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vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Screening"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Screening</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Screening-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sand/gravel_packing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sand/gravel_packing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Sand/gravel packing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sand/gravel_packing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ground_water_safety" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ground_water_safety"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Ground water safety</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ground_water_safety-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Advantages_of_tube_well_irrigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advantages_of_tube_well_irrigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Advantages of tube well irrigation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advantages_of_tube_well_irrigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul 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href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86" title="Абисински кладенец – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Абисински кладенец" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rammbrunnen" title="Rammbrunnen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Rammbrunnen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%AA" title="नलकूप – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="नलकूप" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE" title="कूपनलिका – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="कूपनलिका" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nortonpijp" title="Nortonpijp – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Nortonpijp" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abessinerbr%C3%B8nn" title="Abessinerbrønn – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Abessinerbrønn" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abessinarbr%C3%B8nn" title="Abessinarbrønn – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Abessinarbrønn" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%8A%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%B5%E0%A9%88%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%B2" title="ਟਿਊਬਵੈੱਲ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਟਿਊਬਵੈੱਲ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%B9%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A8_%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84" 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Type of groundwater well</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output 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class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>relies largely or entirely on a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Articles_with_a_single_source" title="Wikipedia:Articles with a single source">single source</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Tube_well##" title="Talk:Tube well">talk page</a>. Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tube_well&action=edit">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">introducing citations to additional sources</a>.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Tube+well%22">"Tube well"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Tube+well%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Tube+well%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Tube+well%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Tube+well%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Tube+well%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2020</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:192px;max-width:192px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:190px;max-width:190px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:131px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tube_well_in_India_in_1968.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Tube_well_in_India_in_1968.jpg/188px-Tube_well_in_India_in_1968.jpg" decoding="async" width="188" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Tube_well_in_India_in_1968.jpg/282px-Tube_well_in_India_in_1968.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Tube_well_in_India_in_1968.jpg/376px-Tube_well_in_India_in_1968.jpg 2x" data-file-width="15186" data-file-height="10586" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">A tube well for irrigating wheat</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:190px;max-width:190px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:141px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Borehole_tubewell.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Borehole_tubewell.jpg/188px-Borehole_tubewell.jpg" decoding="async" width="188" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Borehole_tubewell.jpg/282px-Borehole_tubewell.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Borehole_tubewell.jpg/376px-Borehole_tubewell.jpg 2x" data-file-width="717" data-file-height="538" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Borehole" title="Borehole">Borehole</a> of a tube well</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:190px;max-width:190px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:140px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tube_well.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/7f/Tube_well.jpeg/188px-Tube_well.jpeg" decoding="async" width="188" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/7f/Tube_well.jpeg/282px-Tube_well.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/7f/Tube_well.jpeg/376px-Tube_well.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="669" data-file-height="501" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Outlet to a temporary reservoir</div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">A tubewell consists of a number of components, and can empty into a reservoir or field</div></div></div></div> <p>A <b>tube well</b> is a type of water <a href="/wiki/Well" title="Well">well</a> in which a long, 100–200 millimetres (3.9–7.9 in)-wide, stainless steel tube or pipe is <a href="/wiki/Borehole" title="Borehole">bored</a> underground. The lower end is fitted with a strainer, and a pump lifts water for <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a>. The required depth of the well depends on the depth of the <a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">water table</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tube_well&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The tube well was invented and patented by British <a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">hydrologist</a> John Norton in the 1860s. Versions of his tubewells were used during the <a href="/wiki/British_expedition_to_Abyssinia" title="British expedition to Abyssinia">British expedition to Abyssinia</a> in 1868 to provide ground water for the advancing force. It proved so successful for the British that they became known as "Abyssinian wells" and were widely adopted in England and elsewhere for providing reliable water supplies <sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Components">Components</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tube_well&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Components"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rizwan_tubewell.