CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Euphrates - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"d1d10333-02fd-45a7-9760-bbdddab06b06","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Euphrates","wgTitle":"Euphrates","wgCurRevisionId":1259335612,"wgRevisionId":1259335612,"wgArticleId":10221,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas","Pages using the Phonos extension","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Use dmy dates from July 2020","Coordinates on Wikidata","Pages including recorded pronunciations","Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text","Articles containing Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text","Articles containing Elamite-language text","Articles containing Arabic-language text", "Articles containing Syriac-language text","Articles containing Hebrew-language text","Articles containing Armenian-language text","Articles containing Turkish-language text","Articles containing Kurdish-language text","Articles containing Classical Mandaic-language text","CS1 French-language sources (fr)","All articles with dead external links","Articles with dead external links from August 2019","Articles with permanently dead external links","CS1 maint: location missing publisher","Commons category link from Wikidata","Pages using the Kartographer extension","Euphrates","International rivers of Asia","Mesopotamia","Rivers of Iraq","Rivers of Kurdistan","Rivers of Syria","Rivers of Turkey","Sites along the Silk Road","Torah places","Levant","Geography of Iraqi Kurdistan","Landforms of Şanlıurfa Province","Upper Mesopotamia","Hebrew Bible rivers","Rivers in Mandaeism"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName": "Euphrates","wgRelevantArticleId":10221,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":70000,"wgCoordinates":{"lat":31.005,"lon":47.44194444444444},"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q34589","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands", "architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","ext.kartographer.style":"ready","ext.phonos.styles":"ready","ext.phonos.icons":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","ext.kartographer.staticframe","ext.phonos.init","mediawiki.page.media", "ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.gadget.WikiMiniAtlas","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.kartographer.style%7Cext.phonos.icons%2Cstyles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/The_Euphrates_River_in_Turkey%2C_Rumkale_%2852031477798%29.jpg/1200px-The_Euphrates_River_in_Turkey%2C_Rumkale_%2852031477798%29.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="800"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/The_Euphrates_River_in_Turkey%2C_Rumkale_%2852031477798%29.jpg/800px-The_Euphrates_River_in_Turkey%2C_Rumkale_%2852031477798%29.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="533"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/The_Euphrates_River_in_Turkey%2C_Rumkale_%2852031477798%29.jpg/640px-The_Euphrates_River_in_Turkey%2C_Rumkale_%2852031477798%29.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="427"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Euphrates - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphrates"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Euphrates&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphrates"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Euphrates rootpage-Euphrates skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Euphrates" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Euphrates" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Euphrates" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Euphrates" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Etymology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etymology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Etymology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etymology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Course" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Course"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Course</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Course-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Course subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Course-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Discharge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discharge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Discharge</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discharge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tributaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tributaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Tributaries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tributaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Drainage_basin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drainage_basin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Drainage basin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drainage_basin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Climate change</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Natural_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Natural history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-River" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#River"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>River</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-River-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle River subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-River-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Environmental_and_social_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_and_social_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Environmental and social effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environmental_and_social_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Religion-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Religion subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Islam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Islam</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Christianity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Palaeolithic_to_Chalcolithic_periods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Palaeolithic_to_Chalcolithic_periods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Palaeolithic to Chalcolithic periods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Palaeolithic_to_Chalcolithic_periods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Ancient history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Modern era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Economy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Euphrates</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 128 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-128" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">128 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eufraat" title="Eufraat – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Eufraat" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphrat" title="Euphrat – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Euphrat" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%A4%E1%8D%8D%E1%88%AB%E1%8C%A5%E1%88%B5_%E1%8B%88%E1%8A%95%E1%8B%9D" title="ኤፍራጥስ ወንዝ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ኤፍራጥስ ወንዝ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eufr%C4%81te" title="Eufrāte – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Eufrāte" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="الفرات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الفرات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%A6%DC%AA%DC%AC" title="ܦܪܬ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܦܪܬ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ܐܪܡܝܐ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B5%D6%83%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%BF_%D5%A3%D5%A5%D5%BF" title="Եփրատ գետ – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Եփրատ գետ" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89ufrates" title="Éufrates – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Éufrates" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C9%99rat" title="Fərat – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Fərat" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="فرات – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="فرات" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4" title="ফোরাত – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ফোরাত" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphrates_H%C3%B4" title="Euphrates Hô – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Euphrates Hô" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Евфрат – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Евфрат" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%9E%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Еўфрат – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Еўфрат" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%9E%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Эўфрат – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Эўфрат" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80" title="फ़रात नदी – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="फ़रात नदी" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eufrates" title="Eufrates – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Eufrates" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bi mw-list-item"><a href="https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yufreres" title="Yufreres – Bislama" lang="bi" hreflang="bi" data-title="Yufreres" data-language-autonym="Bislama" data-language-local-name="Bislama" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bislama</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Ефрат – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ефрат" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eufrat" title="Eufrat – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Eufrat" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eufrates" title="Eufrates – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Eufrates" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eufrates" title="Eufrates – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Eufrates" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Евфрат – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Евфрат" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphrates_River" title="Euphrates River – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Euphrates River" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eufrat" title="Eufrat – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Eufrat" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afon_Ewffrates" title="Afon Ewffrates – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Afon Ewffrates" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eufrat" title="Eufrat – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Eufrat" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphrat" title="Euphrat – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Euphrat" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eufrat" title="Eufrat – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Eufrat" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%85%CF%86%CF%81%CE%AC%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82" title="Ευφράτης – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ευφράτης" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89ufrates" title="Éufrates – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Éufrates" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C5%ADfrato" title="Eŭfrato – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Eŭfrato" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eufratis" title="Eufratis – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Eufratis" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eufrates" title="Eufrates – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Eufrates" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="فرات – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فرات" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphrate" title="Euphrate – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Euphrate" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eufraat" title="Eufraat – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Eufraat" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Eofrait" title="An Eofrait – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Eofrait" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%ADo_%C3%89ufrates" title="Río Éufrates – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Río Éufrates" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Идалбат – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Идалбат" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%AF%E0%AB%81%E0%AA%AB%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%9F%E0%AB%80%E0%AA%B8" title="યુફ્રેટીસ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="યુફ્રેટીસ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gom mw-list-item"><a href="https://gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B8" title="युफ्रेटीस – Goan Konkani" lang="gom" hreflang="gom" data-title="युफ्रेटीस" data-language-autonym="गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni" data-language-local-name="Goan Konkani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A0%ED%94%84%EB%9D%BC%ED%85%8C%EC%8A%A4%EA%B0%95" title="유프라테스강 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="유프라테스강" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B5%D6%83%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%BF" title="Եփրատ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Եփրատ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80" title="फ़रात नदी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="फ़रात नदी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eufrat" title="Eufrat – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Eufrat" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eufrati" title="Eufrati – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Eufrati" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sungai_Efrat" title="Sungai Efrat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sungai Efrat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efrat" title="Efrat – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Efrat" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eufrate" title="Eufrate – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Eufrate" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%AA" title="פרת – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פרת" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kali_%C3%89frat" title="Kali Éfrat – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Kali Éfrat" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%AB%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D" title="ಯೂಫ್ರೆಟೀಸ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಯೂಫ್ರೆಟೀಸ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98" title="ევფრატი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ევფრატი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%92_%D9%81%D9%90%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="دریائے فِرات – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="دریائے فِرات" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C3%B9frat" title="Eùfrat – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Eùfrat" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kaszëbsczi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Евфрат – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Евфрат" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frati" title="Frati – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Frati" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firat" title="Firat – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Firat" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Евфрат – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Евфрат" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Euphrates" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eifrata" title="Eifrata – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Eifrata" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphrat" title="Euphrat – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Euphrat" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eufratas" title="Eufratas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Eufratas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ufrate" title="Ufrate – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Ufrate" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_Eufrates" title="Rio Eufrates – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Rio Eufrates" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eufr%C3%A1tesz" title="Eufrátesz – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Eufrátesz" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%83%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Еуфрат – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Еуфрат" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eofrata" title="Eofrata – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Eofrata" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="യൂഫ്രട്ടീസ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="യൂഫ്രട്ടീസ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80" title="युफ्रेटिस नदी – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="युफ्रेटिस नदी" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98" title="ევფრატი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ევფრატი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%87%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="نهر الفرات – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="نهر الفرات" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="فرات – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="فرات" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sungai_Furat" title="Sungai Furat – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sungai Furat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A1ik-l%C4%83k_%C3%92%CC%A4" title="Báik-lăk Ò̤ – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Báik-lăk Ò̤" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82_%D0%BC%D3%A9%D1%80%D3%A9%D0%BD" title="Евфрат мөрөн – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Евфрат мөрөн" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9A%E1%80%B0%E1%80%96%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B8%E1%80%90%E1%80%AE%E1%80%B8%E1%80%99%E1%80%BC%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA" title="ယူဖရေးတီးမြစ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ယူဖရေးတီးမြစ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eufraat" title="Eufraat – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Eufraat" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80" title="युफ्रेटिस नदी – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="युफ्रेटिस नदी" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B8" title="युफ्रेटस – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="युफ्रेटस" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%A6%E3%83%BC%E3%83%95%E3%83%A9%E3%83%86%E3%82%B9%E5%B7%9D" title="ユーフラテス川 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ユーフラテス川" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphrat" title="Euphrat – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Euphrat" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eufrat" title="Eufrat – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Eufrat" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eufrat" title="Eufrat – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Eufrat" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eufrates" title="Eufrates – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Eufrates" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furot_(daryo)" title="Furot (daryo) – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Furot (daryo)" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A4" title="ਫ਼ਰਾਤ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਫ਼ਰਾਤ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%93_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="دریاۓ فرات – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="دریاۓ فرات" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="فرات – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="فرات" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphrat" title="Euphrat – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Euphrat" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eufrat" title="Eufrat – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Eufrat" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_Eufrates" title="Rio Eufrates – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Rio Eufrates" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eufrat" title="Eufrat – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Eufrat" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Евфрат – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Евфрат" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Евфрат – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Евфрат" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%83%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Эуфрат – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Эуфрат" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Euphrates" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumi_i_Eufratit" title="Lumi i Eufratit – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Lumi i Eufratit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eufrati" title="Eufrati – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Eufrati" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%93%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8A" title="යුප්‍රටීස් – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="යුප්‍රටීස්" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Euphrates" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eufrat" title="Eufrat – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Eufrat" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evfrat" title="Evfrat – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Evfrat" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furaat" title="Furaat – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Furaat" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="فورات – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="فورات" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%83%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Еуфрат – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Еуфрат" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eufrat" title="Eufrat – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Eufrat" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eufrat" title="Eufrat – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Eufrat" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eufrat" title="Eufrat – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Eufrat" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eufrates" title="Eufrates – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Eufrates" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%86%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="புறாத்து ஆறு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="புறாத்து ஆறு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yefrat_y%C4%B1l%C4%9Fas%C4%B1" title="Yefrat yılğası – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Yefrat yılğası" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AF%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%AB%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D" title="యూఫ్రటీస్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="యూఫ్రటీస్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B3%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B9%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%AA" title="แม่น้ำยูเฟรทีส – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="แม่น้ำยูเฟรทีส" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82" title="Фурот – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Фурот" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C4%B1rat" title="Fırat – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Fırat" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%84%D0%B2%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Євфрат – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Євфрат" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%92_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="دریائے فرات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="دریائے فرات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Euphrates" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ufrate_(aiwe)" title="Ufrate (aiwe) – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Ufrate (aiwe)" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eufroat" title="Eufroat – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Eufroat" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eufrates" title="Eufrates – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Eufrates" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B9%BC%E5%8F%91%E6%8B%89%E5%BA%95%E6%B2%B3" title="幼发拉底河 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="幼发拉底河" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%AA" title="פרת – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="פרת" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B9%BC%E7%99%BC%E6%8B%89%E5%BA%95%E6%B2%B3" title="幼發拉底河 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="幼發拉底河" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy%C3%AA_F%C4%B1rati" title="Royê Fırati – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Royê Fırati" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B9%BC%E5%8F%91%E6%8B%89%E5%BA%95%E6%B2%B3" title="幼发拉底河 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="幼发拉底河" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q34589#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Euphrates" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Euphrates"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euphrates&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euphrates&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Euphrates"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euphrates&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euphrates&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Euphrates" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Euphrates" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euphrates&oldid=1259335612" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euphrates&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Euphrates&id=1259335612&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FEuphrates"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FEuphrates"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Euphrates&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euphrates&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Euphrates" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q34589" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-coordinates" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span id="coordinates"><a href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">Coordinates</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Euphrates&params=31_0_18_N_47_26_31_E_type:river"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">31°0′18″N</span> <span class="longitude">47°26′31″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">31.00500°N 47.44194°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">31.00500; 47.44194</span></span></span></a></span></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">River in Turkey, Iraq, and Syria</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the river in Mesopotamia. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Euphrates_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Euphrates (disambiguation)">Euphrates (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;">Euphrates</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Euphrates_River_in_Turkey,_Rumkale_(52031477798).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/The_Euphrates_River_in_Turkey%2C_Rumkale_%2852031477798%29.jpg/300px-The_Euphrates_River_in_Turkey%2C_Rumkale_%2852031477798%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/The_Euphrates_River_in_Turkey%2C_Rumkale_%2852031477798%29.jpg/450px-The_Euphrates_River_in_Turkey%2C_Rumkale_%2852031477798%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/The_Euphrates_River_in_Turkey%2C_Rumkale_%2852031477798%29.jpg/600px-The_Euphrates_River_in_Turkey%2C_Rumkale_%2852031477798%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3936" data-file-height="2624" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">The Euphrates in <a href="/wiki/Gaziantep_Province" title="Gaziantep Province">Gaziantep Province</a>, Turkey.</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tigr-euph.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Tigr-euph.png/300px-Tigr-euph.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Tigr-euph.png/450px-Tigr-euph.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Tigr-euph.png/600px-Tigr-euph.