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id="toc-Location-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Holocaust" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Holocaust"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Holocaust</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Holocaust-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Holocaust subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Holocaust-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Involvement_of_locals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Involvement_of_locals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Involvement of locals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Involvement_of_locals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Creation_of_the_Riga_Ghetto" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Creation_of_the_Riga_Ghetto"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Creation of the Riga Ghetto</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Creation_of_the_Riga_Ghetto-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Friedrich_Jeckeln" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Friedrich_Jeckeln"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Friedrich Jeckeln</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Friedrich_Jeckeln-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Friedrich Jeckeln subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Friedrich_Jeckeln-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Motive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Motive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Motive</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Motive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Planning_the_massacre" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Planning_the_massacre"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Planning the massacre</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Planning_the_massacre-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deciding_on_the_site" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deciding_on_the_site"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Deciding on the site</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deciding_on_the_site-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jeckeln_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jeckeln_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Jeckeln system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jeckeln_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arranging_transport_for_infirm_victims" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arranging_transport_for_infirm_victims"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Arranging transport for infirm victims</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arranging_transport_for_infirm_victims-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Final_planning_and_instructions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Final_planning_and_instructions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Final planning and instructions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Final_planning_and_instructions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Advance_knowledge_by_Wehrmacht" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advance_knowledge_by_Wehrmacht"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Advance knowledge by Wehrmacht</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advance_knowledge_by_Wehrmacht-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Preparation_for_the_massacre" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preparation_for_the_massacre"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Preparation for the massacre</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Preparation_for_the_massacre-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Preparation for the massacre subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Preparation_for_the_massacre-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Able-bodied_men_separated_from_the_others" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Able-bodied_men_separated_from_the_others"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Able-bodied men separated from the others</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Able-bodied_men_separated_from_the_others-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_transport_of_German_Jews_arrives_in_Riga" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_transport_of_German_Jews_arrives_in_Riga"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>First transport of German Jews arrives in Riga</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_transport_of_German_Jews_arrives_in_Riga-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women,_children_and_elderly_forced_out_of_ghetto" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women,_children_and_elderly_forced_out_of_ghetto"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Women, children and elderly forced out of ghetto</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women,_children_and_elderly_forced_out_of_ghetto-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ten_kilometer_march_to_the_killing_pits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ten_kilometer_march_to_the_killing_pits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Ten kilometer march to the killing pits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ten_kilometer_march_to_the_killing_pits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arrival_at_Rumbula_and_murder" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arrival_at_Rumbula_and_murder"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Arrival at Rumbula and murder</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Arrival_at_Rumbula_and_murder-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Arrival at Rumbula and murder subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Arrival_at_Rumbula_and_murder-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Official_witnesses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Official_witnesses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Official witnesses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Official_witnesses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_murders_and_body_disposal_in_the_ghetto" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_murders_and_body_disposal_in_the_ghetto"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Later murders and body disposal in the ghetto</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_murders_and_body_disposal_in_the_ghetto-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath_at_the_pits_on_the_first_day" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath_at_the_pits_on_the_first_day"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Aftermath at the pits on the first day</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aftermath_at_the_pits_on_the_first_day-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reaction_among_the_survivors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reaction_among_the_survivors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Reaction among the survivors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reaction_among_the_survivors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-December_8_murders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#December_8_murders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>December 8 murders</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-December_8_murders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-December_9_massacre" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#December_9_massacre"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>December 9 massacre</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-December_9_massacre-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effect_of_Rumbula_on_plans_for_the_Holocaust" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effect_of_Rumbula_on_plans_for_the_Holocaust"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Effect of Rumbula on plans for the Holocaust</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Effect_of_Rumbula_on_plans_for_the_Holocaust-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Effect of Rumbula on plans for the Holocaust subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Effect_of_Rumbula_on_plans_for_the_Holocaust-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-German_Jews_replace_Latvians_in_Riga_ghetto" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#German_Jews_replace_Latvians_in_Riga_ghetto"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>German Jews replace Latvians in Riga ghetto</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-German_Jews_replace_Latvians_in_Riga_ghetto-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wannsee_Conference" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wannsee_Conference"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Wannsee Conference</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wannsee_Conference-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_actions_at_the_site" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_actions_at_the_site"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Later actions at the site</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_actions_at_the_site-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Justice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Justice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Justice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Justice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Remembrance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Remembrance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Remembrance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Remembrance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historiographical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiographical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17.1</span> <span>Historiographical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiographical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_crimes_trials_and_evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_crimes_trials_and_evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17.2</span> <span>War crimes trials and evidence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War_crimes_trials_and_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">19</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 21 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-21" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">21 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massacre_de_Rumbula" title="Massacre de Rumbula – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Massacre de Rumbula" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masakr_v_Rumbule" title="Masakr v Rumbule – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Masakr v Rumbule" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumbulamassakren" title="Rumbulamassakren – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Rumbulamassakren" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massaker_von_Rumbula" title="Massaker von Rumbula – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Massaker von Rumbula" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%86%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%AE_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%A1%CE%BF%CF%8D%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%BB%CE%B1" title="Σφαγή της Ρούμπουλα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Σφαγή της Ρούμπουλα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masacre_de_Rumbula" title="Masacre de Rumbula – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Masacre de Rumbula" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masakro_Rumbula" title="Masakro Rumbula – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Masakro Rumbula" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7" title="کشتار رومبولا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کشتار رومبولا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massacre_de_Rumbula" title="Massacre de Rumbula – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Massacre de Rumbula" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B6%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A3%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%AE%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%BD%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6_%D5%8C%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4%D5%A2%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AC%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Զանգվածային սպանություն Ռումբուլում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Զանգվածային սպանություն Ռումբուլում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pembantaian_Rumbula" title="Pembantaian Rumbula – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pembantaian Rumbula" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massacro_di_Rumbula" title="Massacro di Rumbula – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Massacro di Rumbula" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%98%D7%91%D7%97_%D7%99%D7%A2%D7%A8_%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%91%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%94" title="טבח יער רומבולה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="טבח יער רומבולה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masu_slepkav%C4%ABbas_Rumbul%C4%81" title="Masu slepkavības Rumbulā – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Masu slepkavības Rumbulā" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloedbad_van_Rumbula" title="Bloedbad van Rumbula – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Bloedbad van Rumbula" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masakra_w_Rumbuli" title="Masakra w Rumbuli – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Masakra w Rumbuli" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massacre_de_Rumbula" title="Massacre de Rumbula – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Massacre de Rumbula" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B5" title="Массовое убийство в Румбуле – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Массовое убийство в Румбуле" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%80_%D1%83_%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Масакр у Румбули – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Масакр у Румбули" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Rumbula_massacre&params=56.88538889_N_24.24583333_E_type:city_source:kolossus-dawiki"><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">56°53′07″N</span> <span class="longitude">24°14′45″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">56.88538889°N 24.24583333°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">56.88538889; 24.24583333</span></span></span></a></span></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1941 massacre in Riga, Latvia</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width:24em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: #f4e9c5;">Rumbula massacre</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Memorial_Marker_-_Rumbula_Forest_Holocaust_Site_-_Riga_-_Latvia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Memorial_Marker_-_Rumbula_Forest_Holocaust_Site_-_Riga_-_Latvia.jpg/220px-Memorial_Marker_-_Rumbula_Forest_Holocaust_Site_-_Riga_-_Latvia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Memorial_Marker_-_Rumbula_Forest_Holocaust_Site_-_Riga_-_Latvia.jpg/330px-Memorial_Marker_-_Rumbula_Forest_Holocaust_Site_-_Riga_-_Latvia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Memorial_Marker_-_Rumbula_Forest_Holocaust_Site_-_Riga_-_Latvia.jpg/440px-Memorial_Marker_-_Rumbula_Forest_Holocaust_Site_-_Riga_-_Latvia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Remembrance stone, placed in 1964 by Jewish activists in memory of those murdered in the massacre.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span class="nowrap">Also known as</span></th><td class="infobox-data">Rumbula, Rumbuli, Rumbula Action, the Big Action, the Jeckeln Action</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data">Rumbula forest, near <a href="/wiki/Riga" title="Riga">Riga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia">Latvia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reichskommissariat_Ostland" title="Reichskommissariat Ostland">Reichskommissariat Ostland</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Date</th><td class="infobox-data">November 30 and December 8, 1941</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Incident type</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mass_shootings" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass shootings">Mass shootings</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">ethnic cleansing</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Perpetrators</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Jeckeln" title="Friedrich Jeckeln">Friedrich Jeckeln</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Lange" title="Rudolf Lange">Rudolf Lange</a>,<br /><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberts_Osis" class="extiw" title="lv:Roberts Osis">Roberts Osis</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Strauch" title="Eduard Strauch">Eduard Strauch</a>, and others</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Participants</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Viktors_Ar%C4%81js" title="Viktors Arājs">Viktors Arājs</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Herberts_Cukurs" title="Herberts Cukurs">Herberts Cukurs</a>, and others</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Organizations</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ordnungspolizei" title="Ordnungspolizei">Ordnungspolizei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arajs_Kommando" title="Arajs Kommando">Arajs Kommando</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latvian_Auxiliary_Police" title="Latvian Auxiliary Police">Latvian Auxiliary Police</a> and (possibly) <a href="/wiki/Wehrmacht" title="Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Ghetto</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Riga_ghetto" class="mw-redirect" title="Riga ghetto">Riga ghetto</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Victims</th><td class="infobox-data">About 24,000 Latvian Jews and 1,000 German Jews.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Witnesses</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hinrich_Lohse" title="Hinrich Lohse">Hinrich Lohse</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Otto_Drechsler" class="mw-redirect" title="Otto Drechsler">Otto Drechsler</a>, and others</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Memorials</th><td class="infobox-data">On site</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Rumbula massacre</b> is a collective term for incidents on November 30 and December 8, 1941, in which about 25,000 <a href="/wiki/Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Jew">Jews</a> were murdered in or on the way to Rumbula forest near <a href="/wiki/Riga" title="Riga">Riga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia">Latvia</a>, during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. Except for the <a href="/wiki/Babi_Yar" title="Babi Yar">Babi Yar massacre</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>, this was the biggest two-day Holocaust atrocity until the operation of the <a href="/wiki/Extermination_camp" title="Extermination camp">death camps</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b239_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b239-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About 24,000 of the victims were <a href="/wiki/Latvian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Latvian Jews">Latvian Jews</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Riga_Ghetto" title="Riga Ghetto">Riga Ghetto</a> and approximately 1,000 were <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany" title="History of the Jews in Germany">German Jews</a> transported to the forest by train. The Rumbula <a href="/wiki/Massacre" title="Massacre">massacre</a> was carried out by the Nazi <a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppe_A" class="mw-redirect" title="Einsatzgruppe A"><i>Einsatzgruppe</i> A</a> with the help of local collaborators of the <a href="/wiki/Arajs_Kommando" title="Arajs Kommando">Arajs Kommando</a>, with support from other such Latvian auxiliaries. In charge of the operation was <a href="/wiki/Higher_SS_and_Police_Leader" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher SS and Police Leader">Höherer SS und Polizeiführer</a> <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Jeckeln" title="Friedrich Jeckeln">Friedrich Jeckeln</a>, who had previously overseen similar massacres in <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>. <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Lange" title="Rudolf Lange">Rudolf Lange</a>, who later participated in the <a href="/wiki/Wannsee_Conference" title="Wannsee Conference">Wannsee Conference</a>, also took part in organizing the massacre. Some of the evidence against Latvian <a href="/wiki/Herberts_Cukurs" title="Herberts Cukurs">Herberts Cukurs</a> is related to the clearing of the Riga Ghetto by the Arajs Kommando. The Rumbula killings, together with many others, formed the basis of the post-World War II <a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen_trial" title="Einsatzgruppen trial"><i>Einsatzgruppen</i> trial</a> where a number of <i>Einsatzgruppen</i> commanders were found guilty of crimes against humanity.<sup id="cite_ref-EinsatzG_Trial_04_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EinsatzG_Trial_04-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nomenclature">Nomenclature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Nomenclature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This massacre is known by different names, including "The Big Action", and the "Rumbula Action", but in <a href="/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia">Latvia</a> it is just called "Rumbula" or "Rumbuli".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b4–7,_239–70_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b4–7,_239–70-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is sometimes called the Jeckeln Action after its commander <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Jeckeln" title="Friedrich Jeckeln">Friedrich Jeckeln</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word "Aktion", which translates literally to action or operation in English, was used by the Nazis as a euphemism for murder.<sup id="cite_ref-Ezer_211_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ezer_211-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For Rumbula, the official euphemism was "shooting action" (<i>Erschiessungsaktion</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen_trial" title="Einsatzgruppen trial">Einsatzgruppen trial</a> before the <a href="/wiki/Subsequent_Nuremberg_Trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Subsequent Nuremberg Trials">Nuremberg Military Tribunal</a>, the event was not given a name but simply described as "the murder of 10,600 Jews" on 30 November 1941.<sup id="cite_ref-EinsatzG_Trial_04_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EinsatzG_Trial_04-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Location">Location</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Location"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rumbula was a small railway station 12 kilometers (7.5 mi) south of <a href="/wiki/Riga" title="Riga">Riga</a>, the capital and major city of Latvia, which was connected with <a href="/wiki/Daugavpils" title="Daugavpils">Daugavpils</a>, the second largest city in Latvia, by the rail line along the north side of the <a href="/wiki/Daugava_river" class="mw-redirect" title="Daugava river">Daugava river</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Riga_trial_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Riga_trial-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Located on a hill about 250 meters (820 ft) from the station, the massacre site was a "rather open and accessible place".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996bp._33n81_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996bp._33n81-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The view was blocked by vegetation, but the sound of gunfire would have been audible from the station grounds. The area lay between the rail line and the Riga-Daugavpils highway, with the rail line to the north of the highway.<sup id="cite_ref-Riga_trial_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Riga_trial-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rumbula was part of a forest and swamp area known in <a href="/wiki/Latvian_language" title="Latvian language">Latvian</a> as <i>Vārnu mežs</i>, which means Crow Forest in English.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b239_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b239-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sounds of gun fire could be heard from the highway.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFleming199488_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleming199488-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The German occupation authorities carried out a number of other massacres on the north bank of the Daugava in the Rumbula vicinity. The soil was sandy and it was easy to dig graves.<sup id="cite_ref-Riga_trial_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Riga_trial-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the surrounding pine woods were sparse, there was a heavily forested area in the center which became the execution site.<sup id="cite_ref-Riga_trial_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Riga_trial-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rail line and highway made it easy to move the victims in from Riga (it had to be within walking distance of the Riga Ghetto on the southeast side of the city), as well as transport the shooters and their weapons.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b47,_239–70_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b47,_239–70-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Holocaust">Holocaust</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Holocaust"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hinrich_Lohse.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Hinrich_Lohse.png/220px-Hinrich_Lohse.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="379" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Hinrich_Lohse.png/330px-Hinrich_Lohse.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Hinrich_Lohse.png 2x" data-file-width="355" data-file-height="611" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hinrich_Lohse" title="Hinrich Lohse">Hinrich Lohse</a><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His policy of concentrating the Jews of Latvia into the Riga ghetto made it easier for <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Jeckeln" title="Friedrich Jeckeln">Friedrich Jeckeln</a> and his unit to kill approximately 24,000 in two days at Rumbula near Riga.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Holocaust in Latvia began on June 22, 1941, when the German army invaded the Soviet Union, including the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltic States">Baltic States</a> of Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia that had been recently occupied by Soviet forces following a period of independence after <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. Murders of Jews, Communists, and others began almost immediately, perpetrated by German death squads known as <i><a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a></i> (which can be translated as "Special Task Groups" or "Special Assignment Groups"), and also the German Security Police (<i><a href="/wiki/Sicherheitspolizei" title="Sicherheitspolizei">Sicherheitspolizei</a></i> or SiPo) and the Security Service of the <a href="/wiki/SS" class="mw-redirect" title="SS">SS</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Sicherheitsdienst" title="Sicherheitsdienst">Sicherheitsdienst</a></i> or SD). The first killings were on the night of June 23, 1941, in the town of Grobin near <a href="/wiki/Liep%C4%81ja" title="Liepāja">Liepāja</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Sonderkommando_1a" class="mw-redirect" title="Sonderkommando 1a">Sonderkommando 1a</a> members murdered six Jews in the church cemetery.