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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Usage_and_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Usage_and_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Usage and history</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Usage_and_history-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Usage and history subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Usage_and_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fractions_and_formulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fractions_and_formulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Fractions and formulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fractions_and_formulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparison_with_other_fuels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison_with_other_fuels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Comparison with other fuels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparison_with_other_fuels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-RP-1-like_fuels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#RP-1-like_fuels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>RP-1-like fuels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-RP-1-like_fuels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span 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Available in 24 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-24" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">24 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/RP-1" title="RP-1 – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="RP-1" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/RP-1" title="RP-1 – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="RP-1" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/RP-1" title="RP-1 – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="RP-1" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/RP-1" title="RP-1 – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="RP-1" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/RP-1" title="RP-1 – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="RP-1" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/RP-1" title="RP-1 – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="RP-1" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/RP-1" title="RP-1 – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="RP-1" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/RP-1" title="RP-1 – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="RP-1" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/RP-1" title="RP-1 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="RP-1" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/RP-1" title="RP-1 – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="RP-1" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/RP-1" title="RP-1 – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="RP-1" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/RP-1" title="RP-1 – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="RP-1" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/RP-1_rakettdrivstoff" title="RP-1 rakettdrivstoff – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="RP-1 rakettdrivstoff" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/RP-1" title="RP-1 – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="RP-1" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/RP-1" title="RP-1 – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="RP-1" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/RP-1" title="RP-1 – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="RP-1" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%9F-1" title="РП-1 – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="РП-1" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/RP-1" title="RP-1 – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="RP-1" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/RP-1" title="RP-1 – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="RP-1" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/RP-1" title="RP-1 – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="RP-1" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/RP-1" title="RP-1 – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="RP-1" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%9F-1" title="РП-1 – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="РП-1" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/RP-1_(nhi%C3%AAn_li%E1%BB%87u_t%C3%AAn_l%E1%BB%ADa)" title="RP-1 (nhiên liệu tên lửa) – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="RP-1 (nhiên liệu tên lửa)" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/RP-1%E7%85%A4%E6%B2%B9" title="RP-1煤油 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="RP-1煤油" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q520336#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/RP-1" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:RP-1" 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nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Highly refined form of kerosene used as rocket fuel</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the rocket fuel. For the protein, see <a href="/wiki/RP1" title="RP1">RP1</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/RP_1_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="RP 1 (disambiguation)">RP 1</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/RP-1" title="Special:EditPage/RP-1">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22RP-1%22">"RP-1"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22RP-1%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22RP-1%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22RP-1%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22RP-1%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22RP-1%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2011</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RP-1_.