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1005" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Map of the combined <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a>–Euphrates <a href="/wiki/Drainage_basin" title="Drainage basin">drainage basin</a> (in yellow)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a class="mw-kartographer-map notheme mw-kartographer-container center" style="width: 250px; height: 250px;" data-mw-kartographer="mapframe" data-style="osm-intl" data-width="250" data-height="250" data-zoom="4" data-overlays="["_cbeb9d857fd77161ffb5555889202738da512a50"]"><img src="https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,4,a,a,250x250.png?lang=en&domain=en.wikipedia.org&title=Euphrates&revid=1259335612&groups=_cbeb9d857fd77161ffb5555889202738da512a50" width="250" height="250" decoding="async" srcset="https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,4,a,a,250x250@2x.png?lang=en&domain=en.wikipedia.org&title=Euphrates&revid=1259335612&groups=_cbeb9d857fd77161ffb5555889202738da512a50 2x" alt="Map" /></a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Etymology</th><td class="infobox-data">from Akkadian Purattu, from Sumerian <i>Burannu</i></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;">Location</th></tr><tr style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Country</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a></td></tr><tr style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Source region</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Armenian_highlands" title="Armenian highlands">Armenian highlands</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Cities</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Birecik" title="Birecik">Birecik</a>, <a href="/wiki/Raqqa" title="Raqqa">Raqqa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor" title="Deir ez-Zor">Deir ez-Zor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mayadin" title="Mayadin">Mayadin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haditha" title="Haditha">Haditha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ramadi" title="Ramadi">Ramadi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Habbaniyah" title="Habbaniyah">Habbaniyah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fallujah" title="Fallujah">Fallujah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kufa" title="Kufa">Kufa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samawah" title="Samawah">Samawah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nasiriyah" title="Nasiriyah">Nasiriyah</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;">Physical characteristics</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Source</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Murat_River" title="Murat River">Murat River</a></td></tr><tr style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span style="font-weight:normal"> • location</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/%C3%87at" title="Çat">Çat</a>, Turkey</td></tr><tr style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span style="font-weight:normal"> • coordinates</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="geo-inline"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Euphrates&params=39.729_N_41.223_E_"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">39°43′44″N</span> <span class="longitude">41°13′23″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">39.729°N 41.223°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">39.729; 41.223</span></span></span></a></span></span></td></tr><tr style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span style="font-weight:normal"> • elevation</span></th><td class="infobox-data">3,520 m (11,550 ft)</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">2nd source</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Karasu_(Euphrates)" title="Karasu (Euphrates)">Karasu</a></td></tr><tr style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span style="font-weight:normal"> • location</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Yakutiye" title="Yakutiye">Yakutiye</a>, Turkey</td></tr><tr style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span style="font-weight:normal"> • coordinates</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="geo-inline"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1156832818"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Euphrates&params=40.19_N_41.507_E_"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">40°11′24″N</span> <span class="longitude">41°30′25″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">40.190°N 41.507°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">40.190; 41.507</span></span></span></a></span></span></td></tr><tr style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span style="font-weight:normal"> • elevation</span></th><td class="infobox-data">3,290 m (10,790 ft)</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Source confluence</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span style="font-weight:normal"> • location</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Keban" title="Keban">Keban</a>, Turkey</td></tr><tr style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span style="font-weight:normal"> • coordinates</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="geo-inline"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1156832818"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Euphrates&params=39.729_N_40.257_E_"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">39°43′44″N</span> <span class="longitude">40°15′25″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">39.729°N 40.257°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">39.729; 40.257</span></span></span></a></span></span></td></tr><tr style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span style="font-weight:normal"> • elevation</span></th><td class="infobox-data">610 m (2,000 ft)</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/River_mouth" title="River mouth">Mouth</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Shatt_al-Arab" title="Shatt al-Arab">Shatt al-Arab</a></td></tr><tr style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display:inline;font-weight:normal"> • location</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Al-Qurnah" title="Al-Qurnah">Al-Qurnah</a>, Iraq</td></tr><tr style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display:inline;font-weight:normal"> • coordinates</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="geo-inline"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1156832818"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Euphrates&params=31_0_18_N_47_26_31_E_type:river"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">31°0′18″N</span> <span class="longitude">47°26′31″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">31.00500°N 47.44194°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">31.00500; 47.44194</span></span></span></a></span></span></td></tr><tr style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display:inline;font-weight:normal"> • elevation</div></th><td class="infobox-data">1 m (3.3 ft)</td></tr><tr style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Length</th><td class="infobox-data">Approx. 2,800 km (1,700 mi)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Basin size</th><td class="infobox-data">Approx. 500,000 km<sup>2</sup> (190,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Discharge</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span style="font-weight:normal"> • location</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/H%C4%ABt" class="mw-redirect" title="Hīt">Hīt</a></td></tr><tr style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span style="font-weight:normal"> • average</span></th><td class="infobox-data">356 m<sup>3</sup>/s (12,600 cu ft/s)</td></tr><tr style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span style="font-weight:normal"> • minimum</span></th><td class="infobox-data">58 m<sup>3</sup>/s (2,000 cu ft/s)</td></tr><tr style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span style="font-weight:normal"> • maximum</span></th><td class="infobox-data">2,514 m<sup>3</sup>/s (88,800 cu ft/s)</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;">Basin features</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Progression</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Shatt_al-Arab" title="Shatt al-Arab">Shatt al-Arab</a> → <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Drainage_basin" title="Drainage basin">River system</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Tigris%E2%80%93Euphrates_river_system" title="Tigris–Euphrates river system">Tigris–Euphrates river system</a></td></tr><tr style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Tributaries</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span style="font-weight:normal"> • left</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Balikh_River" title="Balikh River">Balikh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khabur_(Euphrates)" title="Khabur (Euphrates)">Khabur</a></td></tr><tr style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span style="font-weight:normal"> • right</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Sajur_River" title="Sajur River">Sajur</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Euphrates</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/juː/: 'u' in 'cute'">juː</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'f' in 'find'">f</span><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'">eɪ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span></span>/</a></span> <span class="noprint"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/6\/69\/En-us-Euphrates.ogg\/En-us-Euphrates.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"En-us-Euphrates.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/69/En-us-Euphrates.ogg/En-us-Euphrates.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:En-us-Euphrates.ogg" title="File:En-us-Euphrates.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling">yoo-<span style="font-size:90%">FRAY</span>-teez</i></a>; see <a href="#Etymology">below</a>) is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of <a href="/wiki/Western_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Asia">Western Asia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Tigris%E2%80%93Euphrates_river_system" title="Tigris–Euphrates river system">Together</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a>, it is one of the two defining rivers of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">the land between the rivers</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>). Originating in <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, the Euphrates flows through <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> to join the Tigris in the <a href="/wiki/Shatt_al-Arab" title="Shatt al-Arab">Shatt al-Arab</a> in <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, which empties into the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>. </p><p>The Euphrates is the <a href="/wiki/List_of_longest_rivers_of_Asia" title="List of longest rivers of Asia">fifteenth-longest river</a> in Asia and the longest in Western Asia, at about 2,780 km (1,730 mi), with a drainage area of 440,000 km<sup>2</sup> (170,000 sq mi) that covers six countries. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euphrates&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term <i>Euphrates</i> derives from the <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Greek</a> <i>Euphrátēs</i> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%95%E1%BD%90%CF%86%CF%81%CE%AC%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:Εὐφράτης">Εὐφρᾱ́της</a></span></span>), adapted from <a href="/wiki/Old_Persian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Persian language">Old Persian</a>: <span lang="peo">𐎢𐎳𐎼𐎠𐎬𐎢</span>, <small>romanized: </small><span title="Old Persian-language romanization"><i lang="peo-Latn"><sup>h</sup>Ufrātuš</i></span>,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> itself from <a href="/wiki/Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a>: <span lang="elx">𒌑𒅁𒊏𒌅𒅖</span>, <small>romanized: </small><span title="Elamite-language romanization"><i lang="elx-Latn">Úipratuiš</i></span>. The Elamite name is ultimately derived from <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a> 𒌓𒄒𒉣; read as <i>Buranun</i> in <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a> and <i>Purattu</i> in <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a>; many cuneiform signs have a Sumerian pronunciation and an Akkadian pronunciation, taken from a Sumerian word and an Akkadian word that mean the same. The Akkadian <i>Purattu</i><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has been perpetuated in <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic languages</a> (cf. <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">الفرات</span> <i>al-Furāt</i>; <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a>: <span lang="syr" dir="rtl">̇ܦܪܬ</span> <i>Pǝrāṯ</i>, <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <span lang="he" dir="rtl">פְּרָת</span> <i>Pǝrāṯ</i>) and in other nearby languages of the time (cf. <a href="/wiki/Hurrian_language" title="Hurrian language">Hurrian</a> <i>Puranti</i>, <a href="/wiki/Subartu" title="Subartu">Sabarian</a> <i>Uruttu</i>). The Elamite, Akkadian, and possibly Sumerian forms are suggested to be from an unrecorded <a href="/wiki/Substrate_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Substrate language">substrate language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Tamaz_V._Gamkrelidze" title="Tamaz V. Gamkrelidze">Tamaz V. Gamkrelidze</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vyacheslav_Ivanov_(philologist)" title="Vyacheslav Ivanov (philologist)">Vyacheslav Ivanov</a> suggest the proto-Sumerian <i>*burudu</i> "copper" (Sumerian <i>urudu</i>) as an origin, with an explanation that Euphrates was the river by which copper ore was transported in rafts, since Mesopotamia was the center of copper metallurgy during the period.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Euphrates is called <i>Yeprat</i> in <a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a> (<span title="Armenian-language text"><span lang="hy">Եփրատ</span></span>), <i>Perat</i> in modern Hebrew (<span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">פרת</span></span>), <span title="Turkish-language text"><i lang="tr">Fırat</i></span> in <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a> and <span title="Kurdish-language text"><i lang="ku">Firat</i></span> in <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_language" title="Kurdish language">Kurdish</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Mandaic_language" title="Mandaic language">Mandaic</a> name is <span title="Classical Mandaic-language romanization"><i lang="myz-Latn">Praš</i></span> (<span title="Classical Mandaic-language text"><span lang="myz" dir="rtl">ࡐࡓࡀࡔ</span></span>), and is often mentioned as <span title="Classical Mandaic-language romanization"><i lang="myz-Latn">Praš <a href="/wiki/Ziwa_(Aramaic)" title="Ziwa (Aramaic)">Ziwa</a></i></span> (pronounced <span title="Classical Mandaic-language romanization"><i lang="myz-Latn">Fraš Ziwa</i></span>) in <a href="/wiki/Mandaean_scriptures" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandaean scriptures">Mandaean scriptures</a> such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Ginza_Rabba" title="Ginza Rabba">Ginza Rabba</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-GR_Gelbert_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GR_Gelbert-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Mandaean scriptures, the Euphrates is considered to be the earthly manifestation of the heavenly <a href="/wiki/Yardna" title="Yardna">yardna</a> or flowing river (similar to the <a href="/wiki/Yazidi" class="mw-redirect" title="Yazidi">Yazidi</a> concept of <a href="/wiki/Lalish" title="Lalish">Lalish</a> being the earthly manifestation of its heavenly counterpart,<sup id="cite_ref-Nasoraia_2021_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nasoraia_2021-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or the ‘Sacred House’ <a href="/wiki/Kaaba" title="Kaaba">Kaaba</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mekka" class="mw-redirect" title="Mekka">Mecca</a> being the earthly manifestation of the heavenly Al-Bayt Al-Mamur).<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest references to the Euphrates come from <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a> texts found in <a href="/wiki/Shuruppak" title="Shuruppak">Shuruppak</a> and pre-<a href="/wiki/Sargon_of_Akkad" title="Sargon of Akkad">Sargonic</a> <a href="/wiki/Nippur" title="Nippur">Nippur</a> in southern <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> and date to the mid-<a href="/wiki/3rd_millennium_BCE" class="mw-redirect" title="3rd millennium BCE">3rd millennium BCE</a>. In these texts, written in Sumerian, the Euphrates is called <i>Buranuna</i> (<a href="/wiki/Logogram" title="Logogram">logographic</a>: UD.KIB.NUN). The name could also be written KIB.NUN.(NA) or <sup>d</sup>KIB.NUN, with the prefix "<sup><a href="/wiki/Dingir" title="Dingir">d</a></sup>" indicating that the river was a <a href="/wiki/Divinity" title="Divinity">divinity</a>. In Sumerian, the name of the city of <a href="/wiki/Sippar" title="Sippar">Sippar</a> in modern-day Iraq was also written UD.KIB.NUN, indicating a historically strong relationship between the city and the river. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Course">Course</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euphrates&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Course"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plan,_topographic_representation_of_Babylon._The_clay_tablet_depicts_%22Tu-ba%22,_a_suburb_of_the_ancient_city_of_Babylon._The_River_Euphrates_is_represented_by_the_water-lined_band._Shamash_Gate_(Abul_Shamash)_is_seen_at_the_lower_part.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Plan%2C_topographic_representation_of_Babylon._The_clay_tablet_depicts_%22Tu-ba%22%2C_a_suburb_of_the_ancient_city_of_Babylon._The_River_Euphrates_is_represented_by_the_water-lined_band._Shamash_Gate_%28Abul_Shamash%29_is_seen_at_the_lower_part.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Plan%2C_topographic_representation_of_Babylon._The_clay_tablet_depicts_%22Tu-ba%22%2C_a_suburb_of_the_ancient_city_of_Babylon._The_River_Euphrates_is_represented_by_the_water-lined_band._Shamash_Gate_%28Abul_Shamash%29_is_seen_at_the_lower_part.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Plan%2C_topographic_representation_of_Babylon._The_clay_tablet_depicts_%22Tu-ba%22%2C_a_suburb_of_the_ancient_city_of_Babylon._The_River_Euphrates_is_represented_by_the_water-lined_band._Shamash_Gate_%28Abul_Shamash%29_is_seen_at_the_lower_part.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3320" data-file-height="3740" /></a><figcaption>Plan, topographic representation of Babylon. The clay tablet depicts "Tu-ba", a suburb of the ancient city of Babylon. The River Euphrates is represented by the water-lined band. 660-500 BCE. British Museum</figcaption></figure> <p>The Euphrates is the longest river of <a href="/wiki/Western_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Asia">Western Asia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It emerges from the confluence of the <a href="/wiki/Karasu_(Euphrates)" title="Karasu (Euphrates)">Kara Su</a> or Western Euphrates (450 kilometres (280 mi)) and the <a href="/wiki/Murat_River" title="Murat River">Murat Su</a> or Eastern Euphrates (650 kilometres (400 mi)) 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) upstream from the town of <a href="/wiki/Keban" title="Keban">Keban</a> in southeastern Turkey.<sup id="cite_ref-neweden2006a71_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-neweden2006a71-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Daoudy and Frenken put the length of the Euphrates from the source of the Murat River to the confluence with the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> at 3,000 kilometres (1,900 mi), of which 1,230 kilometres (760 mi) is in <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, 710 kilometres (440 mi) in <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> and 1,060 kilometres (660 mi) in Iraq.<sup id="cite_ref-daoudy63_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-daoudy63-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-frenken65_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frenken65-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The same figures are given by Isaev and Mikhailova.<sup id="cite_ref-isaevmikhailova384_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isaevmikhailova384-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The length of the <a href="/wiki/Shatt_al-Arab" title="Shatt al-Arab">Shatt al-Arab</a>, which connects the Euphrates and the Tigris with the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>, is given by various sources as 145–195 kilometres (90–121 mi).<sup id="cite_ref-isaevmikhailova388_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isaevmikhailova388-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Both the Kara Su and the Murat Su rise northwest from <a href="/wiki/Lake_Van" title="Lake Van">Lake Van</a> at elevations of 3,290 metres (10,790 ft) and 3,520 metres (11,550 ft) <a href="/wiki/Above_mean_sea_level" class="mw-redirect" title="Above mean sea level">amsl</a>, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-mutin2_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mutin2-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the location of the <a href="/wiki/Keban_Dam" title="Keban Dam">Keban Dam</a>, the two rivers, now combined into the Euphrates, have dropped to an elevation of 693 metres (2,274 ft) amsl. From Keban to the Syrian–Turkish border, the river drops another 368 metres (1,207 ft) over a distance of less than 600 kilometres (370 mi). Once the Euphrates enters the <a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Upper Mesopotamian</a> plains, its <a href="/wiki/Grade_(slope)" title="Grade (slope)">grade</a> drops significantly; within Syria the river falls 163 metres (535 ft) while over the last stretch between <a href="/wiki/H%C4%ABt" class="mw-redirect" title="Hīt">Hīt</a> and the Shatt al-Arab the river drops only 55 metres (180 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-neweden2006a71_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-neweden2006a71-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bilen100_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bilen100-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discharge">Discharge</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euphrates&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Discharge"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Euphrates receives most of its water in the form of rainfall and melting snow, resulting in peak volumes during the months April through May. <a href="/wiki/Discharge_(hydrology)" title="Discharge (hydrology)">Discharge</a> in these two months accounts for 36 percent of the total annual discharge of the Euphrates, or even 60–70 percent according to one source, while low runoff occurs in summer and autumn.<sup id="cite_ref-isaevmikhailova384_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isaevmikhailova384-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-neweden2006a91_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-neweden2006a91-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The average natural annual flow of the Euphrates has been determined from early- and mid-twentieth century records as 20.9 cubic kilometres (5.0 cu mi) at Keban, 36.6 cubic kilometres (8.8 cu mi) at <a href="/wiki/H%C4%ABt" class="mw-redirect" title="Hīt">Hīt</a> and 21.5 cubic kilometres (5.2 cu mi) at <a href="/wiki/Hindiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindiya">Hindiya</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-isaevmikhailova385_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isaevmikhailova385-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, these averages mask the high inter-annual variability in discharge; at <a href="/wiki/Birecik" title="Birecik">Birecik</a>, just north of the Syro–Turkish border, annual discharges have been measured that ranged from a low volume of 15.3 cubic kilometres (3.7 cu mi) in 1961 to a high of 42.7 cubic kilometres (10.2 cu mi) in 1963.<sup id="cite_ref-kolars47_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kolars47-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The discharge regime of the Euphrates has changed dramatically since the construction of the first dams in the 1970s. Data on Euphrates discharge collected after 1990 show the impact of the construction of the numerous dams in the Euphrates and of the increased withdrawal of water for irrigation. Average discharge at Hīt after 1990 has dropped to 356 cubic metres (12,600 cu ft) per second (11.2 cubic kilometres (2.7 cu mi) per year). The seasonal variability has equally changed. The pre-1990 peak volume recorded at Hīt was 7,510 cubic metres (265,000 cu ft) per second, while after 1990 it is only 2,514 cubic metres (88,800 cu ft) per second. The minimum volume at Hīt remained relatively unchanged, rising from 55 cubic metres (1,900 cu ft) per second before 1990 to 58 cubic metres (2,000 cu ft) per second afterward.<sup id="cite_ref-isaevmikhailova386_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isaevmikhailova386-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-neweden2006a94_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-neweden2006a94-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tributaries">Tributaries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euphrates&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Tributaries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Murat_05.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A river flowing through a wide valley" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Murat_05.jpg/220px-Murat_05.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Murat_05.jpg/330px-Murat_05.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Murat_05.jpg/440px-Murat_05.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2627" data-file-height="1751" /></a><figcaption>View of the <a href="/wiki/Murat_River" title="Murat River">Murat River</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In Syria, three rivers add their water to the Euphrates; the <a href="/wiki/Sajur_River" title="Sajur River">Sajur</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Balikh_River" title="Balikh River">Balikh</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Khabur_(Euphrates)" title="Khabur (Euphrates)">Khabur</a>. These rivers rise in the foothills of the <a href="/wiki/Taurus_Mountains" title="Taurus Mountains">Taurus Mountains</a> along the Syro–Turkish border and add comparatively little water to the Euphrates. The Sajur is the smallest of these tributaries; emerging from two streams near <a href="/wiki/Gaziantep" title="Gaziantep">Gaziantep</a> and draining the plain around <a href="/wiki/Manbij" title="Manbij">Manbij</a> before emptying into the <a href="/wiki/Reservoir" title="Reservoir">reservoir</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Tishrin_Dam" title="Tishrin Dam">Tishrin Dam</a>. The Balikh receives most of its water from a <a href="/wiki/Karst_topography" class="mw-redirect" title="Karst topography">karstic</a> spring near 'Ayn al-'Arus and flows due south until it reaches the Euphrates at the city of <a href="/wiki/Raqqa" title="Raqqa">Raqqa</a>. In terms of length, drainage basin and discharge, the Khabur is the largest of these three. Its main karstic springs are located around <a href="/wiki/Ras_al-Ayn,_al-Hasakah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ras al-Ayn, al-Hasakah">Ra's al-'Ayn</a>, from where the Khabur flows southeast past <a href="/wiki/Al-Hasakah" title="Al-Hasakah">Al-Hasakah</a>, where the river turns south and drains into the Euphrates near <a href="/wiki/Busayrah" class="mw-redirect" title="Busayrah">Busayrah</a>. Once the Euphrates enters Iraq, there are no more natural tributaries to the Euphrates, although canals connecting the Euphrates basin with the Tigris basin exist.<sup id="cite_ref-hillel95_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hillel95-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-holezaitchik_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-holezaitchik-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Name </th> <th>Length </th> <th>Watershed size </th> <th>Discharge </th> <th>Bank </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Karasu_(Euphrates)" title="Karasu (Euphrates)">Kara Su</a> </td> <td>450 km (280 mi) </td> <td>22,000 km<sup>2</sup> (8,500 sq mi) </td> <td> </td> <td>Confluence </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Murat_River" title="Murat River">Murat River</a> </td> <td>650 km (400 mi) </td> <td>40,000 km<sup>2</sup> (15,000 sq mi) </td> <td> </td> <td>Confluence </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sajur_River" title="Sajur River">Sajur River</a> </td> <td>108 km (67 mi) </td> <td>2,042 km<sup>2</sup> (788 sq mi) </td> <td>4.1 m<sup>3</sup>/s (145 cu ft/s) </td> <td>Right </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Balikh_River" title="Balikh River">Balikh River</a> </td> <td>100 km (62 mi) </td> <td>14,400 km<sup>2</sup> (5,600 sq mi) </td> <td>6 m<sup>3</sup>/s (212 cu ft/s) </td> <td>Left </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Khabur_(Euphrates)" title="Khabur (Euphrates)">Khabur River</a> </td> <td>486 km (302 mi) </td> <td>37,081 km<sup>2</sup> (14,317 sq mi) </td> <td>45 m<sup>3</sup>/s (1,600 cu ft/s) </td> <td>Left </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Drainage_basin">Drainage basin</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euphrates&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Drainage basin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tigre_et_Euphrate.