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Rizwan_tubewell.jpeg/300px-Rizwan_tubewell.jpeg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Rizwan_tubewell.jpeg/450px-Rizwan_tubewell.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Rizwan_tubewell.jpeg/600px-Rizwan_tubewell.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of a tube well.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Temporary_reservoir">Temporary reservoir</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tube_well&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Temporary reservoir"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A small reservoir of water is made at the outlet of the tube well. This reservoir is used for different usage of water by the local population. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Casing">Casing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tube_well&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Casing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Borewell_digging.ogv/220px--Borewell_digging.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="33" data-mwtitle="Borewell_digging.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Borewell_digging.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/16/Borewell_digging.ogv/Borewell_digging.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/16/Borewell_digging.ogv/Borewell_digging.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Borewell_digging.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/16/Borewell_digging.ogv/Borewell_digging.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /></video></span><figcaption>Digging a borewell in Kerala, India</figcaption></figure> <p>The tube well casing houses the inlet, cylinder, piston valves and rising main of a "down-the-hole" type hand pump. Casing to support the external surfaces of the borehole against collapse may be needed, either temporarily or permanently, and is often made of <a href="/wiki/PVC_pipe" class="mw-redirect" title="PVC pipe">PVC pipe</a>, which has the advantages of being both cheap and inert. </p><p>Seepage down the tube well bore is prevented by the sanitary seal. Seepage from the ground above the aquifer is excluded by the lengths of plain casing. Water to be pumped is admitted through slots in the lower lengths of casing. </p><p>Water abstracted from aquifers in relatively soft ground usually contains sand or silt particles, which are liable to cause rapid wear to pump valves and cylinders (and dissatisfaction among consumers). Methods of preventing these particles from reaching the pump are of two general types, screening and sand/gravel packing. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Screening">Screening</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tube_well&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Screening"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the simplest devices, slits are simply cut in the casing. More elaborate compact screens are available commercially; some can be bolted on to pump inlets. Materials used include woven wire and man-made fabric; the latter can be wrapped around the pump inlet assembly. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sand/gravel_packing"><span id="Sand.2Fgravel_packing"></span>Sand/gravel packing</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tube_well&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Sand/gravel packing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Graded sand and gravel may be placed from<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (September 2020)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> the top of the borehole. More compact, pre-bonded, packs of sand and/or gravel are available commercially; some of these can also form part of the pump inlet assembly. Sand and/or gravel packing is meant to eliminate particles from the water before they reach the screen which they would otherwise have passed through. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ground_water_safety">Ground water safety</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tube_well&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ground water safety"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tube_well_drinking_water_bottle_Sri_Lanka.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Tube_well_drinking_water_bottle_Sri_Lanka.jpg/220px-Tube_well_drinking_water_bottle_Sri_Lanka.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Tube_well_drinking_water_bottle_Sri_Lanka.jpg/330px-Tube_well_drinking_water_bottle_Sri_Lanka.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Tube_well_drinking_water_bottle_Sri_Lanka.jpg/440px-Tube_well_drinking_water_bottle_Sri_Lanka.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2576" data-file-height="2349" /></a><figcaption>Tube wells are a common source of bottled drinking water in some countries, such as Sri Lanka</figcaption></figure> <p>The introduction of tube wells has led to major <a href="/wiki/Arsenic_poisoning" title="Arsenic poisoning">arsenic poisoning</a> in Bangladesh.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> High concentrations of arsenic occur naturally in the soil in some areas of Bangladesh. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Advantages_of_tube_well_irrigation">Advantages of tube well irrigation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tube_well&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Advantages of tube well irrigation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Makes groundwater available when the <a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">water table</a> is fairly close to the surface.</li> <li>Able to irrigate a large area.</li> <li>More reliable than surface water during periods of drought.</li> <li>Suitable for <a href="/wiki/Small_holding" class="mw-redirect" title="Small holding">small holdings</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tube_well&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johad#Similar" title="Johad">Water conservation structures</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tube_well&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMatherRose2012" class="citation journal cs1">Mather, John D.; Rose, Edward P.F. (2012). "Military aspects of hydrogeology: An introduction and overview". <i>Geological Society, London, Special Publications</i>. <b>362</b> (1): 1-18. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012GSLSP.362....1M">2012GSLSP.362....1M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1144%2FSP362.1">10.1144/SP362.1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geological+Society%2C+London%2C+Special+Publications&rft.atitle=Military+aspects+of+hydrogeology%3A+An+introduction+and+overview&rft.volume=362&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-18&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1144%2FSP362.1&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012GSLSP.362....1M&rft.aulast=Mather&rft.aufirst=John+D.&rft.au=Rose%2C+Edward+P.F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATube+well" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalsh2010" class="citation magazine cs1">Walsh, Bryan (2010-06-19). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://science.time.com/2010/06/19/study-says-arsenic-poisons-millions-in-bangladesh%E2%80%94but-theyre-not-the-only-ones/">"Study Says Arsenic Poisons Millions in Bangladesh—But They're Not the Only Ones"</a>. <i>Time</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0040-781X">0040-781X</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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