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/RP-1_.jpg/220px-RP-1_.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/RP-1_.jpg/330px-RP-1_.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/RP-1_.jpg/440px-RP-1_.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption>About two litres of RP-1</figcaption></figure> <p><b>RP-1</b> (alternatively, <b>Rocket Propellant-1</b> or <b>Refined Petroleum-1</b>) is a highly refined form of <a href="/wiki/Kerosene" title="Kerosene">kerosene</a> outwardly similar to <a href="/wiki/Jet_fuel" title="Jet fuel">jet fuel</a>, used as <a href="/wiki/Rocket_fuel" class="mw-redirect" title="Rocket fuel">rocket fuel</a>. RP-1 provides a lower <a href="/wiki/Specific_impulse" title="Specific impulse">specific impulse</a> than <a href="/wiki/Liquid_hydrogen" title="Liquid hydrogen">liquid hydrogen</a> (H<sub>2</sub>), but is cheaper, is stable at room temperature, and presents a lower explosion hazard. RP-1 is far denser than H<sub>2</sub>, giving it a higher <a href="/wiki/Energy_density" title="Energy density">energy density</a> (though its <a href="/wiki/Specific_energy" title="Specific energy">specific energy</a> is lower). RP-1 also has a fraction of the <a href="/wiki/Toxicity" title="Toxicity">toxicity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen">carcinogenic</a> hazards of <a href="/wiki/Hydrazine" title="Hydrazine">hydrazine</a>, another room-temperature liquid fuel. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Usage_and_history">Usage and history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=RP-1&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Usage and history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Apollo_8_Liftoff.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Apollo_8_Liftoff.jpg/220px-Apollo_8_Liftoff.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="567" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Apollo_8_Liftoff.jpg/330px-Apollo_8_Liftoff.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Apollo_8_Liftoff.jpg 2x" data-file-width="397" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Apollo_8" title="Apollo 8">Apollo 8</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saturn_V" title="Saturn V">Saturn V</a> with 810,700 litres of RP-1 and 1,311,100 liters of <a href="/wiki/LOX" class="mw-redirect" title="LOX">LOX</a> in the <a href="/wiki/S-IC" title="S-IC">S-IC</a> first stage<sup id="cite_ref-Stages_Saturn_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stages_Saturn-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>RP-1 is a fuel in the first-stage boosters of the <a href="/wiki/Electron_rocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron rocket">Electron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soyuz_(rocket_family)" title="Soyuz (rocket family)">Soyuz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zenit_(rocket_family)" title="Zenit (rocket family)">Zenit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delta_rocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Delta rocket">Delta I-III</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atlas_(rocket)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlas (rocket)">Atlas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Falcon_rocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Falcon rocket">Falcon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antares_rocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Antares rocket">Antares</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tronador_(rocket)" title="Tronador (rocket)">Tronador II</a> rockets. It also powered the first stages of the <a href="/wiki/Energia_(rocket)" title="Energia (rocket)">Energia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Titan_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Titan I">Titan I</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saturn_I_(rocket)" class="mw-redirect" title="Saturn I (rocket)">Saturn I and IB</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Saturn_V" title="Saturn V">Saturn V</a>. The <a href="/wiki/ISRO" title="ISRO">Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO)</a> is also developing an RP-1 fueled engine for its future rockets.<sup id="cite_ref-isro_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isro-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development">Development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=RP-1&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During and immediately after World War II, alcohols (primarily <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a>, occasionally <a href="/wiki/Methanol" title="Methanol">methanol</a>) were commonly used as fuels for large <a href="/wiki/Liquid-fuel_rocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid-fuel rocket">liquid-fueled rockets</a>. Their high <a href="/wiki/Heat_of_vaporization" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat of vaporization">heat of vaporization</a> kept <a href="/wiki/Regenerative_cooling_(rocket)" class="mw-redirect" title="Regenerative cooling (rocket)">regeneratively-cooled</a> engines from melting, especially considering that alcohols would typically contain several percent water. However, it was recognized that <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbon</a> fuels would increase engine efficiency, due to a slightly higher <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a>, the lack of an <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> atom in the fuel molecule, and negligible water content. Regardless of which hydrocarbon was chosen, it would also have to replace alcohol as a coolant. </p><p>Many early rockets burned <a href="/wiki/Kerosene" title="Kerosene">kerosene</a>, but as burn times, combustion efficiencies, and combustion-chamber pressures increased, engine masses decreased, which led to unmanageable engine temperatures. Raw kerosene used as coolant tends to <a href="/wiki/Dissociation_(chemistry)" title="Dissociation (chemistry)">dissociate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polymerization" title="Polymerization">polymerize</a>. Lightweight products in the form of gas bubbles cause cavitation, and heavy ones in the form of wax deposits block narrow cooling passages in the engine. The resulting coolant starvation raises temperatures further, and causes more polymerization which accelerates breakdown. The cycle rapidly escalates (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Thermal_runaway" title="Thermal runaway">thermal runaway</a>) until an engine wall rupture or other mechanical failure occurs, and it persists even when the entire coolant flow consists of kerosene. In the mid-1950s rocket designers turned to the chemists to formulate a heat-resistant hydrocarbon, with the result being RP-1. </p><p>During the 1950s, LOX (<a href="/wiki/Liquid_oxygen" title="Liquid oxygen">liquid oxygen</a>) became the preferred oxidizer to use with RP-1,<sup id="cite_ref-Sutton2006_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sutton2006-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though other oxidizers have also been employed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fractions_and_formulation">Fractions and formulation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=RP-1&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Fractions and formulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>First, sulfur and sulfur compounds attack metals at high temperatures, and even very small amounts of sulfur <a href="/wiki/Vulcanization" title="Vulcanization">assist polymerization</a>. Therefore, sulfur and sulfur compounds are <a href="/wiki/Hydrodesulfurization" title="Hydrodesulfurization">kept to a minimum</a>. </p><p>Unsaturated compounds (<a href="/wiki/Alkene" title="Alkene">alkenes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alkyne" title="Alkyne">alkynes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aromatics" class="mw-redirect" title="Aromatics">aromatics</a>) are also held to low levels, as they tend to polymerize at high temperatures and long periods of storage. At the time, it was thought that kerosene-fueled missiles might remain in storage for years awaiting activation. This function was later transferred to <a href="/wiki/Solid-fuel_rocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid-fuel rocket">solid-fuel rockets</a>, though the high-temperature benefits of saturated hydrocarbons remained. Because of the low levels of alkenes and aromatics, RP-1 is less toxic than various jet and diesel fuels, and far less toxic than gasoline. </p><p>The more desirable <a href="/wiki/Isomer" title="Isomer">isomers</a> were selected or synthesized, with <a href="/wiki/Linear_alkane" class="mw-redirect" title="Linear alkane">linear alkanes</a> being reduced in number in favor of greater numbers of cyclic and highly branched alkanes. Just as cyclic and branched molecules improve <a href="/wiki/Octane_rating" title="Octane rating">octane rating</a> in <a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">petrol</a>, they also significantly increase thermal stability at high temperatures. The most desirable isomers are polycyclics such as <a href="/wiki/Ladderane" title="Ladderane">ladderanes</a>. </p><p>In contrast, the main applications of kerosene (aviation, heating, and lighting), are much less concerned with thermal breakdown and therefore do not require stringent optimisation of their isomers. </p><p>In production, these grades are processed tightly to remove impurities and side fractions. Ashes were feared likely to block fuel lines and engine passages, and wear away valves and <a href="/wiki/Turbopump" title="Turbopump">turbopump</a> bearings, as these are lubricated by the fuel. Slightly too-heavy or too-light fractions affected lubrication abilities and were likely to separate during storage and under load. The remaining hydrocarbons are at or near C<sub>12</sub> mass. Because of the lack of light hydrocarbons, RP-1 has a high <a href="/wiki/Flash_point" title="Flash point">flash point</a> and is less of a fire hazard than petrol. </p><p>All told, the final product is much more expensive than common kerosene. Any petroleum can produce RP-1 with enough refining, though real-world rocket-grade kerosene is sourced from a small number of oil fields with high-quality base stock, or it can be <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_fuel" title="Synthetic fuel">artificially synthesized</a>. This, coupled with the relatively small demand in a niche market compared to other petroleum users, drives RP-1's high price. Military specifications of RP-1 are covered in MIL-R-25576,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the chemical and physical properties of RP-1 are described in NISTIR 6646.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Russia and other former Soviet countries, the two main rocket kerosene formulations are <b>T-1</b> and <b>RG-1</b>. Densities are slightly higher, <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7002820000000000000♠"></span>0.82 to 0.85 <a href="/wiki/Gram" title="Gram">g</a>/<a href="/wiki/Millilitre" class="mw-redirect" title="Millilitre">mL</a></span>, compared to RP-1 at <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7002810000000000000♠"></span>0.81 g/mL</span>. For a short period,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (August 2023)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> the Soviets achieved even higher densities by super-chilling the kerosene in the rocket's fuel tanks, but this partially defeated the purpose of using kerosene over other super-chilled fuels.