<sup id="cite_ref-Ezer_211_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ezer_211-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Nazi occupiers were also aided by a unit of native Latvians known as the <a href="/wiki/Arajs_Kommando" title="Arajs Kommando">Arājs Commando</a>, and at least to some extent by <a href="/wiki/Latvian_Auxiliary_Police" title="Latvian Auxiliary Police">Latvian auxiliary police</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b4–7,_239–70_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b4–7,_239–70-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stahlecker_report_02_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stahlecker_report_02-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Involvement_of_locals">Involvement of locals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Involvement of locals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Nazis wished to make it appear as if the local populations of Latvians were responsible for killing the Jews.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> They attempted, without much success,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> to stir up <a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">pogroms</a> against the Jews. They spread rumors that Jews were responsible for widespread arson and other crimes, and also reported this to their superiors.<sup id="cite_ref-Stahlecker_report_03_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stahlecker_report_03-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This policy of incitement to what the Nazis called "self-cleansing actions" was a failure acknowledged by <a href="/wiki/Franz_Walter_Stahlecker" title="Franz Walter Stahlecker">Franz Walter Stahlecker</a>, who, as chief of <i>Einsatzgruppe</i> A, was the Nazis' main killing expert in the Baltic states.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stahlecker_report_01_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stahlecker_report_01-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Creation_of_the_Riga_Ghetto">Creation of the Riga Ghetto</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Creation of the Riga Ghetto"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Riga_ghetto" class="mw-redirect" title="Riga ghetto">Riga ghetto</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Directions_concerning_treatment_of_Jewish_property_13_October_1941" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Directions concerning treatment of Jewish property 13 October 1941">Directions concerning treatment of Jewish property 13 October 1941</a></b></div></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Comprehensive_report_of_Einsatzgruppe_A_up_to_15_October_1941" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Comprehensive report of Einsatzgruppe A up to 15 October 1941">Comprehensive report of Einsatzgruppe A up to 15 October 1941</a></b></div></div></div> </div> <p>The SD's goal was to make Latvia <i><a href="/wiki/Judenrein" class="mw-redirect" title="Judenrein">judenrein</a></i>, a Nazi <a href="/wiki/Neologism" title="Neologism">neologism</a> which can be translated as "Jew free." By October 15, 1941, the Nazis had murdered up to 30,000<sup id="cite_ref-Stahlecker_report_03_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stahlecker_report_03-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the approximately 66,000 Jews that had not been able to flee the country before the German occupation was completed. <a href="/wiki/Hinrich_Lohse" title="Hinrich Lohse">Hinrich Lohse</a>, who reported to <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Rosenberg" title="Alfred Rosenberg">Alfred Rosenberg</a> rather than the SD's boss, <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Himmler" title="Heinrich Himmler">Heinrich Himmler</a>, wanted not so much to exterminate the Jews but rather to steal all their property, confine them to ghettos,<sup id="cite_ref-Winter_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Winter-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and use them as slave laborers for Germany's war effort. This bureaucratic conflict slowed down the pace of the killings in September and October 1941. Lohse, as part of the "civil administration" was perceived by the SD as resisting their plans.<sup id="cite_ref-Stahlecker_report_04_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stahlecker_report_04-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On November 15, 1941, Lohse asked for directions from Rosenberg as to whether all Jews were to be murdered "regardless of economic considerations."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Browning_02_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Browning_02-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bratigam_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bratigam-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of October, Lohse had confined all the Jews of <a href="/wiki/Riga" title="Riga">Riga</a>, as well some of the surrounding area, into a <a href="/wiki/Ghetto" title="Ghetto">ghetto</a> within the city, the gates of which were about 10 kilometers from Rumbula.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b4–7,_239–70_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b4–7,_239–70-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Riga Ghetto was a creation of the Nazis themselves, and had not existed before the war.<sup id="cite_ref-Stahlecker_report_05_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stahlecker_report_05-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Friedrich_Jeckeln">Friedrich Jeckeln</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Friedrich Jeckeln"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Jeckeln" title="Friedrich Jeckeln">Friedrich Jeckeln</a> and <a href="/wiki/Babi_Yar" title="Babi Yar">Babi Yar</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Friedrich_Jeckeln_in_Soviet_custody.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Friedrich_Jeckeln_in_Soviet_custody.JPG/220px-Friedrich_Jeckeln_in_Soviet_custody.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Friedrich_Jeckeln_in_Soviet_custody.JPG/330px-Friedrich_Jeckeln_in_Soviet_custody.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Friedrich_Jeckeln_in_Soviet_custody.JPG/440px-Friedrich_Jeckeln_in_Soviet_custody.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1243" data-file-height="1806" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Jeckeln" title="Friedrich Jeckeln">Friedrich Jeckeln</a> in Soviet custody after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFleming1994plate_3_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleming1994plate_3-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On January 27, 1942, he was awarded the <a href="/wiki/War_Merit_Cross" title="War Merit Cross">War Merit Cross</a> First Class with Swords (Kriegsverdienstkreuz or KVK) for his ruthless efficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Motive">Motive</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Motive"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Nazis wanted to eliminate the Latvian Jews in Riga to make room for Jews from Germany and Austria to be deported to the Riga ghetto.<sup id="cite_ref-Friedlander_06_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedlander_06-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly motivated mass murders of eastern Jews confined to ghettos were carried out at Kovno on October 28, 1941 (10,000 dead), and at Minsk, where 13,000 were shot on November 7 and an additional 7,000 on November 20.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To carry out this plan, Himmler brought <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Jeckeln" title="Friedrich Jeckeln">Friedrich Jeckeln</a> into Latvia from <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>, where he had organized a number of mass murders, including <a href="/wiki/Babi_Yar" title="Babi Yar">Babi Yar</a> (30,000 dead). Jeckeln's crew of about 50 killers and supporting personnel arrived in Riga on November 5, 1941. Jeckeln did not arrive with them, but went instead to <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> where sometime between November 10 and November 12, 1941,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he met with Himmler. Himmler told Jeckeln to kill the entire Riga ghetto and to instruct Lohse, should he object, that this was an order of Himmler's and also of <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a>'s: "Tell Lohse it is my order, which is also the Führer's wish".<sup id="cite_ref-Fleming_75_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fleming_75-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jeckeln then went to Riga and explained the situation to Lohse, who raised no further objection. By mid-November 1941, Jeckeln had set himself up in a building in the old section of Riga known as the <a href="/wiki/House_of_the_Livonian_Noble_Corporation" title="House of the Livonian Noble Corporation">Ritterhaus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Eksteins_01_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eksteins_01-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Back in Berlin, Rosenberg, Lohse's superior in the Nazi hierarchy, was able to get one concession out of Himmler, that slave labor extracted from male Jews aged 16–60 would be considered too important to Germany's war effort. Consequently, these people would be spared, while women, children, old and disabled people would be shot. Jeckeln's plan for carrying out this segregation of the victims came to be known as the "Little Ghetto".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b4–7,_239–70_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b4–7,_239–70-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Planning_the_massacre">Planning the massacre</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Planning the massacre"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_used_to_illustrate_Stahlecker%27s_report_to_Heydrich_on_January_31,_1942.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Map_used_to_illustrate_Stahlecker%27s_report_to_Heydrich_on_January_31%2C_1942.jpg/220px-Map_used_to_illustrate_Stahlecker%27s_report_to_Heydrich_on_January_31%2C_1942.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Map_used_to_illustrate_Stahlecker%27s_report_to_Heydrich_on_January_31%2C_1942.jpg/330px-Map_used_to_illustrate_Stahlecker%27s_report_to_Heydrich_on_January_31%2C_1942.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Map_used_to_illustrate_Stahlecker%27s_report_to_Heydrich_on_January_31%2C_1942.jpg/440px-Map_used_to_illustrate_Stahlecker%27s_report_to_Heydrich_on_January_31%2C_1942.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="511" /></a><figcaption>Nazi <a href="/wiki/Franz_Walter_Stahlecker" title="Franz Walter Stahlecker">Franz Walter Stahlecker</a>, another perpetrator of the Latvian Holocaust, prepared this map. Illustrated with coffins, it shows there were still 35,000 Jews remaining in Latvia before the Rumbula massacres. <a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a>, the report states, is "Jew-free" (<i>judenfrei</i>).</figcaption></figure> <p>To fulfill Himmler's order to clear out the Ghetto, Jeckeln would need to kill 12,000 people per day. At that time of year, there were only about eight hours of day and twilight, so, the last column of victims would have to leave the Riga ghetto no later than 12:00 noon. Guards would be posted on both sides along the entire 10 kilometer column route. The whole process required about 1,700 personnel to carry it out.<sup id="cite_ref-Ezer_241_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ezer_241-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jeckeln's construction specialist, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernst_Hemicker&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ernst Hemicker (page does not exist)">Ernst Hemicker</a>, who later claimed he was shocked when he learned in advance of the number of people to be murdered, nevertheless made no objection at the time and proceeded to supervise the digging of six murder pits, sufficient to bury 25,000 people.<sup id="cite_ref-Fleming_01_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fleming_01-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ezer_241_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ezer_241-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The actual excavation of the pits was done by 200<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b4–7,_239–70_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b4–7,_239–70-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or 300<sup id="cite_ref-Fleming_01_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fleming_01-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russian prisoners of war. The pits themselves were purpose-designed: they were excavated in levels, like an inverted pyramid, with the broader levels towards the top, and a ramp down to the different levels to allow the victims to be literally marched into their own graves. It took about three days to finish the pits which were complete by November 23, 1941.<sup id="cite_ref-Ezer_241_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ezer_241-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The actual shooting was done by 10 or 12 men of Jeckeln's bodyguard, including Endl, Lueschen, and Wedekind, all experienced murderers. Much later, Jeckeln's driver, Johannes Zingler, claimed in testimony that Jeckeln had forced him to join in as a killer by making threats to harm Zingler's family.<sup id="cite_ref-Ezer_241_30-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ezer_241-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In similar massacres in Russia and Ukraine, however, there were many accounts contrary to Zingler's, to the effect that participation was voluntary, and even sometimes sought after, and that those who refused to take part in shootings suffered no adverse consequences.<sup id="cite_ref-Klee_76_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klee_76-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schulz" title="Erwin Schulz">Erwin Schulz</a>, head of <a href="/wiki/Einsatzkommando" title="Einsatzkommando">Einsatzkommando</a> 5, refused to participate in <a href="/wiki/Babi_Yar" title="Babi Yar">Babi Yar</a>, another Jeckeln atrocity, and at his own request was transferred back to his pre-war position in Berlin with no loss of professional standing.<sup id="cite_ref-Klee_76_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klee_76-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jeckeln had no Latvians carrying out shootings. Jeckeln considered the shooting of the victims in the pits to be a deed of marksmanship, and he wanted to prove Germans were inherently more accurate shooters than Latvians. Jeckeln also didn't trust other agencies, even Nazi ones, to carry out his wishes. Although the SD and the Order Police were involved, Jeckeln assigned his own squad to supervise every aspect of the operation.<sup id="cite_ref-Ezer_241_30-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ezer_241-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deciding_on_the_site">Deciding on the site</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Deciding on the site"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-N1212-326,_Riga,_Judenghetto.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-N1212-326%2C_Riga%2C_Judenghetto.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-N1212-326%2C_Riga%2C_Judenghetto.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-N1212-326%2C_Riga%2C_Judenghetto.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-N1212-326%2C_Riga%2C_Judenghetto.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-N1212-326%2C_Riga%2C_Judenghetto.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-N1212-326%2C_Riga%2C_Judenghetto.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="544" /></a><figcaption>The Riga Ghetto in 1942, after the Rumbula massacre</figcaption></figure> <p>Jeckeln and his aide <a href="/w/index.php?title=Paul_Degenhardt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paul Degenhardt (page does not exist)">Paul Degenhardt</a> searched the Riga vicinity to find a site. Riga was located in a swampy area where the water table was close to ground level. This would interfere with the proper disposal of thousands of corpses. Jeckeln needed elevated ground. The site also had to be on the north side of the <a href="/wiki/Daugava_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Daugava River">Daugava River</a> within walking distance of the ghetto, also on the north side. On or about November 18 or 19<sup id="cite_ref-Ezer_241_30-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ezer_241-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jeckeln came upon Rumbula as he was driving south to the <a href="/wiki/Salaspils" title="Salaspils">Salaspils</a> concentration camp (then under construction), and it fitted what he was looking for. The site was close to Riga, it was on elevated ground, and it had sandy soil, with the only drawback being its proximity to the highway (about 100 meters).<sup id="cite_ref-Ezer_241_30-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ezer_241-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jeckeln_system">Jeckeln system</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Jeckeln system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Jeckeln developed his "Jeckeln system" during the many murders he had organized in Ukraine, which included among others <a href="/wiki/Babi_Yar" title="Babi Yar">Babi Yar</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kamianets-Podilskyi_massacre" title="Kamianets-Podilskyi massacre">Kamianets-Podilskyi massacre</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ezer_240_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ezer_240-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He called it "sardine packing" (<i>Sardinenpackung</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Jeckeln method was noted, although not by name, in the judgment of the <i>Einsatzgruppen</i> commanders at Nuremberg Military Tribunal, as a means of avoiding the extra work associated with having to push the bodies into the grave.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was reported that even some of the experienced <i>Einsatzgruppen</i> killers claimed to have been horrified by its cruelty.<sup id="cite_ref-Ezer_240_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ezer_240-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Extermination by shooting ran into a problem when it came to women and children.<sup id="cite_ref-EinsatzG_trial_05_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EinsatzG_trial_05-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Otto_Ohlendorf" title="Otto Ohlendorf">Otto Ohlendorf</a>, himself a prolific killer, objected to Jeckeln's techniques according to his testimony at his post-war trial for crimes against humanity.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jeckeln had staff which specialized in each separate part of the process, including <i>Genickschußspezialisten</i> – "neck shot specialists".<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were nine components to this assembly-line method as applied to the Riga ghetto. </p> <ul><li>The Security Police roused the people out of their houses in the ghetto;</li> <li>The Jews were organized into columns of 1000 people and marched to the killing grounds;</li> <li>The German Order Police (<i><a href="/wiki/Ordnungspolizei" title="Ordnungspolizei">Ordnungspolizei</a></i> or Orpo) led the columns to Rumbula;</li> <li>Three pits had already been dug where the killing would be done simultaneously;</li> <li>The victims were stripped of their clothing and valuables;</li> <li>The victims were run through a double cordon of guards on the way to the killing pits;</li> <li>To save the trouble of tossing dead bodies into the pits, the killers forced the living victims into the trench on top of other people who had already been shot;</li> <li>Russian submachine guns (another source says semi-automatic pistols<sup id="cite_ref-Riga_trial_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Riga_trial-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) were used rather than German arms, because the magazine held 50 rounds and the weapon could be set to fire one round at a time. This also allowed some deniability because should the bodies be discovered, the claim could be made that since the victims had been shot with Russian bullets, the <a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a> or some other <a href="/wiki/Communist" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist">Communist</a> organization was responsible.</li> <li>The killers forced the victims to lie face down on the trench floor, or more often, on the bodies of the people who had just been shot. The people were not sprayed with bullets. Rather, to save ammunition, each person was shot just once, in the back of the head. Anyone not murdered outright was simply buried alive when the pit was covered up.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arranging_transport_for_infirm_victims">Arranging transport for infirm victims</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Arranging transport for infirm victims"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Jeckeln had at his direct disposal 10 to 12 automobiles and 6 to 8 motorcycles. This was enough to transport the killers themselves and certain official witnesses. Jeckeln needed more and heavier transport for the sick, disabled or other of his intended victims who could not make the 10 kilometers (6.2 mi) march. Jeckeln also anticipated there would be a significant number of people murdered along the march route, and he would need about 25 trucks to pick up the bodies. Consequently, he ordered his men to scrounge through Riga to locate suitable vehicles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b242_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b242-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Final_planning_and_instructions">Final planning and instructions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Final planning and instructions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On or about Thursday, November 27, 1941, Jeckeln held a meeting of the leaders of the participating units at the Riga office of the <a href="/wiki/Schutzpolizei_(Nazi_Germany)" title="Schutzpolizei (Nazi Germany)">Protective Police (<i>Schutzpolizei</i>)</a>, a branch of the German Order Police, (<i><a href="/wiki/Ordnungspolizei" title="Ordnungspolizei">Ordnungspolizei</a></i>) to coordinate their actions in the forthcoming massacre. This appears consistent with the substantial role that the Order Police played in the Holocaust, as stated by Professor Browning: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It is no longer seriously in question that members of the German Order Police, both career professionals and reservists, in both battalion formations and precinct service or <i>Einzeldienst</i>, were at the center of the Holocaust, providing a major manpower source for carrying out numerous deportations, ghetto-clearing operations, and massacres.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Christopher Browning<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning._Nazi_Policy143_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning._Nazi_Policy143-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Jeckeln convened a second planning session of senior commanders on the afternoon of Saturday, November 29, 1941, this time at the Ritterhaus. According to later versions given by those in attendance, Jeckeln gave a speech to these officers to the effect that it was their patriotic duty to exterminate the Jews of the Riga ghetto, just as much as if they were on the front lines of the battles then currently raging far to the east. Officers also later claimed that Jeckeln told them that failure to participate in the murders would be considered the equivalent of desertion, and that all HSSPF personnel who would not be participating in the action were required to attend the extermination site as official witnesses. No Latvian officials were present at the November 29 Ritterhaus meeting.<sup id="cite_ref-Ezer_243_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ezer_243-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At about 7:00 p.m. on November 29, a brief (about 15 minutes) third meeting was held, this time at the Protective Police headquarters. This was presided over by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Karl_Heise&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Karl Heise (page does not exist)">Karl Heise</a>, the head of the protective police. He told his men they would have to report the next morning at 4:00 a.m. to carry out a "resettlement" of the people in the Riga ghetto. Although "resettlement" was a Nazi euphemism for mass murder, Heisse and a majority of men of the participating Protective Police knew the true nature of the action. Final instructions were also passed to the Latvian militia and police who would be rounding up people in the ghetto and acting as guards along the way. The Latvian police were told they would be moving the Jews to the Rumbula station for transport to a resettlement camp.<sup id="cite_ref-Ezer_243_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ezer_243-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Jahnke trial in the early 1970s, the West German court in <a href="/wiki/Hamburg" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a> found that a purpose of the Jeckeln system was to conceal the murderous purpose until the very last.<sup id="cite_ref-Ezer_248_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ezer_248-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The court further found: </p> <ul><li>That by the evening meeting on November 29, 1941, the intermediate commanders knew the full extent of the intended murders;</li> <li>That the intermediate commanders also knew that the 20 kilogram luggage rule was a ruse to deceive the victims into a belief that they were truly being resettled;<sup id="cite_ref-Riga_trial_7-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Riga_trial-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>That the men in the lower ranks did not know what was planned until they saw the shootings in the forest.<sup id="cite_ref-Ezer_248_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ezer_248-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Professor Ezergailis questioned whether the Latvian police might have had a better idea of what was actually going to happen, this being their native country, but he also noted contrary evidence including misleading instructions given to the Latvian police by the Germans, and the giving of instructions, at least to some Germans, to shoot any guard who might fail to execute a "disobedient" Jew during the course of the march.<sup id="cite_ref-Ezer_248_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ezer_248-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Advance_knowledge_by_Wehrmacht">Advance knowledge by Wehrmacht</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Advance knowledge by Wehrmacht"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to his later testimony before the Nuremberg Military Tribunal at the <a href="/wiki/High_Command_Trial" title="High Command Trial">High Command Trial</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Walter_Bruns&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Walter Bruns (page does not exist)">Walter Bruns</a>, a Major General of Engineers, learned on November 28 that planned mass executions would soon take place in Riga.<sup id="cite_ref-Fleming_83_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fleming_83-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bruns sent a report to his superiors, then urged a certain "administrative officer", named Walter Altemeyer to postpone the action until Bruns could receive a response. Altemeyer told Bruns that the operation was being carried out pursuant to a "Führer-order".<sup id="cite_ref-Fleming_83_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fleming_83-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bruns then sent out two officers to observe and report.