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href="#Appointment_as_successor_and_Governor_of_Khurasan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Appointment as successor and Governor of Khurasan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Appointment_as_successor_and_Governor_of_Khurasan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abbasid_civil_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abbasid_civil_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Abbasid civil war</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abbasid_civil_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internal_strife" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internal_strife"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Internal strife</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Internal_strife-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Internal strife subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Internal_strife-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sahl_ibn_Salama_al-Ansari" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sahl_ibn_Salama_al-Ansari"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Sahl ibn Salama al-Ansari</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sahl_ibn_Salama_al-Ansari-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Imam_al-Rida" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imam_al-Rida"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Imam al-Rida</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Imam_al-Rida-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_arrival_in_Baghdad" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_arrival_in_Baghdad"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>After arrival in Baghdad</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-After_arrival_in_Baghdad-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wars_with_Byzantium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wars_with_Byzantium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Wars with Byzantium</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wars_with_Byzantium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-al-Ma'mun's_reign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#al-Ma'mun's_reign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>al-Ma'mun's reign</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-al-Ma'mun's_reign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_characteristics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_characteristics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Personal characteristics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_characteristics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Family" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Family"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Family</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Family-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death_and_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death_and_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Death and legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death_and_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_beliefs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_beliefs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Religious beliefs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_beliefs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">al-Ma'mun</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 54 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-54" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">54 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%88%D9%86" title="عبد الله المأمون – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عبد الله المأمون" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C9%99mun" title="Məmun – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Məmun" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%88%D9%86" title="مأمون – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="مأمون" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B2-%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A8" title="আল-মামুন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আল-মামুন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%85_%D0%B0%D0%BB-%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD" title="Абдаллах ал-Мамун – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Абдаллах ал-Мамун" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Ma'mun – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Al-Ma'mun" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Mamun_(abb%C3%A0ssida)" title="Al-Mamun (abbàssida) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Al-Mamun (abbàssida)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ma%E2%80%99m%C3%BAn" title="Al-Ma’mún – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Al-Ma’mún" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Mamun" title="Al-Mamun – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Al-Mamun" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ma%27m%C5%ABn" title="Al-Ma'mūn – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Al-Ma'mūn" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ma%27m%C5%ABn" title="Al-Ma'mūn – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Al-Ma'mūn" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BB-%CE%9C%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%8D%CE%BD" title="Αλ-Μαμούν – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αλ-Μαμούν" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Mam%C3%BAn_(califa)" title="Al-Mamún (califa) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Al-Mamún (califa)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Ma'mun – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Al-Ma'mun" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Mamun" title="Al-Mamun – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Al-Mamun" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%88%D9%86" title="مأمون – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مأمون" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ma%27m%C5%ABn" title="Al-Ma'mūn – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Al-Ma'mūn" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%8C%EB%A7%88%EC%9C%BC%EB%AC%B8" title="알마으문 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="알마으문" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Ma'mun – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Al-Ma'mun" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ma%CA%BEm%C5%ABn" title="Al-Maʾmūn – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Al-Maʾmūn" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9C-%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%9F" title="אל-מאמון – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אל-מאמון" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A-%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="ალ-მამუნი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ალ-მამუნი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD" title="Мамун – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Мамун" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Mam%C3%BAn_abb%C3%A1szida_kalifa" title="Al-Mamún abbászida kalifa – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Al-Mamún abbászida kalifa" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B5%BD_%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%85%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%81%E0%B5%BB" title="അൽ മുഅ്മുൻ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അൽ മുഅ്മുൻ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D9%86" title="عبد الله المامون – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="عبد الله المامون" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D9%86" title="مامون – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="مامون" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Ma'mun – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Al-Ma'mun" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ma%27moen" title="Al-Ma'moen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Al-Ma'moen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9E%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A0%E3%83%BC%E3%83%B3" title="マアムーン – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="マアムーン" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Mamun" title="Al-Mamun – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Al-Mamun" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%CA%BCmun" title="Maʼmun – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Maʼmun" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%AF" title="مامون الرشید – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="مامون الرشید" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%AF" title="مامون الرشید – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="مامون الرشید" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Mamun" title="Al-Mamun – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Al-Mamun" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almamune" title="Almamune – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Almamune" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Mamun" title="Al-Mamun – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Al-Mamun" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%85_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C-%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD" title="Абдуллах аль-Мамун – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Абдуллах аль-Мамун" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Ma'mun – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Al-Ma'mun" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ma%E2%80%99m%C3%BAn" title="Al-Ma’mún – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Al-Ma’mún" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Mamun" title="Al-Mamun – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Al-Mamun" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%27muun" title="Ma'muun – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Ma'muun" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%95%D8%A6%D9%85%D9%88%D9%88%D9%86" title="مەئموون – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="مەئموون" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD" title="Ел Мамун – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ел Мамун" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Mamun" title="Al-Mamun – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Al-Mamun" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Mamun" title="Al-Mamun – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Al-Mamun" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Mamun" title="Al-Mamun – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Al-Mamun" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%8A%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD" title="Маъмун – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Маъмун" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mem%C3%BBn" title="Memûn – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Memûn" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%85_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C-%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD" title="Абдуллах аль-Мамун – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Абдуллах аль-Мамун" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%AF" title="مامون الرشید – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="مامون الرشید" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Mamun" title="Al-Mamun – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Al-Mamun" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A6%AC%E8%92%99_(%E9%98%BF%E5%B7%B4%E6%96%AF%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D)" title="馬蒙 (阿巴斯王朝) – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="馬蒙 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searchaux" style="display:none">7th Abbasid caliph (r. 813–833)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about an Abbasid caliph. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Al-Ma'mun (disambiguation)">Al-Ma'mun (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_footnotes_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-More_footnotes_needed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article includes a list of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#General_references" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">general references</a>, but <b>it lacks sufficient corresponding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Reliability" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Reliability">improve</a> this article by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2010</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn" style="background-color: #cbe; color:inherit; font-size: 125%">al-Ma'mun<br />المأمون</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><i><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style></i><div class="plainlist"><i></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_caliphs" title="List of caliphs">Caliph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commander_of_the_Faithful" class="mw-redirect" title="Commander of the Faithful">Commander of the Faithful</a></li></ul> </div><i></i></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image photo"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coin_of_the_Abbasid_Caliph_al-Ma%27mun.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Coin_of_the_Abbasid_Caliph_al-Ma%27mun.jpg/300px-Coin_of_the_Abbasid_Caliph_al-Ma%27mun.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Coin_of_the_Abbasid_Caliph_al-Ma%27mun.jpg/450px-Coin_of_the_Abbasid_Caliph_al-Ma%27mun.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Coin_of_the_Abbasid_Caliph_al-Ma%27mun.jpg/600px-Coin_of_the_Abbasid_Caliph_al-Ma%27mun.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="387" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-bottom:0.2em;padding-top:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Gold_dinar" title="Gold dinar">Gold dinar</a> of al-Ma'mun, minted in Egypt in 830/1</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">7th <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">Caliph</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Reign</th><td class="infobox-data">27 September 813 – 7 August 833</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Predecessor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Al-Amin" title="Al-Amin">al-Amin</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Successor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tasim" title="Al-Mu'tasim">al-Mu'tasim</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><div style="height: 4px; width:100%;"></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">786-09-14</span>)</span>14 September 786<br /><a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, Abbasid Caliphate</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">7 August 833<span style="display:none">(833-08-07)</span> (aged 46)<br /><a href="/wiki/Tarsus_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tarsus (city)">Tarsus</a>, Abbasid Caliphate, now <a href="/wiki/Mersin_Province" title="Mersin Province">Mersin Province</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Burial</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="label"><a href="/wiki/Grand_Mosque_of_Tarsus" title="Grand Mosque of Tarsus">Grand Mosque of Tarsus</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Consorts</th><td class="infobox-data"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>List</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Umm_Isa_bint_Musa_al-Hadi" title="Umm Isa bint Musa al-Hadi">Umm Isa bint Musa al-Hadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buran_bint_al-Hasan_ibn_Sahl" title="Buran bint al-Hasan ibn Sahl">Buran bint al-Hasan ibn Sahl</a></li> <li>Sundus</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arib_al-Ma%27muniyya" title="Arib al-Ma'muniyya">Arib</a></li> <li>Bi'dah</li> <li>Mu'nisah</li> <li>Tatrif</li> <li>Badhal</li> <li>Nu'n</li> <li>Nasim</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Issue_(genealogy)" title="Issue (genealogy)">Issue</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>Muhammad</li> <li>Ubaid Allah</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Abbas_ibn_al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Abbas ibn al-Ma'mun">al-Abbas</a></li> <li>Harun</li> <li>Ahmad</li> <li>Isa</li> <li>Isma'il</li> <li>Musa</li> <li>Umm al-Fadl</li> <li>Umm Habib</li> <li>Khadija</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="text-align:left">Names</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data nickname" style="text-align:left; padding-left:0.7em;">Abū al-ʿAbbās Abd Allāh al-Maʾmūn ibn <a href="/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid" title="Harun al-Rashid">Hārūn</a></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">Dynasty</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_dynasty" title="Abbasid dynasty">Abbasid</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Father</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid" title="Harun al-Rashid">Harun al-Rashid</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Mother</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Marajil" title="Marajil">Umm Abdallah