+%E2%80%93+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0674312265&rft.aulast=Coleman&rft.aufirst=James+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2_64AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrank1992" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Frank" title="Robert H. Frank">Frank, Robert H.</a> (1992). "Melding Sociology and Economics: James Coleman's Foundations of Social Theory". Journal of Economic Literature. 30 (1): 147–170. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2727881">2727881</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+Literature&rft.atitle=Melding+Sociology+and+Economics%3A+James+Coleman%27s+Foundations+of+Social+Theory&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=147-170&rft.date=1992&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2727881%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Frank&rft.aufirst=Robert+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBecker1974" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Becker, Gary S.</a> (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050502153308/http://www.uoregon.edu/~cjellis/441/Becker1.pdf">"A Theory of Social Interactions"</a> (PDF). Journal of Political Economy. 82 (6). See pp. 1074–1090. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F260265">10.1086/260265</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1830662">1830662</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17052355">17052355</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uoregon.edu/~cjellis/441/Becker1.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2 May 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Political+Economy&rft.atitle=A+Theory+of+Social+Interactions&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=See+pp.+1074-1090&rft.date=1974&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17052355%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1830662%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F260265&rft.aulast=Becker&rft.aufirst=Gary+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uoregon.edu%2F~cjellis%2F441%2FBecker1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeckerMurphy2003" class="citation book cs1">Becker, Gary S.; Murphy, Kevin M. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2_64AAAAIAAJ">Social Economics: Market Behavior in a Social Environment</a>. Belknap – Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674011212" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674011212"><bdi>978-0674011212</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+Economics%3A+Market+Behavior+in+a+Social+Environment&rft.pub=Belknap+%E2%80%93+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0674011212&rft.aulast=Becker&rft.aufirst=Gary+S.&rft.au=Murphy%2C+Kevin+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2_64AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAshenfelter2001" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Orley_Ashenfelter" title="Orley Ashenfelter">Ashenfelter, Orley</a> (2001). "Economics: Overview, The Profession of Economics". In Smelser, N. J.; Baltes, P. B. (eds.). <a href="/wiki/International_Encyclopedia_of_the_Social_%26_Behavioral_Sciences" title="International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences">International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences</a>. Vol. VI. Pergamon. p. 4159. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-0804-3076-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-0804-3076-8"><bdi>978-0-0804-3076-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Economics%3A+Overview%2C+The+Profession+of+Economics&rft.btitle=International+Encyclopedia+of+the+Social+%26+Behavioral+Sciences&rft.pages=4159&rft.pub=Pergamon&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-0804-3076-8&rft.aulast=Ashenfelter&rft.aufirst=Orley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDebreu1987" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Debreu" title="Gérard Debreu">Debreu, Gérard</a> (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X001428">"Mathematical economics"</a>. In Eatwell, John; Milgate, Murray; Newman, Peter (eds.). The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. pp. 401–403. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.3059">10.1057/9780230226203.3059</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5"><bdi>978-0-333-78676-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171024042819/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X001428">Archived</a> from the original on 24 October 2017. Retrieved 23 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mathematical+economics&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.pages=401-403&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230226203.3059&rft.isbn=978-0-333-78676-5&rft.aulast=Debreu&rft.aufirst=G%C3%A9rard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionaryofeconomics.com%2Farticle%3Fid%3Dpde1987_X001428&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBird2015" class="citation web cs1">Bird, Mike (27 November 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160122204258/https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2015/11/13-women-who-transformed-the-world-of-economics/">"13 women who transformed the world of economics"</a>. World Economic Forum. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2015/11/13-women-who-transformed-the-world-of-economics/">the original</a> on 22 January 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Economic+Forum&rft.atitle=13+women+who+transformed+the+world+of+economics&rft.date=2015-11-27&rft.aulast=Bird&rft.aufirst=Mike&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.weforum.org%2Fagenda%2F2015%2F11%2F13-women-who-transformed-the-world-of-economics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHengelPhythian-Adams2022" class="citation journal cs1">Hengel, Erin; Phythian-Adams, Sarah Louisa (August 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://erinhengel.github.io/hope/hope.pdf">"A historical portrait of female economists' co-authorship networks"</a> (PDF). History of Political Economy. 54: 17–41. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F00182702-10085601">10.1215/00182702-10085601</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:251532686">251532686</a>. Retrieved 30 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Political+Economy&rft.atitle=A+historical+portrait+of+female+economists%27+co-authorship+networks&rft.volume=54&rft.pages=17-41&rft.date=2022-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1215%2F00182702-10085601&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A251532686%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Hengel&rft.aufirst=Erin&rft.au=Phythian-Adams%2C+Sarah+Louisa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ferinhengel.github.io%2Fhope%2Fhope.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoringZignago2018" class="citation web cs1">Boring, Anne; Zignago, Soledad (6 March 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blocnotesdeleco.banque-france.fr/en/blog-entry/economics-where-are-women">"Economics, where are the women?"</a>. Banque de France. Retrieved 30 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Banque+de+France&rft.atitle=Economics%2C+where+are+the+women%3F&rft.date=2018-03-06&rft.aulast=Boring&rft.aufirst=Anne&rft.au=Zignago%2C+Soledad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblocnotesdeleco.banque-france.fr%2Fen%2Fblog-entry%2Feconomics-where-are-women&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHooverSiegler2008" class="citation journal cs1">Hoover, Kevin D.; Siegler, Mark V. (20 March 2008). "Sound and Fury: McCloskey and Significance Testing in Economics". Journal of Economic Methodology. 15 (1): 1–37. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.533.7658">10.1.1.533.7658</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13501780801913298">10.1080/13501780801913298</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:216137286">216137286</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+Methodology&rft.atitle=Sound+and+Fury%3A+McCloskey+and+Significance+Testing+in+Economics&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-37&rft.date=2008-03-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.533.7658%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A216137286%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13501780801913298&rft.aulast=Hoover&rft.aufirst=Kevin+D.