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Refer to caption" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Tigre_et_Euphrate.jpg/220px-Tigre_et_Euphrate.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Tigre_et_Euphrate.jpg/330px-Tigre_et_Euphrate.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Tigre_et_Euphrate.jpg/440px-Tigre_et_Euphrate.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1914" /></a><figcaption>French map from the 17th century showing the Euphrates and the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Tigris%E2%80%93Euphrates_river_system" title="Tigris–Euphrates river system">Tigris–Euphrates river system</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Drainage_basin" title="Drainage basin">drainage basins</a> of the Kara Su and the Murat River cover an area of 22,000 square kilometres (8,500 sq mi) and 40,000 square kilometres (15,000 sq mi), respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-neweden2006a71_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-neweden2006a71-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Estimates of the area of the Euphrates drainage basin vary widely; from a low 233,000 square kilometres (90,000 sq mi) to a high 766,000 square kilometres (296,000 sq mi).<sup id="cite_ref-isaevmikhailova384_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isaevmikhailova384-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recent estimates put the basin area at 388,000 square kilometres (150,000 sq mi),<sup id="cite_ref-neweden2006a71_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-neweden2006a71-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 444,000 square kilometres (171,000 sq mi)<sup id="cite_ref-daoudy63_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-daoudy63-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-shahin251_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shahin251-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 579,314 square kilometres (223,674 sq mi).<sup id="cite_ref-partow4_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-partow4-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The greater part of the Euphrates basin is located in Turkey, Syria, and Iraq. According to both Daoudy and Frenken, Turkey's share is 28 percent, Syria's is 17 percent and that of Iraq is 40 percent.<sup id="cite_ref-daoudy63_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-daoudy63-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-frenken65_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frenken65-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Isaev and Mikhailova estimate the percentages of the drainage basin lying within Turkey, Syria and Iraq at 33, 20 and 47 percent respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-isaevmikhailova384_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isaevmikhailova384-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some sources estimate that approximately 15 percent of the drainage basin is located within <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>, while a small part falls inside the borders of <a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-daoudy63_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-daoudy63-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-frenken65_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frenken65-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, some sources also include <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a> in the drainage basin of the Euphrates; a small part of the eastern desert (220 square kilometres (85 sq mi)) drains toward the east rather than to the west.<sup id="cite_ref-isaevmikhailova384_13-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isaevmikhailova384-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-frenken63_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frenken63-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Climate_change">Climate change</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euphrates&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Climate change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2021, the Iraqi Ministry of Water Resources reported that the Euphrates river could dry out by 2040 due to climate change and droughts.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Natural_history">Natural history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euphrates&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Natural history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Marshes" title="Mesopotamian Marshes">Mesopotamian Marshes</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rafetus_euphraticus_(29056605113).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Rafetus_euphraticus_%2829056605113%29.jpg/220px-Rafetus_euphraticus_%2829056605113%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Rafetus_euphraticus_%2829056605113%29.jpg/330px-Rafetus_euphraticus_%2829056605113%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Rafetus_euphraticus_%2829056605113%29.jpg/440px-Rafetus_euphraticus_%2829056605113%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Rafetus_euphraticus" class="mw-redirect" title="Rafetus euphraticus">Rafetus euphraticus</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>The Euphrates flows through a number of distinct <a href="/wiki/Vegetation" title="Vegetation">vegetation</a> zones. Although millennia-long human occupation in most parts of the Euphrates basin has significantly degraded the landscape, patches of original vegetation remain. The steady drop in annual rainfall from the sources of the Euphrates toward the Persian Gulf is a strong determinant for the vegetation that can be supported. In its upper reaches the Euphrates flows through the mountains of Southeast Turkey and their southern foothills which support a <a href="/wiki/Deserts_and_xeric_shrublands" title="Deserts and xeric shrublands">xeric woodland</a>. Plant species in the moister parts of this zone include various <a href="/wiki/Oak" title="Oak">oaks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pistacia" title="Pistacia">pistachio trees</a>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Rosaceae" title="Rosaceae">Rosaceae</a></i> (rose/plum family). The drier parts of the xeric woodland zone supports less dense oak forest and <i>Rosaceae</i>. Here can also be found the wild variants of many cereals, including <a href="/wiki/Einkorn_wheat" class="mw-redirect" title="Einkorn wheat">einkorn wheat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emmer" title="Emmer">emmer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oat" title="Oat">oat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rye" title="Rye">rye</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>South of this zone lies a zone of mixed woodland-<a href="/wiki/Steppe" title="Steppe">steppe</a> vegetation. Between Raqqa and the Syro–Iraqi border the Euphrates flows through a steppe landscape. This steppe is characterised by <a href="/wiki/Artemisia_herba-alba" title="Artemisia herba-alba">white wormwood</a> (<i>Artemisia herba-alba</i>) and <a href="/wiki/Amaranthaceae" title="Amaranthaceae">Amaranthaceae</a>. Throughout history, this zone has been heavily overgrazed due to the practicing of <a href="/wiki/Sheep" title="Sheep">sheep</a> and <a href="/wiki/Goat" title="Goat">goat</a> <a href="/wiki/Pastoralism" title="Pastoralism">pastoralism</a> by its inhabitants.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Southeast of the border between Syria and Iraq starts true <a href="/wiki/Desert" title="Desert">desert</a>. This zone supports either no vegetation at all or small pockets of <i>Chenopodiaceae</i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Poa" title="Poa">Poa sinaica</a></i>. Although today nothing of it survives due to human interference, research suggests that the Euphrates Valley would have supported a <a href="/wiki/Riparian_zone" title="Riparian zone">riverine forest</a>. Species characteristic of this type of forest include the <a href="/wiki/Platanus_orientalis" title="Platanus orientalis">Oriental plane</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Populus" title="Populus">Euphrates poplar</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tamarix" title="Tamarix">tamarisk</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Fraxinus" title="Fraxinus">ash</a> and various wetland plants.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among the fish species in the Tigris–Euphrates basin, the family of the <a href="/wiki/Cyprinidae" title="Cyprinidae">Cyprinidae</a> are the most common, with 34 species out of 52 in total.<sup id="cite_ref-coad_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-coad-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the Cyprinids, the <a href="/wiki/Mangar_(fish)" title="Mangar (fish)">mangar</a> has good <a href="/wiki/Recreational_fishing" title="Recreational fishing">recreational fishing</a> qualities, leading the British to nickname it the "Tigris salmon." The <a href="/wiki/Euphrates_softshell_turtle" title="Euphrates softshell turtle">Euphrates softshell turtle</a> is an endangered <a href="/wiki/Trionychidae" title="Trionychidae">soft-shelled turtle</a> that is limited to the Tigris–Euphrates river system.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-navalintelligencedivision203205_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-navalintelligencedivision203205-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a> palace reliefs from the 1st millennium BCE depict <a href="/wiki/Lion" title="Lion">lion</a> and bull hunts in fertile landscapes.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sixteenth to nineteenth century European travellers in the Syrian Euphrates basin reported on an abundance of animals living in the area, many of which have become rare or even extinct. Species like <a href="/wiki/Gazelle" title="Gazelle">gazelle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Onager" title="Onager">onager</a> and the now-extinct <a href="/wiki/Arabian_ostrich" title="Arabian ostrich">Arabian ostrich</a> lived in the steppe bordering the Euphrates valley, while the valley itself was home to the <a href="/wiki/Wild_boar" title="Wild boar">wild boar</a>. Carnivorous species include the <a href="/wiki/Wolf" title="Wolf">wolf</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Golden_jackal" title="Golden jackal">golden jackal</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Red_fox" title="Red fox">red fox</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Leopard" title="Leopard">leopard</a> and the lion. The <a href="/wiki/Syrian_brown_bear" title="Syrian brown bear">Syrian brown bear</a> can be found in the mountains of Southeast Turkey. The presence of <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_beaver" title="Eurasian beaver">Eurasian beaver</a> has been attested in the bone assemblage of the prehistoric site of <a href="/wiki/Tell_Abu_Hureyra" title="Tell Abu Hureyra">Tell Abu Hureyra</a> in Syria, but the beaver has never been sighted in historical times.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="River">River</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euphrates&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: River"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/List_of_dams_and_reservoirs_in_Iraq" title="List of dams and reservoirs in Iraq">Dams in Iraq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tabqa_Dam" title="Tabqa Dam">Tabqa Dam</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Anatolia_Project" title="Southeastern Anatolia Project">Southeastern Anatolia Project</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bassin_Tigre_Euphrate.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Refer to caption" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Bassin_Tigre_Euphrate.jpg/290px-Bassin_Tigre_Euphrate.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Bassin_Tigre_Euphrate.jpg/435px-Bassin_Tigre_Euphrate.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Bassin_Tigre_Euphrate.jpg/580px-Bassin_Tigre_Euphrate.jpg 2x" data-file-width="715" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Map (in French) showing the locations of dams and barrages built in the <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syro</a>–<a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkish</a> part of the Euphrates basin</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Hindiya_Barrage" title="Hindiya Barrage">Hindiya Barrage</a> on the Iraqi Euphrates, based on plans by British civil engineer <a href="/wiki/William_Willcocks" title="William Willcocks">William Willcocks</a> and finished in 1913, was the first modern water diversion structure built in the Tigris–Euphrates river system.<sup id="cite_ref-kliot_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kliot-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Hindiya Barrage was followed in the 1950s by the <a href="/wiki/Ramadi_Barrage" title="Ramadi Barrage">Ramadi Barrage</a> and the nearby Abu Dibbis Regulator, which serve to regulate the flow regime of the Euphrates and to discharge excess flood water into the <a href="/wiki/Depression_(geology)" title="Depression (geology)">depression</a> that is now <a href="/wiki/Lake_Habbaniyah" title="Lake Habbaniyah">Lake Habbaniyah</a>. Iraq's largest dam on the Euphrates is the <a href="/wiki/Haditha_Dam" title="Haditha Dam">Haditha Dam</a>; a 9-kilometre-long (5.6 mi) <a href="/wiki/Embankment_dam" title="Embankment dam">earth-fill dam</a> creating <a href="/wiki/Lake_Qadisiyah" title="Lake Qadisiyah">Lake Qadisiyah</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-neweden2006b2021_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-neweden2006b2021-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Syria and Turkey built their first dams in the Euphrates in the 1970s. The <a href="/wiki/Tabqa_Dam" title="Tabqa Dam">Tabqa Dam</a> in Syria was completed in 1973 while Turkey finished the Keban Dam, a prelude to the immense <a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Anatolia_Project" title="Southeastern Anatolia Project">Southeastern Anatolia Project</a>, in 1974. Since then, Syria has built two more dams in the Euphrates, the <a href="/wiki/Baath_Dam" title="Baath Dam">Baath Dam</a> and the Tishrin Dam, and plans to build a fourth dam – the <a href="/wiki/Halabiye_Dam" title="Halabiye Dam">Halabiye Dam</a> – between Raqqa and <a href="/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor" title="Deir ez-Zor">Deir ez-Zor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-jamous_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jamous-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Tabqa Dam is Syria's largest dam and its reservoir (<a href="/wiki/Lake_Assad" title="Lake Assad">Lake Assad</a>) is an important source of irrigation and drinking water. It was planned that 640,000 hectares (2,500 sq mi) should be irrigated from Lake Assad, but in 2000 only 100,000–124,000 hectares (390–480 sq mi) had been realized.<sup id="cite_ref-Elhadj_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elhadj-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-mutin4_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mutin4-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Syria also built three smaller dams on the Khabur and its tributaries.<sup id="cite_ref-mutin5_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mutin5-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the implementation of the Southeastern Anatolia Project (<i><a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>: <i lang="tr">Güneydoğu Anadolu Projesi</i></i>, or <i>GAP</i>) in the 1970s, Turkey launched an ambitious plan to harness the waters of the Tigris and the Euphrates for irrigation and hydroelectricity production and provide an economic stimulus to its southeastern provinces.<sup id="cite_ref-kolarsmitchell19_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kolarsmitchell19-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> GAP affects a total area of 75,000 square kilometres (29,000 sq mi) and approximately 7 million people; representing about 10 percent of Turkey's total surface area and population, respectively. When completed, GAP will consist of 22 dams – including the Keban Dam – and 19 power plants and provide irrigation water to 1,700,000 hectares (6,600 sq mi) of agricultural land, which is about 20 percent of the irrigable land in Turkey.<sup id="cite_ref-jongerden138_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jongerden138-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> C. 910,000 hectares (3,500 sq mi) of this irrigated land is located in the Euphrates basin.<sup id="cite_ref-aquastat62_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aquastat62-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By far the largest dam in GAP is the <a href="/wiki/Atat%C3%BCrk_Dam" title="Atatürk Dam">Atatürk Dam</a>, located c. 55 kilometres (34 mi) northwest of <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Eanl%C4%B1urfa" class="mw-redirect" title="Şanlıurfa">Şanlıurfa</a>. This 184-and-1,820-metre-long (604 and 5,971 ft) dam was completed in 1992; thereby creating a reservoir that is the third-largest lake in Turkey. With a maximum capacity of 48.7 cubic kilometres (11.7 cu mi), the Atatürk Dam reservoir is large enough to hold the entire annual discharge of the Euphrates.<sup id="cite_ref-isaevmikhailova383384_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isaevmikhailova383384-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Completion of GAP was scheduled for 2010 but has been delayed because the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> has withheld funding due to the lack of an official agreement on water sharing between Turkey and the downstream states on the Euphrates and the Tigris.<sup id="cite_ref-jongerden139_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jongerden139-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Apart from barrages and dams, Iraq has also created an intricate network of canals connecting the Euphrates with Lake Habbaniyah, <a href="/wiki/Lake_Tharthar" title="Lake Tharthar">Lake Tharthar</a>, and Abu Dibbis reservoir; all of which can be used to store excess floodwater. Via the <a href="/wiki/Shatt_al-Hayy" class="mw-redirect" title="Shatt al-Hayy">Shatt al-Hayy</a>, the Euphrates is connected with the Tigris. The largest canal in this network is the Main Outfall Drain or so-called "Third River;" constructed between 1953 and 1992. This 565-kilometre-long (351 mi) canal is intended to drain the area between the Euphrates and the Tigris south of <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> to prevent <a href="/wiki/Soil_salinity#Salinity_due_to_irrigation" title="Soil salinity">soil salinization</a> from irrigation. It also allows large freight barges to navigate up to Baghdad.<sup id="cite_ref-kolars53_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kolars53-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-daoudy127_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-daoudy127-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hillel100_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hillel100-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Environmental_and_social_effects">Environmental and social effects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euphrates&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Environmental and social effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs" title="Environmental impact of reservoirs">Environmental impact of reservoirs</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KebanDam.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A large dam with water outlets in a mountainous landscape" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/KebanDam.JPG/220px-KebanDam.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/KebanDam.JPG/330px-KebanDam.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/KebanDam.JPG/440px-KebanDam.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1296" data-file-height="972" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Keban_Dam" title="Keban Dam">Keban Dam</a> in <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, the first dam on the Euphrates after it emerges from the confluence of the <a href="/wiki/Karasu_(Euphrates)" title="Karasu (Euphrates)">Kara Su</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Murat_River" title="Murat River">Murat Su</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CaberKalesi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A large ruinous castle with concentric walls and towers located on an island that is connected to the shore by a causeway" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/CaberKalesi.jpg/220px-CaberKalesi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/CaberKalesi.jpg/330px-CaberKalesi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/CaberKalesi.jpg/440px-CaberKalesi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Qal%27at_Ja%27bar" title="Qal'at Ja'bar">Qal'at Ja'bar</a> in <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, once perched on a hilltop overlooking the Euphrates valley but now turned into an island by the flooding of <a href="/wiki/Lake_Assad" title="Lake Assad">Lake Assad</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The construction of the dams and irrigation schemes on the Euphrates has had a significant impact on the environment and society of each riparian country. The dams constructed as part of GAP – in both the Euphrates and the Tigris basins – have affected 382 villages and almost 200,000 people have been resettled elsewhere. The largest number of people was displaced by the building of the Atatürk Dam, which alone affected 55,300 people.<sup id="cite_ref-casestudygap10_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-casestudygap10-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A survey among those who were displaced showed that the majority were unhappy with their new situation and that the compensation they had received was considered insufficient.<sup id="cite_ref-casestudygap11_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-casestudygap11-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The flooding of Lake Assad led to the forced displacement of c. 4,000 families, who were resettled in other parts of northern Syria as part of a now abandoned plan to create an "<a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Syria#Arab_cordon" title="Kurds in Syria">Arab belt</a>" along the borders with Turkey and Iraq.<sup id="cite_ref-anonymous11_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-anonymous11-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-mcdowall475_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mcdowall475-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hillel107_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hillel107-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Apart from the changes in the discharge regime of the river, the numerous dams and irrigation projects have also had other effects on the environment. The creation of reservoirs with large surfaces in countries with high average temperatures has led to increased <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a>; thereby reducing the total amount of water that is available for human use. Annual evaporation from reservoirs has been estimated at 2 cubic kilometres (0.48 cu mi) in Turkey, 1 cubic kilometre (0.24 cu mi) in Syria and 5 cubic kilometres (1.2 cu mi) in Iraq.<sup id="cite_ref-hillel103_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hillel103-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Water quality in the Iraqi Euphrates is low because irrigation water tapped in Turkey and Syria flows back into the river, together with dissolved fertilizer chemicals used on the fields.<sup id="cite_ref-aquastat212_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aquastat212-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The salinity of Euphrates water in Iraq has increased as a result of upstream dam construction, leading to lower suitability as drinking water.<sup id="cite_ref-rahihalihan_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rahihalihan-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The many dams and irrigation schemes, and the associated large-scale water abstraction, have also had a detrimental effect on the ecologically already fragile <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Marshes" title="Mesopotamian Marshes">Mesopotamian Marshes</a> and on freshwater fish <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitats</a> in Iraq.<sup id="cite_ref-jawad_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jawad-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-muir_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-muir-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The inundation of large parts of the Euphrates valley, especially in Turkey and Syria, has led to the flooding of many <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_site" title="Archaeological site">archaeological sites</a> and other places of cultural significance.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although concerted efforts have been made to record or save as much of the endangered <a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">cultural heritage</a> as possible, many sites are probably lost forever. The combined GAP projects on the Turkish Euphrates have led to major international efforts to document the archaeological and cultural heritage of the endangered parts of the valley. Especially the flooding of <a href="/wiki/Zeugma,_Commagene" class="mw-redirect" title="Zeugma, Commagene">Zeugma</a> with its unique <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaics</a> by the reservoir of the <a href="/wiki/Birecik_Dam" title="Birecik Dam">Birecik Dam</a> has generated much controversy in both the Turkish and international press.<sup id="cite_ref-tanaka_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tanaka-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-steele5253_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-steele5253-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The construction of the Tabqa Dam in Syria led to a large international campaign coordinated by <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> to document the heritage that would disappear under the waters of Lake Assad. Archaeologists from numerous countries excavated sites ranging in date from the <a href="/wiki/Natufian_culture" title="Natufian culture">Natufian</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a> period, and two minarets were dismantled and rebuilt outside the flood zone. Important sites that have been flooded or affected by the rising waters of Lake Assad include <a href="/wiki/Mureybet" title="Mureybet">Mureybet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emar" title="Emar">Emar</a> and Abu Hureyra.<sup id="cite_ref-bounni_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bounni-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A similar international effort was made when the Tishrin Dam was constructed, which led, among others, to the flooding of the important <a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_B" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic B">Pre-Pottery Neolithic B</a> site of <a href="/wiki/Jerf_el_Ahmar" title="Jerf el Ahmar">Jerf el Ahmar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_field_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological field survey">archaeological survey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rescue_archaeology" title="Rescue archaeology">rescue excavations</a> were also carried out in the area flooded by Lake Qadisiya in Iraq.<sup id="cite_ref-abdulamir_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-abdulamir-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parts of the flooded area have recently become accessible again due to the drying up of the lake, resulting not only in new possibilities for archaeologists to do more research, but also providing opportunities for <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_looting_in_Iraq" title="Archaeological looting in Iraq">looting</a>, which has been rampant elsewhere in Iraq in the wake of the <a href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">2003 invasion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-garcianavarro_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-garcianavarro-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion">Religion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euphrates&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islam">Islam</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euphrates&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Islam"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Islam, hadiths say Muhammad said "The Last Hour would not come before the Euphrates uncovers a mountain of gold, for which people would fight. Ninety-nine out of each one hundred would die but every man amongst them would say that perhaps he would be the one who would be saved" and that "he who finds it [the gold] should not take anything out of that."