Marajil</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazila" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu'tazila">Mu'tazili</a> <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Abū al-ʿAbbās Abd Allāh ibn <a href="/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid" title="Harun al-Rashid">Hārūn</a> al-Maʾmūn</b> (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">أبو العباس عبد الله بن هارون الرشيد</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Abū al-ʿAbbās ʿAbd Allāh ibn Hārūn ar-Rashīd</i></span>; 14 September 786 – 9 August 833), better known by his <a href="/wiki/Regnal_name" title="Regnal name">regnal name</a> <b>al-Ma'mun</b> (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">المأمون</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-Maʾmūn</i></span>), was the seventh <a href="/wiki/Abbasid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid">Abbasid</a> <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">caliph</a>, who reigned from 813 until his death in 833. He succeeded his half-brother <a href="/wiki/Al-Amin" title="Al-Amin">al-Amin</a> after a <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Fitna" title="Fourth Fitna">civil war</a>, during which the cohesion of the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a> was weakened by rebellions and the rise of local strongmen; much of his domestic reign was consumed in pacification campaigns. Well educated and with a considerable interest in scholarship, al-Ma'mun promoted the <a href="/wiki/Graeco-Arabic_translation_movement" title="Graeco-Arabic translation movement">Translation Movement</a>, the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Wisdom" title="House of Wisdom">flowering of learning and the sciences</a> in Baghdad, and the publishing of <a href="/wiki/Al-Khwarizmi" title="Al-Khwarizmi">al-Khwarizmi</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Compendious_Book_on_Calculation_by_Completion_and_Balancing" class="mw-redirect" title="The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing">book now known as "Algebra"</a>. He is also known for supporting the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazilism" title="Mu'tazilism">Mu'tazilism</a> and for imprisoning Imam <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Hanbal" title="Ahmad ibn Hanbal">Ahmad ibn Hanbal</a>, the rise of religious persecution (<i><a href="/wiki/Mihna" title="Mihna">mihna</a></i>), and for the resumption of <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_wars" title="Arab–Byzantine wars">large-scale warfare</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Amorian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Amorian dynasty">Byzantine Empire</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Birth_and_education">Birth and education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Ma%27mun&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Birth and education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Abdallah, the future al-Ma'mun, was born in <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> on the night of the 13 to 14 September 786 CE to <a href="/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid" title="Harun al-Rashid">Harun al-Rashid</a> and his concubine <a href="/wiki/Marajil" title="Marajil">Marajil</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Badghis" class="mw-redirect" title="Badghis">Badghis</a>. On the same night, which later became known as the "night of the three <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">caliphs</a>", his uncle <a href="/wiki/Al-Hadi" title="Al-Hadi">al-Hadi</a> died and was succeeded by Ma'mun's father, Harun al-Rashid, as ruler of the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marajil died soon after his birth, and Abdallah was raised by Harun al-Rashid's wife, <a href="/wiki/Zubaidah_bint_Ja%60far" class="mw-redirect" title="Zubaidah bint Ja`far">Zubayda</a>, herself of high Abbasid lineage as the granddaughter of Caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur" title="Al-Mansur">al-Mansur</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 754–775</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a young prince, Abdallah received a thorough education: <a href="/wiki/Al-Kisa%27i" title="Al-Kisa'i">al-Kisa'i</a> tutored him in classical Arabic, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Muhammad_al-Yazidi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abu Muhammad al-Yazidi (page does not exist)">Abu Muhammad al-Yazidi</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Adab_(literature)" class="mw-redirect" title="Adab (literature)">adab</a></i>, and he received instruction in music and poetry. He was trained in <i><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">fiqh</a></i> by al-Hasan al-Lu'lu'i, showing particular excellence in the <a href="/wiki/Hanafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanafi">Hanafi</a> school, and in the <i><a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">hadith</a></i>, becoming himself active as a transmitter.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to M. Rekaya, "he was distinguished by his love of knowledge, making him the most intellectual caliph of the Abbasid family, which accounts for the way in which his caliphate developed".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Appointment_as_successor_and_Governor_of_Khurasan">Appointment as successor and Governor of Khurasan</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Ma%27mun&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Appointment as successor and Governor of Khurasan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although Abdallah was the oldest of his sons, in 794 Harun named the second-born Muhammad, born in April 787 to Zubayda, as the first in line of succession. This was the result of family pressure on the Caliph, reflecting Muhammad's higher birth, as both parents descended from the Abbasid dynasty; indeed, he remained the only Abbasid caliph to claim such descent. Muhammad received the oath of allegiance (<i><a href="/wiki/Bay%27ah" title="Bay'ah">bay'ah</a></i>) with the name of <a href="/wiki/Al-Amin" title="Al-Amin">al-Amin</a> ("The Trustworthy"), first in <a href="/wiki/Khurasan" class="mw-redirect" title="Khurasan">Khurasan</a> by his guardian, the <a href="/wiki/Barmakid" class="mw-redirect" title="Barmakid">Barmakid</a> <a href="/wiki/Al-Fadl_ibn_Yahya" title="Al-Fadl ibn Yahya">al-Fadl ibn Yahya</a>, and then in <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Abdallah was recognized as second heir only after entering puberty, in 799, under the name al-Ma'mun ("The Trusted One"), with another Barmakid, <a href="/wiki/Ja%27far_ibn_Yahya" title="Ja'far ibn Yahya">Ja'far ibn Yahya</a>, as his guardian. At the same time, a third heir, <a href="/wiki/Al-Qasim_ibn_Harun_al-Rashid" title="Al-Qasim ibn Harun al-Rashid">al-Qasim</a>, named al-Mu'tamin, was appointed, under the guardianship of <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Malik_ibn_Salih" title="Abd al-Malik ibn Salih">Abd al-Malik ibn Salih</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These arrangements were confirmed and publicly proclaimed in 802, when Harun and the most powerful officials of the Abbasid government made the <a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">pilgrimage</a> to <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>. Al-Amin would succeed Harun in Baghdad, but al-Ma'mun would remain al-Amin's heir and would additionally rule over an enlarged <a href="/wiki/Khurasan" class="mw-redirect" title="Khurasan">Khurasan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was an appointment of particular significance, as Khurasan had been the starting point of the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid Revolution">Abbasid Revolution</a> which brought the Abbasids to power, and retained a privileged position among the Caliphate's provinces. Furthermore, the Abbasid dynasty relied heavily on Khurasanis as military leaders and administrators. Many of the original Khurasani Arab army (<i>Khurasaniyya</i>) that came west with the Abbasids were given estates in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Iraq</a> and the new Abbasid capital, Baghdad, and became an elite group known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Abna_al-dawla" title="Abna al-dawla">abnāʾ al-dawla</a></i> ("sons of the state/dynasty").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010274_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010274-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004133–135_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004133–135-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This large-scale presence of an <a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> element in the highest circles of the Abbasid state, with the Barmakid family as its most notable representatives, was certainly a factor in the appointment of al-Ma'mun, linked through his mother with the eastern Iranian provinces, as heir and governor of Khurasan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010282_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010282-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The stipulations of the agreement, which were recorded in detail by the historian <a href="/wiki/Al-Tabari" title="Al-Tabari">al-Tabari</a>, accorded al-Mamun's Khurasani viceroyalty extensive autonomy. However, modern historians consider that these accounts may have been distorted by later apologists of al-Ma'mun in the latter's favour.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010282–283_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010282–283-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Harun's third heir, al-Mu'tamin, received responsibility over the <a href="/wiki/Al-%27Awasim" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-'Awasim">frontier areas</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Nikephorian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Nikephorian dynasty">Byzantine Empire</a> in <a href="/wiki/Al-Jazira_(caliphal_province)" title="Al-Jazira (caliphal province)">Upper Mesopotamia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bilad_al-Sham" title="Bilad al-Sham">Syria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004142_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004142-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Very quickly, the latent rivalry between the two brothers had important repercussions: almost immediately after the court returned to Baghdad in January 803, the Abbasid elites were shaken by the abrupt fall of the Barmakid family from power. On the one hand, this event may reflect the fact that the Barmakids had become indeed too powerful for the Caliph's liking, but its timing suggests that it was tied to the succession issue as well: with al-Amin siding with the <i>abnāʾ</i> and al-Ma'mun with the Barmakids, and the two camps becoming more estranged every day, if al-Amin was to have a chance to succeed, the power of the Barmakids had to be broken.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004142–143_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004142–143-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010283_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010283-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Al-Fadl_ibn_Sahl" title="Al-Fadl ibn Sahl">Al-Fadl ibn Sahl</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Kufa" title="Kufa">Kufan</a> of Iranian origin whose father had converted to Islam and entered Barmakid service, replaced Ja'far ibn Yahya as al-Ma'mun's tutor. In 806 he also became al-Ma'mun's secretary (<i><a href="/wiki/Katib" title="Katib">katib</a></i>), an appointment that marked him out as the chief candidate for the <a href="/wiki/Vizier_(Abbasid_Caliphate)" title="Vizier (Abbasid Caliphate)">vizierate</a> should al-Ma'mun succeed to the throne.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_2-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 804, al-Ma'mun married his cousin, Umm Isa, a daughter of the Caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Hadi" title="Al-Hadi">al-Hadi</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 785–786</span>). The couple had two sons, Muhammad al-Asghar and Abdallah.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_2-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The years after the fall of the Barmakids saw an increasing centralization of the administration and the concomitant rise of the influence of the <i>abnāʾ</i>, many of whom were now dispatched to take up positions as provincial governors and bring these provinces under closer control from Baghdad.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010283_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010283-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This led to unrest in the provinces, especially Khurasan, where local elites had a long-standing rivalry with the <i>aabnāʾ</i> and their tendency to control the province (and its revenues) from Iraq.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004144_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004144-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The harsh taxation imposed by a prominent member of the <i>abnāʾ</i>, <a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Isa_ibn_Mahan" title="Ali ibn Isa ibn Mahan">Ali ibn Isa ibn Mahan</a>, even led to a revolt under <a href="/wiki/Rafi_ibn_al-Layth" title="Rafi ibn al-Layth">Rafi ibn al-Layth</a>, which eventually forced Harun himself, accompanied by al-Ma'mun and the powerful chamberlain (<i><a href="/wiki/Hajib" title="Hajib">hajib</a></i>) and chief minister <a href="/wiki/Al-Fadl_ibn_al-Rabi" title="Al-Fadl ibn al-Rabi">al-Fadl ibn al-Rabi</a>, to travel to the province in 808. Al-Ma'mun was sent ahead with part of the army to <a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a>, while Harun stayed at <a href="/wiki/Tus,_Iran" title="Tus, Iran">Tus</a>, where he died on 24 March 809.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_2-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010283_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010283-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004144–145_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004144–145-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Abbasid_civil_war">Abbasid civil war</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Ma%27mun&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Abbasid civil war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Fitna" title="Fourth Fitna">Fourth Fitna</a></div> <p>In 802 <a href="/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid" title="Harun al-Rashid">Harun al-Rashid</a>, father of al-Maʾmūn and al-Amin, ordered that al-Amin succeed him, and al-Ma'mun serve as governor of <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khurasan</a> and as caliph after the death of al-Amin. In the last days of Harun's life his health was declining and saw in a dream <a href="/wiki/Musa_ibn_Jafar" class="mw-redirect" title="Musa ibn Jafar">Musa ibn Jafar</a> sitting in a chamber praying and crying, which made Harun remember how hard he had struggled to establish his own caliphate. He knew the personalities of both his sons and decided that for the good of the Abbasid dynasty, al-Maʾmūn should be caliph after his death, which he confided to a group of his courtiers. One of the courtiers, Fadl ibn Rabi', did not abide by Harun's last wishes and convinced many in the lands of Islam that Harun's wishes had not changed. Later the other three courtiers of Harun who had sworn loyalty to Harun by supporting al-Maʾmūn, namely, 'Isa Jarudi, Abu Yunus, and Ibn Abi 'Umran, found loopholes in Fadl's arguments, and Fazl admitted Harun had appointed al-Maʾmūn after him, but, he argued, since Harun was not in his right mind, his decision should not be acted upon. Al-Maʾmūn was reportedly the older of the two brothers, but his mother was a <a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persian</a> woman while al-Amin's mother was a member of the reigning Abbasid family. After al-Rashid's death in 809, the relationship between the two brothers deteriorated. In response to al-Ma'mun's moves toward independence, al-Amin declared his own son Musa to be his heir. This violation of al-Rashid's testament led to a succession struggle. Al-Amin assembled a massive army at Baghdad with 'Isa ibn Mahan at its head in 811 and invaded Khorasan, but al-Maʾmūn's general <a href="/wiki/Tahir_ibn_al-Husayn" class="mw-redirect" title="Tahir ibn al-Husayn">Tahir ibn al-Husayn</a> (d. 822) destroyed the army and invaded Iraq, laying siege to Baghdad in 812. In 813 Baghdad fell, al-Amin was beheaded, and al-Maʾmūn became the undisputed Caliph.