<sup id="cite_ref-Fleming_83_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fleming_83-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Advance word of the planned murders reached the Wehrmacht intelligence office ("<a href="/wiki/Abwehr" title="Abwehr">Abwehr</a>") in Riga.<sup id="cite_ref-Fleming_80_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fleming_80-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This office, which was not connected with the massacre, had received a cable shortly before the executions began, from Admiral <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Canaris" title="Wilhelm Canaris">Wilhelm Canaris</a>, which in summary instructed the Riga Abwehr that "it is unworthy of an intelligence officer to be party to, or even present at interrogations or maltreatments".<sup id="cite_ref-Fleming_80_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fleming_80-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By "interrogations and maltreatments", Canaris was referring to the planned massacre.<sup id="cite_ref-Fleming_80_46-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fleming_80-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Preparation_for_the_massacre">Preparation for the massacre</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Preparation for the massacre"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Able-bodied_men_separated_from_the_others">Able-bodied men separated from the others</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Able-bodied men separated from the others"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On about November 27, 1941 a four-block area of the Riga ghetto was cordoned off with barbed wire, and this area became known as the "small ghetto".<sup id="cite_ref-Winter_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Winter-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On November 28, the Nazis issued an order requiring the able-bodied men to move to the small ghetto and the rest of the population was to report at 6:00 a.m. on November 30 to a different area for "light work" with no more than a 20-kilogram (44 lb) bag. The reaction among the Jews was one of horror.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In July and August, it was the men of Latvia who were shot first, while the women and children were allowed to live, at least for a time. The order for the men to separate themselves from their families was thus perceived as a prerequisite for the murder of the men, the arrangements between Rosenberg and Himmler having been made without their knowledge. By the morning of Saturday, November 29, the Nazis had finished segregating the able-bodied men into the small ghetto.<sup id="cite_ref-Ezer_247_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ezer_247-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ghetto survivor Max Kaufmann described the scene somewhat differently, writing that on Thursday morning, November 27, a large poster was put up on Sadornika Street in the ghetto, which said, among other things, that on Saturday, November 29, 1941, all inmates of the ghetto were to form up in columns of 1,000 people each near the ghetto gate for evacuation from the ghetto. The people living closest to the gate would be the first to depart.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201059–61_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201059–61-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kaufmann doesn't describe a specific order separating the able-bodied men from the rest of the people. Instead he states that "the larger work crews were told they had the possibility of staying in the newly formed small camp and rejoining their families later.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201059–61_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201059–61-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Kaufmann, while the columns of 1,000 were formed on the morning of the 29th, they were later dispersed, causing relief among the inhabitants, who believed that the entire evacuation had been cancelled. 300 women seamstresses were also selected and moved to the Central Prison from the ghetto.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201059–61_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201059–61-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Professor Ezergailis states that while the men were at work, the Nazis culled the able-bodied men from those left in the ghetto, and once the work crews returned, the same process was employed again on the returning workers. The total, about 4,000 able-bodied men, were sent to the newly created small ghetto.<sup id="cite_ref-Ezer_247_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ezer_247-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kaufmann states that after returning from work on the 29th, he and his son, then aged 16, would not return to the large ghetto, but were housed instead in a ruined building on Vilanu Street in the small ghetto.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201059–61_49-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201059–61-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_transport_of_German_Jews_arrives_in_Riga">First transport of German Jews arrives in Riga</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: First transport of German Jews arrives in Riga"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first transport of German Jews to Riga departed Berlin on Thursday, November 27, 1941<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and arrived in Riga on Saturday, November 29, 1941. Whether the Jews were to be <a href="/wiki/Extermination_through_labour" title="Extermination through labour">worked and starved to death</a> over time, or simply murdered outright had not yet been decided upon.<sup id="cite_ref-Browning_02_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Browning_02-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Apparently at the last minute, <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Himmler" title="Heinrich Himmler">Himmler</a> decided he did not want these German Jews murdered immediately; his plan instead was to house them in the Riga Ghetto in the dwellings to be made available from the murder of the Latvian Jews.<sup id="cite_ref-Browning_01_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Browning_01-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For this reason, on Sunday, November 30, 1941, Himmler placed a telephone call to <a href="/wiki/Reinhard_Heydrich" title="Reinhard Heydrich">Reinhard Heydrich</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Hilberg_01_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hilberg_01-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who, as head of the <a href="/wiki/Sicherheitsdienst" title="Sicherheitsdienst">SD</a> was also Jeckeln's boss. According to Himmler's telephone log, his order to Heydrich was that the Jews on the transport from Berlin were not to be murdered, or in the Nazi terminology, "liquidated" (<i>Judentransport aus Berlin. Keine Liquidierung</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Hilberg_01_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hilberg_01-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Himmler however only made this call at 1:30 in the afternoon that Sunday, and by that time, the people on the train were dead.<sup id="cite_ref-Browning_01_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Browning_01-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> What had happened was that there was no housing for the deported German Jews when they arrived in Riga, so the Nazis left them on the train. The next morning, the Nazis ran the trainload of people down to the Rumbula station. They took the people off the train, marched them the short distance to the crime scene and shot them all between 8:15 and 9:00 a.m.<sup id="cite_ref-Riga_trial_7-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Riga_trial-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were the first group murdered that day.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b4–7,_239–70_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b4–7,_239–70-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Nazi euphemism for this crime was that the 1,000 Berlin Jews had been "disposed of."<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thereafter, on December 1, and, in a personal conference on December 4, 1941, Himmler issued strict instructions to Jeckeln that no mass murders of deported German Jews were to occur without his express orders:<sup id="cite_ref-Browning_01_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Browning_01-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "The Jews deported into the territory of the Ostland are to be dealt with only according to the guideline given by me and the Reich Security Main Office acting on my behalf. I will punish unilateral acts and violations."<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jeckeln claimed at his post-war trial that he'd received orders from Himmler on November 10 or 11, that "all the Jews in the Ostland down to the last man must be exterminated."<sup id="cite_ref-Browning_02_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Browning_02-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jeckeln might well have believed that murdering the German Jews on the Riga transport was what Himmler wished, for just before the Rumbula massacre, mass murders of German Jews upon or shortly after arrival in the East had been carried out in Kaunas, Lithuania, on November 25 and 29, 1941, when the SiPo murdered 5,000 German and Austrian Jews who had arrived on transports on November 11, including some 1,000 Jews from Berlin.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFleming199489_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleming199489-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Professor Fleming suggests several reasons for Himmler's "no liquidation" order. On board the train were 40 to 45 people who were considered "cases of unjustified evacuation", meaning they were either elderly or had been awarded the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Cross" title="Iron Cross">Iron Cross</a> for heroic service to Germany during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">the Great War</a>. Another reason may have been that Himmler hesitated to carry out the execution of German Jews for fear of the effect that it might have on the attitude of the United States, which as of November 30, 1941, was not yet at war with Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-Fleming_75_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fleming_75-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Professor Browning attributes the order and the fact that, with two significant exceptions, in general further transports of Jews to Riga from Germany did not result in immediate mass execution, to Himmler's concern over some of the issues raised by the shooting of German (as opposed to native) Jews and the desire to postpone the same until it could be in greater secrecy and at a time when less controversy might arise among the Nazis themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning._Nazi_Policy52–4_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning._Nazi_Policy52–4-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women,_children_and_elderly_forced_out_of_ghetto"><span id="Women.2C_children_and_elderly_forced_out_of_ghetto"></span>Women, children and elderly forced out of ghetto</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Women, children and elderly forced out of ghetto"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When the columns were dispersed on Saturday, November 29, the ghetto inhabitants believed, to their relief, that there would be no evacuation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201059–61_49-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201059–61-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This proved wrong. The first action in the ghetto began at 4:00 a.m., well before dawn, on Sunday, November 30, 1941. Working from west to east (that is, towards Rumbula), squads of the SD, the Protective Police, the Araji commando, and about 80 Jewish ghetto police rousted people from their sleep and told them to report for assembly in half an hour.<sup id="cite_ref-Winter_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Winter-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Max Kaufmann describes the raid as beginning in the middle of the night on the 29th.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201061–2_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201061–2-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He describes "thousands" of "absolutely drunk" Germans and Latvians invading the ghettos, bursting into apartments, and hunting down the occupants while shouting wildly. He states that children were thrown from third floor windows.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201061–2_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201061–2-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Detachments cut special openings in the fence to allow more rapid access to the highway south to the forest site. (Detailed maps of the ghetto are provided by Ezergailis<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b252_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b252-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Kaufmann.) </p><p>Even though the able-bodied men were gone, people still resisted being forced out of their dwellings and tried to desert from the columns as they moved through the eastern part of the ghetto. The Germans murdered 600 to 1,000 people in the process of forcing out the people. Eventually columns of about 1,000 people were formed and marched out. The first column was led by the lawyer, Dr. Eljaschow. "The expression on his face showed no disquiet whatsoever; on the contrary, because everyone was looking at him, he made an effort to smile hopefully."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201060–1_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201060–1-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Next to Dr. Eljaschow was Rabbi Zack. Other well-known citizens of Riga were in the columns.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201060–1_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201060–1-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the guards were Altmeyer, Jäger, and <a href="/wiki/Herberts_Cukurs" title="Herberts Cukurs">Herberts Cukurs</a>. Cukurs, a world-famous pilot, was the most recognizable Latvian SD man at the scene,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b267n55_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b267n55-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whom Kaufmann described as follows: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Latvian murderer Cukurs got out of a car wearing a pistol (Nagant) in a leather holster at his side. He went to the Latvian guards to give them various instructions. He had certainly been informed in detail about the great catastrophe that awaited us.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i>Churbn Lettland - The Destruction of the Jews of Latvia</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201061–2_57-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201061–2-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Latvian historian <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Ezergailis" title="Andrew Ezergailis">Andrew Ezergailis</a> states that "although Arajs' men were not the only ones on the ghetto end of the operation, to the degree they participated in the atrocities there the chief responsibility rests on Herberts Cukurs' shoulders."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b192,_267_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b192,_267-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ezergailis later retracted his interpretations that Cukurs had personally participated in the Rumbula shooting.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Jews were allowed to carry some luggage as a sham, to create the impression among the victims that they were simply being resettled.<sup id="cite_ref-Riga_trial_7-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Riga_trial-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Frida_Michelson" title="Frida Michelson">Frida Michelson</a>, one of the few survivors of the massacre at the pits, later described what she saw that day: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> <p>It was already beginning to get light. An unending column of people, guarded by armed policemen, was passing by. Young women, women with infants in their arms, old women, handicapped helped by their neighbors, young boys and girls -- all marching, marching. Suddenly, in front of our window, a German SS man started firing with an automatic gun point blank into the crowd. People were mowed down by the shots, and fell on the cobblestones. There was confusion in the column. People were trampling over those who had fallen, they were pushing forward, away from the wildly shooting SS man. Some were throwing away their packs so they could run faster. The Latvian policemen were shouting 'Faster, faster' and lashing whips over the heads of the crowd.<br /> ... The columns of people were moving on and on, sometimes at a half run, marching, trotting, without end. There one, there another, would fall and they would walk right over them, constantly being urged on by the policemen, 'Faster, faster', with their whips and rifle butts.<br /> ... I stood by the window and watched until about midday when the horror of the march ended ... . Now the street was quiet, nothing moved. Corpses were scattered all over, rivulets of blood still oozing from the lifeless bodies. They were mostly old people, pregnant women, children, handicapped -- all those who could not keep up with the inhuman tempo of the march. </p> </div><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Frida Michelson, I Survived Rumbuli, pp. 77-8</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ten_kilometer_march_to_the_killing_pits">Ten kilometer march to the killing pits</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Ten kilometer march to the killing pits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first column of people, accompanied by about 50 guards, left the ghetto at 06:00 hours. On November 30, 1941, the air temperatures recorded at Riga were −7.5 °C (18.5 °F) at 07:00 hours, −1.1 °C (30.0 °F) at 09:00, and 1.9 °C (35.4 °F) at 21:00. The previous evening there had been a snowfall of 7 cm (2.8 in), but no snow fell on November 30 from 07:00 to 21:00.<sup id="cite_ref-Riga_trial_7-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Riga_trial-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The people could not keep up the pace demanded by the guards and the column kept stretching out. The guards murdered anyone who fell out of the column or stopped to rest along the 10-kilometer (6.2 mi)<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> march route. German guards, when later tried for war crimes, claimed it was the Latvians who did most of the killing. In Latvia, however, there were stories about Latvian policemen refusing orders to shoot people.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b251_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b251-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Arrival_at_Rumbula_and_murder">Arrival at Rumbula and murder</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Arrival at Rumbula and murder"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first column of people arrived at Rumbula at about 9:00 am on November 30. The people were ordered to disrobe and deposit their clothing and valuables in designated locations and collection boxes, shoes in one, overcoats in another, and so forth.<sup id="cite_ref-Riga_trial_7-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Riga_trial-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Luggage was deposited before the Jews entered the wood.<sup id="cite_ref-Riga_trial_7-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Riga_trial-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were then marched towards the murder pits. If there were too many people arriving to be readily murdered immediately, they were held in the nearby forest until their turn came. As the piles of clothing became huge, members of the Arajs Commando loaded the articles on trucks to be transported back to Riga. The disrobing point was watched carefully by the killers, because it was here that there was a pause in the conveyor-like system, where resistance or rebellion might arise.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b4–7,_239–70_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b4–7,_239–70-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Riga_trial_7-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Riga_trial-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The people were then marched down the ramps into the pits, in single file ten at time, on top of previously shot victims, many of whom were still alive.<sup id="cite_ref-Riga_trial_7-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Riga_trial-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201063_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201063-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some people wept, others prayed and recited the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a>. Handicapped and elderly people were helped into the pit by other sturdier victims.<sup id="cite_ref-Riga_trial_7-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Riga_trial-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The victims were made to lie face down on top of those who had already been shot and were still writhing and heaving, oozing blood, stinking of brains and excrement. With their Russian automatic weapons set on single shots, the marksmen murdered the Jews from a distance of about two meters with a shot in the backs of their heads. One bullet per person was allotted in the Jeckeln system.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Andrew Ezergailis, <i>The Holocaust in Latvia, 1941-1944: The Missing Center</i>, pp. 253–4</cite></div></blockquote> <p>The shooting continued past sundown into the twilight, probably ending at about 5:00 p.m., when darkness fell. (The evidence is in conflict about when the shooting ended.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b253–4_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b253–4-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One source says the shooting went on well into the evening.<sup id="cite_ref-Riga_trial_7-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Riga_trial-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) Their aim may have been worsened by the twilight, as German police Major <a href="/w/index.php?title=Karl_Heise&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Karl Heise (page does not exist)">Karl Heise</a>, who had gone back and forth between Riga and the killing site that day, was hit in the eye by a ricochet bullet.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b4–7,_239–70_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b4–7,_239–70-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jeckeln himself described Rumbula at his trial in early 1946. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> <p>Q: Who did the shooting?<br /> A: Ten or twelve German SD soldiers.<br /> Q: What was the procedure?<br /> A: All of the Jews went by foot from the ghetto in Riga to the liquidation site. Near the pits, they had to deposit their overclothes, which were washed, sorted, and shipped back to Germany. Jews – men, women, and children – passed through police cordons on their way to the pits, where they were shot by German soldiers. </p> </div><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Jeckeln interrogation excerpts<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>The shooters fired from the brink of the smaller pits. For the larger pits, they walked down in the graves among the dead and dying to shoot additional victims.<sup id="cite_ref-Riga_trial_7-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Riga_trial-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Captain Otto Schulz-Du Bois, of the Engineer Reserves of the German Army, was in the area on bridge and road inspection duties, when he heard "intermittent but persistent reports of gunfire".<sup id="cite_ref-Fleming_02_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fleming_02-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Schulz-Du Bois stopped to investigate, and because security was weak, was able to observe the murders. A few months later he described what he saw to friends in Germany, who in 1980 reported what Schulz-Du Bois had told them: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The first thing he came upon was a huge heap of clothes, then men, women, children and elderly people standing in a line and dressed in their underclothing. The head of the line ended in a small wood by a mass gravesite. Those first in line had to leap into the pit and then were murdered with a pistol bullet in the head. Six SS men were busy with this grisly chore. The victims maintained a perfect composure. There were no outcries, only light sobbing and crying, and saying soothing words to the children.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Gerald Fleming, <i>Hitler and the Final Solution</i><sup id="cite_ref-Fleming_02_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fleming_02-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Official_witnesses">Official witnesses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Official witnesses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Jeckeln required high-ranking Nazis to witness the Rumbula murders. Jeckeln himself stood at the top of the pits personally directing the shooters. National Commissioner (<i>Reichskommissar</i>) for the <a href="/wiki/Ostland" class="mw-redirect" title="Ostland">Ostland</a><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hinrich_Lohse" title="Hinrich Lohse">Hinrich Lohse</a> was there, at least for a while. Dr. <a href="/wiki/Otto_Heinrich_Drechsler" class="mw-redirect" title="Otto Heinrich Drechsler">Otto Heinrich Drechsler</a>, the Territorial Commissioner (<i>Gebietskommissar</i>) of Latvia may have been present. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Roberts_Osis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Roberts Osis (page does not exist)">Roberts Osis</a>, the chief of the Latvian collaborationist militia (<i>Schutzmannschaft</i>) was present for much of the time. <a href="/wiki/Viktors_Arajs" class="mw-redirect" title="Viktors Arajs">Viktors Arajs</a>, who was drunk, worked very close to the pits supervising the Latvian men of his commando, who were guarding and funnelling the victims into the pits.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b4–7,_239–70_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b4–7,_239–70-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_murders_and_body_disposal_in_the_ghetto">Later murders and body disposal in the ghetto</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Later murders and body disposal in the ghetto"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Karl Heise returned from Rumbula to the Riga ghetto by about 1:00 p.m. There he discovered that about 20 Jews too sick to be moved had been taken not to the murder site but rather to the hospital. Heise ordered they be taken out of the hospital, placed on the street on straw mattresses and shot in the head. Killers of the patients in the street included members of the <i>Schutzpolizei</i>, Hesfer, Otto Tuchel, and Neuman, among others.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b254_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b254-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were still the hundreds of bodies left from the morning's forced evacuation. A squad of able-bodied Jews was delegated to pick them up and take them to the Jewish cemetery using sleds, wheelbarrows and horse carts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b259_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b259-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not every one who had been shot down in the streets was dead; those still alive were finished off by the Arajs commando. Individual graves were not dug at the cemetery. Instead, using dynamite, the Germans blew out a large crater in the ground, into which the dead were dumped without ceremony.