<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is said to be one of the future <a href="/wiki/Signs_of_the_coming_of_Judgement_Day#Minor_signs" title="Signs of the coming of Judgement Day">minor signs of the coming of Judgement Day</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christianity">Christianity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euphrates&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Christianity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Bible" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian Bible">Christian Bible</a>, the Euphrates River is mentioned in <a href="/wiki/Revelation_16#Verse_12" title="Revelation 16">Revelation 16:12</a>, in the final book of the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a>. Author, <a href="/wiki/John_of_Patmos" title="John of Patmos">John of Patmos</a> writes about the Euphrates river drying up as part of a series of events that foretell the <a href="/wiki/Second_Coming" title="Second Coming">Second Coming of Jesus Christ.</a><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The river Phrath mentioned in <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Genesis" title="Book of Genesis">Genesis</a> 2:14 is also identified as the Euphrates.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euphrates&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Mesopotamia" title="History of Mesopotamia">History of Mesopotamia</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraq" title="History of Iraq">History of Iraq</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20151228-Euphrates_9283.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/20151228-Euphrates_9283.jpg/220px-20151228-Euphrates_9283.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/20151228-Euphrates_9283.jpg/330px-20151228-Euphrates_9283.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/20151228-Euphrates_9283.jpg/440px-20151228-Euphrates_9283.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5760" data-file-height="3840" /></a><figcaption>A fishing boat in the Euphrates Southern Iraq</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Palaeolithic_to_Chalcolithic_periods">Palaeolithic to Chalcolithic periods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euphrates&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Palaeolithic to Chalcolithic periods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The early occupation of the Euphrates basin was limited to its upper reaches; that is, the area that is popularly known as the <a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a>. <a href="/wiki/Acheulean" title="Acheulean">Acheulean</a> stone <a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">artifacts</a> have been found in the Sajur basin and in the <a href="/wiki/El_Kowm_(archaeological_site)" title="El Kowm (archaeological site)">El Kowm oasis</a> in the central <a href="/wiki/Syrian_steppe" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian steppe">Syrian steppe</a>; the latter together with remains of <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a></i> that were dated to 450,000 years old.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Taurus Mountains and the upper part of the Syrian Euphrates valley, early permanent villages such as Abu Hureyra – at first occupied by <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherers</a> but later by some of the earliest <a href="/wiki/Farmer" title="Farmer">farmers</a>, Jerf el Ahmar, Mureybet and <a href="/wiki/Neval%C4%B1_%C3%87ori" title="Nevalı Çori">Nevalı Çori</a> became established from the eleventh millennium BCE onward.<sup id="cite_ref-sagonazimansky4954_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sagonazimansky4954-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the absence of irrigation, these early farming communities were limited to areas where <a href="/wiki/Rainfed_agriculture" title="Rainfed agriculture">rainfed agriculture</a> was possible, that is, the upper parts of the Syrian Euphrates as well as Turkey.<sup id="cite_ref-akkermansschwartz74_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-akkermansschwartz74-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Late Neolithic villages, characterized by the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">pottery</a> in the early 7th millennium BCE, are known throughout this area.<sup id="cite_ref-akkermansschwartz110_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-akkermansschwartz110-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Occupation of lower Mesopotamia started in the 6th millennium and is generally associated with the introduction of irrigation, as rainfall in this area is insufficient for dry agriculture. Evidence for irrigation has been found at several sites dating to this period, including <a href="/wiki/Tell_es_Sawwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Tell es Sawwan">Tell es-Sawwan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-helbaek_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-helbaek-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the 5th millennium BCE, or late <a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid period</a>, northeastern Syria was dotted by small villages, although some of them grew to a size of over 10 hectares (25 acres).<sup id="cite_ref-akkermansschwartz163166_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-akkermansschwartz163166-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Iraq, sites like <a href="/wiki/Eridu" title="Eridu">Eridu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ur" title="Ur">Ur</a> were already occupied during the Ubaid period.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Clay boat models found at <a href="/wiki/Tell_Mashnaqa" title="Tell Mashnaqa">Tell Mashnaqa</a> along the <a href="/wiki/Khabur_(Euphrates)" title="Khabur (Euphrates)">Khabur</a> indicate that riverine transport was already practiced during this period.<sup id="cite_ref-akkermansschwartz167168_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-akkermansschwartz167168-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a>, roughly coinciding with the 4th millennium BCE, saw the emergence of truly <a href="/wiki/Urbanism" title="Urbanism">urban</a> settlements across Mesopotamia. Cities like <a href="/wiki/Nagar,_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagar, Syria">Tell Brak</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> grew to over 100 hectares (250 acres) in size and displayed monumental architecture.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The spread of southern Mesopotamian pottery, architecture and <a href="/wiki/Cylinder_seal" title="Cylinder seal">sealings</a> far into Turkey and <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> has generally been interpreted as the material reflection of a widespread trade system aimed at providing the Mesopotamian cities with raw materials. <a href="/wiki/Habuba_Kabira" title="Habuba Kabira">Habuba Kabira</a> on the Syrian Euphrates is a prominent example of a settlement that is interpreted as an Uruk colony.<sup id="cite_ref-akkermansschwartz203_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-akkermansschwartz203-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-vandemieroop3839_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vandemieroop3839-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_history">Ancient history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euphrates&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Ancient history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr</a> (3600–3100 BCE) and <a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic periods</a> (3100–2350 BCE), southern Mesopotamia experienced a growth in the number and size of settlements, suggesting strong population growth. These settlements, including <a href="/wiki/Sumero-Akkadian" class="mw-redirect" title="Sumero-Akkadian">Sumero-Akkadian</a> sites like <a href="/wiki/Sippar" title="Sippar">Sippar</a>, Uruk, <a href="/wiki/Adab_(city)" title="Adab (city)">Adab</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)" title="Kish (Sumer)">Kish</a>, were organized in competing <a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city-states</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of these cities were located along canals of the Euphrates and the Tigris that have since dried up, but that can still be identified from <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">remote sensing</a> imagery.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A similar development took place in <a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Upper Mesopotamia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Subartu" title="Subartu">Subartu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a>, although only from the mid 3rd millennium and on a smaller scale than in Lower Mesopotamia. Sites like <a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tell_Leilan" title="Tell Leilan">Tell Leilan</a> grew to prominence for the first time during this period.<sup id="cite_ref-akkermansschwartz233_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-akkermansschwartz233-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Large parts of the Euphrates basin were for the first time united under a single ruler during the <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a> (2335–2154 BC) and <a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Ur III</a> empires, which controlled – either directly or indirectly through vassals – large parts of modern-day Iraq and northeastern Syria.<sup id="cite_ref-vandemieroop63_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vandemieroop63-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following their collapse, the <a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Assyrian Empire">Old Assyrian Empire</a> (1975–1750 BCE) and Mari asserted their power over northeast Syria and northern Mesopotamia, while southern Mesopotamia was controlled by city-states like <a href="/wiki/Isin" title="Isin">Isin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)" title="Kish (Sumer)">Kish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Larsa" title="Larsa">Larsa</a> before their territories were absorbed by the newly emerged state of <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a> under <a href="/wiki/Hammurabi" title="Hammurabi">Hammurabi</a> in the early to mid 18th century BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-vandemieroop111_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vandemieroop111-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE, the Euphrates basin was divided between <a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite</a> Babylon in the south and <a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a>, Assyria and the <a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite Empire</a> in the north, with the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian Empire</a> (1365–1020 BC) eventually eclipsing the Hittites, Mitanni and Kassite Babylonians.<sup id="cite_ref-vandemieroop132_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vandemieroop132-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the end of the Middle Assyrian Empire in the late 11th century BCE, struggles broke out between Babylonia and Assyria over the control of the Iraqi Euphrates basin. The <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> (935–605 BC) eventually emerged victorious out of this conflict and also succeeded in gaining control of the northern Euphrates basin in the first half of the 1st millennium BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-vandemieroop241_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vandemieroop241-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the centuries to come, control of the wider Euphrates basin shifted from the Neo-Assyrian Empire (which collapsed between 612 and 599 BC) to the short lived <a href="/wiki/Median_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Median Empire">Median Empire</a> (612–546 BC) and equally brief <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> (612–539 BC) in the last years of the 7th century BC, and eventually to the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> (539–333 BC).<sup id="cite_ref-vandemieroop270_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vandemieroop270-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Achaemenid Empire was in turn overrun by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, who defeated the last king <a href="/wiki/Darius_III_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius III of Persia">Darius III</a> and died in Babylon in 323 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-vandemieroop286_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vandemieroop286-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Subsequent to this, the region came under the control of the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> (312–150 BC), <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a> (150–226 AD) (during which several <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Assyrian">Neo-Assyrian</a> states such as <a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a> came to rule certain regions of the Euphrates), and was fought over by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, its succeeding <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sassanid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid Empire">Sassanid Empire</a> (226–638 AD), until the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Islamic conquest</a> of the mid 7th century AD. The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Karbala" title="Battle of Karbala">Battle of Karbala</a> took place near the banks of this river in 680 AD. </p><p>In the north, the river served as a border between <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Greater Armenia</a> (331 BC–428 AD) and <a href="/wiki/Lesser_Armenia" title="Lesser Armenia">Lesser Armenia</a> (the latter became a Roman province in the 1st century BC). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_era">Modern era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euphrates&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Modern era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Water_politics_in_the_Middle_East" title="Water politics in the Middle East">Water politics in the Middle East</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baghdad_Railway_Euphrates_wooden_bridge.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Refer to caption" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Baghdad_Railway_Euphrates_wooden_bridge.jpg/220px-Baghdad_Railway_Euphrates_wooden_bridge.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Baghdad_Railway_Euphrates_wooden_bridge.jpg/330px-Baghdad_Railway_Euphrates_wooden_bridge.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Baghdad_Railway_Euphrates_wooden_bridge.jpg/440px-Baghdad_Railway_Euphrates_wooden_bridge.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4511" data-file-height="3873" /></a><figcaption>Wooden bridge carrying the <a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Railway" class="mw-redirect" title="Baghdad Railway">Baghdad Railway</a> over the Euphrates, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1900</span>–1910</figcaption></figure> <p>After <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, the borders in Southwest Asia were redrawn in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lausanne_(1923)" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Lausanne (1923)">Treaty of Lausanne (1923)</a>, when the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> was <a href="/wiki/Partitioning_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire">partitioned</a>. Clause 109 of the treaty stipulated that the three riparian states of the Euphrates (at that time Turkey, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> for its <a href="/wiki/French_Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon">Syrian mandate</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> for its <a href="/wiki/British_Mandate_of_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="British Mandate of Mesopotamia">mandate of Iraq</a>) had to reach a mutual agreement on the use of its water and on the construction of any hydraulic installation.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An agreement between Turkey and Iraq signed in 1946 required Turkey to report to Iraq on any hydraulic changes it made on the Tigris–Euphrates river system, and allowed Iraq to construct dams on Turkish territory to manage the flow of the Euphrates.<sup id="cite_ref-geopolicity1112_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-geopolicity1112-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Iraq_(1921%E2%80%931958).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Iraq_%281921%E2%80%931958%29.svg/170px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Iraq_%281921%E2%80%931958%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Iraq_%281921%E2%80%931958%29.svg/255px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Iraq_%281921%E2%80%931958%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Iraq_%281921%E2%80%931958%29.svg/340px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Iraq_%281921%E2%80%931958%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="509" data-file-height="572" /></a><figcaption>Coat of arms of the Kingdom of Iraq 1932–1959 depicting the two rivers, the confluence Shatt al-Arab and the date palm forest, which used to be the largest in the world</figcaption></figure> <p>The river featured on the <a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Iraq" title="Coat of arms of Iraq">coat of arms of Iraq</a> from 1932 to 1959. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Euphrates_River_(1).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Euphrates_River_%281%29.JPG/220px-Euphrates_River_%281%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Euphrates_River_%281%29.JPG/330px-Euphrates_River_%281%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Euphrates_River_%281%29.JPG/440px-Euphrates_River_%281%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>Euphrates near <a href="/wiki/Kahta" class="mw-redirect" title="Kahta">Kahta</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Turkey and Syria completed their first dams on the Euphrates – the Keban Dam and the Tabqa Dam, respectively – within one year of each other and filling of the reservoirs commenced in 1975. At the same time, the area was hit by severe drought and river flow toward Iraq was reduced from 15.3 cubic kilometres (3.7 cu mi) in 1973 to 9.4 cubic kilometres (2.3 cu mi) in 1975. This led to an international crisis during which Iraq threatened to bomb the Tabqa Dam. An agreement was eventually reached between Syria and Iraq after intervention by Saudi Arabia and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-shapland117118_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shapland117118-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-kaya_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kaya-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A similar crisis, although not escalating to the point of military threats, occurred in 1981 when the Keban Dam reservoir had to be refilled after it had been almost emptied to temporarily increase Turkey's hydroelectricity production.<sup id="cite_ref-kolars49_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kolars49-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1984, Turkey unilaterally declared that it would ensure a flow of at least 500 cubic metres (18,000 cu ft) per second, or 16 cubic kilometres (3.8 cu mi) per year, into Syria, and in 1987 a bilateral treaty to that effect was signed between the two countries.<sup id="cite_ref-daoudy169-170_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-daoudy169-170-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another bilateral agreement from 1989 between Syria and Iraq settles the amount of water flowing into Iraq at 60 percent of the amount that Syria receives from Turkey.<sup id="cite_ref-geopolicity1112_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-geopolicity1112-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-kaya_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kaya-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-daoudy1720_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-daoudy1720-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2008, Turkey, Syria and Iraq instigated the Joint Trilateral Committee (JTC) on the management of the water in the Tigris–Euphrates basin and on 3 September 2009 a further agreement was signed to this effect.<sup id="cite_ref-geopolicity16_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-geopolicity16-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 15 April 2014, Turkey began to reduce the flow of the Euphrates into Syria and Iraq. The flow was cut off completely on 16 May 2014 resulting in the Euphrates terminating at the Turkish–Syrian border.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was in violation of an agreement reached in 1987 in which Turkey committed to releasing a minimum of 500 cubic metres (18,000 cu ft) of water per second at the Turkish–Syrian border.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Euphrates_River.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Euphrates_River.jpg/220px-Euphrates_River.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Euphrates_River.jpg/330px-Euphrates_River.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Euphrates_River.jpg/440px-Euphrates_River.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="482" /></a><figcaption>Euphrates in Iraq, 2005</figcaption></figure><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Civil_War_(2014%E2%80%932017)" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraqi Civil War (2014–2017)">Iraqi Civil War</a>, much of the Euphrates was controlled by the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Iraq_and_the_Levant" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant">Islamic State</a> from 2014 until 2017, when the terrorist group began losing land and was eventually defeated territorially in <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Baghuz_Fawqani" title="Battle of Baghuz Fawqani">Battle of Baghouz</a> and in Iraq in the <a href="/wiki/2017_Western_Iraq_campaign" title="2017 Western Iraq campaign">Western Iraq offensive</a> respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euphrates&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Economy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_and_towns_on_the_Euphrates_River" title="List of cities and towns on the Euphrates River">List of cities and towns on the Euphrates River</a></div> <p>Throughout history, the Euphrates has been of vital importance to those living along its course. With the construction of large <a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">hydropower</a> stations, irrigation schemes, and pipelines capable of transporting water over large distances, many more people now depend on the river for basic amenities such as electricity and drinking water than in the past. Syria's Lake Assad is the most important source of drinking water for the city of <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a>, 75 kilometres (47 mi) to the west of the river valley.<sup id="cite_ref-shapland110_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shapland110-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lake also supports a modest state-operated fishing industry.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through a newly restored power line, the Haditha Dam in Iraq provides electricity to Baghdad.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euphrates&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_highlands" title="Armenian highlands">Armenian highlands</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mountains_of_Ararat" title="Mountains of Ararat">Mountains of Ararat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euphrates&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Euphrates-River">"Euphrates River | Definition, Location, & Facts | Britannica"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150624111133/https://www.britannica.com/place/Euphrates-River">Archived</a> from the original on 24 June 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Euphrates+River+%26%23124%3B+Definition%2C+Location%2C+%26+Facts+%26%23124%3B+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FEuphrates-River&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNegevGibson2001">Negev & Gibson 2001</a>, p. 169</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWoods2005">Woods 2005</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWitzel2006" class="citation book cs1">Witzel, Michael (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/C._ASIA_.pdf">"Early Loan Words in Western Central Asia: Substrates, Migrations and Trade"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Mair, Victor H. (ed.). <i>Contact and Exchange in the Ancient World</i>. University of Hawai'i Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120916080936/http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/C._ASIA_.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 16 September 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Early+Loan+Words+in+Western+Central+Asia%3A+Substrates%2C+Migrations+and+Trade&rft.btitle=Contact+and+Exchange+in+the+Ancient+World&rft.pub=University+of+Hawai%27i+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Witzel&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.people.fas.harvard.edu%2F~witzel%2FC._ASIA_.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGamkrelidzeV._Ivanov1995" class="citation cs2">Gamkrelidze, Thomas; V. Ivanov, Vjaceslav (1995), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M2aqp2n2mKkC&pg=PA616"><i>Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical Analysis of a Proto-Language and Proto-Culture</i></a>, Walter de Gruyter, p. 616, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110815030" title="Special:BookSources/9783110815030"><bdi>9783110815030</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220909215916/https://books.google.com/books?id=M2aqp2n2mKkC&pg=PA616">archived</a> from the original on 9 September 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 November</span> 2015</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indo-European+and+the+Indo-Europeans%3A+A+Reconstruction+and+Historical+Analysis+of+a+Proto-Language+and+Proto-Culture&rft.pages=616&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9783110815030&rft.aulast=Gamkrelidze&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.au=V.+Ivanov%2C+Vjaceslav&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DM2aqp2n2mKkC%26pg%3DPA616&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GR_Gelbert-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GR_Gelbert_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGelbert2011" class="citation book cs1">Gelbert, Carlos (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://livingwaterbooks.com.au/product/ginza-rba/"><i>Ginza Rba</i></a>. Sydney: Living Water Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780958034630" title="Special:BookSources/9780958034630"><bdi>9780958034630</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220316031021/https://livingwaterbooks.com.au/product/ginza-rba/">Archived</a> from the original on 16 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ginza+Rba&rft.place=Sydney&rft.pub=Living+Water+Books&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780958034630&rft.aulast=Gelbert&rft.aufirst=Carlos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flivingwaterbooks.com.au%2Fproduct%2Fginza-rba%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nasoraia_2021-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nasoraia_2021_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNasoraia2021" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Brikha_Nasoraia" title="Brikha Nasoraia">Nasoraia, Brikha H.S.</a> (2021). <i>The Mandaean gnostic religion: worship practice and deep thought</i>. New Delhi: Sterling. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-950824-1-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-950824-1-4"><bdi>978-81-950824-1-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1272858968">1272858968</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mandaean+gnostic+religion%3A+worship+practice+and+deep+thought&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pub=Sterling&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1272858968&rft.isbn=978-81-950824-1-4&rft.aulast=Nasoraia&rft.aufirst=Brikha+H.S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManouchehriWaley2013" class="citation cs2">Manouchehri, Faramarz Haj; Waley, M. I. (4 December 2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-islamica/al-bayt-al-mamur-COM_000000116">"al-Bayt al-Maʿmūr"</a>, <i>Encyclopaedia Islamica</i>, Brill<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 October</span> 2023</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=al-Bayt+al-Ma%CA%BFm%C5%ABr&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Islamica&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2013-12-04&rft.aulast=Manouchehri&rft.aufirst=Faramarz+Haj&rft.au=Waley%2C+M.