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Internal_strife">Internal strife</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Ma%27mun&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Internal strife"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sahl_ibn_Salama_al-Ansari">Sahl ibn Salama al-Ansari</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Ma%27mun&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Sahl ibn Salama al-Ansari"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There were disturbances in <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> during the first several years of al-Maʾmūn's reign, while the caliph was in <a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a> (near present-day <a href="/wiki/Mary,_Turkmenistan" title="Mary, Turkmenistan">Mary, Turkmenistan</a>). On 13 November 815, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Muhammad_ibn_Ja%27far_al-Sadiq_(al-Dibaj)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Muhammad ibn Ja'far al-Sadiq (al-Dibaj) (page does not exist)">Muhammad ibn Ja'far al-Sadiq (al-Dibaj)</a> claimed the Caliphate for himself in <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>. He was defeated and he quickly abdicated asserting that he had only become caliph on news that al-Ma'mun had died. Lawlessness in <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> led to the formation of neighborhood watches with religious inspiration, with two notable leaders being Khalid al-Daryush and Sahl ibn Salama al-Ansari. Sahl adopted the slogan, <i>la ta'a lil- makhluq fi ma'siyat al-khaliq</i>, or 'no obedience to the creature in disobedience of the Creator'<sup id="cite_ref-Lapidus-1975-375_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lapidus-1975-375-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (originally a Kharijite slogan),<sup id="cite_ref-Lapidus-1975-376_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lapidus-1975-376-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> alluding to what he saw as "the conflict ... between God's will and Caliphal authority". "Most" of the leadership of this vigilante movement came from the <i>sulaahd</i> ("men of good will of the neighborhoods and blocks") and from "popular preachers" (as both Khalid al-Daryush and Sahl ibn Salama al-Ansari were); its followers were called the <i> 'amma</i>, (the common people).<sup id="cite_ref-Lapidus-1975-375_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lapidus-1975-375-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The volunteers of the movement were known as <i>mutawwi'a</i>, which was the same name given to "volunteers for frontier duty and for the holy war against Byzantium".<sup id="cite_ref-Lapidus-1975-376_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lapidus-1975-376-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sahl's and movement influence was such that military chiefs first "delayed capitulation to al-Ma'mun" and adopted Sahl's religious "formula" until they became alarmed at his power and combined to crush him in 817–18 CE.<sup id="cite_ref-Lapidus-1975-372-3_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lapidus-1975-372-3-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Imam_al-Rida">Imam al-Rida</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Ma%27mun&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Imam al-Rida"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In A.H. 201 (817 AD) al-Ma'mun named <a href="/wiki/Ali_ar-Rida" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali ar-Rida">Ali ar-Rida</a> (the sixth-generation descendant of <a href="/wiki/Ali" title="Ali">Ali</a> and the eighth Shia Imam) as his heir as caliph. This move may have been made to appease Shi'ite opinion in Iraq and "reconcile the 'Alid and 'Abbasid branches of the Hashimite family", but in Baghdad it caused the Hashimites—supported by "military chiefs of al-Harbiyya, including Muttalib and 'Isa ibn Muhammad"—to depose al-Ma'mun and elect Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi Caliph.<sup id="cite_ref-Lapidus-1975-372-3_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lapidus-1975-372-3-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Shia sources, the deposing of al-Ma'um in Baghdad was not out of opposition to the wise and pious Imam Reza, but because of rumors spread by Fazl ibn Sahl. Al-Ma'mun moved Imam Reza to Merv in hopes of keeping watch over him, but was foiled by the Imam's growing popularity there. People from all over the Muslim world traveled to meet the prophet's grandson and listen to his teachings and guidance (according to these sources). In an attempt to humiliate the Imam, al-Ma'mun set him up with the greatest scholars of the world's religions, but the Imam prevailed and then informed al-Ma'mun that his grand vizier, <a href="/wiki/Fazl_ibn_Sahl" class="mw-redirect" title="Fazl ibn Sahl">Fazl ibn Sahl</a>, had withheld important information from him.<sup id="cite_ref-IRN_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IRN-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Baghdad, al-Maʾmūn was unseated and replaced by Ibrahim ibn Mehdi not because al-Maʾmūn's naming Imam Reza as his heir was unpopular, but because of "rumors" spread by Fazl ibn Sahl. </p><p>Seeking to put down the rebellion in Baghdad, al-Ma'mun set out for the city on 12 April 818. At Tus, he stopped to visit his father's grave. However, when they reached the town of <a href="/wiki/Sarakhs" title="Sarakhs">Sarakhs</a>, his vizier, Fazl ibn Sahl, was assassinated, and when they reached <a href="/wiki/Tus,_Iran" title="Tus, Iran">Tus</a>, the Imam was poisoned. Al-Ma'mūn ordered that the Imam be buried next to the tomb of his own father, <a href="/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid" title="Harun al-Rashid">Harun al-Rashid</a>, and showed extreme sorrow in the funeral ritual and stayed for three days at the place. Nonetheless, Shia tradition states he was killed on orders of al-Ma'mun, and according to <a href="/wiki/Wilferd_Madelung" title="Wilferd Madelung">Wilferd Madelung</a> the unexpected death of both the vizier and the successor, "whose presence would have made any reconciliation with the powerful ʿAbbasid opposition in Baghdad virtually impossible, must indeed arouse strong suspicion that Ma'mun had had a hand in the deaths."<sup id="cite_ref-Madelung_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Madelung-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-al-Qarashi_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-al-Qarashi-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the death of Imam Reza, a revolt took place in Khurasan. Al-Ma’mun tried unsuccessfully to absolve himself of the crime.<sup id="cite_ref-Mavani-2013_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mavani-2013-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="After_arrival_in_Baghdad">After arrival in Baghdad</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Ma%27mun&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: After arrival in Baghdad"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dirhem_of_al-Ma%27mun,_AH_199-218.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Dirhem_of_al-Ma%27mun%2C_AH_199-218.jpg/300px-Dirhem_of_al-Ma%27mun%2C_AH_199-218.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Dirhem_of_al-Ma%27mun%2C_AH_199-218.jpg/450px-Dirhem_of_al-Ma%27mun%2C_AH_199-218.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Dirhem_of_al-Ma%27mun%2C_AH_199-218.jpg/600px-Dirhem_of_al-Ma%27mun%2C_AH_199-218.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="388" /></a><figcaption>Silver <a href="/wiki/Dirham" title="Dirham">Dirham</a> of al-Ma'mun. AH 199–218 / AD 813–833. Dirham weight 25mm, 3.19 g, 3h. Medinat Isbahan mint dated AH 205 (820/1 AD)</figcaption></figure> <p>The rebel forces in Baghdad splintered and wavered in opposition to al-Ma'mun. According to scholar and historian <a href="/wiki/Al-Tabari" title="Al-Tabari">al-Tabari</a> (839–923 CE), al-Ma'mun entered Baghdad on 11 August 819.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He wore green and had others do so. Informed that compliance with this command might arouse popular opposition to the colour, on 18 August he reverted to traditional Abbasid black. While <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> became peaceful, there were disturbances elsewhere. In AH 210 (825–826 CE) <a href="/wiki/Abdullah_ibn_Tahir_al-Khurasani" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdullah ibn Tahir al-Khurasani">Abdullah ibn Tahir al-Khurasani</a> secured <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> for al-Ma'mun, freeing <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> from <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Andalusians</a> and quelling unrest. The Andalusians moved to <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a>, where al-Tabari records their descendants were still living in his day (see <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Crete" title="Emirate of Crete">Emirate of Crete</a>). Abdallah returned to Baghdad in 211 Hijri (826–827 CE), bringing the defeated rebels with him. </p><p>Also, in 210 Hijri (825–826 CE), there was an uprising in <a href="/wiki/Qum" class="mw-redirect" title="Qum">Qum</a>, sparked by complaints about taxes. After it was quashed, the tax assessment was set significantly higher. In 212 Hijri (827–828 CE), there was an uprising in <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>. In 214 (829–30 CE), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_al-Razi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abu al-Razi (page does not exist)">Abu al-Razi</a>, who had captured one Yemeni rebel, was killed by another. <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> continued to be unquiet. <a href="/wiki/Sindh" title="Sindh">Sindh</a> was rebellious. In 216 (831–832 CE), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ghassan_ibn_%27Abbad&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ghassan ibn 'Abbad (page does not exist)">Ghassan ibn 'Abbad</a> subdued it. An ongoing problem for al-Ma'mun was the uprising headed by <a href="/wiki/Babak_Khorramdin" title="Babak Khorramdin">Babak Khorramdin</a>. In 214 Babak routed a Caliphate army, killing its commander <a href="/w/index.php?title=Muhammad_ibn_Humayd&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Muhammad ibn Humayd (page does not exist)">Muhammad ibn Humayd</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Wars_with_Byzantium">Wars with Byzantium</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Ma%27mun&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Wars with Byzantium"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the time al-Ma'mun became Caliph, the Arabs and the Byzantine Empire had settled down into border skirmishing, with Arab raids deep into <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> to capture booty and Christians to be enslaved. The situation changed however with the rise to power of <a href="/wiki/Michael_II" title="Michael II">Michael II</a> in 820 AD. Forced to deal with the rebel <a href="/wiki/Thomas_the_Slav" title="Thomas the Slav">Thomas the Slav</a>, Michael had few troops to spare against a small Andalusian invasion of 40 ships and 10,000 men against <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a>, which fell in 824 AD. A Byzantine counter offensive in 826 AD failed miserably. Worse still was the invasion of <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a> in 827 by <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tunis" title="Tunis">Tunis</a>. Even so, <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Amorian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Amorian dynasty">Byzantine</a> resistance in <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a> was fierce and not without success whilst the Arabs became quickly plagued by internal squabbles. That year, the Arabs were expelled from <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a> but they were to return. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_the_Grammarian_as_ambassador_before_Theophilos_and_Mamun.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/John_the_Grammarian_as_ambassador_before_Theophilos_and_Mamun.jpg/300px-John_the_Grammarian_as_ambassador_before_Theophilos_and_Mamun.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/John_the_Grammarian_as_ambassador_before_Theophilos_and_Mamun.jpg/450px-John_the_Grammarian_as_ambassador_before_Theophilos_and_Mamun.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/John_the_Grammarian_as_ambassador_before_Theophilos_and_Mamun.jpg/600px-John_the_Grammarian_as_ambassador_before_Theophilos_and_Mamun.jpg 2x" data-file-width="907" data-file-height="531" /></a><figcaption>The Byzantine embassy of <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_John_VII_of_Constantinople" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarch John VII of Constantinople">John the Grammarian</a> in 829 to Ma'mun (depicted left) from Theophilos (depicted right)</figcaption></figure> <p>In 829, <a href="/wiki/Michael_II" title="Michael II">Michael II</a> died and was succeeded by his son <a href="/wiki/Theophilos_(emperor)" title="Theophilos (emperor)">Theophilos</a>. Theophilos experienced mixed success against his <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> opponents. In 830 AD the <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> returned to <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a> and, after a year-long siege, took <a href="/wiki/Palermo" title="Palermo">Palermo</a>. For the next 200 years they were to remain there to complete their conquest, which was never short of Christian counters. Al-Ma'mun meanwhile launched an invasion of <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> in 830 AD, taking a number of <a href="/wiki/Byzantine" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine">Byzantine</a> <a href="/wiki/Forts" class="mw-redirect" title="Forts">forts</a>; he spared the surrendering Byzantines. <a href="/wiki/Theophilos_(emperor)" title="Theophilos (emperor)">Theophilos</a>, for his part, captured <a href="/wiki/Tarsus_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tarsus (city)">Tarsus</a> in 831. The next year, learning the Byzantines had killed some sixteen hundred people, al-Ma'mun returned. This time some thirty forts fell to the Caliphate's forces, with two Byzantine defeats in <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a>. </p><p>Theophilos wrote to al-Ma'mun. The Caliph replied that he carefully considered the Byzantine ruler's letter, noticed it blended suggestions of peace and trade with threats of war and offered Theophilos the options of accepting the <a href="/wiki/Shahada" title="Shahada">shahada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">paying tax</a> or <a href="/wiki/Jihad" title="Jihad">fighting</a>. Al-Ma'mun made preparations for a major campaign, but died on the way while leading an expedition in <a href="/wiki/Tyana" title="Tyana">Tyana</a>. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mamun_sends_an_envoy_to_Theophilos.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Mamun_sends_an_envoy_to_Theophilos.png/300px-Mamun_sends_an_envoy_to_Theophilos.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Mamun_sends_an_envoy_to_Theophilos.png/450px-Mamun_sends_an_envoy_to_Theophilos.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Mamun_sends_an_envoy_to_Theophilos.png/600px-Mamun_sends_an_envoy_to_Theophilos.png 2x" data-file-width="1300" data-file-height="564" /></a><figcaption>Abbasid Caliph al-Ma'mun sends an envoy to <a href="/wiki/Theophilos_(emperor)" title="Theophilos (emperor)">Theophilos</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Al-Ma'mun's relations with the Byzantines are marked by his efforts in the translation of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>. Al-Ma'mun gathered scholars of many religions at <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, whom he treated magnificently. He sent an emissary to the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> to collect the most famous manuscripts there, and had them translated into <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As part of his peace treaty with the Byzantine Emperor, al-Ma'mun was to receive a number of Greek manuscripts annually, one of these being Ptolemy's astronomical work, the <i><a href="/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest">Almagest</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="al-Ma'mun's_reign"><span id="al-Ma.27mun.27s_reign"></span>al-Ma'mun's reign</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Ma%27mun&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: al-Ma'mun's reign"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_populace_pays_allegiance_to_the_new_Abbasid_Caliph,_al-Ma%27mun_(6124531161).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/The_populace_pays_allegiance_to_the_new_Abbasid_Caliph%2C_al-Ma%27mun_%286124531161%29.jpg/200px-The_populace_pays_allegiance_to_the_new_Abbasid_Caliph%2C_al-Ma%27mun_%286124531161%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="369" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/The_populace_pays_allegiance_to_the_new_Abbasid_Caliph%2C_al-Ma%27mun_%286124531161%29.jpg/300px-The_populace_pays_allegiance_to_the_new_Abbasid_Caliph%2C_al-Ma%27mun_%286124531161%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/The_populace_pays_allegiance_to_the_new_Abbasid_Caliph%2C_al-Ma%27mun_%286124531161%29.jpg/400px-The_populace_pays_allegiance_to_the_new_Abbasid_Caliph%2C_al-Ma%27mun_%286124531161%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="782" data-file-height="1444" /></a><figcaption>The populace pays <a href="/wiki/Bay%27ah" title="Bay'ah">allegiance</a> to the Abbasid caliph, al-Ma'mun in 813. (from the book <i>Tarikh-i Alfi</i> 1593 CE)</figcaption></figure> <p>Al-Ma'mun conducted, in the plains of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, two astronomical operations intended to achieve a <a href="/wiki/Degree_measurement" class="mw-redirect" title="Degree measurement">degree measurement</a> (<a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun%27s_arc_measurement" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Ma'mun's arc measurement">al-Ma'mun's arc measurement</a>). The crater <a href="/wiki/Almanon_(crater)" title="Almanon (crater)">Almanon</a> on the Moon is named in recognition of his contributions to astronomy. </p><p>Al-Ma'mun's record as an administrator is also marked by his efforts toward the centralization of power and the certainty of succession. The <i>Bayt al-Hikma</i>, or <a href="/wiki/House_of_Wisdom" title="House of Wisdom">House of Wisdom</a>, was established during his reign.