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (August 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In the case of the <a href="/wiki/Soyuz_(rocket_family)" title="Soyuz (rocket family)">Soyuz</a> and <a href="/wiki/R-7_Semyorka" title="R-7 Semyorka">R-7</a>, the temperature penalty was minor. Facilities were already in place to manage the vehicle's cryogenic <a href="/wiki/Liquid_oxygen" title="Liquid oxygen">liquid oxygen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liquid_nitrogen" title="Liquid nitrogen">liquid nitrogen</a>, both of which are far colder than the kerosene. The launcher's central kerosene tank is surrounded on four sides and the top by liquid-oxygen tanks; the liquid-nitrogen tank is nearby at the bottom. The kerosene tanks of the four boosters are relatively small and compact, and also between a liquid-oxygen and a liquid-nitrogen tank. Thus, once the kerosene was chilled initially, it could remain so for the brief time needed to finish launch preparations. The latest version of Falcon 9, <a href="/wiki/Falcon_9_Full_Thrust" title="Falcon 9 Full Thrust">Falcon 9 Full Thrust</a>, also has the capability of sub-cooling the RP-1 fuel to <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7002266149999999999♠"></span>−7 <a href="/wiki/Celsius" title="Celsius">°C</a></span>, giving a <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6998250000000000000♠"></span>2.5%–4%</span> density increase. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comparison_with_other_fuels">Comparison with other fuels</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=RP-1&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Comparison with other fuels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="margin: 0; float: right; clear: right; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1em;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">LOX/kerosene </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Specific_impulse" title="Specific impulse"><span class="texhtml"><i>I</i><sub>sp</sub></span></a> at sea level<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-RD-870_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RD-870-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7002220000000000000♠"></span>220–301.5 <a href="/wiki/Second" title="Second">s</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Specific_impulse" title="Specific impulse"><span class="texhtml"><i>I</i><sub>sp</sub></span></a> in vacuum<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-RD-870_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RD-870-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7002292000000000000♠"></span>292–340 s</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Oxidizing_agent" title="Oxidizing agent">Oxidizer</a>-to-fuel ratio </td> <td>2.56 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Density (g/mL) </td> <td>0.81–1.02 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Heat_capacity_ratio" title="Heat capacity ratio">Heat capacity ratio</a> </td> <td>1.24 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Temperature of combustion </td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003367000000000000♠"></span>3,670 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">K</a></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Chemically, a hydrocarbon propellant is less mass-efficient than hydrogen, although typically achieving a higher density and simpler handling than hydrogen. </p><p>For rocket engines, <a href="/wiki/Specific_impulse" title="Specific impulse">specific impulse</a> (<span class="texhtml"><i>I</i><sub>sp</sub></span>) differs from other engines' (turbines or pistons) efficiencies: due to the <a href="/wiki/Rocket_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Rocket equation">rocket equation</a>, efficiency is derived from exhaust velocity, not from total energy. As such, it can be beneficial to use <i>less</i> energy overall in exchange for lower-molecular-mass exhaust, meaning that chemical rocket engines achieve their peak efficiency at non-stoichiometric ratios. In particular, since the oxygen is heavier than the carbon or hydrogen, essentially all combustion rocket engines run fuel-rich to reduce the exhast molecular mass, increasing exhaust velocity and thus specific impulse (and as a side benefit, temperature and cooling are reduced too). This effect favors ligher elements like pure hydrogen. However, total thrust also matters, especially <a href="/wiki/Gravity_loss" title="Gravity loss">deep inside a gravity well</a>, and the density of kerosene enables considerably higher power and thrust than hydrogen (relative to engine mass). </p><p>All told, due to higher energy-per-mass and lower molecular mass, hydrogen engines achieve <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7002370000000000000♠"></span>370 to 465 s</span>, while kerosene engines generate an <span class="texhtml"><i>I</i><sub>sp</sub></span> in the range of <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7002270000000000000♠"></span>270 to 360 <a href="/wiki/Second" title="Second">s</a></span>; conversely, kerosene has the better handling, density, and thrust-to-weight properties. One common solution is to use a multistage rocket, where the first stage uses kerosene where thrust matters most, and the upper stages use hydrogen where specific impulse matters more. Examples of this dual-fuel architecture include the <a href="/wiki/Saturn_V" title="Saturn V">Saturn V</a> moon rocket and the <a href="/wiki/Atlas_V" title="Atlas V">Atlas V</a> workhorse. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">Methane</a> serves as a middle-ground between hydrogen and kerosene, offering middling molecular mass and efficiency, middling handling, middling coking/buildup properties, and density only slightly worse than kerosene. Since methane's handling difficulties, while worse than kerosene, are about the same as liquid oxygen, that means a methlox rocket is nearly as easy to handle as a kerolox rocket, but with the improved efficiency and cleanliness (which remain worse than hydrogen). Furthermore, these balances in efficiency-vs-power makes methane more suitable for a single-fuel rocket, which have proven more economical than dual-fuel rockets (due to less complexity). As such, methalox has made a resurgence in popularity in 21st century rockets, at the expense of kerolox (better efficiency) and hydrolox (better handling). Examples include <a href="/wiki/SpaceX_Starship" title="SpaceX Starship">Starship</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Glenn" title="New Glenn">New Glenn</a>, the first stage of <a href="/wiki/Vulcan_(rocket)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vulcan (rocket)">Vulcan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zhuque-2" title="Zhuque-2">Zhuque-2</a>. </p><p>During engine shutdown, fuel flow goes to zero rapidly, while the engine is still quite hot. Residual and trapped fuel can polymerize or even <a href="/wiki/Carbonization" title="Carbonization">carbonize</a> at hot spots or in hot components. Even without hot spots, heavy fuels can create a petroleum residue, as can be seen in gasoline, diesel, or jet fuel tanks that have been in service for years. Rocket engines have cycle lifetimes measured in minutes or even seconds, preventing truly heavy deposits. However, rockets are much more sensitive to a deposit, as described above. Thus, kerosene systems generally entail more teardowns and overhauls, creating operations and labor expenses. This is a problem for expendable engines, as well as reusable ones, because engines must be ground-fired some number of times before launch. Even cold-flow tests, in which the propellants are not ignited, can leave residues. </p><p>On the upside, below a chamber pressure of about 1,000 psi (7 MPa), kerosene can produce sooty deposits on the inside of the nozzle and chamber liner. This acts as a significant insulation layer and can reduce the heat flow into the wall by roughly a factor of two. Most modern hydrocarbon engines, however, run above this pressure, therefore this is not a significant effect for most engines. </p><p>Recent heavy-hydrocarbon engines have modified components and new operating cycles, in attempts to better manage leftover fuel, achieve a more-gradual cooldown, or both. This still leaves the problem of non-dissociated petroleum residue. Other new engines have tried to bypass the problem entirely, by switching to light hydrocarbons such as <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> or <a href="/wiki/Propane" title="Propane">propane</a> gas. Both are volatiles, so engine residues simply evaporate. If necessary, solvents or other purgatives can be run through the engine to finish dispersion. The short-chain carbon backbone of propane (a C<sub>3</sub> molecule) is very difficult to break; methane, with a single carbon atom (C<sub>1</sub>), is technically not a chain at all. The breakdown products of both molecules are also gases, with fewer problems due to phase separation, and much less likelihood of polymerization and deposition. However, methane (and to a lesser extent propane) reintroduces handling inconveniences that prompted kerosenes in the first place. </p><p>The low <a href="/wiki/Vapor_pressure" title="Vapor pressure">vapor pressure</a> of kerosenes gives safety for ground crews. However, in flight the kerosene tank needs a separate pressurization system to replace fuel volume as it drains. Generally, this is a separate tank of liquid or high-pressure inert gas, such as <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> or <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a>. This creates extra cost and weight. <a href="/wiki/Cryogenics" title="Cryogenics">Cryogenic</a> or volatile propellants generally do not need a separate pressurant; instead, some propellant is expanded (often with engine heat) into low-density gas and routed back to its tank. A few highly volatile propellant designs do not even need the gas loop; some of the liquid automatically vaporizes to fill its own container. Some rockets use gas from a <a href="/wiki/Gas_generator" title="Gas generator">gas generator</a> to pressurize the fuel tank; usually, this is exhaust from a <a href="/wiki/Turbopump" title="Turbopump">turbopump</a>. Although this saves the weight of a separate gas system, the loop now has to handle a hot, reactive gas instead of a cool, inert one. </p><p>Regardless of chemical constraints, RP-1 has supply constraints due to the very small size of the launch-vehicle industry versus other consumers of petroleum. While the material price of such a highly refined hydrocarbon is still less than many other rocket propellants, the number of RP-1 suppliers is limited. A few engines have attempted to use more standard, widely distributed petroleum products such as jet fuel or even diesel (for example, ABL Space Systems' E2 engine can run on either RP-1 or Jet-A). By using alternate or supplemental engine cooling methods, some engines can tolerate the non-optimal formulations. </p><p>Any hydrocarbon-based fuel produces more air pollution when burned than hydrogen alone. Hydrocarbon combustion produces carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>), carbon monoxide (CO), and hydrocarbon (HC) emissions, while hydrogen (H<sub>2</sub>) reacts with oxygen (O<sub>2</sub>) to produce only water (H<sub>2</sub>O), with some unreacted H<sub>2</sub> also released. Both hydrocarbon-based fuels and hydrogen fuel will create oxides of nitrogen (NO<sub><i>x</i></sub>) pollutants, because <a href="/wiki/Liquid_rocket_propellant#Bipropellants" title="Liquid rocket propellant">rocket exhaust temperatures</a> above 1,600 °C (2,900 °F) will <a href="/wiki/NOx#Thermal" title="NOx">thermally combine</a> some of the nitrogen (N<sub>2</sub>) and oxygen (O<sub>2</sub>) already present in the atmosphere, to create oxides of nitrogen. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="RP-1-like_fuels">RP-1-like fuels</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=RP-1&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: RP-1-like fuels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Goddard" title="Robert H. Goddard">Robert H. Goddard</a>'s initial rockets used gasoline. </p><p>While the RP-1 specification was being developed, <a href="/wiki/Rocketdyne" title="Rocketdyne">Rocketdyne</a> was experimenting with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Diethyl_cyclohexane&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Diethyl cyclohexane (page does not exist)">diethyl cyclohexane</a>. While superior to RP-1, it was never adopted for use – its formulation was not finished before development of Atlas and Titan I (designed around RP-1) leading to RP-1 becoming the standard hydrocarbon rocket fuel.