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b4–7,_239–70_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b4–7,_239–70-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Winter_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Winter-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FM_77_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FM_77-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aftermath_at_the_pits_on_the_first_day">Aftermath at the pits on the first day</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Aftermath at the pits on the first day"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the end of the first day about 13,000 people had been shot but not all were dead. Kaufman reported that "the earth still heaved for a long time because of the many half-dead people."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201063–4_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201063–4-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wounded naked people were wandering about as late as 11:00 am the next day, seeking help but getting none. In the words of Professor Ezergailis: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The pit itself was still alive; bleeding and writhing bodies were regaining consciousness. ... Moans and whimpers could be heard well into the night. There were people who had been only slightly wounded, or not hit at all; they crawled out of the pit. Hundreds must have smothered under the weight of human flesh. Sentries were posted at the pits and a unit of Latvian Schutzmannschaften was sent out to guard the area. The orders were to liquidate all survivors on the spot.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Andrew Ezergailis, <i>The Holocaust in Latvia, 1941-1944: The Missing Center</i>, p. 255</cite></div></blockquote> <p>According to historian Bernard Press, himself a survivor of the Holocaust in Latvia: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Four young women initially escaped the bullets. Naked and trembling, they stood before their murderers' gun barrels and screamed in extreme mortal agony that they were Latvians, not Jews. They were believed and taken back to the city. The next morning Jeckeln himself decided their fate. One was indeed Latvian and had been adopted as a child by Jews. The others were Jewish. One of them hoped for support from her first husband, Army Lieutenant Skuja. Asked on the telephone about her nationality, he answered that she was a Jew and he was not interested in her fate. She was murdered. The second woman received no mercy from Jeckeln, because she was the Latvian wife of a Jew engaged in Judaic studies. With this answer she signed her death warrant, for Jeckeln decided she was "tainted by Judaism." Only the third girl, Ella Medalje, was clever enough to give Jeckeln plausible answers and thus escaped with her life.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i>The Murder of the Jews in Latvia</i>, pp. 106-7</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reaction_among_the_survivors">Reaction among the survivors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Reaction among the survivors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The ghetto itself was a scene of mass murder after the departure of the columns on November 30, as Kaufmann described: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Ludzas street in the center of the ghetto was full of murdered people. Their blood flowed in the gutters. In the houses there were also countless people who had been shot. Slowly people began to pick them up. The lawyer Wittenberg had taken this holy task upon himself, and he mobilized the remaining young people for this task.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Churbn Lettland - <i>The Destruction of the Jews of Latvia</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201063–4_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201063–4-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>The blood literally ran in the gutters. Frida Michelson, an eyewitness, recorded that the next day, December 1, there were still puddles of blood in the street, frozen by then.<sup id="cite_ref-FM_77_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FM_77-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The men in the newly created small ghetto were sent out to their work stations that Sunday, as they had been the day before. On the way, they saw the columns formed up for the march to Rumbula, and they heard weeping, screaming, and shooting, but they could learn no details. The men asked some of the German soldiers with whom they were acquainted to go to the ghetto to see what happened. These soldiers did go, but could not gain admission to the ghetto itself. From a distance, they could still see "many horrible things".<sup id="cite_ref-Kaufmann_34_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaufmann_34-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They reported these facts to the Jews of the work detachments, who asked them to be released early from work to see to their families. At 14:00 hours this request was granted, at least for a few of the men, and they returned to the ghetto.<sup id="cite_ref-Kaufmann_34_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaufmann_34-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They found the streets scattered with things, which they were directed to collect and carry to the guardhouse. They also found a small bundle which turned out to be a living child, a baby aged about four weeks. A Latvian guard took the child away. Kaufmann believed the child's murder was a certainty.<sup id="cite_ref-Kaufmann_34_75-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaufmann_34-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="December_8_murders">December 8 murders</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: December 8 murders"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SimonDubnow.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/SimonDubnow.jpg/220px-SimonDubnow.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="296" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/SimonDubnow.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="322" data-file-height="433" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Simon_Dubnow" title="Simon Dubnow">Simon Dubnow</a> 1860–1941, Jewish writer, historian and activist, of whom a legend arose<sup id="cite_ref-Friedlander_02_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedlander_02-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that on December 8, 1941, he counseled the Jews in the Riga ghetto:- <i><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yiddish language">Yiddish</a>: <i lang="yi" dir="rtl">Yidn, shreibt un fershreibt</i></i> ("Jews, write and record")</figcaption></figure> <p>Jeckeln seems to have wanted to continue the murders on December 1, but did not. Professor Ezergailis proposed that Jeckeln may have been bothered by problems such as the resistance of the Jews in Riga. In any case, the killing did not resume until Monday, December 8, 1941. According to Professor Ezergailis, this time 300 Jews were murdered in forcing people out of the ghetto. (Another source reports that the brutality in the Ghetto was worse on December 8 than on November 30.<sup id="cite_ref-Winter_17-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Winter-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). It was snowing that Monday, and the people may have believed that the worst had passed.<sup id="cite_ref-Winter_17-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Winter-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even so, the columns were formed up and marched out of the city just as on Sunday, November 30, but with some differences. The 20 kilogram packs were not carried to the site, as they had been on November 30, but were left in the ghetto. Their owners were told that their luggage would be carried on by truck to the fictitious point of departure for resettlement. Mothers with small children and older people were told they could ride by sleigh, and sleighs were in fact available.<sup id="cite_ref-FM_85_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FM_85-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At least two policemen who had played some role in the November 30 massacre refused to participate again on December 8. These were the German Zimmermann and the Latvian Vilnis.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b256–7_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b256–7-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The march itself was fast-paced and brutal. Many people were trampled to death.<sup id="cite_ref-FM_85_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FM_85-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Max Kaufmann, one of the men among the work crews in the small ghetto, was anxious to know what was happening to the people marched out on December 8. He organized, through bribery, an expedition by truck ostensibly to gather wood, but actually to follow the columns and learn their destination.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201068–9_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201068–9-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kaufmann later described what he saw from the truck as it moved south along the highway from Riga towards <a href="/wiki/Daugavpils" title="Daugavpils">Daugavpils</a>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>... we encountered the first evacuees. We slowed down. They were walking quite calmly, and hardly a sound was heard. The first person in the procession we met was Mrs. Pola Schmulian * * * Her head was deeply bowed and she seemed to be in despair. I also saw other acquaintances of mine among the people marching; the Latvians would occasionally beat one or another of them with truncheons. * * * On the way, I counted six murdered people who were lying with their faces in the snow.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite> Churbn Lettland - <i>The Destruction of the Jews of Latvia</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201068–9_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201068–9-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Kaufmann noticed machine guns set closely together in the snow near the woods, and sixty to eighty soldiers, whom he identified as being from the German army. The soldier who was driving the truck stated the machine guns were posted just to prevent escapes. (In his book, Kaufmann stated he was certain the German army had played a role in the Rumbula massacre.)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201068–9_79-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201068–9-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They drove on that day down the highway past Rumbula to the Salaspils concentration camp, to investigate a rumor that the Jews had been evacuated to that point. At the camp they encountered Russian prisoners of war, but no Jews from Riga. The prisoners told them that they knew nothing about the Jews.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201068–9_79-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201068–9-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Frida Michelson had been marched out with the column, and she described the forest as being surrounded by a ring of <a href="/wiki/Schutzstaffel" title="Schutzstaffel">SS men</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FM_85_77-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FM_85-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Michelson further described the scene when they arrived at Rumbula that morning: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>As we came to the forest we heard shooting again. This was the horrible portent of our future. If I had any doubts about the intentions of our tormenters, they were all gone now. ... We were all numb with terror and followed orders mechanically. We were incapable of thinking and were submitting to everything like a docile herd of cattle.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Frida Michelson, <i>I Survived Rumbuli</i>, pp. 85-8</cite></div></blockquote> <p>Of the 12,000 people forced out of the ghetto to Rumbula that day, three known survivors later gave accounts: Frida Michelson, Elle Madale, and Matiss Lutrins. Michelson survived by pretending to be dead as victims discarded heaps of shoes on her.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Elle Madale claimed to be a Latvian.<sup id="cite_ref-Ezer_257_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ezer_257-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Matiss Lutrins, a mechanic, persuaded some Latvian truck drivers to allow him and his wife (whom the Germans later found and murdered) to hide under a truckload of clothing from the victims that was being hauled back into Riga.<sup id="cite_ref-Ezer_257_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ezer_257-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among those slain on December 8 was <a href="/wiki/Simon_Dubnow" title="Simon Dubnow">Simon Dubnow</a>, a well known Jewish writer, historian and activist. Dubnow had fled Berlin in 1933 when the Nazis took power, seeking safety in Riga.<sup id="cite_ref-Eksteins_01_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eksteins_01-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On December 8, 1941, too ill to be marched to the forest, he was murdered in the ghetto.<sup id="cite_ref-Hilberg_01_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hilberg_01-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was buried in a mass grave. Kaufmann states that after November 30, Professor Dubnow was brought to live with the families of the Jewish policemen at 56 Ludzas Street. On December 8, the brutal Latvian guard overseer Alberts Danskop came to the house and asked Dubnow if he was a member of the policemen's families. Dubnow said he was not and Danskop forced him out of the house to join one of the columns that was marching past at the time. Uproar broke out in the house and one of the Jewish policemen, whom Kaufmann reports to have been a German who had won the Iron Cross, rushed out to try and save Dubnow, but it was too late.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann2010150_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann2010150-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to another account, Dubnow's killer was a German who had been a former student.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A rumor, which later grew into a legend,<sup id="cite_ref-Friedlander_02_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedlander_02-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> stated that Dubnow said to the Jews present at the last moments of his life: "If you survive, never forget what is happening here, give evidence, write and rewrite, keep alive each word and each gesture, each cry and each tear!"<sup id="cite_ref-Friedlander_02_76-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedlander_02-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> What is certain is that the SS stole the historian's library and papers and transported them back to the Reich.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="December_9_massacre">December 9 massacre</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: December 9 massacre"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some Jews who were not able-bodied working men were able to escape from the mass actions on November 30 and December 8 and hide in the new "small ghetto".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201070_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201070-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On December 9, 1941, the Nazis began a third massacre, this time in the small ghetto. They searched through the ghetto while the men were out at work. Whoever they found in hiding was taken out to the Biķernieki forest, on the northeast side of Riga, in blue buses borrowed from the Riga municipal authorities, where they were murdered and buried in mass graves. About 500 people were murdered in this operation. As with the Rumbula murders, evacuations from the ghetto ceased at 12 noon.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201070_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201070-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effect_of_Rumbula_on_plans_for_the_Holocaust">Effect of Rumbula on plans for the Holocaust</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Effect of Rumbula on plans for the Holocaust"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="German_Jews_replace_Latvians_in_Riga_ghetto">German Jews replace Latvians in Riga ghetto</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: German Jews replace Latvians in Riga ghetto"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In December 1941, the Nazis continued issuing directions to Jews in Germany that they were to report to be deported to the East. For most of these people, because of Himmler's change of plan (as shown in his "keine Liquiderung" telephone call) they would get a year or two of life in a ghetto before their turn came to be murdered.<sup id="cite_ref-Browning_01_51-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Browning_01-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Smith_Foster_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith_Foster-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the first trains to arrive in Riga was called the "Bielefeld Transport."<sup id="cite_ref-Smith_Foster_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith_Foster-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once the German Jews arrived on the Riga transports in December, 1941, they were sent to the ghetto, where they found that the houses had obviously been left in a hurry. The furnishings in the residences were in great disarray and some were stained with blood. Frozen but cooked food was on the tables, and baby carriages with bottles of frozen milk were outside in the snow.<sup id="cite_ref-Winter_17-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Winter-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hilberg_01_52-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hilberg_01-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Smith_Jurmann_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith_Jurmann-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On a wall a German family found the words written "Mama, farewell."<sup id="cite_ref-Smith_Jurmann_89-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith_Jurmann-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Years later, a German survivor, then a child, remembers being told "Latvians lived here", with no mention they were Jews.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith_Jurmann_89-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith_Jurmann-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another German survivor, Ruth Foster, recounted what she had heard about the massacre: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>We found out later that three days before we arrived, they murdered 30,000 Latvian Jews who came into the Ghetto from Riga and the surrounding towns. They herded them into a nearby forest where previously the Russian prisoners of war had dug graves for them, they had to undress completely, leave their clothes in neat order, and then they had to go to the edge of the pits where they were mown down with machine guns. So when we came to the Riga Ghetto, we lived in the houses where those poor people had been driven out and murdered.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Lyn Smith, <i>Remembering: Voices of the Holocaust</i>, pp. 100, 114, 128.</cite></div></blockquote> <p>Two months later, German Jews arriving in the ghetto were still finding bodies of murdered Latvian Jews in basements and attics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b254–6_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b254–6-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wannsee_Conference">Wannsee Conference</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Wannsee Conference"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WannseeList.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/WannseeList.jpg/220px-WannseeList.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="324" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/WannseeList.jpg/330px-WannseeList.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/WannseeList.jpg/440px-WannseeList.jpg 2x" data-file-width="514" data-file-height="757" /></a><figcaption>This document from the <a href="/wiki/Wannsee_Conference" title="Wannsee Conference">Wannsee Conference</a> in February 1942 shows the population of Jews in Latvia (<i>Lettland</i>) down to 3,500.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Wannsee_Conference" title="Wannsee Conference">Wannsee Conference</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Lange" title="Rudolf Lange">Rudolf Lange</a>, commander of <i>Einsatzkommando</i> 2 in <a href="/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia">Latvia</a>, was invited to the infamous <a href="/wiki/Wannsee_Conference" title="Wannsee Conference">Wannsee Conference</a> to give his perspective on the proposed <a href="/wiki/Final_Solution" title="Final Solution">Final Solution</a> to the so-called Jewish question. The Nazis did not find shootings to be a feasible method of murdering millions of people, in particular because it was observed that even SS troops were uncomfortable about shooting assimilated German Jews as opposed to <i>Ostjuden</i> ("Eastern Jews").<sup id="cite_ref-EinsatzG_trial_05_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EinsatzG_trial_05-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The head of the German civil administration in the Baltic area, <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Kube" title="Wilhelm Kube">Wilhelm Kube</a>, who had no objection to killing Jews in general<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> objected to German Jews, "who come from our own cultural circle", being casually murdered by German soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Later_actions_at_the_site">Later actions at the site</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Later actions at the site"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Sonderaktion_1005" title="Sonderaktion 1005">Sonderaktion 1005</a></div> <p>In 1943, apparently concerned about leaving evidence behind, Himmler ordered that the bodies at Rumbula be dug up and burned. This work was done by a detachment of Jewish slave laborers. Persons travelling on the railway could readily smell the burning corpses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b4–7,_239–70_3-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b4–7,_239–70-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2001, the President of the Republic of Latvia, <a href="/wiki/Vaira_Vike-Freiberga" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaira Vike-Freiberga">Vaira Vike-Freiberga</a>, who was a child during World War II, spoke at a 60-year anniversary memorial service about the destruction of the bodies: "We could smell the smoke coming from Rumbula, where corpses were being dug up and burnt to erase the evidence."<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Friedrich_Jeckeln_on_trial.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Friedrich_Jeckeln_on_trial.jpg/220px-Friedrich_Jeckeln_on_trial.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Friedrich_Jeckeln_on_trial.jpg/330px-Friedrich_Jeckeln_on_trial.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Friedrich_Jeckeln_on_trial.jpg/440px-Friedrich_Jeckeln_on_trial.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="333" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Jeckeln" title="Friedrich Jeckeln">Friedrich Jeckeln</a>, standing at left, at his war crimes trial in Riga in early 1946</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Justice">Justice</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Justice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some of the Rumbula murderers were brought to justice. <a href="/wiki/Hinrich_Lohse" title="Hinrich Lohse">Hinrich Lohse</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Friedrich_Jahnke&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Friedrich Jahnke (page does not exist)">Friedrich Jahnke</a> were prosecuted in West German courts and sentenced to terms of imprisonment.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b16,_245–8_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b16,_245–8-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Viktors_Arajs" class="mw-redirect" title="Viktors Arajs">Viktors Arajs</a> served four years in a British POW camp after the war, but avoided detection for years in West Germany. He was finally found and sentenced to life imprisonment in 1979, and died in solitary confinement in 1988.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Herberts_Cukurs" title="Herberts Cukurs">Herberts Cukurs</a> escaped to South America, where he was assassinated by <a href="/wiki/Mossad" title="Mossad">Mossad</a> agents in 1965.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Strauch" title="Eduard Strauch">Eduard Strauch</a> was convicted in the <a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen_case" class="mw-redirect" title="Einsatzgruppen case">Einsatzgruppen case</a> and sentenced to death, but he died in prison before the sentence could be carried out.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Jeckeln" title="Friedrich Jeckeln">Friedrich Jeckeln</a> was publicly hanged in Riga on February 3, 1946, following a trial before the Soviet authorities.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Remembrance">Remembrance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Remembrance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rumbula_forest_memorial.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Rumbula_forest_memorial.JPG/220px-Rumbula_forest_memorial.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Rumbula_forest_memorial.JPG/330px-Rumbula_forest_memorial.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Rumbula_forest_memorial.JPG/440px-Rumbula_forest_memorial.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Memorial in the Rumbula forest</figcaption></figure> <p>On 29 November 2002, a memorial, comprising memorial stones, sculpture and information panels, was unveiled in the forest at the site where the massacre took place.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The center of the memorial is an open area in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Star_of_David" title="Star of David">Star of David</a>. A sculpture of a <a href="/wiki/Menorah_(Temple)" class="mw-redirect" title="Menorah (Temple)">menorah</a> stands in the center surrounded by stones bearing the names of Jews murdered at the site. Some of the paving stones bear the names of streets in the former <a href="/wiki/Riga_Ghetto" title="Riga Ghetto">Riga Ghetto</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Concrete frames demarcate the mass graves situated in the memorial grounds.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_101-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the road leading into the forest, a stone marker next to a large metal sculpture states that thousands of people were driven to their deaths along this road and at the entrance to the memorial grounds, stone plaques are inscribed in four languages – Latvian, Hebrew, English and German – with information about the events at Rumbula and the history of memorial.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_101-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The memorial was designed by architect Sergey Rizh. Financial contributions to build the memorial were made by individuals and organizations in Germany, Israel, Latvia and the USA.<sup id="cite_ref-Memorial_101-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memorial-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_massacres_in_Latvia" title="List of massacres in Latvia">List of massacres in Latvia</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b239-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b239_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b239_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEzergailis1996b">Ezergailis 1996b</a>, p. 239.