<sup id="cite_ref-gold78_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gold78-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">ulama</a></i> emerged as a real force in Islamic politics during al-Ma'mun's reign for opposing the <i><a href="/wiki/Mihna" title="Mihna">mihna</a></i>, which was initiated in 833, four months before he died. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Michael_Hamilton_Morgan" title="Michael Hamilton Morgan">Michael Hamilton Morgan</a> in his book "Lost History" describes al-Ma'mun as a man who 'Loves Learning.' al-Ma'mun once defeated a Byzantine Emperor in a battle and as a tribute, he asked for a copy of <i>Almagest,</i> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>'s Hellenistic compendium of thoughts on astronomy written around AD 150.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 'mihna', is comparable to Medieval European inquisitions in the sense that it involved imprisonment, a religious test, and a loyalty oath. The people subject to the mihna were traditionalist scholars whose social influence was uncommonly high. Al-Ma'mun introduced the mihna with the intention of centralizing religious power in the caliphal institution and testing the loyalty of his subjects. The mihna had to be undergone by elites, scholars, judges and other government officials, and consisted of a series of questions relating to theology and faith. The central question was about the createdness of the Qur'an. If the interrogatee stated he believed the Qur'an to be created, rather than coeternal with God, he was free to leave and continue his profession. </p><p>The controversy over the <i>mihna</i> was exacerbated by al-Ma'mun's sympathy for <a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazili" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu'tazili">Mu'tazili</a> theology and other controversial views. Mu'tazili theology was deeply influenced by <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotelian</a> thought and Greek rationalism, and stated that matters of belief and practice should be decided by reasoning. This opposed the traditionalist and literalist position of <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Hanbal" title="Ahmad ibn Hanbal">Ahmad ibn Hanbal</a> and others, according to which everything a believer needed to know about faith and practice was spelled out literally in the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">Hadith</a>. Moreover, the Mu'tazilis stated that the Qur'an was created rather than coeternal with God, a belief that was shared by the <a href="/wiki/Jahmites" class="mw-redirect" title="Jahmites">Jahmites</a> and parts of <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shi'a</a>, among others, but contradicted the traditionalist-<a href="/wiki/Sunni" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni">Sunni</a> opinion that the Qur'an and the Divine were coeternal. </p><p>During his reign, <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemy</a> greatly developed. Pioneers of the science were <a href="/wiki/Jabir_Ibn_Hayyan" class="mw-redirect" title="Jabir Ibn Hayyan">Jabir Ibn Hayyan</a> and his student <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yusuf_Lukwa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yusuf Lukwa (page does not exist)">Yusuf Lukwa</a>, who was patronized by al-Ma'mun. Although he was unsuccessful in transmuting <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a>, his methods greatly led to the patronization of <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical">pharmaceutical</a> compounds.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Al-Ma'mun was a pioneer of cartography having commissioned a world map from a large group of astronomers and geographers. The map is presently in an encyclopedia in Topkapi Sarai, a Museum in Istanbul. The map shows large parts of the Eurasian and African continents with recognizable coastlines and major seas. It depicts the world as it was known to the captains of the Arab sailing dhows which used the monsoon wind cycles to trade over vast distances (by the 9th century, Arab sea traders had reached <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a>, in China). The maps of the Greeks and Romans reveal a good knowledge of closed seas like the Mediterranean but little knowledge of the vast ocean expanses beyond.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although <a href="/wiki/Al-Mahdi" title="Al-Mahdi">al-Mahdi</a> had proclaimed that the caliph was the protector of Islam against <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heresy</a>, and had also claimed the ability to declare orthodoxy, religious scholars in the Islamic world believed that al-Ma'mun was overstepping his bounds in the <i>mihna</i>. The penalties of the <i>mihna</i> became increasingly difficult to enforce as the <i>ulema</i> became firmer and more united in their opposition. Although the <i>mihna</i> persisted through the reigns of two more caliphs, <a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil" title="Al-Mutawakkil">al-Mutawakkil</a> abandoned it in 851. </p><p>The <i>ulema</i> and the major Islamic law schools became truly defined in the period of al-Ma'mun, and <a href="/wiki/Sunnism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunnism">Sunnism</a>—as a religion of legalism—became defined in parallel. Doctrinal differences between Sunni and Shi'a Islam began to become more pronounced. <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hanbal" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Hanbal">Ibn Hanbal</a>, the founder of the <a href="/wiki/Hanbali" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanbali">Hanbali</a> legal school, became famous for his opposition to the <i>mihna</i>. Al-Ma'mun's simultaneous opposition and patronage of intellectuals led to the emergence of important dialogues on both secular and religious affairs, and the <i>Bayt al-Hikma</i> became an important center of translation for Greek and other ancient texts into Arabic. This Islamic renaissance spurred the rediscovery of Hellenism and ensured the survival of these texts into the European <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>. </p><p>Al-Ma'mun had been named governor of <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khurasan</a> by Harun, and after his ascension to power, the caliph named Tahir as governor for his military services in order to assure his loyalty. It was a move that al-Ma'mun soon regretted, as Tahir and his family became entrenched in Iranian politics and became increasingly powerful in the state, contrary to al-Ma'mun's desire to centralize and strengthen Caliphal power. The rising power of the <a href="/wiki/Tahirid" class="mw-redirect" title="Tahirid">Tahirid family</a> became a threat as al-Ma'mun's own policies alienated them and his other opponents. </p><p>Al-Ma'mun also attempted to divorce his wife during his reign, who had not borne him any children. His wife hired a Syrian judge of her own before al-Ma'mun was able to select one himself; the judge, who sympathized with the caliph's wife, refused the divorce. Following al-Ma'mun's experience, no further <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_caliphs" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid caliphs">Abbasid caliphs</a> were to marry, preferring to find their heirs in the harem. </p><p>Al-Ma'mun, in an attempt to win over the <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shi'a</a> Muslims to his camp, named the eighth <a href="/wiki/Imam" title="Imam">Imam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ali_ar-Rida" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali ar-Rida">Ali ar-Rida</a>, his successor, if he should outlive al-Ma'mun. Most Shi'ites realized, however, that ar-Rida was too old to survive him and saw al-Ma'mun's gesture as empty; indeed, al-Ma'mun poisoned <a href="/wiki/Ali_ar-Rida" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali ar-Rida">Ali ar-Rida</a> who then died in 818. The incident served to further alienate the Shi'ites from the Abbasids, who had already been promised and denied the Caliphate by <a href="/wiki/As-Saffah" class="mw-redirect" title="As-Saffah">Abu al-'Abbas</a>. </p><p>The Abbasid empire grew somewhat during the reign of al-Ma'mun. <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> rebellions in <a href="/wiki/Sindh" title="Sindh">Sindh</a> were put down, and most of <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> was absorbed with the surrender of the leader of <a href="/wiki/Kabul" title="Kabul">Kabul</a>. Mountainous regions of Iran were brought under a tighter grip of the central Abbasid government, as were areas of <a href="/wiki/Turkestan" title="Turkestan">Turkestan</a>. </p><p>In 832, al-Ma'mun led a large army into <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> to put down the last great <a href="/wiki/Bashmurian_revolts" title="Bashmurian revolts">Bashmurite revolt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabra2003112_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabra2003112-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_characteristics">Personal characteristics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Ma%27mun&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Personal characteristics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Al-Tabari (v. 32, p. 231) describes al-Ma'mun as of average height, light complexion, handsome and having a long beard that lost its dark colour as he aged. He relates anecdotes concerning the caliph's ability to speak concisely and eloquently without preparation, his generosity, his respect for Muhammad and religion, his sense of moderation, justice, his love of poetry and his insatiable passion for physical intimacy. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abd_Rabbih" title="Ibn Abd Rabbih">Ibn Abd Rabbih</a> in his <i>Unique Necklace</i> (al-'iqd al-Farid), probably drawing on earlier sources, makes a similar description of al-Ma'mun, whom he described as of light complexion and having slightly blond hair, a long thin beard, and a narrow forehead. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Family">Family</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Ma%27mun&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Family"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Al-Ma'mun's first wife was <a href="/wiki/Umm_Isa_bint_Musa_al-Hadi" title="Umm Isa bint Musa al-Hadi">Umm Isa</a>, a daughter of his uncle <a href="/wiki/Al-Hadi" title="Al-Hadi">al-Hadi</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 785–786</span>),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_2-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whom he married in 804,<sup id="cite_ref-al-Zubayr_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-al-Zubayr-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> when he was eighteen years old. They had two sons, Muhammad al-Asghar, and Abdallah.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_2-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another wife was <a href="/wiki/Buran_bint_al-Hasan_ibn_Sahl" title="Buran bint al-Hasan ibn Sahl">Buran</a>, the daughter of al-Ma'mun's vizier, al-Hasan ibn Sahl.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIbn_al-Sāʿī201723_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIbn_al-Sāʿī201723-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She was born as Khadija<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIbn_al-Sāʿī201723_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIbn_al-Sāʿī201723-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on 6 December 807.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIbn_al-Sāʿī201726_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIbn_al-Sāʿī201726-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Al-Ma'mun married her in 817, and consummated the marriage with her in December 825–January 826 in the town of Fam al-Silh.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIbn_al-Sāʿī201723_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIbn_al-Sāʿī201723-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She died on 21 September 884.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIbn_al-Sāʿī201726_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIbn_al-Sāʿī201726-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Al-Ma'mun had also numerous concubines.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_2-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of them, Sundus, bore him five sons, among whom was <a href="/wiki/Al-Abbas_ibn_al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Abbas ibn al-Ma'mun">al-Abbas</a>, who rose to become a senior military commander at the end of al-Ma'mun's reign and a contender for the throne.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner2013_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner2013-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Her other sons were Harun, Ahmad, Isa and Isma'il.<sup id="cite_ref-al-Ṭabarī_Bosworth_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-al-Ṭabarī_Bosworth-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another concubine was <a href="/wiki/Arib_al-Ma%27muniyya" title="Arib al-Ma'muniyya">Arib</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIbn_al-Sāʿī201715_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIbn_al-Sāʿī201715-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Born in 797,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIbn_al-Sāʿī201719,_149_n._31_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIbn_al-Sāʿī201719,_149_n._31-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> she claimed to be the daughter of <a href="/wiki/Ja%27far_ibn_Yahya" title="Ja'far ibn Yahya">Ja'far ibn Yahya</a>, the Barmakid, stolen and sold as a child when the Barmakids fell from power. She was brought by al-Amin, who then sold her to his brother.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIbn_al-Sāʿī201715_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIbn_al-Sāʿī201715-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She was a noted poet, singer, and musician.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIbn_al-Sāʿī201715_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIbn_al-Sāʿī201715-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She died at Samarra in July–August 890, aged ninety-three.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIbn_al-Sāʿī201719,_149_n._31_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIbn_al-Sāʿī201719,_149_n._31-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another concubine was Bi'dah, known by her epithet <i>al-Kabirah</i>. She was also a singer, and had been a slave of Arib.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIbn_al-Sāʿī201720_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIbn_al-Sāʿī201720-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She died on 10 July 915. Abu Bakr, the son of Caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Muhtadi" title="Al-Muhtadi">al-Muhtadi</a>, led the funeral prayers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIbn_al-Sāʿī201722_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIbn_al-Sāʿī201722-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another concubine was Mu'nisah, a Greek.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIbn_al-Sāʿī201732_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIbn_al-Sāʿī201732-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She was one of his favourites.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIbn_al-Sāʿī2017169_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIbn_al-Sāʿī2017169-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another concubine was Tatrif, also known as Tazayyuf. She was an accomplished poet and a native of Basra. She was noted for beauty and elegance, and it was said that al-Ma'mun favoured her above all his other concubines. She was inconsolable at his death and mourned him in many poems.<sup id="cite_ref-Caswell_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caswell-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another concubine was Badhal. She had been formerly a concubine of his cousin Ja'far bin <a href="/wiki/Al-Hadi" title="Al-Hadi">al-Hadi</a>, his brother al-Amin and Ali bin Hisham. She hailed from Medina and was raised in Basra. Described as charming with fair skin, she was praised for her musical talent, particularly her skill in playing instruments, and was known for her exceptional ability as a songwriter and singer. After al-Ma'mun's death, his brother al-Mu'tasim married her.<sup id="cite_ref-Caswell_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caswell-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another concubine was Nu'n. She was a singer.<sup id="cite_ref-Kilpatrick_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kilpatrick-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another concubine was Nasim. She was a poetess and was one of his favourites.