+I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brillonline.com%2Fentries%2Fencyclopaedia-islamica%2Fal-bayt-al-mamur-COM_000000116&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZarins1997">Zarins 1997</a>, p. 287</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-neweden2006a71-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-neweden2006a71_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-neweden2006a71_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-neweden2006a71_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-neweden2006a71_10-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIraqi_Ministries_of_Environment,_Water_Resources_and_Municipalities_and_Public_Works2006a">Iraqi Ministries of Environment, Water Resources and Municipalities and Public Works 2006a</a>, p. 71</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-daoudy63-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-daoudy63_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-daoudy63_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-daoudy63_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-daoudy63_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaoudy2005">Daoudy 2005</a>, p. 63</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-frenken65-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-frenken65_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-frenken65_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-frenken65_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrenken2009">Frenken 2009</a>, p. 65</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-isaevmikhailova384-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-isaevmikhailova384_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-isaevmikhailova384_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-isaevmikhailova384_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-isaevmikhailova384_13-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-isaevmikhailova384_13-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIsaevMikhailova2009">Isaev & Mikhailova 2009</a>, p. 384</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-isaevmikhailova388-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-isaevmikhailova388_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIsaevMikhailova2009">Isaev & Mikhailova 2009</a>, p. 388</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mutin2-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mutin2_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMutin2003">Mutin 2003</a>, p. 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bilen100-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bilen100_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBilen1994">Bilen 1994</a>, p. 100</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-neweden2006a91-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-neweden2006a91_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIraqi_Ministries_of_Environment,_Water_Resources_and_Municipalities_and_Public_Works2006a">Iraqi Ministries of Environment, Water Resources and Municipalities and Public Works 2006a</a>, p. 91</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-isaevmikhailova385-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-isaevmikhailova385_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIsaevMikhailova2009">Isaev & Mikhailova 2009</a>, p. 385</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kolars47-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kolars47_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKolars1994">Kolars 1994</a>, p. 47</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-isaevmikhailova386-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-isaevmikhailova386_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIsaevMikhailova2009">Isaev & Mikhailova 2009</a>, p. 386</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-neweden2006a94-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-neweden2006a94_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIraqi_Ministries_of_Environment,_Water_Resources_and_Municipalities_and_Public_Works2006a">Iraqi Ministries of Environment, Water Resources and Municipalities and Public Works 2006a</a>, p. 94</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hillel95-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hillel95_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHillel1994">Hillel 1994</a>, p. 95</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-holezaitchik-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-holezaitchik_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoleZaitchik2007">Hole & Zaitchik 2007</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-shahin251-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-shahin251_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShahin2007">Shahin 2007</a>, p. 251</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-partow4-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-partow4_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPartow2001">Partow 2001</a>, p. 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-frenken63-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-frenken63_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrenken2009">Frenken 2009</a>, p. 63</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iflscience.com/why-is-the-euphrates-river-drying-up-and-what-does-it-mean-69923">"Why Is The Euphrates River Drying Up And What Does It Mean?"</a>. <i>IFLScience</i>. 21 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IFLScience&rft.atitle=Why+Is+The+Euphrates+River+Drying+Up+And+What+Does+It+Mean%3F&rft.date=2023-07-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iflscience.com%2Fwhy-is-the-euphrates-river-drying-up-and-what-does-it-mean-69923&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMooreHillmanLegge2000">Moore, Hillman & Legge 2000</a>, pp. 52–58</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMooreHillmanLegge2000">Moore, Hillman & Legge 2000</a>, pp. 63–65</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMooreHillmanLegge2000">Moore, Hillman & Legge 2000</a>, pp. 69–71</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-coad-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-coad_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoad1996">Coad 1996</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGray1864">Gray 1864</a>, pp. 81–82</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-navalintelligencedivision203205-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-navalintelligencedivision203205_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNaval_Intelligence_Division1944">Naval Intelligence Division 1944</a>, pp. 203–205</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThomason2001">Thomason 2001</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMooreHillmanLegge2000">Moore, Hillman & Legge 2000</a>, pp. 85–91</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kliot-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kliot_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKliot1994">Kliot 1994</a>, p. 117</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-neweden2006b2021-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-neweden2006b2021_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIraqi_Ministries_of_Environment,_Water_Resources_and_Municipalities_and_Public_Works2006b">Iraqi Ministries of Environment, Water Resources and Municipalities and Public Works 2006b</a>, pp. 20–21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jamous-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jamous_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJamous2009">Jamous 2009</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Elhadj-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Elhadj_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFElhadj2008">Elhadj 2008</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mutin4-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mutin4_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMutin2003">Mutin 2003</a>, p. 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mutin5-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mutin5_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMutin2003">Mutin 2003</a>, p. 5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kolarsmitchell19-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kolarsmitchell19_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKolarsMitchell1991">Kolars & Mitchell 1991</a>, p. 17</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jongerden138-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jongerden138_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJongerden2010">Jongerden 2010</a>, p. 138</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-aquastat62-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-aquastat62_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrenken2009">Frenken 2009</a>, p. 62</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-isaevmikhailova383384-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-isaevmikhailova383384_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIsaevMikhailova2009">Isaev & Mikhailova 2009</a>, pp. 383–384</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jongerden139-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jongerden139_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJongerden2010">Jongerden 2010</a>, p. 139</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kolars53-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kolars53_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKolars1994">Kolars 1994</a>, p. 53</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-daoudy127-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-daoudy127_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaoudy2005">Daoudy 2005</a>, p. 127</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hillel100-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hillel100_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHillel1994">Hillel 1994</a>, p. 100</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-casestudygap10-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-casestudygap10_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSahanZoggMasonGilli2001">Sahan et al. 2001</a>, p. 10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-casestudygap11-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-casestudygap11_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSahanZoggMasonGilli2001">Sahan et al. 2001</a>, p. 11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-anonymous11-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-anonymous11_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnonymous2009">Anonymous 2009</a>, p. 11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mcdowall475-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mcdowall475_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcDowall2004">McDowall 2004</a>, p. 475</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hillel107-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hillel107_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHillel1994">Hillel 1994</a>, p. 107</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hillel103-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hillel103_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHillel1994">Hillel 1994</a>, p. 103</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-aquastat212-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-aquastat212_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrenken2009">Frenken 2009</a>, p. 212</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rahihalihan-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rahihalihan_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRahiHalihan2009">Rahi & Halihan 2009</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jawad-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jawad_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJawad2003">Jawad 2003</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-muir-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-muir_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMuir2009">Muir 2009</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcClellan1997">McClellan 1997</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tanaka-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tanaka_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTanaka2007">Tanaka 2007</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-steele5253-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-steele5253_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteele2005">Steele 2005</a>, pp. 52–53</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bounni-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bounni_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBounni1979">Bounni 1979</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFdel_Olmo_LeteMontero_Fenollós1999">del Olmo Lete & Montero Fenollós 1999</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-abdulamir-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-abdulamir_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbdul-Amir1988">Abdul-Amir 1988</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-garcianavarro-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-garcianavarro_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGarcia-Navarro2009">Garcia-Navarro 2009</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iium.edu.my/deed/hadith/muslim/041_smt.html">Sahih Muslim, Book 041: 6918 & 6920</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnwaar" class="citation web cs1">Anwaar, Amna. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.islamicfinder.org/news/48-signs-of-qiyamah/">"48 signs of Qiyamah"</a>. <i>Islamic Finder</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Islamic+Finder&rft.atitle=48+signs+of+Qiyamah&rft.aulast=Anwaar&rft.aufirst=Amna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.islamicfinder.org%2Fnews%2F48-signs-of-qiyamah%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Revelation%2016:12&version=nrsv">Revelation 16:12</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHosseinizadeh2012" class="citation journal cs1">Hosseinizadeh, Abdol Majid (15 December 2012). "The Four Rivers of Eden in Judaism and Islam". <i>Al-Bayan: Journal of Qur'an and Hadith Studies</i>. <b>10</b> (2): 33–47. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.11136%2Fjqh.1210.02.03">10.11136/jqh.1210.02.03</a>. <a href="/wiki/EISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="EISSN (identifier)">eISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2232-1969">2232-1969</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2232-1950">2232-1950</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Al-Bayan%3A+Journal+of+Qur%27an+and+Hadith+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Four+Rivers+of+Eden+in+Judaism+and+Islam&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=33-47&rft.date=2012-12-15&rft.issn=2232-1950&rft.eissn=2232-1969&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.11136%2Fjqh.1210.02.03&rft.aulast=Hosseinizadeh&rft.aufirst=Abdol+Majid&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMuhesen2002">Muhesen 2002</a>, p. 102</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchmidRentzelRenault-MiskovskyMuhesen1997">Schmid et al. 1997</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sagonazimansky4954-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sagonazimansky4954_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSagonaZimansky2009">Sagona & Zimansky 2009</a>, pp. 49–54</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-akkermansschwartz74-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-akkermansschwartz74_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAkkermansSchwartz2003">Akkermans & Schwartz 2003</a>, p. 74</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-akkermansschwartz110-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-akkermansschwartz110_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAkkermansSchwartz2003">Akkermans & Schwartz 2003</a>, p. 110</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-helbaek-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-helbaek_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHelbaek1972">Helbaek 1972</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-akkermansschwartz163166-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-akkermansschwartz163166_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAkkermansSchwartz2003">Akkermans & Schwartz 2003</a>, pp. 163–166</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOates1960">Oates 1960</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-akkermansschwartz167168-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-akkermansschwartz167168_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAkkermansSchwartz2003">Akkermans & Schwartz 2003</a>, pp. 167–168</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFUrKarsgaardOates2007">Ur, Karsgaard & Oates 2007</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-akkermansschwartz203-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-akkermansschwartz203_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAkkermansSchwartz2003">Akkermans & Schwartz 2003</a>, p. 203</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-vandemieroop3839-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-vandemieroop3839_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvan_de_Mieroop2007">van de Mieroop 2007</a>, pp. 38–39</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdams1981">Adams 1981</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHritzWilkinson2006">Hritz & Wilkinson 2006</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-akkermansschwartz233-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-akkermansschwartz233_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAkkermansSchwartz2003">Akkermans & Schwartz 2003</a>, p. 233</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-vandemieroop63-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-vandemieroop63_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvan_de_Mieroop2007">van de Mieroop 2007</a>, p. 63</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-vandemieroop111-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-vandemieroop111_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvan_de_Mieroop2007">van de Mieroop 2007</a>, p. 111</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-vandemieroop132-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-vandemieroop132_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvan_de_Mieroop2007">van de Mieroop 2007</a>, p. 132</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-vandemieroop241-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-vandemieroop241_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvan_de_Mieroop2007">van de Mieroop 2007</a>, p. 241</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-vandemieroop270-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-vandemieroop270_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvan_de_Mieroop2007">van de Mieroop 2007</a>, p. 270</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-vandemieroop286-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-vandemieroop286_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvan_de_Mieroop2007">van de Mieroop 2007</a>, p. 287</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Treaty_of_Lausanne"><i>Treaty of peace with Turkey signed at Lausanne</i></a>, World War I Document Archive, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130112221242/http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Treaty_of_Lausanne">archived</a> from the original on 12 January 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 December</span> 2010</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Treaty+of+peace+with+Turkey+signed+at+Lausanne&rft.pub=World+War+I+Document+Archive&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwwi.lib.byu.edu%2Findex.php%2FTreaty_of_Lausanne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-geopolicity1112-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-geopolicity1112_93-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-geopolicity1112_93-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGeopolicity2010">Geopolicity 2010</a>, pp. 11–12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-shapland117118-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-shapland117118_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShapland1997">Shapland 1997</a>, pp. 117–118</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kaya-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-kaya_95-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kaya_95-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaya1998">Kaya 1998</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kolars49-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kolars49_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKolars1994">Kolars 1994</a>, p. 49</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-daoudy169-170-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-daoudy169-170_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaoudy2005">Daoudy 2005</a>, pp. 169–170</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-daoudy1720-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-daoudy1720_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaoudy2005">Daoudy 2005</a>, pp. 172</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-geopolicity16-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-geopolicity16_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGeopolicity2010">Geopolicity 2010</a>, p. 16</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnjarini2014" class="citation news cs1">Anjarini, Suhaib (30 May 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180616180412/https://english.al-akhbar.com/node/19970">"A new Turkish aggression against Syria: Ankara suspends pumping Euphrates' water"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Al_Akhbar_(Lebanon)" title="Al Akhbar (Lebanon)">Al Akhbar</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://english.al-akhbar.com/node/19970">the original</a> on 16 June 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 June</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Al+Akhbar&rft.atitle=A+new+Turkish+aggression+against+Syria%3A+Ankara+suspends+pumping+Euphrates%27+water&rft.date=2014-05-30&rft.aulast=Anjarini&rft.aufirst=Suhaib&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fenglish.al-akhbar.com%2Fnode%2F19970&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wuCd0blQ2V0"><i>Eupherates of Syria Cut Off by Turkey</i></a>. 30 May 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/wuCd0blQ2V0">Archived</a> from the original on 11 December 2021 – via YouTube.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Eupherates+of+Syria+Cut+Off+by+Turkey&rft.date=2014-05-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DwuCd0blQ2V0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPearce2014" class="citation web cs1">Pearce, Fred (25 August 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/mideast_water_wars_in_iraq_a_battle_for_control_of_water">"Mideast Water Wars: In Iraq, A Battle for Control of Water"</a>. <i>Yale E360</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190926122552/https://e360.yale.edu/features/mideast_water_wars_in_iraq_a_battle_for_control_of_water">Archived</a> from the original on 26 September 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Yale+E360&rft.atitle=Mideast+Water+Wars%3A+In+Iraq%2C+A+Battle+for+Control+of+Water&rft.date=2014-08-25&rft.aulast=Pearce&rft.aufirst=Fred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fe360.yale.edu%2Ffeatures%2Fmideast_water_wars_in_iraq_a_battle_for_control_of_water&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-shapland110-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-shapland110_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShapland1997">Shapland 1997</a>, p. 110</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKrouma2006">Krouma 2006</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO'Hara2004">O'Hara 2004</a>, p. 3</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euphrates&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbdul-Amir1988" class="citation cs2">Abdul-Amir, Sabah Jasim (1988), <i>Archaeological Survey of Ancient Settlements and Irrigation Systems in the Middle Euphrates Region of Mesopotamia</i> (PhD thesis), Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/615058488">615058488</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Archaeological+Survey+of+Ancient+Settlements+and+Irrigation+Systems+in+the+Middle+Euphrates+Region+of+Mesopotamia&rft.place=Ann+Arbor&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F615058488&rft.aulast=Abdul-Amir&rft.aufirst=Sabah+Jasim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdams1981" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Robert_McCormick_Adams,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Robert McCormick Adams, Jr.">Adams, Robert McC.</a> (1981), <i>Heartland of Cities. Surveys of Ancient Settlement and Land Use on the Central Floodplain of the Euphrates</i>, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-00544-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-00544-5"><bdi>0-226-00544-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heartland+of+Cities.+Surveys+of+Ancient+Settlement+and+Land+Use+on+the+Central+Floodplain+of+the+Euphrates&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=0-226-00544-5&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=Robert+McC.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkkermansSchwartz2003" class="citation cs2">Akkermans, Peter M. M. G.; Schwartz, Glenn M. (2003), <i>The Archaeology of Syria. From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies (ca. 16,000–300 BC)</i>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-79666-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-79666-0"><bdi>0-521-79666-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Archaeology+of+Syria.+From+Complex+Hunter-Gatherers+to+Early+Urban+Societies+%28ca.+16%2C000%E2%80%93300+BC%29&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-521-79666-0&rft.aulast=Akkermans&rft.aufirst=Peter+M.+M.+G.&rft.au=Schwartz%2C+Glenn+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnonymous2009" class="citation cs2">Anonymous (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/syria1109webwcover_0.pdf"><i>Group Denial. Repression of Kurdish Political and Cultural Rights in Syria</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, New York: Human Rights Watch, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/472433635">472433635</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180803114417/https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/syria1109webwcover_0.pdf">archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 3 August 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 December</span> 2016</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Group+Denial.+Repression+of+Kurdish+Political+and+Cultural+Rights+in+Syria&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Human+Rights+Watch&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F472433635&rft.au=Anonymous&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrw.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Freports%2Fsyria1109webwcover_0.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBilen1994" class="citation cs2">Bilen, Özden (1994), "Prospects for Technical Cooperation in the Euphrates–Tigris Basin", in Biswas, Asit K. (ed.), <i>International Waters of the Middle East: From Euphrates-Tigris to Nile</i>, Oxford University Press, pp. 95–116, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-854862-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-854862-1"><bdi>978-0-19-854862-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Prospects+for+Technical+Cooperation+in+the+Euphrates%E2%80%93Tigris+Basin&rft.btitle=International+Waters+of+the+Middle+East%3A+From+Euphrates-Tigris+to+Nile&rft.pages=95-116&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-19-854862-1&rft.aulast=Bilen&rft.aufirst=%C3%96zden&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBounni1979" class="citation cs2">Bounni, Adnan (1979), "Campaign and Exhibition from the Euphrates in Syria", <i>The Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research</i>, <b>44</b>: 1–7, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3768538">3768538</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Annual+of+the+American+Schools+of+Oriental+Research&rft.atitle=Campaign+and+Exhibition+from+the+Euphrates+in+Syria&rft.volume=44&rft.pages=1-7&rft.date=1979&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3768538%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Bounni&rft.aufirst=Adnan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoad1996" class="citation cs2">Coad, B.W. (1996), "Zoogeography of the Fishes of the Tigris-Euphrates Basin", <i>Zoology in the Middle East</i>, <b>13</b>: 51–70, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09397140.1996.10637706">10.1080/09397140.1996.10637706</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0939-7140">0939-7140</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zoology+in+the+Middle+East&rft.atitle=Zoogeography+of+the+Fishes+of+the+Tigris-Euphrates+Basin&rft.volume=13&rft.pages=51-70&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09397140.1996.10637706&rft.issn=0939-7140&rft.aulast=Coad&rft.aufirst=B.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaoudy2005" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Daoudy, Marwa (2005), <i>Le Partage des Eaux entre la Syrie, l'Irak et la Turquie. Négociation, Sécurité et Asymétrie des Pouvoirs</i>, Moyen-Orient (in French), Paris: CNRS, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-271-06290-X" title="Special:BookSources/2-271-06290-X"><bdi>2-271-06290-X</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+Partage+des+Eaux+entre+la+Syrie%2C+l%27Irak+et+la+Turquie.