&rft.au=Siegler%2C+Mark+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamuelsonNordhaus2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Samuelson" title="Paul Samuelson">Samuelson, Paul A</a>; <a href="/wiki/William_D._Nordhaus" class="mw-redirect" title="William D. Nordhaus">Nordhaus, William D.</a> (2010). <a href="/wiki/Economics_(textbook)" title="Economics (textbook)">Economics</a>. Boston: Irwin McGraw-Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0073511290" title="Special:BookSources/978-0073511290"><bdi>978-0073511290</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/751033918">751033918</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economics&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Irwin+McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F751033918&rft.isbn=978-0073511290&rft.aulast=Samuelson&rft.aufirst=Paul+A&rft.au=Nordhaus%2C+William+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson2019" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, David A. (2019). Survey of Economics. New York: Worth. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4292-5956-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4292-5956-9"><bdi>978-1-4292-5956-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Survey+of+Economics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Worth&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-4292-5956-9&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlanchardAmighiniGiavazzi2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Olivier_Blanchard" title="Olivier Blanchard">Blanchard, Olivier</a>; Amighini, Alessia; <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Giavazzi" title="Francesco Giavazzi">Giavazzi, Francesco</a> (2017). Macroeconomics: a European perspective (3rd ed.). Pearson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-292-08567-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-292-08567-8"><bdi>978-1-292-08567-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Macroeconomics%3A+a+European+perspective&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Pearson&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-292-08567-8&rft.aulast=Blanchard&rft.aufirst=Olivier&rft.au=Amighini%2C+Alessia&rft.au=Giavazzi%2C+Francesco&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlaug1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Blaug" title="Mark Blaug">Blaug, Mark</a> (1985). Economic Theory in Retrospect (4th ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521316446" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521316446"><bdi>978-0521316446</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economic+Theory+in+Retrospect&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0521316446&rft.aulast=Blaug&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCann2003" class="citation book cs1">McCann, Charles Robert Jr. (2003). The Elgar Dictionary of Economic Quotations. Edward Elgar. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1840648201" title="Special:BookSources/978-1840648201"><bdi>978-1840648201</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Elgar+Dictionary+of+Economic+Quotations&rft.pub=Edward+Elgar&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1840648201&rft.aulast=McCann&rft.aufirst=Charles+Robert+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_F._Post" title="Louis F. Post">Post, Louis F.</a> (1927), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73475">The Basic Facts of Economics: A Common-Sense Primer for Advanced Students</a>. United States: Columbian Printing Company, Incorporated.</li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/search?title=Economics&author=&reader=&keywords=&genre_id=0&status=all&project_type=either&recorded_language=&sort_order=catalog_date&search_page=1&search_form=advanced">Economics</a> public domain audiobook at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 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sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Economics at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Economics" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Economics">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Economics" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Economics">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/41px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/54px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /><a 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1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:Economics" class="extiw" title="s:Portal:Economics">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Shelf:Economics" class="extiw" title="b:Shelf:Economics">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Economics" class="extiw" title="v:Special:Search/Economics">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/27px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/41px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/54px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8134" class="extiw" title="d:Q8134">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Economics <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Economics">Resources in your library</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_information">General information</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oswego.edu/~economic/journals.htm">Economic journals on the web.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130710110240/http://www.oswego.edu/~economic/journals.htm">Archived</a> 10 July 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/economics">Economics</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220625153920/https://www.britannica.com/topic/economics">Archived</a> 25 June 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/economics-a-to-z">Economics A–Z.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220214211108/https://www.economist.com/economics-a-to-z">Archived</a> 14 February 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Definitions from <a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economicsonline.co.uk/">Economics Online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211028015205/https://www.economicsonline.co.uk/">Archived</a> 28 October 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (UK-based), with <a href="/wiki/Drop-down_menu" class="mw-redirect" title="Drop-down menu">drop-down menus</a> at top, incl. Definitions.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070512014346/http://www.intute.ac.uk/socialsciences/economics/">Intute: Economics</a>: <a href="/wiki/Internet_directory" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet directory">Internet directory</a> of UK universities.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://repec.org/">Research Papers in Economics (RePEc)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20000816091515/http://repec.org/">Archived</a> 16 August 2000 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rfe.org/">Resources For Economists</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130511055542/http://rfe.org/">Archived</a> 11 May 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>: <a href="/wiki/American_Economic_Association" title="American Economic Association">American Economic Association</a>-sponsored guide to 2,000+ Internet resources from "Data" to "Neat Stuff", updated quarterly.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Institutions_and_organizations">Institutions and organizations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://edirc.repec.org/">Economics Departments, Institutes and Research Centers in the World</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130430082832/http://edirc.repec.org/">Archived</a> 30 April 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030801073637/http://www.oecd.org/statistics/">Organization For Co-operation and Economic Development (OECD) Statistics</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://unstats.un.org/">United Nations Statistics Division</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020124234652/http://unstats.un.org/">Archived</a> 24 January 2002 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.worldbank.org/">World Bank Data</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190727121731/https://data.worldbank.org/">Archived</a> 27 July 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aeaweb.org/">American Economic Association</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210120030415/https://www.aeaweb.org/">Archived</a> 20 January 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Study_resources">Study resources</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndersonRay2019" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, David; Ray, Margaret (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bfwpub.com/high-school/us/product/Krugmans-Economics-for-the-AP-Course/p/1319113273">Krugman's Economics for the AP Course</a> (3rd ed.). New York: BFW. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-319-11327-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-319-11327-8"><bdi>978-1-319-11327-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210308040106/https://www.bfwpub.com/high-school/us/product/Krugmans-Economics-for-the-AP-Course/p/1319113273">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 2 March 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Krugman%27s+Economics+for+the+AP+Course&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=BFW&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-319-11327-8&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Ray%2C+Margaret&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bfwpub.com%2Fhigh-school%2Fus%2Fproduct%2FKrugmans-Economics-for-the-AP-Course%2Fp%2F1319113273&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcConnell2009" class="citation book cs1">McConnell, Campbell R.; et al. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161006014212/http://www.califaxprinters.com/mba_books/EB%20McConnell%20Econ.18e.pdf">Economics. Principles, Problems and Policies</a> (PDF) (18th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-337569-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-337569-4"><bdi>978-0-07-337569-4</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.califaxprinters.com/mba_books/EB%20McConnell%20Econ.18e.pdf">the original</a> (PDF contains full textbook) on 6 October 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economics.+Principles%2C+Problems+and+Policies&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=18th&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-07-337569-4&rft.aulast=McConnell&rft.aufirst=Campbell+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.califaxprinters.com%2Fmba_books%2FEB%2520McConnell%2520Econ.18e.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://economics.about.com/">Economics at About.com</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070602020408/http://economics.about.com/">Archived</a> 2 June 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> 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href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_economics" title="Education economics">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_economics" title="Engineering economics">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_economics" title="Environmental economics">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expeditionary_economics" title="Expeditionary economics">Expeditionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_economics" title="Feminist economics">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_economics" title="Financial economics">Financial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography" title="Economic geography">Geographical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness_economics" title="Happiness economics">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_economics" title="Health economics">Health</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/Organizational_economics" title="Organizational economics">Organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_participation" title="Economics of participation">Participation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personnel_economics" title="Personnel economics">Personnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_planning" title="Economic planning">Planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_policy" title="Economic policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_economics" title="Public economics">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_choice" title="Public choice">Public choice</a> / <a href="/wiki/Social_choice_theory" title="Social choice theory">Social choice theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_economics" title="Regional economics">Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_economics" title="Rural economics">Rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_economy" title="Service economy">Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socioeconomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Socioeconomics">Socio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_sociology" title="Economic sociology">Sociological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_economy" title="Solidarity economy">Solidarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_statistics" title="Economic statistics">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_economics" title="Urban economics">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_economics" title="Welfare economics">Welfare</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_economic_thought" title="Schools of economic thought">Schools</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_economic_thought" title="History of economic thought">history</a>) </div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mainstream_economics" title="Mainstream economics">Mainstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterodox_economics" title="Heterodox economics">Heterodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_School_(economics)" title="American School (economics)">American (National)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_economic_thought" title="Ancient economic thought">Ancient thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarchist economics">Anarchist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(economic_theory)" title="Mutualism (economic theory)">Mutualism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian School">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_economics" title="Buddhist economics">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartalism" title="Chartalism">Chartalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_monetary_theory" title="Modern monetary theory">Modern monetary theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_of_economics" title="Chicago school of economics">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_economics" title="Classical economics">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_democracy" title="Economic democracy">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disequilibrium_macroeconomics" title="Disequilibrium macroeconomics">Disequilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_economics" title="Feminist economics">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgism" title="Georgism">Georgism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness_economics" title="Happiness economics">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_school_of_economics" title="Historical school of economics">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_economics" title="Humanistic economics">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_economics" title="Institutional economics">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Keynesian_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Keynesian economics">Neo-</a> (<a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_synthesis" title="Neoclassical synthesis">neoclassical–Keynesian synthesis</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Keynesian_economics" title="New Keynesian economics">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Keynesian_economics" title="Post-Keynesian economics">Post-</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monetary_circuit_theory" title="Monetary circuit theory">Circuitism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusianism" title="Malthusianism">Malthusianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginalism" title="Marginalism">Marginalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxian_economics" title="Marxian