<sup id="cite_ref-Ignition_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ignition-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Soviet formulations are discussed above. In addition, the Soviets briefly used <a href="/wiki/Syntin" title="Syntin">syntin</a> (Russian: <span lang="ru">синтин</span>), a higher-energy formulation, used in <a href="/wiki/Multistage_rocket" title="Multistage rocket">upper stages</a>. Syntin is 1-methyl-1,2-dicyclopropyl cyclopropane (<span class="chemf nowrap">C<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">10</sub></span></span>H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">16</sub></span></span></span>). Russia is also working to switch the <a href="/wiki/Soyuz-2" title="Soyuz-2">Soyuz-2</a> from RP-1 to "naftil"<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or "naphthyl".<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the RP-1 standard, RP-2 was developed. The primary difference is an even lower sulfur content. However, as most users accept RP-1, there was little incentive to produce and stock a second, even rarer and more expensive formulation. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/OTRAG" title="OTRAG">OTRAG</a> group launched test vehicles using more common blends. In at least one instance, a rocket was propelled by <a href="/wiki/Diesel_fuel" title="Diesel fuel">diesel fuel</a>. However, no OTRAG rocket came even close to orbit.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=RP-1&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Stages_Saturn-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stages_Saturn_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBilstein1996" class="citation book cs1">Bilstein, Roger E. (1996) [1980]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4206/p405.htm">"Appendix A—Schematic of Saturn V"</a>. <i>Stages to Saturn: A Technological History of the Apollo/Saturn Launch Vehicles</i>. The NASA History Series. <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>. p. 405. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-16-048909-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-16-048909-1"><bdi>0-16-048909-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081101191827/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4206/p405.htm">Archived</a> from the original on November 1, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Appendix+A%E2%80%94Schematic+of+Saturn+V&rft.btitle=Stages+to+Saturn%3A+A+Technological+History+of+the+Apollo%2FSaturn+Launch+Vehicles&rft.series=The+NASA+History+Series&rft.pages=405&rft.pub=NASA&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-16-048909-1&rft.aulast=Bilstein&rft.aufirst=Roger+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.nasa.gov%2FSP-4206%2Fp405.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARP-1" class="Z3988"></span> Digitized copies are available from the Internet Archive: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stagestosaturnte00bilsrich">1996 edition</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/NASA_NTRS_Archive_19970009949">first edition</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-isro-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-isro_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151018185434/http://www.isro.org/sites/default/files/AnnualReports/2014/STS.html">"ISRO Annual Report 2013-14"</a>. <i>isro.org</i>. October 18, 2015. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.isro.org/sites/default/files/AnnualReports/2014/STS.html">the original</a> on October 18, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 2,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=isro.org&rft.atitle=ISRO+Annual+Report+2013-14&rft.date=2015-10-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.isro.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2FAnnualReports%2F2014%2FSTS.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARP-1" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sutton2006-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sutton2006_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSutton2006" class="citation book cs1">Sutton, George Paul (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s1C9Oo2I4VYC&pg=PA42"><i>History of Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines</i></a>. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781563476495" title="Special:BookSources/9781563476495"><bdi>9781563476495</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Liquid+Propellant+Rocket+Engines&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=American+Institute+of+Aeronautics+and+Astronautics&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9781563476495&rft.aulast=Sutton&rft.aufirst=George+Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ds1C9Oo2I4VYC%26pg%3DPA42&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARP-1" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.braeunig.us/space/propel.htm">"Basics of Space Flight: Rocket Propellants"</a>. 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Russian Space Web<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 5,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Vostochny+launches+on+schedule+for+2017&rft.pub=Russian+Space+Web&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frussianspaceweb.com%2Fsoyuz_lv_2017.html%23vostochny&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARP-1" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://russia-now.com/en/114967/will-russias-1st-carrier-rocket-firing-naphthyl-blast-off/">"When will Russia's 1st carrier rocket firing naphthyl blast off?"</a>. <i>Russia Now</i>. October 11, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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