+N%C3%A9gociation%2C+S%C3%A9curit%C3%A9+et+Asym%C3%A9trie+des+Pouvoirs&rft.place=Paris&rft.series=Moyen-Orient&rft.pub=CNRS&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=2-271-06290-X&rft.aulast=Daoudy&rft.aufirst=Marwa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFdel_Olmo_LeteMontero_Fenollós1999" class="citation cs2">del Olmo Lete, Gregorio; Montero Fenollós, Juan Luis, eds. (1999), <i>Archaeology of the Upper Syrian Euphrates, the Tishrin Dam area: Proceedings of the International Symposium held at Barcelona, January 28th–30th, 1998</i>, Barcelona: AUSA, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-88810-43-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-88810-43-4"><bdi>978-84-88810-43-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Archaeology+of+the+Upper+Syrian+Euphrates%2C+the+Tishrin+Dam+area%3A+Proceedings+of+the+International+Symposium+held+at+Barcelona%2C+January+28th%E2%80%9330th%2C+1998&rft.place=Barcelona&rft.pub=AUSA&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-84-88810-43-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElhadj2008" class="citation cs2">Elhadj, Elie (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gloria-center.org/meria/2008/12/elhadj.asp">"Dry Aquifers in Arab Countries and the Looming Food Crisis"</a>, <i>Middle East Review of International Affairs</i>, <b>12</b> (3), <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1565-8996">1565-8996</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Middle+East+Review+of+International+Affairs&rft.atitle=Dry+Aquifers+in+Arab+Countries+and+the+Looming+Food+Crisis&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=3&rft.date=2008&rft.issn=1565-8996&rft.aulast=Elhadj&rft.aufirst=Elie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gloria-center.org%2Fmeria%2F2008%2F12%2Felhadj.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged August 2019">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrenken2009" class="citation cs2">Frenken, Karen (2009), <i>Irrigation in the Middle East Region in Figures. AQUASTAT Survey 2008</i>, Water Reports, vol. 34, Rome: FAO, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-5-106316-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-5-106316-3"><bdi>978-92-5-106316-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Irrigation+in+the+Middle+East+Region+in+Figures.+AQUASTAT+Survey+2008&rft.place=Rome&rft.series=Water+Reports&rft.pub=FAO&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-92-5-106316-3&rft.aulast=Frenken&rft.aufirst=Karen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarcia-Navarro2009" class="citation cs2">Garcia-Navarro, Lourdes (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=102184336"><i>Drought Reveals Iraqi Archaeological Treasures</i></a>, NPR, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110304173800/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=102184336">archived</a> from the original on 4 March 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 August</span> 2010</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Drought+Reveals+Iraqi+Archaeological+Treasures&rft.pub=NPR&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Garcia-Navarro&rft.aufirst=Lourdes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Ftemplates%2Fstory%2Fstory.php%3FstoryId%3D102184336&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeopolicity2010" class="citation cs2">Geopolicity (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110720184608/http://zunia.org/uploads/media/knowledge/Geopolicity%20-%20Managing%20the%20Tigris%20and%20Euphrates%20Watershed%20-%20The%20Challenge%20Facing%20Iraq1280855782.pdf"><i>Managing the Tigris Euphrates Watershed</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://zunia.org/uploads/media/knowledge/Geopolicity%20-%20Managing%20the%20Tigris%20and%20Euphrates%20Watershed%20-%20The%20Challenge%20Facing%20Iraq1280855782.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 20 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 December</span> 2010</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Managing+the+Tigris+Euphrates+Watershed&rft.date=2010&rft.au=Geopolicity&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fzunia.org%2Fuploads%2Fmedia%2Fknowledge%2FGeopolicity%2520-%2520Managing%2520the%2520Tigris%2520and%2520Euphrates%2520Watershed%2520-%2520The%2520Challenge%2520Facing%2520Iraq1280855782.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGray1864" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/John_Edward_Gray" title="John Edward Gray">Gray, J.E.</a> (1864), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/proceedingsofgen64zool#page/80/mode/2up">"Revision of the species of Trionychidae found in Asia and Africa, with descriptions of some new species"</a>, <i>Proceedings of the General Meetings for Scientific Business of the Zoological Society of London</i>: 81–82</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+General+Meetings+for+Scientific+Business+of+the+Zoological+Society+of+London&rft.atitle=Revision+of+the+species+of+Trionychidae+found+in+Asia+and+Africa%2C+with+descriptions+of+some+new+species&rft.pages=81-82&rft.date=1864&rft.aulast=Gray&rft.aufirst=J.E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fproceedingsofgen64zool%23page%2F80%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartmann2010" class="citation cs2">Hartmann, R. (2010), "al- Furāt", in <a href="/wiki/Peri_Bearman" title="Peri Bearman">Bearman, P.</a>; Bianquis, Th.; <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Edmund_Bosworth" title="Clifford Edmund Bosworth">Bosworth, C.E.</a>; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.), <i>Encyclopaedia of Islam</i> (2nd ed.), Leiden: Brill Online, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/624382576">624382576</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=al-+Fur%C4%81t&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam&rft.place=Leiden&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Brill+Online&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F624382576&rft.aulast=Hartmann&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHelbaek1972" class="citation cs2">Helbaek, Hans (1972), "Samarran Irrigation Agriculture at Choga Mami in Iraq", <i>Iraq</i>, <b>34</b> (1): 35–48, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4199929">10.2307/4199929</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4199929">4199929</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:128712234">128712234</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Iraq&rft.atitle=Samarran+Irrigation+Agriculture+at+Choga+Mami+in+Iraq&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=35-48&rft.date=1972&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A128712234%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4199929%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F4199929&rft.aulast=Helbaek&rft.aufirst=Hans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHillel1994" class="citation cs2">Hillel, Daniel (1994), <i>Rivers of Eden: the Struggle for Water and the Quest for Peace in the Middle East</i>, New York: Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-508068-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-508068-8"><bdi>0-19-508068-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rivers+of+Eden%3A+the+Struggle+for+Water+and+the+Quest+for+Peace+in+the+Middle+East&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-19-508068-8&rft.aulast=Hillel&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoleZaitchik2007" class="citation cs2">Hole, F.; Zaitchik, B.F. (2007), "Policies, Plans, Practice, and Prospects: Irrigation in Northeastern Syria", <i>Land Degradation & Development</i>, <b>18</b> (2): 133–152, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fldr.772">10.1002/ldr.772</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129117310">129117310</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Land+Degradation+%26+Development&rft.atitle=Policies%2C+Plans%2C+Practice%2C+and+Prospects%3A+Irrigation+in+Northeastern+Syria&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=133-152&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fldr.772&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A129117310%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Hole&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.au=Zaitchik%2C+B.F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHritzWilkinson2006" class="citation cs2">Hritz, Carrie; Wilkinson, T.J. (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dro.dur.ac.uk/5935/1/5935.pdf?DDD6+drk0tjw+dul4eg">"Using Shuttle Radar Topography to Map Ancient Water Channels in Mesopotamia"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Antiquity</i>, <b>80</b> (308): 415–424, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0003598X00093728">10.1017/S0003598X00093728</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-598X">0003-598X</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14693322">14693322</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200731023925/http://dro.dur.ac.uk/5935/1/5935.pdf?DDD6+drk0tjw+dul4eg">archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 31 July 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 September</span> 2019</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antiquity&rft.atitle=Using+Shuttle+Radar+Topography+to+Map+Ancient+Water+Channels+in+Mesopotamia&rft.volume=80&rft.issue=308&rft.pages=415-424&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14693322%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0003-598X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0003598X00093728&rft.aulast=Hritz&rft.aufirst=Carrie&rft.au=Wilkinson%2C+T.J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdro.dur.ac.uk%2F5935%2F1%2F5935.pdf%3FDDD6%2Bdrk0tjw%2Bdul4eg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIraqi_Ministries_of_Environment,_Water_Resources_and_Municipalities_and_Public_Works2006a" class="citation cs2">Iraqi Ministries of Environment, Water Resources and Municipalities and Public Works (2006a), "Volume I: Overview of Present Conditions and Current Use of the Water in the Marshlands Area/Book 1: Water Resources", <i>New Eden Master Plan for Integrated Water Resources Management in the Marshlands Areas</i>, New Eden Group</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Volume+I%3A+Overview+of+Present+Conditions+and+Current+Use+of+the+Water+in+the+Marshlands+Area%2FBook+1%3A+Water+Resources&rft.btitle=New+Eden+Master+Plan+for+Integrated+Water+Resources+Management+in+the+Marshlands+Areas&rft.pub=New+Eden+Group&rft.date=2006&rft.au=Iraqi+Ministries+of+Environment%2C+Water+Resources+and+Municipalities+and+Public+Works&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIraqi_Ministries_of_Environment,_Water_Resources_and_Municipalities_and_Public_Works2006b" class="citation cs2">Iraqi Ministries of Environment, Water Resources and Municipalities and Public Works (2006b), "Annex III: Main Water Control Structures (Dams and Water Diversions) and Reservoirs", <i>New Eden Master Plan for Integrated Water Resources Management in the Marshlands Areas</i>, New Eden Group</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Annex+III%3A+Main+Water+Control+Structures+%28Dams+and+Water+Diversions%29+and+Reservoirs&rft.btitle=New+Eden+Master+Plan+for+Integrated+Water+Resources+Management+in+the+Marshlands+Areas&rft.pub=New+Eden+Group&rft.date=2006&rft.au=Iraqi+Ministries+of+Environment%2C+Water+Resources+and+Municipalities+and+Public+Works&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsaevMikhailova2009" class="citation cs2">Isaev, V.A.; Mikhailova, M.V. (2009), "The Hydrology, Evolution, and Hydrological Regime of the Mouth Area of the Shatt al-Arab River", <i>Water Resources</i>, <b>36</b> (4): 380–395, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1134%2FS0097807809040022">10.1134/S0097807809040022</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129706440">129706440</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Water+Resources&rft.atitle=The+Hydrology%2C+Evolution%2C+and+Hydrological+Regime+of+the+Mouth+Area+of+the+Shatt+al-Arab+River&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=380-395&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1134%2FS0097807809040022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A129706440%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Isaev&rft.aufirst=V.A.&rft.au=Mikhailova%2C+M.V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJamous2009" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Jamous, Bassam (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110728065852/http://studiaorontica.org/library/Circulaire_Hallabiyen.pdf">"Nouveaux Aménagements Hydrauliques sur le Moyen Euphrate Syrienne. Appel à Projets Archéologiques d'Urgence"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Studia Orontica</i> (in French), DGAM, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://studiaorontica.org/library/Circulaire_Hallabiyen.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 28 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 December</span> 2009</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studia+Orontica&rft.atitle=Nouveaux+Am%C3%A9nagements+Hydrauliques+sur+le+Moyen+Euphrate+Syrienne.+Appel+%C3%A0+Projets+Arch%C3%A9ologiques+d%27Urgence&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Jamous&rft.aufirst=Bassam&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fstudiaorontica.org%2Flibrary%2FCirculaire_Hallabiyen.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJawad2003" class="citation cs2">Jawad, Laith A. (2003), "Impact of Environmental Change on the Freshwater Fish Fauna of Iraq", <i>International Journal of Environmental Studies</i>, <b>60</b> (6): 581–593, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0020723032000087934">10.1080/0020723032000087934</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:94931485">94931485</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Environmental+Studies&rft.atitle=Impact+of+Environmental+Change+on+the+Freshwater+Fish+Fauna+of+Iraq&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=581-593&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0020723032000087934&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A94931485%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Jawad&rft.aufirst=Laith+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJongerden2010" class="citation cs2">Jongerden, Joost (2010), "Dams and Politics in Turkey: Utilizing Water, Developing Conflict", <i>Middle East Policy</i>, <b>17</b> (1): 137–143, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1475-4967.2010.00432.x">10.1111/j.1475-4967.2010.00432.x</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Middle+East+Policy&rft.atitle=Dams+and+Politics+in+Turkey%3A+Utilizing+Water%2C+Developing+Conflict&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=137-143&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1475-4967.2010.00432.x&rft.aulast=Jongerden&rft.aufirst=Joost&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaya1998" class="citation cs2">Kaya, Ibrahim (1998), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ag.arizona.edu/OALS/ALN/aln44/kaya.html">"The Euphrates–Tigris Basin: An Overview and Opportunities for Cooperation under International Law"</a>, <i>Arid Lands Newsletter</i>, <b>44</b>, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1092-5481">1092-5481</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110606065408/http://ag.arizona.edu/OALS/ALN/aln44/kaya.html">archived</a> from the original on 6 June 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2010</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Arid+Lands+Newsletter&rft.atitle=The+Euphrates%E2%80%93Tigris+Basin%3A+An+Overview+and+Opportunities+for+Cooperation+under+International+Law&rft.volume=44&rft.date=1998&rft.issn=1092-5481&rft.aulast=Kaya&rft.aufirst=Ibrahim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fag.arizona.edu%2FOALS%2FALN%2Faln44%2Fkaya.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKliot1994" class="citation cs2">Kliot, Nurit (1994), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/waterresourcesco00klio"><i>Water Resources and Conflict in the Middle East</i></a></span>, Milton Park: Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-09752-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-09752-5"><bdi>0-415-09752-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Water+Resources+and+Conflict+in+the+Middle+East&rft.place=Milton+Park&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-415-09752-5&rft.aulast=Kliot&rft.aufirst=Nurit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwaterresourcesco00klio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKolars1994" class="citation cs2">Kolars, John (1994), "Problems of International River Management: The Case of the Euphrates", in Biswas, Asit K. (ed.), <i>International Waters of the Middle East: From Euphrates-Tigris to Nile</i>, Oxford University Press, pp. 44–94, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-854862-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-854862-1"><bdi>978-0-19-854862-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Problems+of+International+River+Management%3A+The+Case+of+the+Euphrates&rft.btitle=International+Waters+of+the+Middle+East%3A+From+Euphrates-Tigris+to+Nile&rft.pages=44-94&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-19-854862-1&rft.aulast=Kolars&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKolarsMitchell1991" class="citation cs2">Kolars, John F.; Mitchell, William A. (1991), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/euphratesriverso0000kola"><i>The Euphrates River and the Southeast Anatolia Development Project</i></a></span>, Carbondale: SIU Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8093-1572-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8093-1572-7"><bdi>978-0-8093-1572-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Euphrates+River+and+the+Southeast+Anatolia+Development+Project&rft.place=Carbondale&rft.pub=SIU+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-8093-1572-7&rft.aulast=Kolars&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rft.au=Mitchell%2C+William+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feuphratesriverso0000kola&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrouma2006" class="citation cs2">Krouma, I. (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fao.org/fishery/countrysector/naso_syrian/en#tcNA003E">"National Aquaculture Sector Overview. Syrian Arab Republic. National Aquaculture Sector Overview Fact Sheets"</a>, <i>FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department</i>, FAO, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210204162910/http://www.fao.org/fishery/countrysector/naso_syrian/en#tcNA003E">archived</a> from the original on 4 February 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 December</span> 2009</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=FAO+Fisheries+and+Aquaculture+Department&rft.atitle=National+Aquaculture+Sector+Overview.+Syrian+Arab+Republic.+National+Aquaculture+Sector+Overview+Fact+Sheets&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Krouma&rft.aufirst=I.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fao.org%2Ffishery%2Fcountrysector%2Fnaso_syrian%2Fen%23tcNA003E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcClellan1997" class="citation cs2">McClellan, Thomas L. (1997), "Euphrates Dams, Survey of", in Meyers, Eric M. (ed.), <i>The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Ancient Near East</i>, vol. 2, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 290–292, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-506512-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-506512-3"><bdi>0-19-506512-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Euphrates+Dams%2C+Survey+of&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Encyclopedia+of+Archaeology+in+the+Ancient+Near+East&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=290-292&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-19-506512-3&rft.aulast=McClellan&rft.aufirst=Thomas+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDowall2004" class="citation cs2">McDowall, David (2004), <i>A Modern History of the Kurds</i>, London: I.B. Tauris, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85043-416-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85043-416-0"><bdi>978-1-85043-416-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Modern+History+of+the+Kurds&rft.place=London&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-85043-416-0&rft.aulast=McDowall&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMooreHillmanLegge2000" class="citation cs2">Moore, A.M.T.; Hillman, G.C.; Legge, A.J. (2000), <i>Village on the Euphrates. From Foraging to Farming at Abu Hureyra</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-510807-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-510807-8"><bdi>0-19-510807-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Village+on+the+Euphrates.+From+Foraging+to+Farming+at+Abu+Hureyra&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-19-510807-8&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=A.M.T.&rft.au=Hillman%2C+G.C.&rft.au=Legge%2C+A.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuhesen2002" class="citation cs2">Muhesen, Sultan (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/neandertalsmoder0000unse/page/95">"The Earliest Paleolithic Occupation in Syria"</a>, in Akazawa, Takeru; Aoki, Kenichi; <a href="/wiki/Ofer_Bar-Yosef" title="Ofer Bar-Yosef">Bar-Yosef, Ofer</a> (eds.), <i>Neandertals and Modern Humans in Western Asia</i>, New York: Kluwer, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/neandertalsmoder0000unse/page/95">95–105</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F0-306-47153-1_7">10.1007/0-306-47153-1_7</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-306-45924-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-306-45924-8"><bdi>0-306-45924-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Earliest+Paleolithic+Occupation+in+Syria&rft.btitle=Neandertals+and+Modern+Humans+in+Western+Asia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=95-105&rft.pub=Kluwer&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F0-306-47153-1_7&rft.isbn=0-306-45924-8&rft.aulast=Muhesen&rft.aufirst=Sultan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fneandertalsmoder0000unse%2Fpage%2F95&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuir2009" class="citation cs2">Muir, Jim (24 February 2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7906512.stm">"Iraq Marshes face Grave New Threat"</a>, <i>BBC News</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090224214805/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7906512.stm">archived</a> from the original on 24 February 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 August</span> 2010</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Iraq+Marshes+face+Grave+New+Threat&rft.date=2009-02-24&rft.aulast=Muir&rft.aufirst=Jim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fmiddle_east%2F7906512.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMutin2003" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Mutin, Georges (2003), "Le Tigre et l'Euphrate de la Discorde", <i>VertigO</i> (in French), <b>4</b> (3): 1–10, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4000%2Fvertigo.3869">10.4000/vertigo.3869</a></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=VertigO&rft.atitle=Le+Tigre+et+l%27Euphrate+de+la+Discorde&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=1-10&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4000%2Fvertigo.3869&rft.aulast=Mutin&rft.aufirst=Georges&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNaval_Intelligence_Division1944" class="citation cs2">Naval Intelligence Division (1944), <i>Iraq and the Persian Gulf</i>, Geographical Handbook Series, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1077604">1077604</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iraq+and+the+Persian+Gulf&rft.series=Geographical+Handbook+Series&rft.date=1944&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1077604&rft.au=Naval+Intelligence+Division&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNegevGibson2001" class="citation cs2">Negev, Avraham; Gibson, Shimon (2001), "Archaeological Encyclopedia of the Holy Land", <i>Continuum</i>, New York, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8264-1316-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8264-1316-1"><bdi>0-8264-1316-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Continuum&rft.atitle=Archaeological+Encyclopedia+of+the+Holy+Land&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-8264-1316-1&rft.aulast=Negev&rft.aufirst=Avraham&rft.au=Gibson%2C+Shimon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Hara2004" class="citation cs2">O'Hara, Thomas (2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090619092319/http://www.grd.usace.army.mil/news/Essayonsforward/documents/Essayons%20Forward%202.pdf">"Coalition Celebrates Transfer of Power"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Essayons Forward</i>, <b>1</b> (2): 3–4, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/81262733">81262733</a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.grd.usace.army.mil/news/Essayonsforward/documents/Essayons%20Forward%202.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 19 June 2009</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Essayons+Forward&rft.atitle=Coalition+Celebrates+Transfer+of+Power&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=3-4&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F81262733&rft.aulast=O%27Hara&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.grd.usace.army.mil%2Fnews%2FEssayonsforward%2Fdocuments%2FEssayons%2520Forward%25202.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOates1960" class="citation cs2">Oates, Joan (1960), "Ur and Eridu, the Prehistory", <i>Iraq</i>, <b>22</b>: 32–50, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4199667">10.2307/4199667</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4199667">4199667</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163320495">163320495</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Iraq&rft.atitle=Ur+and+Eridu%2C+the+Prehistory&rft.volume=22&rft.pages=32-50&rft.date=1960&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163320495%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4199667%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F4199667&rft.aulast=Oates&rft.aufirst=Joan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPartow2001" class="citation cs2">Partow, Hassan (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171215044941/http://www.grid.unep.ch/activities/sustainable/tigris/mesopotamia.pdf"><i>The Mesopotamian Marshlands: Demise of an Ecosystem</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, Nairobi: UNEP, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/92-807-2069-4" title="Special:BookSources/92-807-2069-4"><bdi>92-807-2069-4</bdi></a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.grid.unep.ch/activities/sustainable/tigris/mesopotamia.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 15 December 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2010</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mesopotamian+Marshlands%3A+Demise+of+an+Ecosystem&rft.place=Nairobi&rft.pub=UNEP&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=92-807-2069-4&rft.aulast=Partow&rft.aufirst=Hassan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.grid.unep.ch%2Factivities%2Fsustainable%2Ftigris%2Fmesopotamia.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRahiHalihan2009" class="citation cs2">Rahi, Khayyun A.; Halihan, Todd (2009), "Changes in the Salinity of the Euphrates River System in Iraq", <i>Regional Environmental Change</i>, <b>10</b>: 27–35, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10113-009-0083-y">10.1007/s10113-009-0083-y</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8616217">8616217</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Regional+Environmental+Change&rft.atitle=Changes+in+the+Salinity+of+the+Euphrates+River+System+in+Iraq&rft.volume=10&rft.pages=27-35&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10113-009-0083-y&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A8616217%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Rahi&rft.aufirst=Khayyun+A.&rft.au=Halihan%2C+Todd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSagonaZimansky2009" class="citation cs2">Sagona, Antonio; Zimansky, Paul (2009), <i>Ancient Turkey</i>, Routledge World Archaeology, London: Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-48123-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-48123-6"><bdi>978-0-415-48123-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Turkey&rft.place=London&rft.series=Routledge+World+Archaeology&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-415-48123-6&rft.aulast=Sagona&rft.aufirst=Antonio&rft.au=Zimansky%2C+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSahanZoggMasonGilli2001" class="citation cs2">Sahan, Emel; Zogg, Andreas; Mason, Simon A.; Gilli, Adi (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050209180004/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/GAP07feb01.pdf"><i>Case-Study: Southeastern Anatolia Project in Turkey – GAP</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, Zürich, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/GAP07feb01.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 9 February 2005<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 August</span> 2010</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Case-Study%3A+Southeastern+Anatolia+Project+in+Turkey+%E2%80%93+GAP&rft.place=Z%C3%BCrich&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Sahan&rft.aufirst=Emel&rft.au=Zogg%2C+Andreas&rft.au=Mason%2C+Simon+A.