<sup id="cite_ref-Elmeligi_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elmeligi-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Al-Ma'mun had another son named Musa.<sup id="cite_ref-al-Zubayr_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-al-Zubayr-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He had three daughters. One was Umm Habib, who married Ali ibn Musa al-Rida. Another daughter was Umm al-Fadl, who married Muhammad ibn Ali bin Musa<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworth198782_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworth198782-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 818.<sup id="cite_ref-al-Zubayr_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-al-Zubayr-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another daughter Khadija was a poetess.<sup id="cite_ref-Caswell_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caswell-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death_and_legacy">Death and legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Ma%27mun&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Death and legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Al-Tabari recounts how al-Ma'mun was sitting on the river bank telling those with him how splendid the water was. He asked what would go best with this water and was told a specific kind of fresh dates. Noticing supplies arriving, he asked someone to check whether such dates were included. As they were, he invited those with him to enjoy the water with these dates. All who did this fell ill. Others recovered, but al-Ma'mun died. He encouraged his successor to continue his policies and not burden the people with more than they could bear. This was on 9 August 833.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworth1987224–231_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworth1987224–231-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Al-Ma'mun died near <a href="/wiki/Tarsus_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tarsus (city)">Tarsus</a>. The city's major mosque (<a href="/wiki/Tarsus_Grand_Mosque" class="mw-redirect" title="Tarsus Grand Mosque">Tarsus Grand Mosque</a>), contains a tomb reported to be his. Al-Ma'mun had made no official provisions for his succession. His son, <a href="/wiki/Al-Abbas_ibn_al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Abbas ibn al-Ma'mun">al-Abbas</a>, was old enough to rule and had acquired experience of command in the border wars with the Byzantines, but had not been named heir.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2006213_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2006213-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the account of al-Tabari, on his deathbed al-Ma'mun dictated a letter nominating his brother, rather than al-Abbas, as his successor,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworth1987222–223,_225_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworth1987222–223,_225-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Abu Ishaq was acclaimed as caliph on 9<span class="nowrap"> </span>August, with the <a href="/wiki/Laqab" class="mw-redirect" title="Laqab">Laqab</a> of al-Mu'tasim (in full <i>al-Muʿtaṣim bi’llāh</i>, "he who seeks refuge in God").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworth19911_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworth19911-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is impossible to know whether this reflects actual events, or whether the letter was an invention and Abu Ishaq merely took advantage of his proximity to his dying brother, and al-Abbas's absence, to propel himself to the throne. As Abu Ishaq was the forefather of all subsequent Abbasid caliphs, later historians had little desire to question the legitimacy of his accession, but it is clear that his position was far from secure: a large part of the army favoured al-Abbas, and a delegation of soldiers even went to him and tried to proclaim him as the new Caliph. Only when al-Abbas refused them, whether out of weakness or out of a desire to avoid a civil war, and himself took the oath of allegiance to his uncle, did the soldiers acquiesce in al-Mu'tasim's succession.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2006213–215_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2006213–215-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworth19911–2_(esp._note_2)_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworth19911–2_(esp._note_2)-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Almanon_crater_LRO_WAC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Almanon_crater_LRO_WAC.jpg/300px-Almanon_crater_LRO_WAC.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Almanon_crater_LRO_WAC.jpg/450px-Almanon_crater_LRO_WAC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Almanon_crater_LRO_WAC.jpg/600px-Almanon_crater_LRO_WAC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="620" /></a><figcaption>Image of <a href="/wiki/Almanon_(crater)" title="Almanon (crater)">Almanon (crater)</a> named after the caliph</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Almanon_(crater)" title="Almanon (crater)">Almanon</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Lunar_crater" class="mw-redirect" title="Lunar crater">lunar</a> <a href="/wiki/Impact_crater" title="Impact crater">impact crater</a> that lies in the rugged highlands in the south-central region of the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a>, was named after al-Ma'mun.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Al-Ma'mun was the last <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid caliph">Abbasid caliph</a> who had a one-word <a href="/wiki/Laqab" class="mw-redirect" title="Laqab">Laqab</a>, his successors had laqab with suffixes like <i>Billah</i> or <i>alā Allāh</i>. </p><p>His nephew, Harun (future <i><a href="/wiki/Al-Wathiq" title="Al-Wathiq">al-Wathiq</a></i>) learned calligraphy, recitation and literature from his uncle, Caliph al-Ma'mun.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKan2012548_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKan2012548-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later sources nickname him the "Little Ma'mun" on account of his erudition and moral character.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKan2012548_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKan2012548-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religious_beliefs">Religious beliefs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Ma%27mun&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Religious beliefs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abbasid_copper_coin,_AH_217.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Abbasid_copper_coin%2C_AH_217.jpg/300px-Abbasid_copper_coin%2C_AH_217.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Abbasid_copper_coin%2C_AH_217.jpg/450px-Abbasid_copper_coin%2C_AH_217.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Abbasid_copper_coin%2C_AH_217.jpg/600px-Abbasid_copper_coin%2C_AH_217.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="506" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Fals" title="Fals">Fals</a> (Copper Coin) of al-Ma'mun. Dated AH 217 (AD 832/3). <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> mint.</figcaption></figure> <p>Al-Maʾmūn's religious beliefs are a subject of controversy, to the point where other Abbasids,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as later Islamic scholars, called him a <a href="/wiki/Shia" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia">Shia</a> Muslim. For instance, Sunni scholars <a href="/wiki/Al-Dhahabi" title="Al-Dhahabi">al-Dhahabi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Kathir" title="Ibn Kathir">Ibn Kathir</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al-Suyuti" title="Al-Suyuti">al-Suyuti</a> explicitly held the belief that al-Ma'mun was a Shi'a.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The arguments for his supposed Shi’ism include that, in 816/817, when <a href="/wiki/Ali_al-Rida" title="Ali al-Rida">Ali al-Rida</a>, the Prophet's descendant, refused designation as sole Caliph, al-Ma'mun officially designated him as his appointed successor. The official Abbasid coins were minted showing al-Ma'mun as a Caliph and al-Ridha as his successor.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other arguments were that: the Caliphate's official black colour was changed to the Prophetic green; in 210 AH/825 CE, he wrote to Qutham b. Ja'far, the ruler of Medina, to return <a href="/wiki/Fadak" title="Fadak">Fadak</a> to the descendants of Muhammad through his daughter, Fatima; he restored <a href="/wiki/Nikah_mut%27ah" title="Nikah mut'ah">nikah mut'ah</a>, previously banned by Umar ibn al-Khattab, but practiced under Muhammad and Abu Bakr; in 211 AH/826 CE, al-Ma'mun reportedly expressed his antipathy to those who praised <a href="/wiki/Mu%27awiya_I" title="Mu'awiya I">Mu'awiya I</a>, the founder and first caliph of the Umayyad Caliphate, and reportedly punished such people;<sup id="cite_ref-Suyūṭī_p._364_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suyūṭī_p._364-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this later view of al-Suyuti however is questionable since it contradicts the fact that al-Ma’mun promoted scholars who openly defended Muawiyah, such as the Mu’tazilite scholar Hisham bin Amr al-Fuwati, who was a well-respected judge in the court of al-Ma’mun in Baghdad;<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 212 AH/827 CE, al-Ma'mun announced the superiority of Ali ibn Abu Talib over Abu Bakr and Umar b. al-Khattab;<sup id="cite_ref-Suyūṭī_p._364_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suyūṭī_p._364-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 833 CE, under the influence of <a href="/wiki/Mu%CA%BFtazila" class="mw-redirect" title="Muʿtazila">Muʿtazila</a> rationalist thought, he initiated the <a href="/wiki/Mihna" title="Mihna">mihna</a> ordeal, where he accepted the argument that the Quran was created at some point over the orthodox Sunni belief that the Book is the uncreated word of God. </p><p>However, Shi’ites condemn al-Ma'mun as well due to the belief that he was responsible for <a href="/wiki/Ali_al-Ridha" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali al-Ridha">Ali al-Ridha</a>'s poisoning and eventual death in 818 CE. In the ensuing power struggle, other Abbasids sought to depose Ma'mun in favor of <a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_ibn_al-Mahdi" title="Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi">Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi</a>, Ma'mun's uncle;<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> therefore, getting rid of al-Ridha was the only realistic way of retaining united, absolute, unopposed rule.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Al-Ma'mūn ordered that al-Ridha be buried next to the tomb of his own father, <a href="/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid" title="Harun al-Rashid">Harun al-Rashid</a>, and showed extreme sorrow in the funeral ritual and stayed for three days at the place. <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Jawad" title="Muhammad al-Jawad">Muhammad al-Jawad</a>, Ali al-Ridha's son and successor, lived unopposed and free during the rest of al-Ma'mūn’s reign (till 833 CE). The Caliph summoned al-Jawad to Baghdad in order to marry his daughter, Ummul Fadhl. This apparently provoked strenuous objections by the Abbasids. According to <a href="/wiki/Ya%27qubi" title="Ya'qubi">Ya'qubi</a>, al-Ma'mun gave al-Jawad one hundred thousand <i>dirham</i> and said, "Surely I would like to be a grandfather in the line of the Apostle of God and of Ali ibn Abu Talib."<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Ma%27mun&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Ma%27mun&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRekaya2012" class="citation journal cs1">Rekaya, M. (24 April 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/al-mamun-SIM_4889">"al-Maʾmūn"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 September</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+Second+Edition&rft.atitle=al-Ma%CA%BEm%C5%ABn&rft.date=2012-04-24&rft.aulast=Rekaya&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brillonline.com%2Fentries%2Fencyclopaedia-of-islam-2%2Fal-mamun-SIM_4889&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Ma%27mun" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_2-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_2-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_2-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_2-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_2-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_2-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_2-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRekaya1991">Rekaya 1991</a>, p. 331.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010274-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010274_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEl-Hibri2010">El-Hibri 2010</a>, p. 274.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004133–135-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004133–135_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy2004">Kennedy 2004</a>, pp. 133–135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010282-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010282_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEl-Hibri2010">El-Hibri 2010</a>, p. 282.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010282–283-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010282–283_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEl-Hibri2010">El-Hibri 2010</a>, pp. 282–283.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004142-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004142_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy2004">Kennedy 2004</a>, p. 142.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004142–143-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004142–143_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy2004">Kennedy 2004</a>, pp. 142–143.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010283-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010283_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010283_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010283_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEl-Hibri2010">El-Hibri 2010</a>, p. 283.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004144-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004144_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy2004">Kennedy 2004</a>, p. 144.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004144–145-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004144–145_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy2004">Kennedy 2004</a>, pp. 144–145.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy1986" class="citation book cs1">Kennedy, Hugh (1986). <i>The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates</i> (2nd ed.). 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New York: Routledge. pp. 276+. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1135044732" title="Special:BookSources/978-1135044732"><bdi>978-1135044732</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 July</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religious+Authority+and+Political+Thought+in+Twelver+Islam&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=276%2B&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1135044732&rft.aulast=Mavani&rft.aufirst=Hamid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgJChf3qXGUkC%26dq%3DImam%2BReza%2Band%2Bal-ma-mum%26pg%3DPA112&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Ma%27mun" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The History of al-Ṭabarī, v. 32, p. 95</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTesdell1999" class="citation book cs1">Tesdell, Lee S. 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Boulder, Colorado: <a href="/wiki/Westview_Press" title="Westview Press">Westview Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00gold/page/78">78</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-3885-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-3885-9"><bdi>978-0-8133-3885-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+concise+history+of+the+Middle+East&rft.place=Boulder%2C+Colorado&rft.pages=78&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8133-3885-9&rft.aulast=Goldschmidt&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconcisehistoryof00gold%2Fpage%2F78&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Ma%27mun" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Hamilton_Morgan" title="Michael Hamilton Morgan">Michael Hamilton Morgan</a> "Lost History", p. 57</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_Islam" title="Encyclopaedia of Islam">E.J. 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(2023). <i>The Book of Monasteries</i>. Library of Arabic Literature. NYU Press. pp. 233, 459. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4798-2572-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4798-2572-1"><bdi>978-1-4798-2572-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Book+of+Monasteries&rft.series=Library+of+Arabic+Literature&rft.pages=233%2C+459&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-4798-2572-1&rft.aulast=Kilpatrick&rft.aufirst=H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Ma%27mun" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Elmeligi-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Elmeligi_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElmeligi2019" class="citation book cs1">Elmeligi, W. (2019). <i>The Poetry of Arab Women from the Pre-Islamic Age to Andalusia</i>. Focus on Global Gender and Sexuality. Taylor & Francis. pp. 109–110. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-429-83632-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-429-83632-9"><bdi>978-0-429-83632-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Poetry+of+Arab+Women+from+the+Pre-Islamic+Age+to+Andalusia&rft.series=Focus+on+Global+Gender+and+Sexuality&rft.pages=109-110&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-429-83632-9&rft.aulast=Elmeligi&rft.aufirst=W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Ma%27mun" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworth198782-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworth198782_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBosworth1987">Bosworth 1987</a>, p. 82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworth1987224–231-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworth1987224–231_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBosworth1987">Bosworth 1987</a>, pp. 224–231.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2006213-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2006213_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy2006">Kennedy 2006</a>, p. 213.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworth1987222–223,_225-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworth1987222–223,_225_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBosworth1987">Bosworth 1987</a>, pp. 222–223, 225.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworth19911-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworth19911_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBosworth1991">Bosworth 1991</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2006213–215-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2006213–215_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy2006">Kennedy 2006</a>, pp. 213–215.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworth19911–2_(esp._note_2)-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworth19911–2_(esp._note_2)_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBosworth1991">Bosworth 1991</a>, pp. 1–2 (esp. note 2).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/196">"Al-Ma'mun"</a>. <i>Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature</i>. USGS Astrogeology Research Program.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Al-Ma%26%2339%3Bmun&rft.btitle=Gazetteer+of+Planetary+Nomenclature&rft.pub=USGS+Astrogeology+Research+Program&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplanetarynames.wr.usgs.gov%2FFeature%2F196&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Ma%27mun" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKan2012548-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKan2012548_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKan2012548_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKan2012">Kan 2012</a>, p. 548.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Naqawī, "Taʾthīr-i qīyāmhā-yi ʿalawīyān", p. 141.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dhahabī, Siyar aʿlām al-nubalāʾ, vol. 11, p. 236; Ibn Kathīr, al-Bidāya wa l-nihāya, vol. 10, pp. 275–279; Ibn khaldūn. al-ʿIbar, vol. 2, p. 272; Suyūṭī, Tārīkh al-khulafāʾ, p. 363.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vcoins.com/en/stores/cyrus_coins/28/product/item_13113_abbasid_medieval_islam_almamun_ah_194218_silver_dirham_204ah_isfahan_mint__with_ali_ibn_musa_alrida_as_heir__rare_album_224__difficult_to_find/564808/Default.aspx">"Item #13113 Abbasid (Medieval Islam), al-Ma'mun (AH 194–218), Silver dirham, 204AH, Isfahan mint , with Ali ibn Musa al-Rida as heir, Album 224"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Item+%2313113+Abbasid+%28Medieval+Islam%29%2C+al-Ma%27mun+%28AH+194%E2%80%93218%29%2C+Silver+dirham%2C+204AH%2C+Isfahan+mint+%2C+with+Ali+ibn+Musa+al-Rida+as+heir%2C+Album+224&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vcoins.com%2Fen%2Fstores%2Fcyrus_coins%2F28%2Fproduct%2Fitem_13113_abbasid_medieval_islam_almamun_ah_194218_silver_dirham_204ah_isfahan_mint__with_ali_ibn_musa_alrida_as_heir__rare_album_224__difficult_to_find%2F564808%2FDefault.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Ma%27mun" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Suyūṭī_p._364-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Suyūṭī_p._364_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Suyūṭī_p._364_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Suyūṭī, Tārīkh al-khulafāʾ, p. 364.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210602213758/https://khartoumspace.uofk.edu/bitstream/handle/123456789/2008/Mutazilite%20sudan.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">"Disputations on 'the Necessity of Imamate' in the Mu'tazilite Political Theory"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://khartoumspace.uofk.edu/bitstream/handle/123456789/2008/Mutazilite%20sudan.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Disputations+on+%27the+Necessity+of+Imamate%27+in+the+Mu%27tazilite+Political+Theory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkhartoumspace.uofk.edu%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F123456789%2F2008%2FMutazilite%2520sudan.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1%26isAllowed%3Dy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Ma%27mun" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Donaldson, Dwight M. (1933). <i>The Shi'ite Religion: A History of Islam in Persia and Irak. Burleigh Press</i>. pp. 161–170.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to Madelung the unexpected death of the Alid successor, "whose presence would have made any reconciliation with the powerful ʿAbbasid opposition in Baghdad virtually impossible, must indeed arouse strong suspicion that Ma'mun had had a hand in the deaths."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Donaldson, Dwight M. (1933). <i>The Shi'ite Religion: A History of Islam in Persia and Iraḳ</i>. AMS Press. pp. 190–197.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Ma%27mun&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBosworth1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/C._E._Bosworth" class="mw-redirect" title="C. E. Bosworth">Bosworth, C. E.</a>, ed. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4J3PJZDYBMoC"><i>The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XXXII: The Reunification of the ʿAbbāsid Caliphate: The Caliphate of al-Maʾmūn, A.D. 813–33/A.H. 198–213</i></a>. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88706-058-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88706-058-8"><bdi>978-0-88706-058-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+al-%E1%B9%ACabar%C4%AB%2C+Volume+XXXII%3A+The+Reunification+of+the+%CA%BFAbb%C4%81sid+Caliphate%3A+The+Caliphate+of+al-Ma%CA%BEm%C5%ABn%2C+A.D.+813%E2%80%9333%2FA.H.+198%E2%80%93213&rft.place=Albany%2C+New+York&rft.series=SUNY+Series+in+Near+Eastern+Studies.&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-88706-058-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4J3PJZDYBMoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Ma%27mun" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_N._Kennedy" title="Hugh N. Kennedy">Kennedy, Hugh</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=67fZB5YGkOQC"><i>When Baghdad Ruled the Muslim World: The Rise and Fall of Islam's Greatest Dynasty</i></a>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Da Capo Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306814808" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-306814808"><bdi>978-0-306814808</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=When+Baghdad+Ruled+the+Muslim+World%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Islam%27s+Greatest+Dynasty&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Da+Capo+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-306814808&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D67fZB5YGkOQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Ma%27mun" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooperson2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Cooperson" title="Michael Cooperson">Cooperson, Michael</a> (2005). <i>Al Ma'mun</i>. Makers of the Muslim world. Oxford: Oneworld. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1851683864" title="Special:BookSources/978-1851683864"><bdi>978-1851683864</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Al+Ma%27mun&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=Makers+of+the+Muslim+world&rft.pub=Oneworld&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1851683864&rft.aulast=Cooperson&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Ma%27mun" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniel1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Elton_L._Daniel" title="Elton L. Daniel">Daniel, Elton L.</a> (1979). <i>The Political and Social History of Khurasan under Abbasid Rule, 747–820</i>. Minneapolis & Chicago: Bibliotheca Islamica, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88297-025-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88297-025-7"><bdi>978-0-88297-025-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Political+and+Social+History+of+Khurasan+under+Abbasid+Rule%2C+747%E2%80%93820&rft.place=Minneapolis+%26+Chicago&rft.pub=Bibliotheca+Islamica%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-88297-025-7&rft.aulast=Daniel&rft.aufirst=Elton+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Ma%27mun" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEl-Hibri1999" class="citation book cs1">El-Hibri, Tayeb (1999). "Al-Maʾmūn: the heretic Caliph". <i>Reinterpreting Islamic Historiography: Hārūn al-Rashı̄d and the Narrative of the ʿAbbāsid Caliphate</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 95–142. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-65023-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-65023-2"><bdi>0-521-65023-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Al-Ma%CA%BEm%C5%ABn%3A+the+heretic+Caliph&rft.btitle=Reinterpreting+Islamic+Historiography%3A+H%C4%81r%C5%ABn+al-Rash%C4%B1%CC%84d+and+the+Narrative+of+the+%CA%BFAbb%C4%81sid+Caliphate&rft.pages=95-142&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-521-65023-2&rft.aulast=El-Hibri&rft.aufirst=Tayeb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Ma%27mun" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEl-Hibri2010" class="citation book cs1">El-Hibri, Tayeb (2010). "The empire in Iraq, 763–861". In <a href="/wiki/Chase_F._Robinson" title="Chase F. Robinson">Robinson, Chase F.</a> (ed.). <i>The New Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 1: The Formation of the Islamic World, Sixth to Eleventh Centuries</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 269–304. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83823-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83823-8"><bdi>978-0-521-83823-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+empire+in+Iraq%2C+763%E2%80%93861&rft.btitle=The+New+Cambridge+History+of+Islam%2C+Volume+1%3A+The+Formation+of+the+Islamic+World%2C+Sixth+to+Eleventh+Centuries&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=269-304&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-521-83823-8&rft.aulast=El-Hibri&rft.aufirst=Tayeb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Ma%27mun" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFishbein1992" class="citation book cs1">Fishbein, Michael, ed. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Utb5Z1h_RtoC"><i>The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XXXI: The War Between Brothers: The Caliphate of Muḥammad al-Amīn, A.D. 809–813/A.H. 193–198</i></a>. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-1085-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-1085-1"><bdi>978-0-7914-1085-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+al-%E1%B9%ACabar%C4%AB%2C+Volume+XXXI%3A+The+War+Between+Brothers%3A+The+Caliphate+of+Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad+al-Am%C4%ABn%2C+A.D.+809%E2%80%93813%2FA.H.+193%E2%80%93198&rft.place=Albany%2C+New+York&rft.series=SUNY+Series+in+Near+Eastern+Studies.&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-1085-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUtb5Z1h_RtoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Ma%27mun" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGabra2003" class="citation book cs1">Gabra, Gawdat (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200322012930/http://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/ssg/content/tpage/636627">"The Revolts of the Bashmuric Copts in the Eighth and Ninth Centuries"</a>. In W. Beltz (ed.). <i>Die koptische Kirche in den ersten drei islamischen Jahrhunderten</i>. Institut für Orientalistik, Martin-Luther-Universität. pp. 111–119. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/ssg/content/tpage/636627">the original</a> on 22 March 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 March</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Revolts+of+the+Bashmuric+Copts+in+the+Eighth+and+Ninth+Centuries&rft.btitle=Die+koptische+Kirche+in+den+ersten+drei+islamischen+Jahrhunderten&rft.pages=111-119&rft.pub=Institut+f%C3%BCr+Orientalistik%2C+Martin-Luther-Universit%C3%A4t&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Gabra&rft.aufirst=Gawdat&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmenadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de%2Fssg%2Fcontent%2Ftpage%2F636627&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Ma%27mun" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bagot_Glubb" title="John Bagot Glubb">John Bagot Glubb</a> The Empire of the Arabs, Hodder and Stoughton, London, 1963.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIbn_al-Sāʿī2017" class="citation book cs1">Ibn al-Sāʿī (2017). <i>Consorts of the Caliphs: Women and the Court of Baghdad</i>. Translated by Shawkat M. Toorawa. Introduction by Julia Bray, Foreword by Marina Warner. New York: New York University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4798-0477-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4798-0477-1"><bdi>978-1-4798-0477-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Consorts+of+the+Caliphs%3A+Women+and+the+Court+of+Baghdad&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-4798-0477-1&rft.au=Ibn+al-S%C4%81%CA%BF%C4%AB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Ma%27mun" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>E. de la Vaissière, <i>Samarcande et Samarra. Elites d'Asie centrale dans l'empire Abbasside</i>, Peeters, 2007 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.peeters-leuven.be/boekoverz.asp?nr=8356">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190816092113/http://www.peeters-leuven.be/boekoverz.asp?nr=8356">Archived</a> 16 August 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimitri_Gutas" title="Dimitri Gutas">Dimitri Gutas</a>, Greek Thought, Arabic culture: the Graeco-Arabic translation movement in Baghdad and early Abbasid society Routledge, London, 1998</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_N._Kennedy" title="Hugh N. Kennedy">Hugh N. Kennedy</a>, The Early Abbasid Caliphate, a political History, Croom Helm, London, 1981</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy2023" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_N._Kennedy" title="Hugh N. Kennedy">Kennedy, Hugh</a> (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dPxwEAAAQBAJ"><i>The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century</i></a> (2nd ed.). Abingdon, Oxon and New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-367-36690-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-367-36690-2"><bdi>978-0-367-36690-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Prophet+and+the+Age+of+the+Caliphates%3A+The+Islamic+Near+East+from+the+6th+to+the+11th+Century&rft.place=Abingdon%2C+Oxon+and+New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-0-367-36690-2&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdPxwEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Ma%27mun" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>John Nawas, A Reexamination of three current explanations for Al-Ma’mun's introduction of the Mihna, International Journal of Middle East Studies 26, (1994) pp. 615–629</li> <li>John Nawas, The <a href="/wiki/Mihna" title="Mihna">Mihna</a> of 218 A.H./833 A.D. Revisited: An Empirical Study, Journal of the American Oriental Society 116.4 (1996) pp. 698–708</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNawas2015" class="citation book cs1">Nawas, John Abdallah (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-glPDgAAQBAJ"><i>Al-Maʼmūn, the Inquisition, and the Quest for Caliphal Authority</i></a>. Atlanta, Georgia: Lockwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-937040-55-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-937040-55-0"><bdi>978-1-937040-55-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Al-Ma%CA%BCm%C5%ABn%2C+the+Inquisition%2C+and+the+Quest+for+Caliphal+Authority&rft.place=Atlanta%2C+Georgia&rft.pub=Lockwood+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-937040-55-0&rft.aulast=Nawas&rft.aufirst=John+Abdallah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-glPDgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Ma%27mun" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRekaya1991" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Rekaya, M. (1991). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/al-mamun-SIM_4889">"al-Maʾmūn"</a></span>. In <a href="/wiki/C._E._Bosworth" class="mw-redirect" title="C. E. Bosworth">Bosworth, C. E.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Emeri_Johannes_van_Donzel" class="mw-redirect" title="Emeri Johannes van Donzel">van Donzel, E.</a> & <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pellat" title="Charles Pellat">Pellat, Ch.</a> (eds.). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Encyclopaedia_of_Islam#2nd_edition,_EI2" class="mw-redirect" title="The Encyclopaedia of Islam">The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition</a>. </i>Volume VI:<i> Mahk–Mid</i>. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 331–339. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-08112-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-08112-3"><bdi>978-90-04-08112-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=al-Ma%CA%BEm%C5%ABn&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+Second+Edition.+Volume+VI%3A+Mahk%E2%80%93Mid&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=331-339&rft.pub=E.+J.+Brill&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-90-04-08112-3&rft.aulast=Rekaya&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brillonline.com%2Fentries%2Fencyclopaedia-of-islam-2%2Fal-mamun-SIM_4889&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Ma%27mun" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBosworth1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/C._E._Bosworth" class="mw-redirect" title="C. E. Bosworth">Bosworth, C. E.</a>, ed. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9WqdVdZWcscC"><i>The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XXXIII: Storm and Stress Along the Northern Frontiers of the ʿAbbāsid Caliphate: The Caliphate of al-Muʿtasim, A.D. 833–842/A.H. 218–227</i></a>. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-0493-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-0493-5"><bdi>978-0-7914-0493-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+al-%E1%B9%ACabar%C4%AB%2C+Volume+XXXIII%3A+Storm+and+Stress+Along+the+Northern+Frontiers+of+the+%CA%BFAbb%C4%81sid+Caliphate%3A+The+Caliphate+of+al-Mu%CA%BFtasim%2C+A.D.+833%E2%80%93842%2FA.H.+218%E2%80%93227&rft.place=Albany%2C+New+York&rft.series=SUNY+Series+in+Near+Eastern+Studies.&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-0493-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9WqdVdZWcscC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Ma%27mun" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKan2012" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kan, Kadir (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/vasik-billah">"Vâsiḳ-Billâh"</a>. <i>TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 42 (Tütün – Vehran)</i> (in Turkish). Istanbul: <a href="/wiki/Directorate_of_Religious_Affairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Directorate of Religious Affairs">Turkiye Diyanet Foundation</a>, Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 548–549. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-975-389-737-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-975-389-737-2"><bdi>978-975-389-737-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=V%C3%A2si%E1%B8%B3-Bill%C3%A2h&rft.btitle=TDV+Encyclopedia+of+Islam%2C+Vol.+42+%28T%C3%BCt%C3%BCn+%E2%80%93+Vehran%29&rft.place=Istanbul&rft.pages=548-549&rft.pub=Turkiye+Diyanet+Foundation%2C+Centre+for+Islamic+Studies&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-975-389-737-2&rft.aulast=Kan&rft.aufirst=Kadir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fislamansiklopedisi.org.tr%2Fvasik-billah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Ma%27mun" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Peter Tompkins, "Secrets of the Great Pyramid", chapter 2, Harper and Row, 1971.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurner2013" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Turner, John P. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_24639">"al-ʿAbbās b. al-Maʾmūn"</a>. In Fleet, Kate; <a href="/wiki/Gudrun_Kr%C3%A4mer" title="Gudrun Krämer">Krämer, Gudrun</a>; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; <a href="/wiki/Everett_K._Rowson" title="Everett K. Rowson">Rowson, Everett</a> (eds.). <i>Encyclopaedia of Islam</i> (3rd ed.). Brill Online. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_ei3_COM_24639">10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_24639</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1873-9830">1873-9830</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=al-%CA%BFAbb%C4%81s+b.+al-Ma%CA%BEm%C5%ABn&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Brill+Online&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F1573-3912_ei3_COM_24639&rft.issn=1873-9830&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=John+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1163%2F1573-3912_ei3_COM_24639&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Ma%27mun" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Ma%27mun&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original works by or about:<br /><b style="text-align: center;"><i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Ab%C5%AB_Ja%CA%BFfar_Abdull%C4%81h_al-Ma%CA%BEm%C5%ABn_ibn_Har%C5%ABn" class="extiw" title="s:Author:Abū Jaʿfar Abdullāh al-Maʾmūn ibn Harūn">al-Maʾmun</a></i></b></div></div> </div> <ul><li><span class="languageicon">(in English)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060117163425/http://www.dinarstandard.com/innovation/AlMamun122505.htm">Al-Mamum: Building an Environment for Innovation</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerggren2007" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Berggren, Len (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://islamsci.mcgill.ca/RASI/BEA/Ma%27mun_BEA.htm">"Maʾmūn: Abū al-ʿAbbās ʿAbdallāh ibn Hārūn al-Rashīd"</a>. In Thomas Hockey; et al. (eds.). <i>The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Springer_Publishing" title="Springer Publishing">Springer</a>. p. 733. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-31022-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-31022-0"><bdi>978-0-387-31022-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ma%CA%BEm%C5%ABn%3A+Ab%C5%AB+al-%CA%BFAbb%C4%81s+%CA%BFAbdall%C4%81h+ibn+H%C4%81r%C5%ABn+al-Rash%C4%ABd&rft.btitle=The+Biographical+Encyclopedia+of+Astronomers&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=733&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-387-31022-0&rft.aulast=Berggren&rft.aufirst=Len&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fislamsci.mcgill.ca%2FRASI%2FBEA%2FMa%2527mun_BEA.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAl-Ma%27mun" class="Z3988"></span> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://islamsci.mcgill.ca/RASI/BEA/Ma%27mun_BEA.pdf">PDF version</a>)</li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #FFD700; text-align:center;"><div>al-Ma'mun</div><div><b><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_dynasty" title="Abbasid dynasty">Abbasid dynasty</a></b></div><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:90%; margin:2em"><b>Born:</b> 786</span><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:90%; margin:2em"> <b>Died:</b> 833</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #FABE60;"><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni Islam titles</a> </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Al-Amin" title="Al-Amin">al-Amin</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/List_of_Abbasid_caliphs" title="List of Abbasid caliphs">Caliph</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a> </b><br />813 – 9 August 833 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tasim" title="Al-Mu'tasim">al-Mu'tasim</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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caliphs"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Abbasid_Caliphs" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Abbasid_caliphs" title="List of Abbasid caliphs">Abbasid Caliphs</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">Caliphs</a> of <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a><br />(749–1258)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Saffah" title="Al-Saffah">al-Saffah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur" title="Al-Mansur">al-Mansur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mahdi" title="Al-Mahdi">al-Mahdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Hadi" title="Al-Hadi">al-Hadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid" title="Harun al-Rashid">Harun al-Rashid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Amin" title="Al-Amin">al-Amin</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_ibn_al-Mahdi" title="Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi">Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi</a></i><sup>[B]</sup></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">al-Ma'mun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tasim" title="Al-Mu'tasim">al-Mu'tasim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wathiq" title="Al-Wathiq">al-Wathiq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil" title="Al-Mutawakkil">al-Mutawakkil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muntasir" title="Al-Muntasir">al-Muntasir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27in" title="Al-Musta'in">al-Musta'in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tazz" title="Al-Mu'tazz">al-Mu'tazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muhtadi" title="Al-Muhtadi">al-Muhtadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tamid" title="Al-Mu'tamid">al-Mu'tamid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tadid" title="Al-Mu'tadid">al-Mu'tadid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muktafi" title="Al-Muktafi">al-Muktafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muqtadir" title="Al-Muqtadir">al-Muqtadir</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Abdallah_ibn_al-Mu%27tazz" title="Abdallah ibn al-Mu'tazz">Abdallah ibn al-Mu'tazz</a></i><sup>[B]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qahir" title="Al-Qahir">al-Qahir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Radi" title="Al-Radi">al-Radi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muttaqi" title="Al-Muttaqi">al-Muttaqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustakfi" title="Al-Mustakfi">al-Mustakfi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muti%27" title="Al-Muti'">al-Muti'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ta%27i%27" title="Al-Ta'i'">al-Ta'i'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qadir" title="Al-Qadir">al-Qadir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qa%27im_(Abbasid_caliph_at_Baghdad)" title="Al-Qa'im (Abbasid caliph at Baghdad)">al-Qa'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muqtadi" title="Al-Muqtadi">al-Muqtadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustazhir" title="Al-Mustazhir">al-Mustazhir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustarshid" title="Al-Mustarshid">al-Mustarshid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Rashid_Billah" title="Al-Rashid Billah">al-Rashid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muqtafi" title="Al-Muqtafi">al-Muqtafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustanjid" title="Al-Mustanjid">al-Mustanjid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustadi" title="Al-Mustadi">al-Mustadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Nasir" title="Al-Nasir">al-Nasir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Zahir_bi-Amr_Allah" title="Al-Zahir bi-Amr Allah">al-Zahir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustansir_I" title="Al-Mustansir I">al-Mustansir I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27sim" title="Al-Musta'sim">al-Musta'sim</a></li> <li><i>(<a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad" title="Siege of Baghdad">Mongol conquest</a>)</i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">Caliphs</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a><br />(1261–1517)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustansir_II" title="Al-Mustansir II">al-Mustansir II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Hakim_I" title="Al-Hakim I">al-Hakim I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustakfi_I_(Cairo)" title="Al-Mustakfi I (Cairo)">al-Mustakfi I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wathiq_I" title="Al-Wathiq I">al-Wathiq I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Hakim_II" title="Al-Hakim II">al-Hakim II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tadid_I" title="Al-Mu'tadid I">al-Mu'tadid I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil_I" title="Al-Mutawakkil I">al-Mutawakkil I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27sim_(Cairo)" title="Al-Musta'sim (Cairo)">al-Musta'sim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil_I" title="Al-Mutawakkil I">al-Mutawakkil I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wathiq_II" title="Al-Wathiq II">al-Wathiq II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27sim_(Cairo)" title="Al-Musta'sim (Cairo)">al-Musta'sim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil_I" title="Al-Mutawakkil I">al-Mutawakkil I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27in_(Cairo)" title="Al-Musta'in (Cairo)">al-Musta'in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tadid_II" title="Al-Mu'tadid II">al-Mu'tadid II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustakfi_II" title="Al-Mustakfi II">al-Mustakfi II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qa%27im_(Abbasid_caliph_at_Cairo)" title="Al-Qa'im (Abbasid caliph at Cairo)">al-Qa'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustanjid_(Cairo)" title="Al-Mustanjid (Cairo)">al-Mustanjid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil_II" title="Al-Mutawakkil II">al-Mutawakkil II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustamsik" title="Al-Mustamsik">al-Mustamsik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil_III" title="Al-Mutawakkil III">al-Mutawakkil III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustamsik" title="Al-Mustamsik">al-Mustamsik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil_III" title="Al-Mutawakkil III">al-Mutawakkil III</a></li> <li><i>(<a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Mamluk_War_(1516%E2%80%9317)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–17)">Ottoman conquest</a>)</i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><sup>[B]</sup> indicates ephemeral caliphs recognized in the city of Baghdad only</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Abbasid_Caliphate_topics_(750–1258)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks plainlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Abbasid_Caliphate_topics" title="Template:Abbasid Caliphate topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Abbasid_Caliphate_topics" title="Template talk:Abbasid Caliphate topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Abbasid_Caliphate_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Abbasid Caliphate topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Abbasid_Caliphate_topics_(750–1258)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a> topics <span style="font-size:85%;">(750–1258)</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: left;"><b>Background</b></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Third_Fitna" title="Third Fitna">Third Fitna</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hashimiyya" class="mw-redirect" title="Hashimiyya">Hashimiyya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: left;"><b>Early period</b><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(750–833)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Establishment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid Revolution">Abbasid Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Muslim" title="Abu Muslim">Abu Muslim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Saffah" title="Al-Saffah">al-Saffah</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Talas" title="Battle of Talas">Battle of Talas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur" title="Al-Mansur">al-Mansur</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_conquest_of_Ifriqiya" title="Abbasid conquest of Ifriqiya">Conquest of Ifriqiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alid_revolt_of_762%E2%80%93763" title="Alid revolt of 762–763">Revolt of Muhammad the Pure Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Round_city_of_Baghdad" title="Round city of Baghdad">Round city of Baghdad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid%E2%80%93Carolingian_alliance" title="Abbasid–Carolingian alliance">Abbasid–Carolingian alliance</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Apogee</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mahdi" title="Al-Mahdi">al-Mahdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Hadi" title="Al-Hadi">al-Hadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid" title="Harun al-Rashid">Harun al-Rashid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barmakids" title="Barmakids">Barmakids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_invasion_of_Asia_Minor_(806)" title="Abbasid invasion of Asia Minor (806)">Sack of Heraclea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Amin" title="Al-Amin">al-Amin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Fitna" title="Fourth Fitna">Fourth Fitna</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">al-Ma'mun</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Arabic_translation_movement" title="Graeco-Arabic translation movement">Graeco-Arabic translation movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazilism" title="Mu'tazilism">Mu'tazilism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mihna" title="Mihna">Mihna</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: left;"><b>Fragmentation of<br />the Abbasid empire</b><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(833–946)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Samarra" title="Abbasid Samarra">Samarra period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tasim" title="Al-Mu'tasim">al-Mu'tasim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Amorium" title="Sack of Amorium">Sack of Amorium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wathiq" title="Al-Wathiq">al-Wathiq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil" title="Al-Mutawakkil">al-Mutawakkil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchy_at_Samarra" title="Anarchy at Samarra">Anarchy at Samarra</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muntasir" title="Al-Muntasir">al-Muntasir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27in" title="Al-Musta'in">al-Musta'in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tazz" title="Al-Mu'tazz">al-Mu'tazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muhtadi" title="Al-Muhtadi">al-Muhtadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zanj_Rebellion" title="Zanj Rebellion">Zanj Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharijite_Rebellion_(866%E2%80%93896)" title="Kharijite Rebellion (866–896)">Kharijite Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulunids" title="Tulunids">Tulunids</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Abbasid revival</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tamid" title="Al-Mu'tamid">al-Mu'tamid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muwaffaq" title="Al-Muwaffaq">al-Muwaffaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tadid" title="Al-Mu'tadid">al-Mu'tadid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muktafi" title="Al-Muktafi">al-Muktafi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Collapse</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muqtadir" title="Al-Muqtadir">al-Muqtadir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qahir" title="Al-Qahir">al-Qahir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Radi" title="Al-Radi">al-Radi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muttaqi" title="Al-Muttaqi">al-Muttaqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustakfi" title="Al-Mustakfi">al-Mustakfi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu%27nis_al-Muzaffar" title="Mu'nis al-Muzaffar">Mu'nis al-Muzaffar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Hasan_Ali_ibn_al-Furat" title="Abu'l-Hasan Ali ibn al-Furat">Abu'l-Hasan Ali ibn al-Furat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Isa_ibn_al-Jarrah" title="Ali ibn Isa ibn al-Jarrah">Ali ibn Isa ibn al-Jarrah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qarmatian_invasion_of_Iraq" title="Qarmatian invasion of Iraq">Qarmatian invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Mecca_(930)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sack of Mecca (930)">Sack of Mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bajkam" title="Bajkam">Bajkam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Abdallah_al-Baridi" title="Abu Abdallah al-Baridi">Abu Abdallah al-Baridi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_al-Dawla" title="Nasir al-Dawla">Nasir al-Dawla</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: left;"><b><a href="/wiki/Buyid" class="mw-redirect" title="Buyid">Buyid</a> period</b><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(946–1055)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Caliphs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muti" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Muti">al-Muti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ta%27i" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Ta'i">al-Ta'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qadir" title="Al-Qadir">al-Qadir</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Manifesto" title="Baghdad Manifesto">Baghdad Manifesto</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qa%27im_(Abbasid_caliph_at_Baghdad)" title="Al-Qa'im (Abbasid caliph at Baghdad)">al-Qa'im</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Buyid emirs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mu%27izz_al-Dawla" title="Mu'izz al-Dawla">Mu'izz al-Dawla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izz_al-Dawla" title="Izz al-Dawla">Izz al-Dawla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%27Adud_al-Dawla" title="'Adud al-Dawla">'Adud al-Dawla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samsam_al-Dawla" title="Samsam al-Dawla">Samsam al-Dawla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharaf_al-Dawla" title="Sharaf al-Dawla">Sharaf al-Dawla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baha_al-Dawla" title="Baha al-Dawla">Baha al-Dawla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultan_al-Dawla" title="Sultan al-Dawla">Sultan al-Dawla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musharrif_al-Dawla" title="Musharrif al-Dawla">Musharrif al-Dawla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jalal_al-Dawla" title="Jalal al-Dawla">Jalal al-Dawla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Kalijar" title="Abu Kalijar">Abu Kalijar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Malik_al-Rahim" title="Al-Malik al-Rahim">al-Malik al-Rahim</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: left;"><b><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk</a> period</b><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1055–1157)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Caliphs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qa%27im_(Abbasid_caliph_at_Baghdad)" title="Al-Qa'im (Abbasid caliph at Baghdad)">al-Qa'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muqtadi" title="Al-Muqtadi">al-Muqtadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustazhir" title="Al-Mustazhir">al-Mustazhir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustarshid" title="Al-Mustarshid">al-Mustarshid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Rashid_Billah" title="Al-Rashid Billah">al-Rashid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muqtafi" title="Al-Muqtafi">al-Muqtafi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Seljuk sultans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tughril" class="mw-redirect" title="Tughril">Tughril</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alp_Arslan" title="Alp Arslan">Alp Arslan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malik-Shah_I" title="Malik-Shah I">Malik-Shah I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahmud_I_of_Great_Seljuk" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahmud I of Great Seljuk">Mahmud I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berkyaruq" title="Berkyaruq">Berkyaruq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malik-Shah_II" title="Malik-Shah II">Malik-Shah II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_I_Tapar" title="Muhammad I Tapar">Muhammad I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Sanjar" title="Ahmad Sanjar">Ahmad Sanjar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: left;"><b>Final period</b> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1157–1258)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Caliphs" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Caliphs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muqtafi" title="Al-Muqtafi">al-Muqtafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustanjid" title="Al-Mustanjid">al-Mustanjid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustadi" title="Al-Mustadi">al-Mustadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Nasir" title="Al-Nasir">al-Nasir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Zahir_bi-Amr_Allah" title="Al-Zahir bi-Amr Allah">al-Zahir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustansir_(Baghdad)" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Mustansir (Baghdad)">al-Mustansir</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mustansiriya_Madrasah" title="Mustansiriya Madrasah">Mustansiriya Madrasah</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27sim" title="Al-Musta'sim">al-Musta'sim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad" title="Siege of Baghdad">Sack of Baghdad</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: left;"><b>Aftermath</b></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_caliphs_of_Cairo" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid caliphs of Cairo">Abbasid caliphs of Cairo</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_(Cairo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)">Mamluk Sultanate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Geography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Geography</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arminiya" title="Arminiya">Arminiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabia" title="Eastern Arabia">Bahrayn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaica" title="Cyrenaica">Barqa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hejaz" title="Hejaz">Hejaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ifriqiya" title="Ifriqiya">Ifriqiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_(region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraq (region)">Iraq</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sawad" title="Sawad">Sawad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Jazira_(caliphal_province)" title="Al-Jazira (caliphal province)">Jazira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jibal" title="Jibal">Jibal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khurasan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Sind" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab Sind">Sindh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilad_al-Sham" title="Bilad al-Sham">Syria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Awasim" title="Al-Awasim">Awasim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jund_al-Urdunn" title="Jund al-Urdunn">Jund al-Urdunn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jund_Dimashq" title="Jund Dimashq">Jund Dimashq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jund_Filastin" title="Jund Filastin">Jund Filastin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jund_Hims" title="Jund Hims">Jund Hims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jund_Qinnasrin" title="Jund Qinnasrin">Jund Qinnasrin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabaristan" title="Tabaristan">Tabaristan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Government_and_military" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Government and military</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Palace and central government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amir_al-umara" title="Amir al-umara">Amir al-umara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barid" title="Barid">Barid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hajib" title="Hajib">Hajib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_harem" title="Abbasid harem">Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazalim" title="Mazalim">Mazalim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Officials_of_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Category:Officials of the Abbasid Caliphate">Officials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robe_of_honour" title="Robe of honour">Robe of honour</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tiraz" title="Tiraz">tiraz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shurta" title="Shurta">Shurta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vizier_(Abbasid_Caliphate)" title="Vizier (Abbasid Caliphate)">Vizier</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Financial administration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divan" title="Divan">Diwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iqta%27" title="Iqta'">Iqta'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharaj" title="Kharaj">Kharaj</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abna_al-dawla" title="Abna al-dawla">Abna al-dawla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghilman" title="Ghilman">Ghilman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Battles_involving_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Category:Battles involving the Abbasid Caliphate">Battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Generals_of_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Category:Generals of the Abbasid Caliphate">Commanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Category:Wars involving the Abbasid Caliphate">Wars</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Religion_and_law" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Religion and law</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Category:Islam_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Category:Islam in the Abbasid Caliphate">Islam</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazilism" title="Mu'tazilism">Mu'tazilism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mihna" title="Mihna">Mihna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hanafism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanafism">Hanafism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanbalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanbalism">Hanbalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shafi%27i" class="mw-redirect" title="Shafi'i">Shafi'ism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Revival" title="Sunni Revival">Sunni Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shi%27a_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Shi'a Islam">Shi'a Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Imams" title="Twelve Imams">Twelve Imams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isma%27ilism" title="Isma'ilism">Isma'ilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qarmatians" title="Qarmatians">Qarmatians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shi%27a_Century" title="Shi'a Century">Shi'a Century</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">Dhimmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Christianity_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Category:Christianity in the Abbasid Caliphate">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Jews_and_Judaism_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Category:Jews and Judaism in the Abbasid Caliphate">Jews and Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khurramites" title="Khurramites">Khurramites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Culture_and_society" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Culture and society</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Abbasid_architecture" title="Category:Abbasid architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Abbasid_literature" title="Category:Abbasid literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Musicians_from_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Category:Musicians from the Abbasid Caliphate">Musicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Category:Science in the Abbasid Caliphate">Science and learning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Arabic_translation_movement" title="Graeco-Arabic translation movement">Graeco-Arabic translation movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Wisdom" title="House of Wisdom">House of Wisdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic philosophy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q61056#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q61056#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q61056#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, 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style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118847686">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n82164358">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb15050065g">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb15050065g">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p074069764">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/vs68b3jd2qs4z91">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810554201605606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/156964">Vatican</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007275035705171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118847686">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/179725173">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/memun">İslâm Ansiklopedisi</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Al-Ma%27mun&oldid=1252530437">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Al-Ma%27mun&oldid=1252530437</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a 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