economics">Marxian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxian_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Marxian economics">Neo-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_economy" title="Mixed economy">Mixed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">Neoclassical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lausanne_School" title="Lausanne School">Lausanne</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_classical_macroeconomics" title="New classical macroeconomics">New classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Real_business-cycle_theory" title="Real business-cycle theory">Real business-cycle theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_institutional_economics" title="New institutional economics">New institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiocracy" title="Physiocracy">Physiocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_economics" title="Socialist economics">Socialist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stockholm_School_(economics)" title="Stockholm School (economics)">Stockholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply-side_economics" title="Supply-side economics">Supply-side</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoeconomics" title="Thermoeconomics">Thermo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Economist" title="Economist">Economists</a> </div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_de_Mandeville" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernard de Mandeville">de Mandeville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">Quesnay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus" title="Thomas Robert Malthus">Malthus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Say</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">Ricardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_von_Th%C3%BCnen" title="Johann Heinrich von Thünen">von Thünen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_List" title="Friedrich List">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Cournot" title="Antoine Augustin Cournot">Cournot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Heinrich_Gossen" title="Hermann Heinrich Gossen">Gossen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Walras" title="Léon Walras">Walras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Stanley_Jevons" title="William Stanley Jevons">Jevons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_George" title="Henry George">George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Menger" title="Carl Menger">Menger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Marshall" title="Alfred Marshall">Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Ysidro_Edgeworth" title="Francis Ysidro Edgeworth">Edgeworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bates_Clark" title="John Bates Clark">Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_von_B%C3%B6hm-Bawerk" title="Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk">von Böhm-Bawerk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_von_Wieser" title="Friedrich von Wieser">von Wieser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Veblen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Fisher" title="Irving Fisher">Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Cecil_Pigou" title="Arthur Cecil Pigou">Pigou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eli_Heckscher" title="Eli Heckscher">Heckscher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">von Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Schumpeter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Knight" title="Frank Knight">Knight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Frisch" title="Ragnar Frisch">Frisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piero_Sraffa" title="Piero Sraffa">Sraffa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunnar_Myrdal" title="Gunnar Myrdal">Myrdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Kalecki" title="Michał Kalecki">Kalecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Kuznets" title="Simon Kuznets">Kuznets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Tinbergen" title="Jan Tinbergen">Tinbergen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Robinson" title="Joan Robinson">Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">von Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hicks" title="John Hicks">Hicks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oskar_R._Lange" title="Oskar R. Lange">Lange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wassily_Leontief" title="Wassily Leontief">Leontief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Kenneth_Galbraith" title="John Kenneth Galbraith">Galbraith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tjalling_Koopmans" title="Tjalling Koopmans">Koopmans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._F._Schumacher" title="E. F. Schumacher">Schumacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Samuelson" title="Paul Samuelson">Samuelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_M._Buchanan" title="James M. Buchanan">Buchanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Arrow" title="Kenneth Arrow">Arrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Baumol" title="William Baumol">Baumol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Solow" title="Robert Solow">Solow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Greenspan" title="Alan Greenspan">Greenspan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Becker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elinor_Ostrom" title="Elinor Ostrom">Ostrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Lucas_Jr." title="Robert Lucas Jr.">Lucas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Stiglitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Thaler" title="Richard Thaler">Thaler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Krugman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Piketty" title="Thomas Piketty">Piketty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Economists" title="Category:Economists">more</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Economics_lists" title="Category:Economics lists">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" title="Glossary of economics">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_economists" title="List of economists">Economists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_economics" title="List of important publications in economics">Publications</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_economics_journals" title="List of economics journals">journals</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_economic_thought" title="Schools of economic thought">Schools</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Economics" title="Category:Economics">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_economics_articles" title="Index of economics articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Economics_lists" title="Category:Economics lists">Lists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_economics" title="Outline of economics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_economics" title="List of important publications in economics">Publications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Business" title="Portal:Business">Business portal</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_sciences" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_sciences" title="Template:Social sciences"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_sciences" title="Template talk:Social sciences"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_sciences" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social sciences"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social sciences</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_social_science" title="Outline of social science">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_social_sciences" title="History of the social sciences">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical anthropology">physical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">microeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">macroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">econometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">mathematical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">technical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">integrated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history" title="Cultural history">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_sciences_of_history" title="Auxiliary sciences of history">auxiliary sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history" title="Social history">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">legal history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">legal systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_law" title="Public law">public law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">private law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_politics" title="Comparative politics">comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public administration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">abnormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">urban</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Administration <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_administration" title="Business administration">business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_studies" title="Area studies">Area studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_studies" title="Business studies">Business studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_studies" title="Community studies">Community studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">Cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_studies" title="Development studies">Development studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a></li> <li>Environmental <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_studies" title="Food studies">Food studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_studies" title="Gender studies">Gender studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_studies" title="Global studies">Global studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_ecology" title="Human ecology">Human ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_science" title="Information science">Information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">International studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">Management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li>Philosophies <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics"> economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">social science</a></li></ul></li> <li>Planning <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_planning" title="Regional planning">regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ecology" title="Political ecology">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_science" title="Regional science">Regional science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">Science and technology studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_social_science" title="Quantum social science">Quantum social science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_work" title="Social work">Social work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegan_studies" title="Vegan studies">Vegan studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">List</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_social_science_journals" title="List of social science journals">List of social science journals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other categorizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral sciences">Behavioral sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Social_sciences" title="Category:Social sciences">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" 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45 Template:Cite_journal"," 6.55% 167.326 14 Template:Sfnp"," 5.83% 149.164 1 Template:Economics_sidebar"," 5.77% 147.455 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 5.28% 135.088 2 Template:Navbox"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.719","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":22653031,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\nanchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAcemogluRobinson2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAkerlof1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnderson2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnderson2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndersonRay2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAshenfelter2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAumann2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBackhouse2002\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFBackhouseMedema2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBackhouseMedema2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBackhouseMedema2009\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFBakerRafter2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBastable2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBecker1974\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFBecker1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBecker1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeckerMurphy2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBell1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerlin2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBernanke2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBernankeGertler1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBertholet2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBertholetKapossy2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBird2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlack2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlanchard2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlanchardAmighiniGiavazzi2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlaug1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlaug1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlaug2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoland1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoringZignago2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoulding1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrockway2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrody1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurnsideEichenbaumRebelo\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCalomiris\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCamerer2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCameron1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCampus1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCaplinSchotter2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarlyle1849\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCedermanGleditschBuhaug2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClark1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClevelandRuth1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoase1937\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoase1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFColeman1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaly1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeardorff2016\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFDebreu1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDepartment2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDharmaraj2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDiamond2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDielman2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDixon2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDurlaufBlume2008\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFDwivedi2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFehrFischbacher2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeldman1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFerberNelson2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFindlay2008\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFFischer2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrancis_Amasa_Walker1878\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrank1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFree2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreeman2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreyPommerehneSchneiderGilbert1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFriedman1953\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFriedman1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFuller2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGali2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGordan1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGordon2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreenwolde2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGroenewegen2008\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFGroenwegen2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuvenen\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHanushekWoessmannr2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarcourt1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarper2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHashem1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeilbroner1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHengelPhythian-Adams2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHicks1937\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHooverSiegler2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHowitt1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHughes1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHunt2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIannaccone1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJahan\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJameson2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJevons1879\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnson2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJulie_A._Nelson2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaminsky\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKemp1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeuzenkamp2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeynes1936\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKianpourKowalskiØverby2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKing2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKneeseRussell1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKotowitz\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrueger1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrugman1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrugmanWells2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaffont1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLazear2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLippmanMcCall2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLowry1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacCulloch2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMachinaRothschild2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMalthus1798\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMandel1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMankiw2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarshall1890\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarshallMarshall1888\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayumi1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayumi2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayumiGowdy1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCann2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcConnell2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCoy1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMill1848\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMill2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMontani1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMusgrave1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMyerson\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeely2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNelson1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNevesAfonsoSilva2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNg1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNordhaus2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;SullivanSheffrin2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFObstfeld2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPersky1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPosner1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPosner2007\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFQuirk1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRicardo1817\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobbins2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoemer1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoss\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSamuelson1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSamuelsonNordhaus2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSay1803\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmalensee1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchumpeter1954\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSen2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeung-Yoon_Lee2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSigmundFehrNowak2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimon1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimon1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkousen2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith1776\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStigler1951\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStigler1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStigler1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrange2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSwedberg2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTarricone2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTarshis1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTesfatsion2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTobin1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrapeznikova2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUzawa1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVarian1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVenables2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVentura2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWakker2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilson\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodford2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodford2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFXepapadeas2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYangNg1993\"] = 1,\n [\"The_term_and_its_various_definitions€\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 3,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 5,\n [\"CS1 config\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite OED\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 74,\n [\"Cite conference\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 56,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 45,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite report\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 21,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Economics\"] = 1,\n [\"Economics sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 5,\n [\"Harv\"] = 3,\n [\"Harvp\"] = 11,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 7,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Librivox book\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 34,\n [\"Missing information\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Other uses\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-semi-indef\"] = 1,\n [\"Primary source inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 3,\n [\"Refend\"] = 3,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Section link\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 3,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 3,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 14,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Social sciences\"] = 1,\n [\"Unbulleted list citebundle\"] = 25,\n [\"Use British English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use Oxford spelling\"] = 2,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 14,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 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