&rft.au=Gilli%2C+Adi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eawag.ch%2Fresearch_e%2Fapec%2FScripts%2FGAP07feb01.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmidRentzelRenault-MiskovskyMuhesen1997" class="citation cs2">Schmid, P.; Rentzel, Ph.; Renault-Miskovsky, J.; Muhesen, Sultan; Morel, Ph.; Le Tensorer, Jean Marie; Jagher, R. (1997), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.persee.fr/docAsPDF/paleo_0153-9345_1997_num_23_1_4646.pdf">"Découvertes de Restes Humains dans les Niveaux Acheuléens de Nadaouiyeh Aïn Askar (El Kowm, Syrie Centrale)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Paléorient</i>, <b>23</b> (1): 87–93, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fpaleo.1997.4646">10.3406/paleo.1997.4646</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pal%C3%A9orient&rft.atitle=D%C3%A9couvertes+de+Restes+Humains+dans+les+Niveaux+Acheul%C3%A9ens+de+Nadaouiyeh+A%C3%AFn+Askar+%28El+Kowm%2C+Syrie+Centrale%29&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=87-93&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fpaleo.1997.4646&rft.aulast=Schmid&rft.aufirst=P.&rft.au=Rentzel%2C+Ph.&rft.au=Renault-Miskovsky%2C+J.&rft.au=Muhesen%2C+Sultan&rft.au=Morel%2C+Ph.&rft.au=Le+Tensorer%2C+Jean+Marie&rft.au=Jagher%2C+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.persee.fr%2FdocAsPDF%2Fpaleo_0153-9345_1997_num_23_1_4646.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged August 2019">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShahin2007" class="citation cs2">Shahin, Mamdouh (2007), <i>Water Resources and Hydrometeorology of the Arab Region</i>, Dordrecht: Springer, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007wrha.book.....S">2007wrha.book.....S</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-5414-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-5414-3"><bdi>978-1-4020-5414-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Water+Resources+and+Hydrometeorology+of+the+Arab+Region&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007wrha.book.....S&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-5414-3&rft.aulast=Shahin&rft.aufirst=Mamdouh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShapland1997" class="citation cs2">Shapland, Greg (1997), <i>Rivers of Discord: International Water Disputes in the Middle East</i>, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-16522-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-16522-2"><bdi>978-0-312-16522-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rivers+of+Discord%3A+International+Water+Disputes+in+the+Middle+East&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-312-16522-2&rft.aulast=Shapland&rft.aufirst=Greg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteele2005" class="citation cs2">Steele, Caroline (2005), "Who Has not Eaten Cherries with the Devil? Archaeology under Challenge", in Pollock, Susan; Bernbeck, Reinhard (eds.), <i>Archaeologies of the Middle East: Critical Perspectives</i>, Blackwell Studies in Global Archaeology, Malden: Blackwell, pp. 45–65, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-23001-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-23001-7"><bdi>0-631-23001-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Who+Has+not+Eaten+Cherries+with+the+Devil%3F+Archaeology+under+Challenge&rft.btitle=Archaeologies+of+the+Middle+East%3A+Critical+Perspectives&rft.place=Malden&rft.series=Blackwell+Studies+in+Global+Archaeology&rft.pages=45-65&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-631-23001-7&rft.aulast=Steele&rft.aufirst=Caroline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTanaka2007" class="citation cs2">Tanaka, Eisuke (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.stanford.edu/dept/archaeology/journal/09Tanaka.pdf">"Protecting one of the best Roman Mosaic Collections in the World: Ownership and Protection in the Case of the Roman Mosaics from Zeugma, Turkey"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Stanford Journal of Archaeology</i>, <b>5</b>: 183–202, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/56070299">56070299</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120124043413/https://www.stanford.edu/dept/archaeology/journal/09Tanaka.pdf">archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 24 January 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2010</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Journal+of+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Protecting+one+of+the+best+Roman+Mosaic+Collections+in+the+World%3A+Ownership+and+Protection+in+the+Case+of+the+Roman+Mosaics+from+Zeugma%2C+Turkey&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=183-202&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F56070299&rft.aulast=Tanaka&rft.aufirst=Eisuke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.stanford.edu%2Fdept%2Farchaeology%2Fjournal%2F09Tanaka.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomason2001" class="citation cs2">Thomason, A.K. (2001), "Representations of the North Syrian Landscape in Neo-Assyrian Art", <i>Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research</i>, <b>323</b> (323): 63–96, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1357592">10.2307/1357592</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1357592">1357592</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153904585">153904585</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+American+Schools+of+Oriental+Research&rft.atitle=Representations+of+the+North+Syrian+Landscape+in+Neo-Assyrian+Art&rft.volume=323&rft.issue=323&rft.pages=63-96&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153904585%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1357592%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1357592&rft.aulast=Thomason&rft.aufirst=A.K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUrKarsgaardOates2007" class="citation cs2">Ur, Jason A.; Karsgaard, Philip; Oates, Joan (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/4259360/Early%20Urban%20Develp.pdf?sequence=1">"Early Urban Development in the Near East"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Science</i>, <b>317</b> (5842): 1188, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007Sci...317.1188U">2007Sci...317.1188U</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1138728">10.1126/science.1138728</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17761874">17761874</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10440712">10440712</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181104213357/https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/4259360/Early%20Urban%20Develp.pdf?sequence=1">archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 4 November 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 November</span> 2018</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Early+Urban+Development+in+the+Near+East&rft.volume=317&rft.issue=5842&rft.pages=1188&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1138728&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A10440712%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17761874&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007Sci...317.1188U&rft.aulast=Ur&rft.aufirst=Jason+A.&rft.au=Karsgaard%2C+Philip&rft.au=Oates%2C+Joan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdash.harvard.edu%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F1%2F4259360%2FEarly%2520Urban%2520Develp.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_de_Mieroop2007" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Marc_van_de_Mieroop" class="mw-redirect" title="Marc van de Mieroop">van de Mieroop, Marc</a> (2007), <i>A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 BC</i>, Blackwell History of the Ancient World (2nd ed.), Malden: Blackwell, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-4911-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-4911-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-4911-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Ancient+Near+East%2C+ca.+3000%E2%80%93323+BC&rft.place=Malden&rft.series=Blackwell+History+of+the+Ancient+World&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-4911-2&rft.aulast=van+de+Mieroop&rft.aufirst=Marc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoods2005" class="citation cs2">Woods, Christopher (2005), "On the Euphrates", <i>Zeitschrift für Assyriologie</i>, <b>95</b> (1–2): 7–45, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fzava.2005.95.1-2.7">10.1515/zava.2005.95.1-2.7</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162245901">162245901</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Assyriologie&rft.atitle=On+the+Euphrates&rft.volume=95&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=7-45&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fzava.2005.95.1-2.7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162245901%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Woods&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZarins1997" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Juris_Zarins" title="Juris Zarins">Zarins, Juris</a> (1997), "Euphrates", in Meyers, Eric M. (ed.), <i>The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Ancient Near East</i>, vol. 2, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 287–290, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-506512-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-506512-3"><bdi>0-19-506512-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Euphrates&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Encyclopedia+of+Archaeology+in+the+Ancient+Near+East&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=287-290&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-19-506512-3&rft.aulast=Zarins&rft.aufirst=Juris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuphrates" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euphrates&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Euphrates" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Euphrates">Euphrates</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://merhav.nli.org.il/primo-explore/search?query=any,contains,river%20map&tab=default_tab&search_scope=Local&sortby=lso01&vid=NLI&mfacet=rtype,include,Maps,1&mfacet=tlevel,include,online_resources,2&mfacet=topic,include,Euphrates%20River,3&lang=en_US&offset=0&came_from=sort">Old maps of the Euphrates</a>, from the Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, The <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Israel" title="National Library of Israel">National Library of Israel</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Mesopotamia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Mesopotamia_topics" title="Template:Ancient Mesopotamia topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Mesopotamia_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Mesopotamia topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Mesopotamia_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Mesopotamia topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Mesopotamia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Ancient Mesopotamia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Mesopotamia" title="Geography of Mesopotamia">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Upper Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Mesopotamia" title="Lower Mesopotamia">Lower Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Marshes" title="Mesopotamian Marshes">Mesopotamian Marshes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taurus_Mountains" title="Taurus Mountains">Taurus Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris%E2%80%93Euphrates_river_system" title="Tigris–Euphrates river system">Tigris–Euphrates river system</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Euphrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamrin_Mountains" title="Hamrin Mountains">Hamrin Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinjar_Mountains" title="Sinjar Mountains">Sinjar Mountains</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkad_(city)" title="Akkad (city)">Akkad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armani_(kingdom)" title="Armani (kingdom)">Armani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_people" title="Gutian people">Gutium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamazi" title="Hamazi">Hamazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subartu" title="Subartu">Subartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suhum" title="Suhum">Suhum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turukkaeans" title="Turukkaeans">Tukri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="List of cities of the ancient Near East">Cities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ishtar_Gate.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Ishtar Gate in the city of Babylon"><img alt="Ishtar Gate in the city of Babylon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif/110px-Ishtar_Gate.gif" decoding="async" width="110" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif/165px-Ishtar_Gate.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif/220px-Ishtar_Gate.gif 2x" data-file-width="275" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">(Pre)history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Mesopotamia" title="Prehistory of Mesopotamia">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acheulean" title="Acheulean">Acheulean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mousterian" title="Mousterian">Mousterian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trialetian" class="mw-redirect" title="Trialetian">Trialetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarzian_culture" title="Zarzian culture">Zarzian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natufian_culture" title="Natufian culture">Natufian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemrik_9" title="Nemrik 9">Nemrik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khiamian" class="mw-redirect" title="Khiamian">Khiamian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_A" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic A">Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_B" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic B">Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassuna_culture" title="Hassuna culture">Hassuna</a>/<a href="/wiki/Samarra_culture" title="Samarra culture">Samarra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kish_civilization" title="Kish civilization">Kish civilization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mesopotamia" title="History of Mesopotamia">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_rule_in_Mesopotamia" title="Gutian rule in Mesopotamia">Gutians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Ur III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isin-Larsa_period" title="Isin-Larsa period">Isin-Larsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassite_dynasty" title="Kassite dynasty">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Babylonian_period" title="Middle Babylonian period">Middle Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Assyria" title="Achaemenid Assyria">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Assyriology" title="Assyriology">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amorite_language" title="Amorite language">Amorite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eblaite_language" title="Eblaite language">Eblaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_language" title="Gutian language">Gutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_language" title="Hittite language">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurrian_language" title="Hurrian language">Hurrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassite_language" title="Kassite language">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luwian_language" title="Luwian language">Luwian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Median_language" title="Median language">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Persian" title="Old Persian">Old Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_language" title="Parthian language">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Armenian_language" title="Proto-Armenian language">Proto-Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutean_language" title="Sutean language">Sutean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartian_language" title="Urartian language">Urartian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture/society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Mesopotamia" title="Architecture of Mesopotamia">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Mesopotamia" title="Art of Mesopotamia">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akitu" title="Akitu">Akitu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Cuneiform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_mathematics" title="Babylonian mathematics">Babylonian mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_literature" title="Akkadian literature">Akkadian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Sumer" title="Economy of Sumer">Economy of Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warfare_in_Sumer" title="Warfare in Sumer">Warfare in Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire">Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sumerian_cuisine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sumerian cuisine (page does not exist)">Sumerian cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_literature" title="Sumerian literature">Sumerian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Mesopotamia" title="Music of Mesopotamia">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus-Mesopotamia relations">Indus-Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt-Mesopotamia relations">Egypt-Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_royal_titulary" title="Akkadian royal titulary">Royal titles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mesopotamian_dynasties" title="List of Mesopotamian dynasties">List of rulers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archaeology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_looting_in_Iraq" title="Archaeological looting in Iraq">Looting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_cultural_heritage_by_ISIL" class="mw-redirect" title="Destruction of cultural heritage by ISIL">Destruction by ISIL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_(archaeology)" title="Tell (archaeology)">Tell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Ancient Mesopotamian religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_religion" title="Sumerian religion">Sumerian religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mesopotamian_deities" title="List of Mesopotamian deities">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_myths" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesopotamian myths">Mesopotamian myths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_divination" title="Mesopotamian divination">Divination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_prayer" title="Mesopotamian prayer">Prayers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">Ziggurat (Temple)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assyriology" title="Assyriology">Assyriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Assyriologists" title="List of Assyriologists">Assyriologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittitology" title="Hittitology">Hittitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Sumerian_Dictionary" title="Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary">Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Assyrian_Dictionary" title="Chicago Assyrian Dictionary">Chicago Assyrian Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Hittite_Dictionary" title="Chicago Hittite Dictionary">Chicago Hittite Dictionary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Iraq&#124;link=Iraq_Iraq_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Iraq_topics" title="Template:Iraq topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Iraq_topics" title="Template talk:Iraq topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Iraq_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Iraq topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Iraq&#124;link=Iraq_Iraq_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="position:relative; bottom:1px;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq"><img alt="Iraq" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg/23px-Flag_of_Iraq.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg/35px-Flag_of_Iraq.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg/45px-Flag_of_Iraq.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraq" title="History of Iraq">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraq" title="History of Iraq">Chronology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassuna_culture" title="Hassuna culture">Hassuna culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf-Ubaid_Transitional_period" title="Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period">Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samarra_culture" title="Samarra culture">Samarra culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subartu" title="Subartu">Subartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_rule_in_Mesopotamia" title="Gutian rule in Mesopotamia">Gutian dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isin-Larsa_period" title="Isin-Larsa period">Isin-Larsa period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">First Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Assyrian Period">Old Assyrian Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite dynasty of the Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Babylonian captivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Assyria" title="Achaemenid Assyria">Achaemenid Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asoristan" title="Asoristan">Sassanid Asorestan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">638–1958</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qara_Qoyunlu" title="Qara Qoyunlu">Qara Qoyunlu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Aq Qoyunlu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Iraq" title="Ottoman Iraq">Ottoman Iraq</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_dynasty_(Iraq)" title="Mamluk dynasty (Iraq)">Mamluk dynasty</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Mesopotamia" title="Mandate for Mesopotamia">Mandate for Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Iraq" title="Mandatory Iraq">Mandatory Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iraq" title="Kingdom of Iraq">Kingdom of Iraq</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Iraq" title="List of kings of Iraq">Kings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Federation" title="Arab Federation">Arab Federation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Republic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Republic_(1958%E2%80%931968)" title="Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)">1958–1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Iraq">1968–2003</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Iraq_(2003%E2%80%932011)" title="Occupation of Iraq (2003–2011)">2003–2011</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">2011–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">National Command</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_conflict" title="Iraqi–Kurdish conflict">Iraqi–Kurdish conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1974%E2%80%9375_Shatt_al-Arab_conflict" title="1974–75 Shatt al-Arab conflict">1974–1975 Shatt al-Arab clashes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Shia_uprising_in_Iraq" title="1977 Shia uprising in Iraq">1977 Shia uprising in Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979%E2%80%931980_Shia_uprising_in_Iraq" title="1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq">1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Iraq and weapons of mass destruction">Weapons of mass destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Opera" title="Operation Opera">Operation Opera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Kuwait" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of Kuwait">Invasion of Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1991_Iraqi_uprisings" title="1991 Iraqi uprisings">1991 uprisings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanctions_against_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanctions against Iraq">Sanctions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">U.S. invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_insurgency_(2003%E2%80%932011)" title="Iraqi insurgency (2003–2011)">Iraqi insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Withdrawal_of_United_States_troops_from_Iraq_(2007%E2%80%932011)" title="Withdrawal of United States troops from Iraq (2007–2011)">U.S. troop withdrawal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_insurgency_(2011%E2%80%932013)" title="Iraqi insurgency (2011–2013)">Insurgency (2011–2013)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Iraq_(2013%E2%80%932017)" title="War in Iraq (2013–2017)">War (2014–2017)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Mosul" title="Fall of Mosul">Fall of Mosul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mosul_(2016%E2%80%932017)" title="Battle of Mosul (2016–2017)">Mosul liberation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_insurgency_in_Iraq_(2017%E2%80%93present)" title="Islamic State insurgency in Iraq (2017–present)">Insurgency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2019%E2%80%932021_Iraqi_protests" title="2019–2021 Iraqi protests">2019–2021 protests</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021%E2%80%932022_Iraqi_political_crisis" title="2021–2022 Iraqi political crisis">2021–2022 Iraqi political crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Geography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Iraq" title="Geography of Iraq">Geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Faw_peninsula" title="Al-Faw peninsula">Faw peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Upper Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Mesopotamia" title="Lower Mesopotamia">Lower Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Iraq" title="Template:Borders of Iraq">Borders</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Euphrates river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamrin_Mountains" title="Hamrin Mountains">Hamrin Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Kurdistan" title="Iraqi Kurdistan">Iraqi Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lakes_of_Iraq" title="Category:Lakes of Iraq">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Iraq" title="List of islands of Iraq">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Marshes" title="Mesopotamian Marshes">Mesopotamian Marshes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_in_Iraq" title="List of places in Iraq">Places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shatt_al-Arab" title="Shatt al-Arab">Shatt al-Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_Qasr" title="Umm Qasr">Umm Qasr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Iraq" title="Wildlife of Iraq">Wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinjar_Mountains" title="Sinjar Mountains">Sinjar Mountains</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Politics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Iraq" title="Politics of Iraq">Politics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governorates_of_Iraq" title="Governorates of Iraq">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Iraq" title="Constitution of Iraq">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Representatives_of_Iraq" title="Council of Representatives of Iraq">Council of Representatives <span style="font-size:85%;">(legislative)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_Iraq" title="Democracy in Iraq">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Iraq" title="Elections in Iraq">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_aid_to_Iraq" title="Foreign aid to Iraq">Foreign aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Iraq" title="Foreign relations of Iraq">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_Iraq" title="Federal government of Iraq">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Iraq)" title="Council of Ministers (Iraq)">Council of Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_Council_of_Iraq" title="Presidency Council of Iraq">Presidency Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Iraq" title="President of Iraq">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Iraq" title="List of presidents of Iraq">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Iraq" title="Prime Minister of Iraq">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Iraq" title="List of prime ministers of Iraq">List</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Iraq" title="Human rights in Iraq">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_pre-Saddam_Iraq" title="Human rights in pre-Saddam Iraq">in pre-Saddam Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Saddam_Hussein%27s_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Human rights in Saddam Hussein's Iraq">in Saddam Hussein's Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_post-invasion_Iraq" title="Human rights in post-invasion Iraq">in post-invasion