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EinsatzG_Trial_04-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EinsatzG_Trial_04_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EinsatzG_Trial_04_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Einsatzgruppen trial, p. 16, Indictment, at 6.F: "(F) On 30 November 1941 in Riga, 20 men of Einsatzkommando 2 participated in the murder of 10,600 Jews."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b4–7,_239–70-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b4–7,_239–70_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b4–7,_239–70_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b4–7,_239–70_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b4–7,_239–70_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b4–7,_239–70_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b4–7,_239–70_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b4–7,_239–70_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b4–7,_239–70_3-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b4–7,_239–70_3-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b4–7,_239–70_3-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b4–7,_239–70_3-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEzergailis1996b">Ezergailis 1996b</a>, pp. 4–7, 239–70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edelheit, <i>History of the Holocaust</i>. p. 163: "Aktion Jeckeln, named after its commander, Hoeherer SS- und Polizeiführer Friedrich Jeckeln. Undertaken in the Riga ghetto, the Aktion took place between November 30 and December 7, 1941. During the Aktion some 25,000 Jews were transported to the Rumbula Forest and murdered."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ezer_211-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ezer_211_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ezer_211_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEzergailis1996b">Ezergailis 1996b</a>, pp. 211–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Einsatzgruppen judgment, p. 418.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Riga_trial-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Riga_trial_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Riga_trial_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Riga_trial_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Riga_trial_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Riga_trial_7-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Riga_trial_7-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Riga_trial_7-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Riga_trial_7-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Riga_trial_7-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Riga_trial_7-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Riga_trial_7-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Riga_trial_7-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Riga_trial_7-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Riga_trial_7-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Riga_trial_7-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Riga_trial_7-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Riga trial verdict excerpts, as reprinted in <a href="#CITEREFFleming1994">Fleming 1994</a>, pp. 78–9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996bp._33n81-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996bp._33n81_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEzergailis1996b">Ezergailis 1996b</a>, p. 33n81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleming199488-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFleming199488_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFleming1994">Fleming 1994</a>, p. 88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b47,_239–70-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b47,_239–70_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEzergailis1996b">Ezergailis 1996b</a>, pp. 47, 239–70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">As Lohse appeared in 1941 in an announcement in Latvia newspapers following the German occupation.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stahlecker_report_02-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stahlecker_report_02_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stahlecker report, at 985: "Special detachments reinforced by selected units -- in Lithuania partisan detachments, in Latvia units of the Latvian auxiliary police -- therefore performed extensive executions both in the towns and in rural areas."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A serious and deadly (approximately 400 Jews murdered) riot in Riga in early July 1941 was one exception.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stahlecker_report_03-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stahlecker_report_03_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stahlecker_report_03_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Stahlecker, report, at 986: "In Latvia as well the Jews participated in acts of sabotage and arson after the invasion of the German Armed Forces. In Duensburg so many fires were lighted by the Jews that a large part of the town was lost. The electric power station burnt down to a mere shell. The streets which were mainly inhabited by Jews remained unscathed."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedländer, <i>The Years of Extermination</i>, at page 223, refers to the Stahlecker report as evidence that Nazi efforts to induce local pogroms were in general failures in the Baltic states.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stahlecker_report_01-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stahlecker_report_01_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stahlecker report, at 984-85: "It proved much more difficult to set in motion similar cleansing actions in Latvia. Essentially the reason was that the whole of the national stratum of leaders had been assassinated or destroyed by the Soviets, especially in Riga. It was possible though through similar influences on the Latvian auxiliary to set in motion a pogrom against Jews also in Riga. During this pogrom all synagogues were destroyed and about 400 Jews were murdered. As the population of Riga quieted down quickly, further pogroms were not convenient. So far as possible, both in Kowno and in Riga evidence by film and photo was established that the first spontaneous executions of Jews and Communists were carried out by Lithuanians and Latvians.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Winter-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Winter_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Winter_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Winter_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Winter_17-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Winter_17-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Winter_17-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Winter_17-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Winter, "Rumbula viewed from the Riga Ghetto, at Rumbula.org</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stahlecker_report_04-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stahlecker_report_04_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stahlecker report, at 987: "In this connection it may be mentioned that some authorities at the Civil Administration offered resistance, at times even a strong one, against the carrying out of larger executions. This resistance was answered by calling attention to the fact that it was a matter of carrying out basic orders."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Reitlinger, <i>Alibi</i>. p. 186n1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Browning_02-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Browning_02_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Browning_02_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Browning_02_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowning,_Matthäus._Origins_of_the_Final_Solution">Browning, Matthäus. Origins of the Final Solution</a>, pp. 305–7, 406.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bratigam-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bratigam_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The reply, coming from Brätigam, of Rosenburg's bureau on December 18, 1941, after the murders, was essentially that Lohse should follow instructions from the <a href="/wiki/Schutzstaffel" title="Schutzstaffel">SS</a>: "Clarification of the Jewish question has most likely been achieved by now through verbal discussions. Economic considerations should fundamentally remain unconsidered in the settlement of the problem. Moreover, it is requested that questions arising be settled directly with the Senior SS and Police Leaders.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stahlecker_report_05-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stahlecker_report_05_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stahlecker report, at 987: "In Riga the so-called "Moskau suburb" was designated as a Ghetto. This is the worst dwelling district of Riga, already now mostly inhabited by Jews. The transfer of the Jews into the Ghetto-district proved rather difficult because the Latvians dwelling in that district had to be evacuated and residential space in Riga is very crowded, 24,000 of the 28,000 Jews living in Riga have been transferred into the Ghetto so far. In creating the Ghetto, the Security Police restricted themselves to mere policing duties, while the establishment and administration of the Ghetto as well as the regulation of the food supply for the inmates of the Ghetto were left to Civil Administration; the Labor Offices were left in charge of Jewish labor."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleming1994plate_3-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFleming1994plate_3_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFleming1994">Fleming 1994</a>, plate 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFleming1994">Fleming 1994</a>, pp. 99–100: "There can be no doubt that the Higher SS and Police Leader Friedrich Jeckeln received the KVK First Class with swords in recognition of his faithful performance: his organization of the mass shootings in Riga, 'on orders from the highest level' (<i>auf höchsten Befehl</i>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Friedlander_06-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Friedlander_06_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedländer, <i>The Years of Extermination</i>, at page 267: "The mass slaughters of October and November 1941 were intended to make space for the new arrivals from the Reich."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedländer, <i>The Years of Extermination</i>, at page 267</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEzergailis1996b">Ezergailis 1996b</a>, p. 241: "On November 12, Jeckeln received his order from Himmler to kill the Jews of the Riga ghetto." Other sources give the date of Himmler's order as November 10 or November 11. Fleming, <i>Hitler and the Final Solution</i>, at 75</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fleming_75-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fleming_75_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fleming_75_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFleming1994">Fleming 1994</a>, pp. 75–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eksteins_01-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eksteins_01_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eksteins_01_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Eksteins, <i>Walking Since Daybreak</i>, page 150</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ezer_241-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ezer_241_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ezer_241_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ezer_241_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ezer_241_30-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ezer_241_30-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ezer_241_30-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ezer_241_30-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEzergailis1996b">Ezergailis 1996b</a>, pp. 241–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fleming_01-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fleming_01_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fleming_01_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jeckeln interrogation excerpts, reprinted in <a href="#CITEREFFleming1994">Fleming 1994</a>, pp. 95–100.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Klee_76-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Klee_76_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Klee_76_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Klee and others, eds., <i>The Good Old Days</i>. pp. 76-86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ezer_240-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ezer_240_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ezer_240_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEzergailis1996b">Ezergailis 1996b</a>, pp. 240–1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rubenstein and Roth describe Jeckeln's system (p. 179): "In the western Ukraine, SS General Friedrich Jeckeln notices that the haphazard arrangement of the corpses meant an inefficient use of burial space. More graves would have to be dug than absolutely necessary. Jeckeln solved the problem. He told a colleague at one of the Ukrainian killing sites, 'Today we'll stack them like sardines.' Jeckeln called his solution <i>Sardinenpackung</i> (sardine packing). When this method was employed, the victims climbed into the grave and lay down on the bottom. Cross fire from above dispatched them. Then another batch of victims was ordered into the grave, positioning themselves on top of the corpses in a head-to-foot configuration. They too were murdered by cross-fire from above. The procedure continued until the grave was full."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Tribunal's judgment states (p. 444): "In some instances, the slain persons did not fall into the graves, and the executioners were then compelled to exert themselves to complete the job of interment. A method, however, was found to avoid this additional exertion by simply having the victims enter the ditch or grave while still alive. An SS eyewitness explained this procedure.<br /> 'The people were executed by a shot in the neck. The corpses were buried in a large tank ditch. The candidates for execution were already standing or kneeling in the ditch. One group had scarcely been shot before the next came and laid themselves on the corpses there.'"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EinsatzG_trial_05-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EinsatzG_trial_05_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EinsatzG_trial_05_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">According to the judgment of the Tribunal in the Einsatzgruppen case (p. 448): "It was stated in the early part of this opinion that women and children were to be executed with the men so that Jews, gypsies, and so-called asocials would be exterminated for all time. In this respect, the Einsatzgruppen leaders encountered a difficulty they had not anticipated. Many of the enlisted men were husbands and fathers, and they winced as they pulled their triggers on these helpless creatures who reminded them of their own wives and offspring at home. In this emotional disturbance they often aimed badly and it was necessary for the Kommando leaders to go about with a revolver or carbine, firing into the moaning and writhing forms." This situation was reported to the RSHA in Berlin, and to relieve the emotional sensitivity of the executioners, gas vans were sent as an additional killing system. <a href="#CITEREFAngrickKlein2012">Angrick & Klein 2012</a>, p. 152.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">From the transcript of the Einsatzgruppen trial:<br /> Ohlendorf: Some of the unit leaders did not carry out the liquidation in the military manner, but murdered the victims singly by shooting them in the back of the neck. <br /> Col. Amen: And you objected to that procedure? <br /> Ohlendorf: I was against that procedure, yes. <br /> Col. Amen: For what reason? <br /> Ohlendorf: Because both for the victims and for those who carried out the executions, it was, psychologically, an immense burden to bear.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Green series, Volume IV, p. 443, quoting Einsatzgruppe commander <a href="/wiki/Paul_Blobel" title="Paul Blobel">Paul Blobel</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Tribunal's judgment in the <i>Einsatzgruppen</i> case states (p. 444): "In fact, one defendant did not exclude the possibility that an executee could only seem to be dead because of shock or temporary unconsciousness. In such cases it was inevitable he would be buried alive."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b242-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b242_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEzergailis1996b">Ezergailis 1996b</a>, p. 242.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning._Nazi_Policy143-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning._Nazi_Policy143_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowning._Nazi_Policy">Browning. Nazi Policy</a>, p. 143.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ezer_243-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ezer_243_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ezer_243_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEzergailis1996b">Ezergailis 1996b</a>, pp. 243–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ezer_248-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ezer_248_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ezer_248_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ezer_248_43-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEzergailis1996b">Ezergailis 1996b</a>, pp. 248–9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fleming_83-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fleming_83_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fleming_83_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fleming_83_44-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFleming1994">Fleming 1994</a>, pp. 83–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Max Kaufmann, a ghetto survivor, reported one "Altmeyer" as one of the guards forming up the columns of Jews in the ghetto on the morning of November 30, but whether this is the same person with whom Bruns spoke is not clear from the sources. <a href="#CITEREFKaufmann2010">Kaufmann 2010</a>, pp. 60–1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fleming_80-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fleming_80_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fleming_80_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fleming_80_46-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFleming1994">Fleming 1994</a>, pp. 80–2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michelson, Frida, <i>I Survived Rumbuli</i>, pp. 74-7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ezer_247-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ezer_247_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ezer_247_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEzergailis1996b">Ezergailis 1996b</a>, pp. 247–8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201059–61-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201059–61_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201059–61_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201059–61_49-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201059–61_49-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201059–61_49-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaufmann2010">Kaufmann 2010</a>, pp. 59–61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nebraskapress.unl.edu/bison-books/9780803259799/">"The Origins of the Final Solution"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+the+Final+Solution&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nebraskapress.unl.edu%2Fbison-books%2F9780803259799%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARumbula+massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Browning_01-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Browning_01_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Browning_01_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Browning_01_51-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Browning_01_51-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowning,_Matthäus._Origins_of_the_Final_Solution">Browning, Matthäus. Origins of the Final Solution</a>, p. 396.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hilberg_01-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hilberg_01_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hilberg_01_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hilberg_01_52-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hilberg_01_52-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hilberg, <i>Destruction of European Jews</i>. p. 365.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Einsatzgruppen judgment stated (p. 418): "In time the authors of the reports apparently tired of the word 'shot' so, within the narrow compass of expression allowed in a military report, some variety was added. A report originating in Latvia read --<br /> 'The Higher SS and Police leader in Riga, SS Obergruppenfuehrer Jeckeln, has meanwhile embarked on a shooting action [Erschiessungsaktion] and on Sunday, the 30 November 1941, about 4,000 Jews from the Riga ghetto and an evacuation transport from the Reich were disposed of." (NO-3257)<br /> And so that no one could be in doubt as to what was meant by 'Disposed of', the word 'killed' was added in parentheses."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roseman, <i>The Wannsee Conference</i>. pp. 75-7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleming199489-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFleming199489_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFleming1994">Fleming 1994</a>, p. 89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning._Nazi_Policy52–4-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning._Nazi_Policy52–4_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowning._Nazi_Policy">Browning. Nazi Policy</a>, pp. 52–4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201061–2-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201061–2_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201061–2_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201061–2_57-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaufmann2010">Kaufmann 2010</a>, pp. 61–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b252-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b252_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEzergailis1996b">Ezergailis 1996b</a>, p. 252.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201060–1-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201060–1_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201060–1_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaufmann2010">Kaufmann 2010</a>, pp. 60–1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b267n55-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b267n55_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEzergailis1996b">Ezergailis 1996b</a>, p. 267n55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b192,_267-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b192,_267_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEzergailis1996b">Ezergailis 1996b</a>, pp. 192, 267.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrievs_Ezergails2014" class="citation web cs1">Andrievs Ezergails (2014-10-17). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nra.lv/latvija/127179-jamekle-patiesiba-par-herbertu-cukuru.htm">"Jāmeklē patiesība par Herbertu Cukuru"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Neatkar%C4%ABg%C4%81_R%C4%ABta_Av%C4%ABze" title="Neatkarīgā Rīta Avīze">Neatkarīgā Rīta Avīze</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 November</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Neatkar%C4%ABg%C4%81+R%C4%ABta+Av%C4%ABze&rft.atitle=J%C4%81mekl%C4%93+paties%C4%ABba+par+Herbertu+Cukuru&rft.date=2014-10-17&rft.au=Andrievs+Ezergails&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnra.lv%2Flatvija%2F127179-jamekle-patiesiba-par-herbertu-cukuru.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARumbula+massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZuroff2005" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Efraim_Zuroff" title="Efraim Zuroff">Zuroff, Efraim</a> (July 25, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.operationlastchance.org/Writings_12.htm">"The Mass Murderer As Hero"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Operation_Last_Chance" title="Operation Last Chance">Operation Last Chance</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 December</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Mass+Murderer+As+Hero&rft.pub=Operation+Last+Chance&rft.date=2005-07-25&rft.aulast=Zuroff&rft.aufirst=Efraim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.operationlastchance.org%2FWritings_12.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARumbula+massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The 10 kilometer distance is supplied in <a href="#CITEREFEzergailis1996b">Ezergailis 1996b</a>, p. 251.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b251-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b251_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEzergailis1996b">Ezergailis 1996b</a>, p. 251.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201063-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201063_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaufmann2010">Kaufmann 2010</a>, p. 63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b253–4-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b253–4_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEzergailis1996b">Ezergailis 1996b</a>, pp. 253–4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Reprinted in <a href="#CITEREFFleming1994">Fleming 1994</a>, pp. 95–100.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fleming_02-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fleming_02_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fleming_02_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFleming1994">Fleming 1994</a>, p. 88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Reichskommissariat_Ostland" title="Reichskommissariat Ostland">Reichskommissariat Ostland</a> was the German name for the Baltic states and nearby areas which they had conquered.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b254-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b254_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEzergailis1996b">Ezergailis 1996b</a>, p. 254.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b259-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b259_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEzergailis1996b">Ezergailis 1996b</a>, p. 259.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FM_77-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FM_77_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FM_77_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Michelson, Frida, <i>I Survived Rumbuli</i>. pp. 77-8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201063–4-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201063–4_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201063–4_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaufmann2010">Kaufmann 2010</a>, pp. 63–4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kaufmann_34-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kaufmann_34_75-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kaufmann_34_75-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kaufmann_34_75-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaufmann2010">Kaufmann 2010</a>, pp. 64–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Friedlander_02-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Friedlander_02_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Friedlander_02_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Friedlander_02_76-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedlander, <i>The Years of Extermination</i>. pp. 261-3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FM_85-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FM_85_77-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FM_85_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FM_85_77-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Michelson, Frida, <i>I Survived Rumbuli</i>. pp. 85-8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b256–7-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b256–7_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEzergailis1996b">Ezergailis 1996b</a>, pp. 256–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201068–9-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201068–9_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201068–9_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201068–9_79-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201068–9_79-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaufmann2010">Kaufmann 2010</a>, pp. 68–9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michelson, Frida, <i>I Survived Rubuli</i>. pp. 89-93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ezer_257-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ezer_257_81-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ezer_257_81-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEzergailis1996b">Ezergailis 1996b</a>, pp. 257–61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann2010150-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann2010150_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaufmann2010">Kaufmann 2010</a>, p. 150.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eksteins, <i>Walking Since Daybreak</i>. p. 150, citing Press, Bernard, <i>Judenmort in Lettland, 1941-1945</i>, Berlin: Metropol 1992. p. 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDribinsGūtmanisVestermanis2001" class="citation book cs1">Dribins, Leo; Gūtmanis, Armands; Vestermanis, Marģers (2001). <i>Latvia's Jewish Community: History, Tragedy, Revival</i>. Riga: Latvijas Vēsturnieku komisija (Commission of the Historians of Latvia).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Latvia%27s+Jewish+Community%3A+History%2C+Tragedy%2C+Revival&rft.place=Riga&rft.pub=Latvijas+V%C4%93sturnieku+komisija+%28Commission+of+the+Historians+of+Latvia%29&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Dribins&rft.aufirst=Leo&rft.au=G%C5%ABtmanis%2C+Armands&rft.au=Vestermanis%2C+Mar%C4%A3ers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARumbula+massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedländer, <i>The Years of Extermination</i>. p. 262: "A few months later, on June 26, 1942, SS Obersturmführer Heinz Ballensiefen, head of the Jewish section of Amt VII (research) in the RSHA, informed his colleagues that in Riga his men had secured ("sichergestellt") about 45 boxes containing the archive and library of the Jewish historian Dubnow.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201070-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201070_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann201070_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaufmann2010">Kaufmann 2010</a>, p. 70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith_Foster-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Smith_Foster_87-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smith_Foster_87-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Smith, <i>Remembering</i>. pp. 100, 114, 128, reporting statement of Ruth Foster.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Reitlinger, <i>Alibi</i>. p. 282: "As early as October 1941 Jews had been sent from Berlin and other Reich cites to the already hopelessly overcrowed Lodz ghetto. Before the end of the year deportations had followed to ghettos in the Baltic states and White Russia."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith_Jurmann-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Smith_Jurmann_89-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smith_Jurmann_89-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smith_Jurmann_89-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Smith, <i>Remembering</i>. p. 113, reporting statement of Ezra Jurmann: "We arrived in the ghetto and were taken to a group of houses which had obviously been left in a hurry: there was complete turmoil, they were completely deserted and they had not been heated. In a pantry there was a pot of potatoes frozen solid. ... Complete chaos. Ominous. On the walls, a message said, 'Mama, farewell.'"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b254–6-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b254–6_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEzergailis1996b">Ezergailis 1996b</a>, pp. 254–6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Breitman, <i>Architect of Genocide</i>. p. 220, discusses Himmler's concerns about the effect on his men's morale of the mass killings of German Jews at Riga and elsewhere.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedländer, <i>The Years of Extermination</i>. pp. 362-3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/David_Cesarani" title="David Cesarani">David Cesarani</a>, <i>Eichmann: His Life and Crimes</i> (Vintage 2005). p. 110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050310203033/http://www.latvians.com/Mailer/2001_12_12.htm#news7">"Styopina, Anastasia, "Latvia remembers Holocaust killings 60 years ago" Reuters World Report, November 30, 2001"</a>. Archived from the original on March 10, 2005<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-03-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Styopina%2C+Anastasia%2C+%22Latvia+remembers+Holocaust+killings+60+years+ago%22+Reuters+World+Report%2C+November+30%2C+2001&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.latvians.com%2FMailer%2F2001_12_12.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARumbula+massacre" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown">link</a>)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bloxham, <i>Genocide on Trial</i>. p. 198.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b16,_245–8-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzergailis1996b16,_245–8_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEzergailis1996b">Ezergailis 1996b</a>, pp. 16, 245–8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bloxham, <i>Genocide on Trial. pp. 197-9.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JRSOAAAACAAJ&q=hangman+riga+shimron">Kuenzle, Anton and Shimron, Gad, <i>The Execution of the Hangman of Riga: The Only Execution of a Nazi War Criminal by the Mossad</i>, Valentine Mitchell, London 2004</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged December 2023">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85303-525-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-85303-525-3">0-85303-525-3</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_Strauch" class="extiw" title="de:Eduard Strauch">Eduard Strauch (German wikipedia)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edelheit, <i>History of the Holocaust</i>. p. 340: Jeckeln was " ... responsible for the murder of Jews and Communist Party officials ... convicted and hanged in the former ghetto of Riga on February 3, 1946.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Memorial-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_101-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_101-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_101-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_101-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Memorial_101-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://memorialplaces.lu.lv/memorial-places/riga-and-riga-district/riga-rumbula/">"Riga, Rumbula: Holocaust Memorial Places in Latvia"</a>. <i>Holokausta memoriālās vietas Latvijā</i>. Riga, Latvia: Center for Judaic Studies at the University of Latvia. 2002<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-02-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Holokausta+memori%C4%81l%C4%81s+vietas+Latvij%C4%81&rft.atitle=Riga%2C+Rumbula%3A+Holocaust+Memorial+Places+in+Latvia&rft.date=2002&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmemorialplaces.lu.lv%2Fmemorial-places%2Friga-and-riga-district%2Friga-rumbula%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARumbula+massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiographical">Historiographical</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Historiographical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/holocaust_and_genocide_studies/v017/17.1anders.html">Anders, Edward, and Dubrovskis, Juris, "Who Died in the Holocaust? Recovering Names from Official Records", Holocaust and Genocide Studies 17.1 (2003) 114-138</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAngrickKlein2012" class="citation book cs1">Angrick, Andrej; Klein, Peter (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ur6uBAAAQBAJ&q=Hinrich+Lohse"><i>The 'Final Solution' in Riga: Exploitation and Annihilation, 1941-1944</i></a>. Translation from German by Ray Brandon. Berghahn Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0857456014" title="Special:BookSources/978-0857456014"><bdi>978-0857456014</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+%27Final+Solution%27+in+Riga%3A+Exploitation+and+Annihilation%2C+1941-1944&rft.pub=Berghahn+Books&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0857456014&rft.aulast=Angrick&rft.aufirst=Andrej&rft.au=Klein%2C+Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dur6uBAAAQBAJ%26q%3DHinrich%2BLohse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARumbula+massacre" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Bloxham, Donald, <i>Genocide on Trial; war crimes trials and the formation of Holocaust History and Memory</i>, Oxford University Press, New York NY 2001 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-820872-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-820872-3">0-19-820872-3</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrowning._Nazi_Policy" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Browning" class="mw-redirect" title="Christopher Browning">Browning, Christopher</a> (1999). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nazipolicyjewish0000brow"><i>Nazi Policy, Jewish Workers, German Killers</i></a></span>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-77490-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-77490-X"><bdi>0-521-77490-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nazi+Policy%2C+Jewish+Workers%2C+German+Killers&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-521-77490-X&rft.aulast=Browning&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnazipolicyjewish0000brow&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARumbula+massacre" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrowning,_Matthäus._Origins_of_the_Final_Solution" class="citation book cs1">Browning, Christopher; Matthäus, Jürgen (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/originsoffinalso00brow"><i>The Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy, September 1939 – March 1942</i></a></span>. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-5979-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-5979-9"><bdi>978-0-8032-5979-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+the+Final+Solution%3A+The+Evolution+of+Nazi+Jewish+Policy%2C+September+1939+%E2%80%93+March+1942&rft.place=Lincoln&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8032-5979-9&rft.aulast=Browning&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft.au=Matth%C3%A4us%2C+J%C3%BCrgen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foriginsoffinalso00brow&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARumbula+massacre" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090511003319/http://www.am.gov.lv/en/ministry/4265/4299/#1-32">Dribins, Leo, Gūtmanis, Armands, and Vestermanis, Marģers, "Latvia's Jewish Community: History, Trajedy, Revival", Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Republic of Latvia</a></li> <li>Edelheit, Abraham J. and Edelheit, Hershel, <i>History of the Holocaust : A Handbook and Dictionary</i>, Westview Press, Boulder, CO 1994 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8133-1411-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8133-1411-9">0-8133-1411-9</a></li> <li>Eksteins, Modris, <i>Walking Since Daybreak: A story of Eastern Europe, World War II, and the Heart of our Century</i>, Houghton Mifflin, Boston 1999 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-395-93747-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-395-93747-7">0-395-93747-7</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEzergailis1996a" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Ezergailis" title="Andrew Ezergailis">Ezergailis, Andrew</a> (1996a). "Latvia". In Wyman, David S.; Rosenzveig, Charles H. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U6KVOsjpP0MC"><i>The World Reacts to the Holocaust</i></a>. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 354–88. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8018-4969-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8018-4969-1"><bdi>0-8018-4969-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Latvia&rft.btitle=The+World+Reacts+to+the+Holocaust&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pages=354-88&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-8018-4969-1&rft.aulast=Ezergailis&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DU6KVOsjpP0MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARumbula+massacre" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEzergailis1996b" class="citation book cs1">Ezergailis, Andrew (1996b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=i9i7AAAAIAAJ"><i>The Holocaust in Latvia, 1941-1944: The Missing Center</i></a>. Riga / Washington DC: Historical Institute of Latvia and the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9984905433" title="Special:BookSources/978-9984905433"><bdi>978-9984905433</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Holocaust+in+Latvia%2C+1941-1944%3A+The+Missing+Center&rft.place=Riga+%2F+Washington+DC&rft.pub=Historical+Institute+of+Latvia+and+the+United+States+Holocaust+Memorial+Museum&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-9984905433&rft.aulast=Ezergailis&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Di9i7AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARumbula+massacre" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFleming1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Fleming" title="Gerald Fleming">Fleming, Gerald</a> (1994). <i>Hitler and the Final Solution</i>. <a href="/wiki/Berkeley,_California" title="Berkeley, California">Berkeley</a>: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0520060229" title="Special:BookSources/0520060229"><bdi>0520060229</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hitler+and+the+Final+Solution&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0520060229&rft.aulast=Fleming&rft.aufirst=Gerald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARumbula+massacre" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Friedl%C3%A4nder" title="Saul Friedländer">Friedländer, Saul</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Years_of_Extermination" title="The Years of Extermination"><i>The years of extermination : Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1939-1945</i></a>, New York, NY 2007 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-019043-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-019043-9">978-0-06-019043-9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raul_Hilberg" title="Raul Hilberg">Hilberg, Raul</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Destruction_of_the_European_Jews" title="The Destruction of the European Jews">The Destruction of the European Jews</a></i> (3d Ed.) Yale University Press, New Haven, CT 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-09557-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-09557-0">0-300-09557-0</a></li> <li>Hobrecht,Jürgen "We did survive it"- The Riga Ghetto. Documentary film, Berlin 2013, 98 Min. Outtakes: www.phoenix-medienakademie.com/Riga-survive</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaufmann2010" class="citation book cs1">Kaufmann, Max (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181030052759/http://www.shamir.lv/images/Kaufmann_st(3).pdf"><i>Churbn Lettland - The Destruction of the Jews of Latvia</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Translation by Laimdota Mazzarins. Konstanz: Hartung-Gorre Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-86628-315-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-86628-315-2"><bdi>978-3-86628-315-2</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.shamir.lv/images/Kaufmann_st(3).pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 30 October 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Churbn+Lettland+-+The+Destruction+of+the+Jews+of+Latvia&rft.place=Konstanz&rft.pub=Hartung-Gorre+Verlag&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-3-86628-315-2&rft.aulast=Kaufmann&rft.aufirst=Max&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.shamir.lv%2Fimages%2FKaufmann_st%283%29.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARumbula+massacre" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Klee" title="Ernst Klee">Klee, Ernst</a>, Dressen, Willi, and Riess, Volker, eds., <i>The Good Old Days: The Holocaust as seen by its Perpetrators and Bystanders</i>, (English translation) MacMillan Free Press, NY 1991 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-917425-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-02-917425-2">0-02-917425-2</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.li.lv/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=141&Itemid=1100&lang=en">Latvia Institute, The Holocaust in German-Occupied Latvia</a></li> <li>Michelson, Frida, <i>I Survived Rumbuli</i>, Holocaust Library, New York, NY 1979 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89604-029-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-89604-029-1">0-89604-029-1</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mfa.gov.lv/en/news/Newsletters/Theme-in-Focus/4169/">Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Latvia, Holocaust Remembrance - Rumbula Memorial Site Unveiled, December 2002</a></li> <li>Press, Bernard, <i>The Murder of the Jews in Latvia</i>, Northwestern University Press, 2000 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8101-1729-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8101-1729-0">0-8101-1729-0</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Reitlinger" title="Gerald Reitlinger">Reitlinger, Gerald</a>, <i>The SS—Alibi of a Nation</i>, at 186, 282, Viking Press, New York, 1957 (Da Capo reprint 1989) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-306-80351-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-306-80351-8">0-306-80351-8</a></li> <li>Roseman, Mark, <i>The Wannsee Conference and the Final Solution—A Reassessment</i>, Holt, New York, 2002 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8050-6810-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8050-6810-4">0-8050-6810-4</a></li> <li>Rubenstein, Richard L., and Roth, John K., <i>Approaches to Auschwitz</i>, page 179, Louisville, Ky. : Westminster John Knox Press, 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-664-22353-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-664-22353-2">0-664-22353-2</a></li> <li><span class="languageicon">(in German)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arbeit-und-leben-hochtaunus.de/Lettland.Der_Judenmord_in_Riga.pdf">Scheffler, Wolfgang, "Zur Geschichte der Deportation jüdischer Bürger nach Riga 1941/1942", Volksbund Deutsche Kriegsgräberfürsorge e.V. – 23.05.2000</a></li> <li>Schneider, Gertrude, <i>Journey into terror: story of the Riga Ghetto</i>, (2d Ed.) Westport, Conn. : Praeger, 2001 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-275-97050-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-275-97050-7">0-275-97050-7</a></li> <li>Schneider, Gertrude, ed., <i>The Unfinished Road: Jewish Survivors of Latvia Look Back</i>, Praeger Publishers (1991) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-94093-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-94093-5">978-0-275-94093-5</a></li> <li>Smith, Lyn, <i>Remembering: Voices of the Holocaust</i>, Carroll & Graf, New York 2005 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7867-1640-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7867-1640-1">0-7867-1640-1</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030516094249/http://rumbula.org/bookexcerpt.htm">Winter, Alfred, "Rumbula Viewed From The Riga Ghetto" from <i>The Ghetto of Riga and Continuance - A Survivor's Memoir </i> 1998</a></li> <li>Elmar Rivosch. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://berkovich-zametki.com/2007/Zametki/Nomer14/Rivosh1.htm">Riga Manuskript</a></li> <li>Alexander Bergmann. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://de.scribd.com/book/282841362/Aufzeichnungen-eines-Untermenschen">Aufzeichnungen eines Untermenschen.</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="War_crimes_trials_and_evidence">War crimes trials and evidence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: War crimes trials and evidence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Brätigam, Otto, Memorandum dated 18 Dec. 1941, "Jewish Question re correspondence of 15 Nov. 1941" translated and reprinted in Office of the United States Chief of Counsel For Prosecution of Axis Criminality, <i>Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression</i>, Exhibit 3666-PS, Volume VII, pages 978–995, USGPO, Washington DC 1946 ("Red Series")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Jeckeln" title="Friedrich Jeckeln">Jeckeln, Friedrich</a>, excerpts from minutes of interrogation, 14 December 1945 (Maj. Zwetajew, interrogator, Sgt. Suur, interpreter), pages 8–13, from the Historical State Archives, as reprinted in Fleming, <i>Hitler and the Final Solution</i>, at pages 95–100 (Portions of the Jeckeln interrogation are also available online at the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/orgs/german/einsatzgruppen/esg/jeckeln.html">Nizkor website</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110718171245/http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/orgs/german/einsatzgruppen/esg/jeckeln.html">Archived</a> 2011-07-18 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Walter_Stahlecker" title="Franz Walter Stahlecker">Stahlecker, Franz W.</a>, "Comprehensive Report of Einsatzgruppe A Operations up to 15 October 1941", Exhibit L-180, translated in part and reprinted in Office of the United States Chief of Counsel For Prosecution of Axis Criminality, <i>Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression</i>, Volume VII, pages 978–995, USGPO, Washington DC 1946 ("Red Series")</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/imt.asp">"The International Military Tribunal for Germany"</a>. <i>Yale Law School / Lillian Goldman Law Library / The Avalon Project</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Yale+Law+School+%2F+Lillian+Goldman+Law+Library+%2F+The+Avalon+Project&rft.atitle=The+International+Military+Tribunal+for+Germany&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2Fsubject_menus%2Fimt.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARumbula+massacre" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/Military_Law/NTs_war-criminals.html"><i>Trials of War Criminals before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals under Control Council Law No. 10, Nuernberg, October 1946 - April 1949</i>, Volume IV, ("Green Series) (the "Einsatzgruppen case")</a> also available at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mazal.org/NMT-HOME.htm">Mazel library</a> (well indexed HTML version)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Katz, Josef, <i>One Who Came Back</i>, University of Wisconsin Press, (2nd Ed. 2006) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-928755-07-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-928755-07-4">978-1-928755-07-4</a></li> <li>Iwens, Sidney, <i>How Dark the Heavens—1400 Days in the Grip of Nazi Terror</i>, Shengold Publishing (2d ed. 1990) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88400-147-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88400-147-8">978-0-88400-147-8</a></li> <li>Michelson, Max, <i>City of Life, City of Death: Memories of Riga</i>, University Press of Colorado (2001) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87081-642-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87081-642-0">978-0-87081-642-0</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rumbula_massacre&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060402213317/http://rumbula.org/">The Holocaust in Latvia and Latvia's Jews Yesterday and Today</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20021012211955/http://www.rumbula.org/remembering_rumbula.htm">Remembering Rumbula</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://usdin.dumes.net/esthershord.html">Killed in Rumbala forest</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mfa.gov.lv/en/policy/4641/4661/4668/">Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Latvia, Holocaust Education, Research and Remembrance in Latvia, 16 Sept 2003</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tuCUjjM1Eik">Memorializing the Rumbula Massacre of Latvia's Jewish Community</a> – Interview with survivor (Yiddish with English subtitles)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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"}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Holocaust_Latvia" title="Template:Holocaust Latvia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Holocaust_Latvia" title="Template talk:Holocaust Latvia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Holocaust_Latvia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Holocaust Latvia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="The_Holocaust_in_Latvia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Latvia" title="The Holocaust in Latvia">The Holocaust in Latvia</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt><span class="nobold">Main article</span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a></dd> <dt><span class="nobold">Related articles by country</span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Belarus" title="The Holocaust in Belarus">Belarus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Estonia" title="The Holocaust in Estonia">Estonia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Lithuania" title="The Holocaust in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Norway" title="The Holocaust in Norway">Norway</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Poland" title="The Holocaust in Poland">Poland</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Russia" title="The Holocaust in Russia">Russia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Ukraine" title="The Holocaust in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Crimes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burning_of_the_Riga_synagogues" title="Burning of the Riga synagogues">Burning of the Riga synagogues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%BCnam%C3%BCnde_Action" title="Dünamünde Action">Dünamünde Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jelgava_massacres" title="Jelgava massacres">Jelgava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daugavpils_Ghetto" title="Daugavpils Ghetto">Pogulianski</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rumbula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liep%C4%81ja_massacres" title="Liepāja massacres">Liepāja (Šķēde)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Victims</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Latvia" title="History of the Jews in Latvia">Jewish people of Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Romani genocide">Gypsies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Carlebach" title="Joseph Carlebach">Joseph Carlebach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Dubnow" title="Simon Dubnow">Simon Dubnow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Else_Hirsch" title="Else Hirsch">Else Hirsch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Perpetrators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alois_Brunner" title="Alois Brunner">Alois Brunner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Batz" title="Rudolf Batz">Rudolf Batz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Dietrich_(Nazi)" title="Fritz Dietrich (Nazi)">Fritz Dietrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto-Heinrich_Drechsler" title="Otto-Heinrich