Iraq</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Islamic_State-controlled_territory" title="Human rights in Islamic State-controlled territory">in ISIL-controlled territory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Iraq">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_Iraq" title="Freedom of religion in Iraq">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Iraq" title="Women in Iraq">Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Iraq" title="Law of Iraq">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Armed_Forces" title="Iraqi Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Police" title="Iraqi Police">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Iraq" title="List of political parties in Iraq">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Iraq" title="Judiciary of Iraq">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Iraq" title="List of wars involving Iraq">Wars and conflicts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Economy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Iraq" title="Economy of Iraq">Economy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Iraq" title="List of banks in Iraq">Banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Iraq" title="Central Bank of Iraq">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Iraq" title="List of companies of Iraq">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Iraq" title="Corruption in Iraq">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_dinar" title="Iraqi dinar">Dinar <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_of_Iraq" title="Infrastructure of Iraq">Infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investment_in_post-invasion_Iraq" title="Investment in post-invasion Iraq">Foreign Investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Iraq" title="Petroleum industry in Iraq">Oil Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_reserves_in_Iraq" title="Oil reserves in Iraq">Oil reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investment_in_post-invasion_Iraq" title="Investment in post-invasion Iraq">Reconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_Stock_Exchange" title="Iraq Stock Exchange">Stock Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Iraq" title="Telecommunications in Iraq">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Iraq" title="Transport in Iraq">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_airlines_of_Iraq" title="List of airlines of Iraq">Airlines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Republic_Railways" title="Iraqi Republic Railways">Railways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Iraq" title="Tourism in Iraq">Tourism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Iraq" title="Category:Society of Iraq">Society</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Iraq" title="Demographics of Iraq">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqis" title="Iraqis">Iraqis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Iraq" title="Languages of Iraq">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_languages" title="Neo-Aramaic languages">Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_language" title="Kurdish language">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Turkmen#Language" title="Iraqi Turkmen">Iraqi Turkmen/Turkoman dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minorities_in_Iraq" title="Minorities in Iraq">Minorities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Armenians" title="Iraqi Armenians">Armenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassians_in_Iraq" title="Circassians in Iraq">Circassians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Iraq" title="Kurds in Iraq">Kurds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaeans" title="Mandaeans">Mandaeans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsh_Arabs" title="Marsh Arabs">Marsh Arabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajam_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Ajam of Iraq">Persians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solluba" title="Solluba">Solluba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Turkmen" title="Iraqi Turkmen">Iraqi Turkmen</a>/Turkoman</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq" title="History of the Jews in Iraq">Jews</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iraq" title="Religion in Iraq">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism_in_Iraq" title="Secularism in Iraq">Secularism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Iraq" title="Islam in Iraq">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Iraq" title="Christianity in Iraq">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaeism" title="Mandaeism">Mandaeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazidis" title="Yazidis">Yazidis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_Iraq" title="Irreligion in Iraq">Irreligion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_art" title="Iraqi art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Iraq" title="Cinema of Iraq">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_cuisine" title="Iraqi cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Iraq" title="Culture of Iraq">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Iraq">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Iraq" title="Education in Iraq">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Iraq" title="Health in Iraq">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Iraq" title="Mass media in Iraq">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Iraq" title="Television in Iraq">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Iraq" title="Music of Iraq">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_Iraq" title="Smoking in Iraq">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Iraq" title="Sport in Iraq">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting_in_Iraq" title="Squatting in Iraq">Squatting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Iraq" title="Public holidays in Iraq">Public holidays</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akitu" title="Akitu">Mesopotamian spring festival (Akitu)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehwa_Rabba" title="Dehwa Rabba">Mandaean New Year</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Iraq" title="Category:Iraq">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Iraq" title="Portal:Iraq">Portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Iraq" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Iraq">WikiProject</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Iraq" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Iraq">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Syria&#124;link=Syria_Rivers_of_Syria_by_drainage_basin" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Rivers_of_Syria" title="Template:Rivers of Syria"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Rivers_of_Syria" title="Template talk:Rivers of Syria"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Rivers_of_Syria" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Rivers of Syria"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Syria&#124;link=Syria_Rivers_of_Syria_by_drainage_basin" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria"><img alt="Syria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Flag_of_Syria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Syria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Flag_of_Syria.svg/35px-Flag_of_Syria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Flag_of_Syria.svg/45px-Flag_of_Syria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Syria" title="List of rivers of Syria">Rivers of Syria</a> <span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">by <a href="/wiki/Drainage_basin" title="Drainage basin">drainage basin</a></span></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orontes_River" title="Orontes River">Orontes River</a> (<a href="/wiki/Karasu_(Hatay)" title="Karasu (Hatay)">Karasu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Afrin_River" title="Afrin River">Afrin River</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nahr_al-Kabir" title="Nahr al-Kabir">Nahr al-Kabir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nahr_al-Kabir_al-Shamali" title="Nahr al-Kabir al-Shamali">Nahr al-Kabir al-Shamali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nahr_as-Sinn" title="Nahr as-Sinn">Nahr as-Sinn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Euphrates</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sajur_River" title="Sajur River">Sajur River</a>, <a href="/wiki/Balikh_River" title="Balikh River">Balikh River</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khabur_(Euphrates)" title="Khabur (Euphrates)">Khabur</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">endorheic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queiq" title="Queiq">Queiq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awaj" title="Awaj">Awaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barada" title="Barada">Barada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banias_River" title="Banias River">Banias River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarmouk_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Yarmouk River">Yarmouk River</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Turkey&#124;link=Turkey_Rivers_of_Turkey_by_drainage_basin" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Rivers_of_Turkey" title="Template:Rivers of Turkey"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Rivers_of_Turkey" title="Template talk:Rivers of Turkey"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Rivers_of_Turkey" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Rivers of Turkey"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Turkey&#124;link=Turkey_Rivers_of_Turkey_by_drainage_basin" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey"><img alt="Turkey" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/35px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/45px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Turkey" title="List of rivers of Turkey">Rivers of Turkey</a> <span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">by <a href="/wiki/Drainage_basin" title="Drainage basin">drainage basin</a></span></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sakarya_River" title="Sakarya River">Sakarya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filyos_River" title="Filyos River">Filyos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bart%C4%B1n_River" title="Bartın River">Bartın</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C4%B1z%C4%B1l%C4%B1rmak_River" title="Kızılırmak River">Kızılırmak (Halys)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6k_River" title="Gök River">Gök</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terme_River" title="Terme River">Terme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ye%C5%9Fil%C4%B1rmak_(river)" title="Yeşilırmak (river)">Yeşilırmak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ya%C4%9Fl%C4%B1dere_stream" title="Yağlıdere stream">Yağlıdere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aksu_Deresi" title="Aksu Deresi">Aksu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gelevara_Deresi" class="mw-redirect" title="Gelevara Deresi">Gelevara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kara_Dere" class="mw-redirect" title="Kara Dere">Kara Dere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%87oruh" title="Çoruh">Çoruh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Marmara" title="Sea of Marmara">Marmara</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biga_%C3%87ay%C4%B1" title="Biga Çayı">Biga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simav_River" title="Simav River">Susurluk (Simav)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritsa" title="Maritsa">Meriç (Maritsa)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tundzha" title="Tundzha">Tunca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karamenderes_River" title="Karamenderes River">Karamenderes (Scamander)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bak%C4%B1r%C3%A7ay" title="Bakırçay">Bakırçay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gediz_River" title="Gediz River">Gediz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C3%BC%C3%A7%C3%BCk_Menderes_River" title="Küçük Menderes River">Küçük Menderes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%BCy%C3%BCk_Menderes_River" title="Büyük Menderes River">Büyük Menderes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azmak_Creek" title="Azmak Creek">Azmak</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/E%C5%9Fen_River" title="Eşen River">Eşen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aksu_River_(Turkey)" title="Aksu River (Turkey)">Aksu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manavgat_River" title="Manavgat River">Manavgat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6pr%C3%BC%C3%A7ay_River" title="Köprüçay River">Köprüçay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaledran_Creek" title="Kaledran Creek">Kaledran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragon_Creek_(Turkey)" title="Dragon Creek (Turkey)">Dragon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sini_Creek" title="Sini Creek">Sini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/So%C4%9Fuksu_Creek" title="Soğuksu Creek">Soğuksu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babad%C4%B1l_Creek" title="Babadıl Creek">Babadıl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ksu" title="Göksu">Göksu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limonlu_River" title="Limonlu River">Limonlu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alata_River" title="Alata River">Alata (Sorgun)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%B6m%C3%BCk_Creek" title="Tömük Creek">Tömük</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karacao%C4%9Flan_River" title="Karacaoğlan River">Karacaoğlan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tece_Creek" title="Tece Creek">Tece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mezitli_River" title="Mezitli River">Mezitli (Liparis)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efrenk_River" title="Efrenk River">Efrenk (Müftü)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deli%C3%A7ay" title="Deliçay">Deliçay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berdan_River" title="Berdan River">Berdan (Tarsus)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seyhan_River" title="Seyhan River">Seyhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceyhan_River" title="Ceyhan River">Ceyhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Payas_River" title="Payas River">Payas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orontes_River" title="Orontes River">Asi (Orontes)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deli_%C3%87ay" title="Deli Çay">Deli Çay</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Fırat (Euphrates)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Dicle (Tigris)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hezil_Suyu" title="Hezil Suyu">Hezil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aras_(river)" title="Aras (river)">Aras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kura_(Caspian_Sea)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kura (Caspian Sea)">Kura</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/16px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/24px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/32px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Turkey" title="Portal:Turkey">Turkey portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Turkey" title="Category:Turkey">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q34589#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q34589#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q34589#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/237806341">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1245053/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJwHp4gDpXTgqX3c7mJ4bd">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4258936-8">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85045605">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Eufrat (řeka)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge138086&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007558088705171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geographic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/912849">Pleiades</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Euphrates&oldid=1259335612">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Euphrates&oldid=1259335612</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Euphrates" title="Category:Euphrates">Euphrates</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:International_rivers_of_Asia" title="Category:International rivers of Asia">International rivers of Asia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mesopotamia" title="Category:Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Rivers_of_Iraq" title="Category:Rivers of Iraq">Rivers of Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Rivers_of_Kurdistan" title="Category:Rivers of Kurdistan">Rivers of Kurdistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Rivers_of_Syria" title="Category:Rivers of Syria">Rivers of Syria</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Rivers_of_Turkey" title="Category:Rivers of Turkey">Rivers of Turkey</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sites_along_the_Silk_Road" title="Category:Sites along the Silk Road">Sites along the Silk Road</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Torah_places" title="Category:Torah places">Torah places</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Levant" title="Category:Levant">Levant</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geography_of_Iraqi_Kurdistan" title="Category:Geography of Iraqi Kurdistan">Geography of Iraqi Kurdistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Landforms_of_%C5%9Eanl%C4%B1urfa_Province" title="Category:Landforms of Şanlıurfa Province">Landforms of Şanlıurfa Province</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Category:Upper Mesopotamia">Upper Mesopotamia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hebrew_Bible_rivers" title="Category:Hebrew Bible rivers">Hebrew Bible rivers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Rivers_in_Mandaeism" title="Category:Rivers in Mandaeism">Rivers in Mandaeism</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_gadget_WikiMiniAtlas" title="Category:Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas">Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_the_Phonos_extension" title="Category:Pages using the Phonos extension">Pages using the Phonos extension</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_July_2020" title="Category:Use dmy dates from July 2020">Use dmy dates from July 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Coordinates_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Coordinates on Wikidata">Coordinates on Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_including_recorded_pronunciations" title="Category:Pages including recorded pronunciations">Pages including recorded pronunciations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Ancient_Greek_(to_1453)-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text">Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Old_Persian_(ca._600-400_B.C.)-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text">Articles containing Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Elamite-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Elamite-language text">Articles containing Elamite-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Arabic-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Arabic-language text">Articles containing Arabic-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Syriac-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Syriac-language text">Articles containing Syriac-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Hebrew-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Hebrew-language text">Articles containing Hebrew-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Armenian-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Armenian-language text">Articles containing Armenian-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Turkish-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Turkish-language text">Articles containing Turkish-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Kurdish-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Kurdish-language text">Articles containing Kurdish-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Classical_Mandaic-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Classical Mandaic-language text">Articles containing Classical Mandaic-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_French-language_sources_(fr)" title="Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)">CS1 French-language sources (fr)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_August_2019" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from August 2019">Articles with dead external links from August 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_permanently_dead_external_links" title="Category:Articles with permanently dead external links">Articles with permanently dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">CS1 maint: location missing publisher</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link from Wikidata">Commons category link from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_the_Kartographer_extension" title="Category:Pages using the Kartographer extension">Pages using the Kartographer extension</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 24 November 2024, at 16:36<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Euphrates&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-qlwvg","wgBackendResponseTime":175,"wgKartographerLiveData":{"_cbeb9d857fd77161ffb5555889202738da512a50":[{"type":"ExternalData","service":"geoshape","url":"https://maps.wikimedia.org/geoshape?getgeojson=1\u0026ids=Q34589","properties":{"title":"Euphrates","fill-opacity":0.5,"stroke":"#0000ff","stroke-width":1.5,"fill":"#606060"}},{"type":"ExternalData","service":"geoline","url":"https://maps.wikimedia.org/geoline?getgeojson=1\u0026ids=Q34589","properties":{"stroke-width":1.5,"stroke":"#0000ff","title":"Euphrates"}},{"type":"Feature","geometry":{"coordinates":[40.2569,39.7283],"type":"Point"},"properties":{"marker-color":"#5E74F3","title":"Euphrates","marker-symbol":"water"}}]},"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.793","walltime":"2.107","ppvisitednodes":{"value":9990,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":335759,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":16838,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":18,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":259836,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1775.754 1 -total"," 21.63% 384.173 1 Template:Reflist"," 20.27% 360.003 5 Template:Infobox"," 18.81% 334.056 1 Template:Infobox_river"," 18.06% 320.726 57 Template:Citation"," 8.98% 159.545 7 Template:Navbox"," 7.65% 135.878 90 Template:Harvnb"," 6.87% 121.907 1 Template:Native_name_checker"," 6.61% 117.413 4 Template:Cite_web"," 5.71% 101.412 1 Template:Ancient_Mesopotamia"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.105","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":20115620,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAbdul-Amir1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdams1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAkkermansSchwartz2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnjarini2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnonymous2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnwaar\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBilen1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBounni1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoad1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaoudy2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElhadj2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrenken2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGamkrelidzeV._Ivanov1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarcia-Navarro2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGelbert2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeopolicity2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGray1864\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHartmann2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHelbaek1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHillel1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoleZaitchik2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHosseinizadeh2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHritzWilkinson2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIraqi_Ministries_of_Environment,_Water_Resources_and_Municipalities_and_Public_Works2006a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIraqi_Ministries_of_Environment,_Water_Resources_and_Municipalities_and_Public_Works2006b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIsaevMikhailova2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJamous2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJawad2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJongerden2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaya1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKliot1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKolars1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKolarsMitchell1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrouma2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFManouchehriWaley2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcClellan1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcDowall2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMooreHillmanLegge2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMuhesen2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMuir2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMutin2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNasoraia2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNaval_Intelligence_Division1944\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNegevGibson2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Hara2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOates1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPartow2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPearce2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRahiHalihan2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSagonaZimansky2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSahanZoggMasonGilli2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmidRentzelRenault-MiskovskyMuhesen1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShahin2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShapland1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteele2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTanaka2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomason2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUrKarsgaardOates2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWitzel2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoods2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZarins1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFdel_Olmo_LeteMontero_Fenollós1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_de_Mieroop2007\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Ancient Mesopotamia\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Bibleverse\"] = 1,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 57,\n [\"Cite AV media\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 4,\n [\"Commons category-inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 76,\n [\"Coord\"] = 4,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 2,\n [\"Further\"] = 2,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 90,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox river\"] = 1,\n [\"Iraq topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 6,\n [\"Langx\"] = 6,\n [\"Literal translation\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Respell\"] = 1,\n [\"Rivers of Syria\"] = 1,\n [\"Rivers of Turkey\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 4,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 3,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","360","31.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","220","19.3"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","140","12.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","80","7.0"],["format","40","3.5"],["type","40","3.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","40","3.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getEntityStatements","40","3.5"],["validateData \u003Cmw.lua:728\u003E","20","1.8"],["(for generator)","20","1.8"],["[others]","140","12.3"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-int.codfw.main-849f99967d-kdrfg","timestamp":"20241124194041","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Euphrates","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Euphrates","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q34589","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q34589","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-12-07T23:15:44Z","dateModified":"2024-11-24T16:36:21Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/a\/a3\/The_Euphrates_River_in_Turkey%2C_Rumkale_%2852031477798%29.jpg","headline":"river in Asia"}</script> </body> </html>