Drechsler">Otto-Heinrich Drechsler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Ehrlinger" title="Erich Ehrlinger">Erich Ehrlinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_J%C3%A4ger" title="Karl Jäger">Karl Jäger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Jeckeln" title="Friedrich Jeckeln">Friedrich Jeckeln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinz_Jost" title="Heinz Jost">Heinz Jost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konr%C4%81ds_Kal%C4%93js" title="Konrāds Kalējs">Konrāds Kalējs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Kaltenbrunner" title="Ernst Kaltenbrunner">Ernst Kaltenbrunner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_K%C3%BCgler" title="Wolfgang Kügler">Wolfgang Kügler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Lange" title="Rudolf Lange">Rudolf Lange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinrich_Lohse" title="Hinrich Lohse">Hinrich Lohse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Panzinger" title="Friedrich Panzinger">Friedrich Panzinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Adolf_Pr%C3%BCtzmann" title="Hans-Adolf Prützmann">Hans-Adolf Prützmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Roschmann" title="Eduard Roschmann">Eduard Roschmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Rosenberg" title="Alfred Rosenberg">Alfred Rosenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Sandberger" title="Martin Sandberger">Martin Sandberger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Sauer" title="Albert Sauer">Albert Sauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walther_Schr%C3%B6der" title="Walther Schröder">Walther Schröder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Joachim_Seck" title="Rudolf Joachim Seck">Rudolf Joachim Seck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Walter_Stahlecker" title="Franz Walter Stahlecker">Franz Walter Stahlecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Strauch" title="Eduard Strauch">Eduard Strauch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nazi occupation and organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reichskommissariat_Ostland" title="Reichskommissariat Ostland">Reichskommissariat Ostland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rollkommando_Hamann" title="Rollkommando Hamann">Rollkommando Hamann</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Collaboration_with_Nazi_Germany_and_Fascist_Italy#Latvia" title="Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy">Collaborators</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt><span class="nobold">Individuals</span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Viktors_Ar%C4%81js" title="Viktors Arājs">Viktors Arājs</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herberts_Cukurs" title="Herberts Cukurs">Herberts Cukurs</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/K%C4%81rlis_Lobe" title="Kārlis Lobe">Kārlis Lobe</a></dd></dl> <dl><dt><span class="nobold">Organizations</span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Arajs_Kommando" title="Arajs Kommando">Arajs Kommando</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Latvian_Auxiliary_Police" title="Latvian Auxiliary Police">Latvian Auxiliary Police</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Schutzmannschaft" title="Schutzmannschaft">Schutzmannschaft</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ghettos and camps</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daugavpils_Ghetto" title="Daugavpils Ghetto">Daugavpils Ghetto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jungfernhof_concentration_camp" title="Jungfernhof concentration camp">Jungfernhof concentration camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaiserwald_concentration_camp" title="Kaiserwald concentration camp">Kaiserwald concentration camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riga_Ghetto" title="Riga Ghetto">Riga Ghetto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salaspils_concentration_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Salaspils concentration camp">Salaspils concentration camp</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Documentation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Generalplan_Ost" title="Generalplan Ost">Generalplan Ost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A4ger_Report" title="Jäger Report">Jäger Report</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concealment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sonderaktion_1005" title="Sonderaktion 1005">Sonderaktion 1005</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">War crimes investigations and trials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen_trial" title="Einsatzgruppen trial">Einsatzgruppen trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riga_Trial" title="Riga Trial">Riga Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extraordinary_State_Commission" title="Extraordinary State Commission">Extraordinary (Soviet) State Commission</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Righteous_Among_the_Nations" title="Righteous Among the Nations">Righteous Among the Nations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/J%C4%81nis_Lipke" title="Jānis Lipke">Jānis Lipke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Schiemann" title="Paul Schiemann">Paul Schiemann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberts_Seduls_and_Johanna_Sedule" title="Roberts Seduls and Johanna Sedule">Roberts Seduls and Johanna Sedule</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Memorials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bikernieki_Memorial" title="Bikernieki Memorial">Bikernieki Memorial</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Mover" title="The Mover">The Mover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Latvia_during_World_War_II" title="German occupation of Latvia during World War II">Occupation of Latvia by Nazi Germany</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Massacres_or_pogroms_against_Jews" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Massacres_or_pogroms_against_Jews" title="Template:Massacres or pogroms against Jews"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Massacres_or_pogroms_against_Jews" title="Template talk:Massacres or pogroms against Jews"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Massacres_or_pogroms_against_Jews" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Massacres or pogroms against Jews"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Massacres_or_pogroms_against_Jews" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Massacre" title="Massacre">Massacres</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">pogroms</a> against <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1st – 13th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">1–999</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alexandrian_riots_(38_CE)" title="Alexandrian riots (38 CE)">Alexandrian pogrom</a> (38)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alexandria_riot_(66)" title="Alexandria riot (66)">2nd Alexandrian pogrom</a> (66)</span></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Jewish_revolts" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Jewish revolts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/First_Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_War" title="First Jewish–Roman War">The Great Revolt</a> (66–73)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt#Aftermath" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba revolt</a> (132–136)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_revolt_against_Constantius_Gallus" title="Jewish revolt against Constantius Gallus">Jewish revolt against Constantius Gallus</a> (351–352)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_revolt_against_Heraclius#Massacre_of_the_Jews" title="Jewish revolt against Heraclius">Jewish revolt against Heraclius</a> (614–617)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Khaybar" title="Battle of Khaybar">Battle of Khaybar</a> (628 CE)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">1000–1299</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sacks_of_C%C3%B3rdoba_(1009%E2%80%931013)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacks of Córdoba (1009–1013)">Córdoba massacre</a> (1013)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1033_Fez_massacre" title="1033 Fez massacre">Fez massacre</a> (1033)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1066_Granada_massacre" title="1066 Granada massacre">Granada massacre</a> (1066)</span></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rhineland_massacres" title="Rhineland massacres">Rhineland massacres</a> (1096)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Worms_massacre_(1096)" title="Worms massacre (1096)">Worms</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Speyer#Massacres_of_1096" title="History of the Jews in Speyer">Speyer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_and_the_Crusades" title="History of the Jews and the Crusades">Mainz </a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_antisemitism#Twelfth_century" title="Timeline of antisemitism">Ham massacre</a> (1143)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_England_(1066%E2%80%931290)#Massacres_at_London_and_York_(1189–1190)" title="History of the Jews in England (1066–1290)">Massacres at London and York</a> (1189–1190)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Rintfleisch_massacres" title="Rintfleisch massacres">Rintfleisch massacres</a> (1298)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">14th – 19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">1300–1599</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Shepherds%27_Crusade_(1320)" title="Shepherds' Crusade (1320)">Shepherds' Crusade</a> (1320)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Navarre_pogrom&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Navarre pogrom (page does not exist)">Navarre pogrom</a> (1328)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Armleder_persecutions" title="Armleder persecutions">Armleder persecutions</a> (1336–1339)</span></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Persecution_of_Jews_during_the_Black_Death_(1348–1350)" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews_during_the_Black_Death" title="Persecution of Jews during the Black Death">Persecution of Jews during the Black Death</a> (1348–1350)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Erfurt_massacre_(1349)" title="Erfurt massacre (1349)">Erfurt</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Basel_Massacre" title="Basel Massacre">Basel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Speyer#Pogroms_and_expulsions_beginning_1195" title="History of the Jews in Speyer">Speyer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Strasbourg_massacre" title="Strasbourg massacre">Strasbourg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Zurich_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Zurich Massacre">Zurich</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Spain#1300–1391" title="History of the Jews in Spain">Toledo massacre</a> (1355)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Brussels_massacre" title="Brussels massacre">Brussels massacre</a> (1370)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_1391" title="Massacre of 1391">1391 pogroms</a> (1391)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Schaffhausen_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Schaffhausen Massacre">Schaffhausen Massacre</a> (1401)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1465_Moroccan_revolution" title="1465 Moroccan revolution">Moroccan revolution</a> (1465)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=1473_C%C3%B3rdoba_pogrom&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1473 Córdoba pogrom (page does not exist)">Córdoba pogrom</a> (1473)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Modica#History" title="Modica">Massacre of the Assumption</a> (1474)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a> (1478)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Arles#Fourteenth_and_fifteenth_centuries" title="History of the Jews in Arles">Arles pogrom</a> (1484)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lisbon_massacre" title="Lisbon massacre">Lisbon massacre</a> (1506)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1517_Hebron_attacks" title="1517 Hebron attacks">Hebron pogrom</a> (1517)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1517_Safed_attacks" title="1517 Safed attacks">Safed pogrom</a> (1517)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Inquisition" title="Portuguese Inquisition">Portuguese Inquisition</a> (1536)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">1600–1899</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Khmelnytsky_Uprising" title="Khmelnytsky Uprising">Chmielnicki massacres</a> (1648–1657)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1660_destruction_of_Safed" title="1660 destruction of Safed">Safed massacre</a> (1660)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mawza_Exile" title="Mawza Exile">Mawza Exile</a> (1679)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_Uman" title="Massacre of Uman">Massacre of Uman</a> (1768)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=T%C3%A9touan_pogrom&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tétouan pogrom (page does not exist)">Tétouan pogrom</a> (1790)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algiers_massacre&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Algiers massacre (page does not exist)">Algiers massacre</a> (1805)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hep-Hep_riots" title="Hep-Hep riots">Hep-Hep riots</a> (1819)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Odessa_pogroms#1821_pogrom" title="Odessa pogroms">First Odessa pogrom</a> (1821)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=1828_Baghdad_massacre&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1828 Baghdad massacre (page does not exist)">Baghdad massacre</a> (1828)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1834_looting_of_Safed" title="1834 looting of Safed">Tzfat pogrom</a> (1834)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hebron" title="Battle of Hebron">Hebron pogrom</a> (1834)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1838_Druze_attack_on_Safed" title="1838 Druze attack on Safed">Safed massacre</a> (1838)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Allahdad" title="Allahdad">Allahdad</a> (1839)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Damascus_affair" title="Damascus affair">Damascus affair</a> (1840)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Odessa_pogroms#1859_pogrom" title="Odessa pogroms">Second Odessa pogrom</a> (1859)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Odessa_pogroms#1871_pogrom" title="Odessa pogroms">Third Odessa pogrom</a> (1871)</span></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Russian_Empire_(1881–1884)" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pogroms_in_the_Russian_Empire" title="Pogroms in the Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> (1881–1884)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kiev_pogrom_(1881)" title="Kiev pogrom (1881)">Kiev</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_pogrom_(1881)" title="Warsaw pogrom (1881)">Warsaw</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Odessa_pogroms#1881–1906_period" title="Odessa pogroms">Fourth Odessa pogrom</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=1891_Corfu_riots&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1891 Corfu riots (page does not exist)">Corfu pogrom</a> (1891)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1898_Algerian_riots" title="1898 Algerian riots">1898 Algerian riots</a> (1898)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">1900–1937</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cz%C4%99stochowa_pogrom_(1902)" title="Częstochowa pogrom (1902)">Częstochowa pogrom</a> (1902)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kishinev_pogrom" title="Kishinev pogrom">First Kishinev pogrom</a> (1903)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Zabolotiv#History" title="Zabolotiv">Zablotov pogrom</a> (1903)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kiev_pogrom_(1905)" title="Kiev pogrom (1905)">Kiev pogrom</a> (1905)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Odessa_pogroms#1905_Pogrom" title="Odessa pogroms">Fifth Odessa pogrom</a> (1905)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Second_Kishinev_pogrom" title="Second Kishinev pogrom">Second Kishinev pogrom</a> (1905)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok_pogrom" title="Białystok pogrom">Białystok pogrom</a> (1906)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Siedlce_pogrom" title="Siedlce pogrom">Siedlce pogrom</a> (1906)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Shiraz_blood_libel" class="mw-redirect" title="Shiraz blood libel">Shiraz pogrom</a> (1910)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1912_Fez_riots" title="1912 Fez riots">The Tritl</a> (1912)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lw%C3%B3w_pogrom_(1914)" title="Lwów pogrom (1914)">Lwów pogrom</a> (1914)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Skvyra#History" title="Skvyra">Skver pogrom</a> (1917)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1917_Jaffa_deportation" title="1917 Jaffa deportation">Tel Aviv and Jaffa deportation</a> (1917)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kielce_pogrom_(1918)" title="Kielce pogrom (1918)">Kielce pogrom</a> (1918)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lw%C3%B3w_pogrom_(1918)" title="Lwów pogrom (1918)">Lwów pogrom</a> (1918)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Anti-Jewish_violence_in_Czechoslovakia_(1918%E2%80%931920)" title="Anti-Jewish violence in Czechoslovakia (1918–1920)">Anti-Jewish violence in Czechoslovakia (1918–1920)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1920_Nebi_Musa_riots" title="1920 Nebi Musa riots">1920 Nebi Musa riots</a></span></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Russian_Civil_War_(1918–1920)" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pogroms_of_the_Russian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Pogroms of the Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a> (1918–1920)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lida#Jewish_Community" title="Lida">Lida</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Radomyshl#History" title="Radomyshl">Radomyshl</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Justingrad" title="Justingrad">Justingrad</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Skvyra#History" title="Skvyra">Skver</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Zviahel#History" title="Zviahel">Zviahel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pinsk_massacre" title="Pinsk massacre">Pinsk</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Fastov_massacre" title="Fastov massacre">Fastov</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Proskurov_pogrom" title="Proskurov pogrom">Proskurov</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kiev_pogroms_(1919)" title="Kiev pogroms (1919)">Kiev</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Zawiercie#History" title="Zawiercie">Zavirtcha pogrom</a> (1921)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=1927_Oradea_pogrom&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1927 Oradea pogrom (page does not exist)">Oradea pogrom</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/1927-es_nagyv%C3%A1radi_pogrom" class="extiw" title="hu:1927-es nagyváradi pogrom">hu</a>]</span> (1927)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1929_Palestine_riots" title="1929 Palestine riots">Safed massacre</a> (1929)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1929_Hebron_massacre" title="1929 Hebron massacre">Hebron massacre</a> (1929)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Campbell_pogrom" title="Campbell pogrom">Campbell pogrom</a> (1931)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1934_Constantine_riots" title="1934 Constantine riots">Constantine riots</a> (1934)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1934_Thrace_pogroms" title="1934 Thrace pogroms">Thrace pogroms</a> (1934)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jaffa_riots_(April_1936)" title="Jaffa riots (April 1936)">The Bloody Day in Jaffa</a> (1936)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Przytyk_pogrom" title="Przytyk pogrom">Przytyk pogrom</a> (1936) </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Brest_pogrom&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Brest pogrom (page does not exist)">Brest pogrom</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pogrom_von_Brest_(1937)" class="extiw" title="de:Pogrom von Brest (1937)">de</a>; <a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaj%C5%9Bcia_anty%C5%BCydowskie_w_Brze%C5%9Bciu_nad_Bugiem" class="extiw" title="pl:Zajścia antyżydowskie w Brześciu nad Bugiem">pl</a>]</span> (1937)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">1938–1945</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="1938" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1938</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1938_Tiberias_massacre" title="1938 Tiberias massacre">Tiberias massacre</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kristallnacht" title="Kristallnacht">Kristallnacht</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1939</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cz%C4%99stochowa_massacre" title="Częstochowa massacre">Częstochowa massacre</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Massacre_in_Dyn%C3%B3w" title="Massacre in Dynów">Dynów massacre</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Krasnosielc#History" title="Krasnosielc">Silc massacre</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1940</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dorohoi_pogrom" title="Dorohoi pogrom">Dorohoi pogrom</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1941</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Legionnaires%27_rebellion_and_Bucharest_pogrom#The_Bucharest_pogrom" title="Legionnaires' rebellion and Bucharest pogrom">Bucharest</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Antwerp_pogrom" class="mw-redirect" title="Antwerp pogrom">Antwerp</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1941_anti-Jewish_riots_in_Gab%C3%A8s" title="1941 anti-Jewish riots in Gabès">Gabès</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kaunas_pogrom" title="Kaunas pogrom">Kaunas (June)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Szczuczyn_pogrom" title="Szczuczyn pogrom">Szczuczyn</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ia%C8%99i_pogrom" title="Iași pogrom">Iași</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lviv_pogroms_(1941)" title="Lviv pogroms (1941)">Lviv</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/W%C4%85sosz_pogrom" title="Wąsosz pogrom">Wąsosz</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jedwabne_pogrom" title="Jedwabne pogrom">Jedwabne</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Farhud" title="Farhud">Farhud</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ponary_massacre" title="Ponary massacre">Ponary</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mass_murders_in_Tykocin" title="Mass murders in Tykocin">Tykocin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kamianets-Podilskyi_massacre" title="Kamianets-Podilskyi massacre">Kamianets-Podilskyi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Babi_Yar" title="Babi Yar">Babi Yar</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1941_Odessa_massacre" title="1941 Odessa massacre">Odessa</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/%C5%A0ven%C4%8Dion%C4%97liai_massacre" title="Švenčionėliai massacre">Švenčionėliai</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kaunas_massacre_of_October_29,_1941" title="Kaunas massacre of October 29, 1941">Kaunas (October)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rumbula</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a> (1941–1945)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1942</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/D%C3%BCnam%C3%BCnde_Action" title="Dünamünde Action">Dünamünde Action</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dzyatlava_massacre" title="Dzyatlava massacre">Dzyatlava massacre</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sarny_massacre" title="Sarny massacre">Sarny massacre</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1943</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising" title="Warsaw Ghetto Uprising">Warsaw Ghetto Uprising</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kielce_cemetery_massacre" title="Kielce cemetery massacre">Kielce cemetery massacre</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Operation_Harvest_Festival" title="Operation Harvest Festival">Operation Harvest Festival</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1944</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ardeatine_massacre" title="Ardeatine massacre">Ardeatine massacre</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ludu%C8%99_massacre" title="Luduș massacre">Luduș massacre</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/S%C4%83rma%C8%99u_massacre" title="Sărmașu massacre">Sărmașu massacre</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kremni%C4%8Dka_and_Nemeck%C3%A1_massacres" title="Kremnička and Nemecká massacres">Kremnička and Nemecká massacres</a> (1944–1945)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1945</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Deutsch_Sch%C3%BCtzen_massacre" title="Deutsch Schützen massacre">Deutsch Schützen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Topo%C4%BE%C4%8Dany_pogrom" title="Topoľčany pogrom">Topoľčany pogrom</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w_pogrom" title="Kraków pogrom">Kraków pogrom</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1945_anti-Jewish_riots_in_Tripolitania" title="1945 anti-Jewish riots in Tripolitania">Tripolitania pogrom</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1945_anti-Jewish_riots_in_Egypt" title="1945 anti-Jewish riots in Egypt">Cairo pogrom</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">1946–1999</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="1946" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1946</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kielce_pogrom" title="Kielce pogrom">Kielce</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kunmadaras_pogrom" title="Kunmadaras pogrom">Kunmadaras</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Miskolc_pogrom" title="Miskolc pogrom">Miskolc</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1947</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Fajja_bus_attacks" title="Fajja bus attacks">Fajja bus attacks</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Haifa_Oil_Refinery_massacre" title="Haifa Oil Refinery massacre">Haifa Oil Refinery</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1947_anti-Jewish_riots_in_Aden" title="1947 anti-Jewish riots in Aden">Aden</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1947_anti-Jewish_riots_in_Aleppo" title="1947 anti-Jewish riots in Aleppo">Aleppo</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1947_anti-Jewish_riots_in_Manama" title="1947 anti-Jewish riots in Manama">Manama</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1948</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1948_Anti-Jewish_riots_in_Tripolitania" class="mw-redirect" title="1948 Anti-Jewish riots in Tripolitania">Tripoli</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1948_Anti-Jewish_riots_in_Oujda_and_Jerada" class="mw-redirect" title="1948 Anti-Jewish riots in Oujda and Jerada">Djerada</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ben_Yehuda_Street_bombings" title="Ben Yehuda Street bombings">Ben Yehuda Street bombing</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1948_Cairo_bombings" title="1948 Cairo bombings">Cairo bombings</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kfar_Etzion_massacre" title="Kfar Etzion massacre">Kfar Etzion massacre</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1949</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1949_Menarsha_synagogue_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="1949 Menarsha synagogue attack">Menarsha synagogue attack</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1950s–1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Night_of_the_Murdered_Poets" title="Night of the Murdered Poets">Night of the Murdered Poets</a> (1952)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ma%27ale_Akrabim_massacre" title="Ma'ale Akrabim massacre">Scorpion Pass massacre</a> (1954)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Istanbul_pogrom" title="Istanbul pogrom">Istanbul pogrom</a> (1955)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Shafrir_synagogue_shooting_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Shafrir synagogue shooting attack">Shafrir synagogue shooting</a> (1956)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1967_Tripoli_pogrom" title="1967 Tripoli pogrom">Tripoli pogrom</a> (1967)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1968_Polish_political_crisis#Emigration_of_Polish_citizens_of_Jewish_origin" title="1968 Polish political crisis">Purge of Polish Jews</a> (1968)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Avivim_school_bus_bombing" title="Avivim school bus bombing">Avivim school bus bombing</a> (1970)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Munich_massacre" title="Munich massacre">Munich massacre</a> (1972)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lod_Airport_massacre" title="Lod Airport massacre">Lod Airport massacre</a> (1972)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ma%27alot_massacre" title="Ma'alot massacre">Ma'alot massacre</a> (1974)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kiryat_Shmona_massacre" title="Kiryat Shmona massacre">Kiryat Shmona massacre</a> (1974)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ben_Yehuda_Street_bombings#1975" title="Ben Yehuda Street bombings">Ben Yehuda Street bombing</a> (1975)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Coastal_Road_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal Road massacre">Coastal Road massacre</a> (1978)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1979_Nahariya_attack" title="1979 Nahariya attack">Nahariya massacre</a> (1979)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1980_Paris_synagogue_bombing" title="1980 Paris synagogue bombing">Paris synagogue bombing</a> (1980)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1980_Antwerp_attack" title="1980 Antwerp attack">Antwerp summer camp attack</a> (1980)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1981_Antwerp_synagogue_bombing" title="1981 Antwerp synagogue bombing">Antwerp bombing</a> (1981)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1981_Vienna_synagogue_attack" title="1981 Vienna synagogue attack">Vienna synagogue attack</a> (1981)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Chez_Jo_Goldenberg_restaurant_attack" title="Chez Jo Goldenberg restaurant attack">Chez Jo Goldenberg restaurant attack</a> (1982)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ras_Burqa_massacre" title="Ras Burqa massacre">Ras Burqa massacre</a> (1985)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Neve_Shalom_Synagogue_massacre" title="Neve Shalom Synagogue massacre">Neve Shalom Synagogue massacre</a> (1986)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1989_Purim_stabbing_attack" title="1989 Purim stabbing attack">Purim stabbing</a> (1989)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1990_Cairo_bus_attack" title="1990 Cairo bus attack">Cairo bus attack</a> (1990)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Crown_Heights_riot" title="Crown Heights riot">Crown Heights riot</a> (1991)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/AMIA_bombing" title="AMIA bombing">AMIA bombing</a> (1994)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dizengoff_Street_bus_bombing" title="Dizengoff Street bus bombing">Dizengoff Street bus bombing</a> (1994)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Beit_Lid_suicide_bombing" title="Beit Lid suicide bombing">Beit Lid massacre</a> (1995)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dizengoff_Center_suicide_bombing" title="Dizengoff Center suicide bombing">Purim massacre</a> (1996)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Island_of_Peace_massacre" title="Island of Peace massacre">Island of Peace massacre</a> (1997)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1997_Mahane_Yehuda_Market_bombings" title="1997 Mahane Yehuda Market bombings">Mahane Yehuda Market bombings</a> (1997)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">2000–2009</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="2001" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dolphinarium_discotheque_massacre" title="Dolphinarium discotheque massacre">Dolphinarium discotheque massacre</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sbarro_restaurant_suicide_bombing" title="Sbarro restaurant suicide bombing">Sbarro restaurant suicide bombing</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2002</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ghriba_synagogue_bombing" title="Ghriba synagogue bombing">Ghriba synagogue bombing</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2002_Hadera_attack" title="2002 Hadera attack">Hadera attack</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Yeshivat_Beit_Yisrael_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Yeshivat Beit Yisrael massacre">Yeshivat Beit Yisrael massacre</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Passover_massacre" title="Passover massacre">Passover massacre</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Matza_restaurant_suicide_bombing" title="Matza restaurant suicide bombing">Matza restaurant suicide bombing</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_University_bombing" title="Hebrew University bombing">Hebrew University bombing</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2002_Rishon_LeZion_bombing" title="2002 Rishon LeZion bombing">Rishon LeZion bombing</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Matzuva_attack" title="Matzuva attack">Matzuva attack</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2002_Hebron_ambush" title="2002 Hebron ambush">Hebron ambush</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2003</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2003_Istanbul_bombings" title="2003 Istanbul bombings">Istanbul</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tel_Aviv_Central_bus_station_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Tel Aviv Central bus station massacre">Tel Aviv Central bus station massacre</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Davidka_Square_bus_bombing" title="Davidka Square bus bombing">Davidka Square bus bombing</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Caf%C3%A9_Hillel_bombing" title="Café Hillel bombing">Café Hillel bombing</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Maxim_restaurant_suicide_bombing" title="Maxim restaurant suicide bombing">Maxim restaurant suicide bombing</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Shmuel_HaNavi_bus_bombing" title="Shmuel HaNavi bus bombing">Shmuel HaNavi bus bombing</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Haifa_bus_37_suicide_bombing" title="Haifa bus 37 suicide bombing">Haifa bus 37 suicide bombing</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="2004–2009" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2004–2009</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Beersheba_bus_bombings" title="Beersheba bus bombings">Beersheba bus bombings</a> (2004)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2004_Ashdod_Port_bombings" title="2004 Ashdod Port bombings">Ashdod Port bombings</a> (2004)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2nd_Rosh_Ha%27ir_restaurant_bombing" title="2nd Rosh Ha'ir restaurant bombing">Tel Aviv shawarma bombing</a> (2006)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2008_Jerusalem_yeshiva_attack" title="2008 Jerusalem yeshiva attack">Jerusalem yeshiva attack</a> (2008)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">2010–2019</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2011_Itamar_attack" title="2011 Itamar attack">Itamar attack</a> (2011)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2012_Burgas_bus_bombing" title="2012 Burgas bus bombing">Burgas bus bombing</a> (2012)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Toulouse_and_Montauban_shootings" title="Toulouse and Montauban shootings">Toulouse and Montauban shootings</a> (2012)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2014_Jerusalem_synagogue_attack" title="2014 Jerusalem synagogue attack">Jerusalem synagogue massacre</a> (2014)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Overland_Park_Jewish_Community_Center_shooting" class="mw-redirect" title="Overland Park Jewish Community Center shooting">Overland Park Jewish Community Center shooting</a> (2014)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Museum_of_Belgium_shooting" title="Jewish Museum of Belgium shooting">Jewish Museum of Belgium shooting</a> (2014)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/January_2015_%C3%8Ele-de-France_attacks" title="January 2015 Île-de-France attacks">January 2015 Île-de-France attacks</a> (2015)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hypercacher_kosher_supermarket_siege" title="Hypercacher kosher supermarket siege">Hypercacher kosher supermarket siege</a> (2015)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/June_2016_Tel_Aviv_shooting" title="June 2016 Tel Aviv shooting">Tel Aviv shooting</a> (2016)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2017_Halamish_stabbing_attack" title="2017 Halamish stabbing attack">Halamish stabbing</a> (2017)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh_synagogue_shooting" title="Pittsburgh synagogue shooting">Pittsburgh synagogue shooting</a> (2018)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Poway_synagogue_shooting" title="Poway synagogue shooting">Poway synagogue shooting</a> (2019) </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2019_Jersey_City_shooting" title="2019 Jersey City shooting">Jersey City shooting</a> (2019)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Monsey_Hanukkah_stabbing" title="Monsey Hanukkah stabbing">Monsey Hanukkah stabbing</a> (2019)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">2020–present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2021_Israel%E2%80%93Palestine_crisis#Arab_communities_in_Israel" title="2021 Israel–Palestine crisis">Israel riots</a> (2021)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2022_Beersheba_attack" title="2022 Beersheba attack">Beersheba attack</a> (2022)</span></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="7_October_Hamas-led_attack_on_Israel" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/7_October_Hamas-led_attack_on_Israel" title="7 October Hamas-led attack on Israel">7 October Hamas-led attack on Israel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Be%27eri_massacre" title="Be'eri massacre">Be'eri</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ein_HaShlosha_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Ein HaShlosha massacre">Ein HaShlosha</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Holit_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Holit massacre">Holit</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kfar_Aza_massacre" title="Kfar Aza massacre">Kfar Aza</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kissufim_massacre" title="Kissufim massacre">Kissufim</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nahal_Oz_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Nahal Oz massacre">Nahal Oz</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Netiv_HaAsara_massacre" title="Netiv HaAsara massacre">Netiv HaAsara</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nir_Oz_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Nir Oz massacre">Nir Oz</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nirim_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Nirim massacre">Nirim</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Re%27im_music_festival_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Re'im music festival massacre">Re'im</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Yakhini_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Yakhini massacre">Yakhini</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2023_antisemitic_riots_in_the_North_Caucasus" title="2023 antisemitic riots in the North Caucasus">Antisemitic riots in the North Caucasus</a> (2023)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2024_Dagestan_attacks" title="2024 Dagestan attacks">Dagestan attacks</a> (2024)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/November_2024_Amsterdam_attacks" title="November 2024 Amsterdam attacks">Amsterdam attacks</a> (2024)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Einsatzgruppen_and_Einsatzkommandos" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#d7d7d7;;background:#c3c3c3;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Einsatzgruppen" title="Template:Einsatzgruppen"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Einsatzgruppen" title="Template talk:Einsatzgruppen"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Einsatzgruppen" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Einsatzgruppen"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Einsatzgruppen_and_Einsatzkommandos" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><i><a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Einsatzkommando" title="Einsatzkommando">Einsatzkommandos</a></i></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d7d7d7;;width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Director</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reinhard_Heydrich" title="Reinhard Heydrich">Reinhard Heydrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Kaltenbrunner" title="Ernst Kaltenbrunner">Ernst Kaltenbrunner</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Commanders of <br /><i>Einsatzgruppen</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Humbert_Achamer-Pifrader" title="Humbert Achamer-Pifrader">Humbert Achamer-Pifrader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walther_Bierkamp" title="Walther Bierkamp">Walther Bierkamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horst_B%C3%B6hme_(SS_officer)" title="Horst Böhme (SS officer)">Horst Böhme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Ehrlinger" title="Erich Ehrlinger">Erich Ehrlinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Fuchs" title="Wilhelm Fuchs">Wilhelm Fuchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinz_Jost" title="Heinz Jost">Heinz Jost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_M%C3%BCller" title="Bruno Müller">Bruno Müller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Naumann" title="Erich Naumann">Erich Naumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Nebe" title="Arthur Nebe">Arthur Nebe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Ohlendorf" title="Otto Ohlendorf">Otto Ohlendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Panzinger" title="Friedrich Panzinger">Friedrich Panzinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Rasch" title="Otto Rasch">Otto Rasch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Seetzen" title="Heinrich Seetzen">Heinrich Seetzen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Walter_Stahlecker" title="Franz Walter Stahlecker">Franz Walter Stahlecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Streckenbach" title="Bruno Streckenbach">Bruno Streckenbach</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Commanders of<br /><i>Einsatzkommandos</i>,<br /><i>Sonderkommandos</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erich_von_dem_Bach-Zelewski" title="Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski">Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Bast" title="Gerhard Bast">Gerhard Bast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Batz" title="Rudolf Batz">Rudolf Batz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Biberstein" title="Ernst Biberstein">Ernst Biberstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Birkner" title="Wolfgang Birkner">Wolfgang Birkner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helmut_Bischoff" title="Helmut Bischoff">Helmut Bischoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Blobel" title="Paul Blobel">Paul Blobel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Blume_(SS_officer)" title="Walter Blume (SS officer)">Walter Blume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich-Wilhelm_Bock" title="Friedrich-Wilhelm Bock">Friedrich-Wilhelm Bock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Bradfisch" title="Otto Bradfisch">Otto Bradfisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Braune" title="Werner Braune">Werner Braune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Brunner_(SS_general)" title="Karl Brunner (SS general)">Karl Brunner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Buchardt" title="Friedrich Buchardt">Friedrich Buchardt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Damzog" title="Ernst Damzog">Ernst Damzog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Flesch" title="Gerhard Flesch">Gerhard Flesch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Hahn" title="Ludwig Hahn">Ludwig Hahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Isselhorst" title="Erich Isselhorst">Erich Isselhorst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_J%C3%A4ger" title="Karl Jäger">Karl Jäger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Jeckeln" title="Friedrich Jeckeln">Friedrich Jeckeln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldemar_Klingelh%C3%B6fer" title="Waldemar Klingelhöfer">Waldemar Klingelhöfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_K%C3%BCgler" title="Wolfgang Kügler">Wolfgang Kügler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kutschmann" title="Walter Kutschmann">Walter Kutschmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Lange" title="Rudolf Lange">Rudolf Lange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josef_Albert_Meisinger" title="Josef Albert Meisinger">Josef Meisinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Adolf_Nosske" title="Gustav Adolf Nosske">Gustav Adolf Nosske</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Adolf_Pr%C3%BCtzmann" title="Hans-Adolf Prützmann">Hans-Adolf Prützmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Rauff" title="Walter Rauff">Walter Rauff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Sandberger" title="Martin Sandberger">Martin Sandberger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Sch%C3%A4fer" title="Emanuel Schäfer">Emanuel Schäfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Schaper" title="Hermann Schaper">Hermann Schaper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Eberhard_Sch%C3%B6ngarth" title="Karl Eberhard Schöngarth">Karl Eberhard Schöngarth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schulz" title="Erwin Schulz">Erwin Schulz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Six" title="Franz Six">Franz Six</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_Steimle" title="Eugen Steimle">Eugen Steimle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Strauch" title="Eduard Strauch">Eduard Strauch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Weiss_(Nazi_official)" title="Martin Weiss (Nazi official)">Martin Weiss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udo_von_Woyrsch" title="Udo von Woyrsch">Udo von Woyrsch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Other members</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/August_Becker" title="August Becker">August Becker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lothar_Fendler" title="Lothar Fendler">Lothar Fendler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Hamann" title="Joachim Hamann">Joachim Hamann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Haussmann" title="Emil Haussmann">Emil Haussmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Landau" title="Felix Landau">Felix Landau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinz_Schubert_(SS_officer)" title="Heinz Schubert (SS officer)">Heinz Schubert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Widmann" title="Albert Widmann">Albert Widmann</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Collaborators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viktors_Ar%C4%81js" title="Viktors Arājs">Viktors Arājs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herberts_Cukurs" title="Herberts Cukurs">Herberts Cukurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antanas_Impulevi%C4%8Dius" title="Antanas Impulevičius">Antanas Impulevičius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konr%C4%81ds_Kal%C4%93js" title="Konrāds Kalējs">Konrāds Kalējs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algirdas_Klimaitis" title="Algirdas Klimaitis">Algirdas Klimaitis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d7d7d7;;width:1%">Groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">German</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Schutzstaffel" title="Schutzstaffel">Schutzstaffel</a></i> (SS)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reich_Security_Main_Office" title="Reich Security Main Office">Reichssicherheitshauptamt</a></i> (RSHA)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sicherheitspolizei" title="Sicherheitspolizei">Sicherheitspolizei</a></i> (SiPo)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sicherheitsdienst" title="Sicherheitsdienst">Sicherheitsdienst</a></i> (SD)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ordnungspolizei" title="Ordnungspolizei">Ordnungspolizei</a></i> (Orpo)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/8th_SS_Cavalry_Division_Florian_Geyer" title="8th SS Cavalry Division Florian Geyer">8th SS Cavalry Division Florian Geyer</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Volksdeutscher_Selbstschutz" title="Volksdeutscher Selbstschutz">Volksdeutscher Selbstschutz</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sonderdienst" title="Sonderdienst">Sonderdienst</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Non-German</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Schutzmannschaft" title="Schutzmannschaft">Schutzmannschaft</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Belarusian_Auxiliary_Police" title="Belarusian Auxiliary Police">Belarusian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Estonian_Auxiliary_Police" title="Estonian Auxiliary Police">Estonian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latvian_Auxiliary_Police" title="Latvian Auxiliary Police">Latvian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Auxiliary_Police_Battalions" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Auxiliary Police Battalions">Lithuanian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Auxiliary_Police" title="Ukrainian Auxiliary Police">Ukrainian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arajs_Kommando" title="Arajs Kommando">Arajs <i>Kommando</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Security_Police" title="Lithuanian Security Police">Lithuanian Security Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rollkommando_Hamann" title="Rollkommando Hamann"><i>Rollkommando</i> Hamann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_TDA_Battalions" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian TDA Battalions">TDA</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ypatingasis_b%C5%ABrys" title="Ypatingasis būrys">Ypatingasis būrys</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d7d7d7;;width:1%">Crimes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Belarus" title="The Holocaust in Belarus">Belarus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%81achwa_Ghetto" title="Łachwa Ghetto">Łachwa Ghetto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minsk_Ghetto" title="Minsk Ghetto">Minsk Ghetto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slutsk_affair" class="mw-redirect" title="Slutsk affair">Slutsk Affair</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Estonia" title="The Holocaust in Estonia">Estonia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalevi-Liiva" title="Kalevi-Liiva">Kalevi-Liiva</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Latvia" title="The Holocaust in Latvia">Latvia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burning_of_the_Riga_synagogues" title="Burning of the Riga synagogues">Burning of the Riga synagogues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%BCnam%C3%BCnde_Action" title="Dünamünde Action">Dünamünde Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jelgava_massacres" title="Jelgava massacres">Jelgava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daugavpils_Ghetto" title="Daugavpils Ghetto">Pogulianski</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rumbula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liep%C4%81ja_massacres" title="Liepāja massacres">Liepāja (Šķēde)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Lithuania" title="The Holocaust in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Fort" title="Ninth Fort">Ninth Fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaunas_pogrom" title="Kaunas pogrom">Kaunas June 1941</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaunas_massacre_of_October_29,_1941" title="Kaunas massacre of October 29, 1941">Kaunas 29 October 1941</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Fort_massacres_of_November_1941" title="Ninth Fort massacres of November 1941">Ninth Fort November 1941</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ponary_massacre" title="Ponary massacre">Ponary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Poland" title="The Holocaust in Poland">Poland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Tannenberg" title="Operation Tannenberg">Operation Tannenberg</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Intelligenzaktion" title="Intelligenzaktion">Intelligenzaktion</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_AB-Aktion_in_Poland" title="German AB-Aktion in Poland"><i>AB-Aktion</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Russia" title="The Holocaust in Russia">Russia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gully_of_Petrushino" title="Gully of Petrushino">Gully of Petrushino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zmievskaya_Balka" title="Zmievskaya Balka">Zmievskaya Balka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Slovakia" title="The Holocaust in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kremni%C4%8Dka_and_Nemeck%C3%A1_massacres" title="Kremnička and Nemecká massacres">Kremnička and Nemecká</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Ukraine" title="The Holocaust in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babi_Yar" title="Babi Yar">Babi Yar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drobytsky_Yar" title="Drobytsky Yar">Drobytsky Yar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drohobycz_Ghetto" title="Drohobycz Ghetto">Drohobycz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamianets-Podilskyi_massacre" title="Kamianets-Podilskyi massacre">Kamianets-Podilskyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lviv_pogroms" class="mw-redirect" title="Lviv pogroms">Lviv pogroms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizocz_Ghetto" class="mw-redirect" title="Mizocz Ghetto">Mizocz Ghetto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1941_Odessa_massacre" title="1941 Odessa massacre">Odesa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d7d7d7;;width:1%">Records</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Einsatzgruppen" title="List of Einsatzgruppen">List of Einsatzgruppen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Black_Book_(list)" title="The Black Book (list)">The Black Book</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commissar_Order" title="Commissar Order">Commissar Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen_trial" title="Einsatzgruppen trial">Einsatzgruppen trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A4ger_Report" title="Jäger Report">Jäger Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korherr_Report" title="Korherr Report">Korherr Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Prosecution_Book-Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Special Prosecution Book-Poland">Special Prosecution Book-Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen_reports" title="Einsatzgruppen reports">Einsatzgruppen reports</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a 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