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<li id="toc-Indigenous_customary_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indigenous_customary_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Indigenous customary law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indigenous_customary_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reception_of_English_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reception_of_English_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Reception of English law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reception_of_English_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Federation_and_divergence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Federation_and_divergence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Federation and divergence</span> </div> </a> <ul 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:High_Court_of_Australia_from_lake_(85856224)_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/High_Court_of_Australia_from_lake_%2885856224%29_cropped.jpg/220px-High_Court_of_Australia_from_lake_%2885856224%29_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/High_Court_of_Australia_from_lake_%2885856224%29_cropped.jpg/330px-High_Court_of_Australia_from_lake_%2885856224%29_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/High_Court_of_Australia_from_lake_%2885856224%29_cropped.jpg/440px-High_Court_of_Australia_from_lake_%2885856224%29_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="893" data-file-height="554" /></a><figcaption>The High Court</figcaption></figure> <p>The legal system of <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> has multiple forms. It includes a written <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Australia" title="Constitution of Australia">constitution</a>, unwritten <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_convention_(political_custom)#Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional convention (political custom)">constitutional conventions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">statutes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delegated_legislation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Delegated legislation in the United Kingdom">regulations</a>, and the judicially determined <a href="/wiki/Common_law_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Common law in Australia">common law system</a>. Its legal institutions and traditions are substantially derived from that of the English legal system, which superseded <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australian_customary_law" title="Indigenous Australian customary law">Indigenous Australian customary law</a> during colonisation.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Australia is a common-law jurisdiction, its court system having originated in the common law system of <a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">English law</a>. The country's common law is the same across the states and territories.<sup id="cite_ref-Lange_v_ABC_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lange_v_ABC-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Australia" title="Constitution of Australia">Australian Constitution</a> sets out a federal system of government. There exists a national legislature, with a power to pass laws of overriding force on a number of express topics.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The states are separate <a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">jurisdictions</a> with their own <a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Australia" title="Judiciary of Australia">system of courts</a> and parliaments, and are vested with <a href="/wiki/Plenary_power" title="Plenary power">plenary power</a>. Some Australian territories such as the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Territory" title="Northern Territory">Northern Territory</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Capital_Territory" title="Australian Capital Territory">Australian Capital Territory</a> have been granted a regional legislature by the Commonwealth. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court</a> is Australia's <a href="/wiki/Apex_court" class="mw-redirect" title="Apex court">apex court</a>. It has the <a href="/wiki/Finality_(law)" title="Finality (law)">final say</a> on the judicial determination of all legal matters. It hears appeals from all other courts in the country, and is vested with <a href="/wiki/Original_jurisdiction" title="Original jurisdiction">original jurisdiction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prior to <a href="/wiki/Colonisation_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonisation of Australia">colonisation</a>, the only systems of law to exist in Australia were the varied <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_customary_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Aboriginal customary law">systems of customary law</a> belonging to <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australians" title="Indigenous Australians">Indigenous Australians</a>. Indigenous systems of law were deliberately ignored by the colonial legal system, and in the post-colonial era have only been recognised as legally important by Australian courts to a limited degree.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_legal_system&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indigenous_customary_law">Indigenous customary law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_legal_system&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Indigenous customary law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australian_customary_law" title="Indigenous Australian customary law">Indigenous Australian customary law</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Barunga_Festival.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Barunga_Festival.jpg/220px-Barunga_Festival.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Barunga_Festival.jpg/330px-Barunga_Festival.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Barunga_Festival.jpg/440px-Barunga_Festival.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2217" data-file-height="1581" /></a><figcaption>Indigenous Australian cultural event</figcaption></figure> <p>Indigenous Australian customary law varied between language groups, clans, and regions.<sup id="cite_ref-alrc_1986_24_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-alrc_1986_24-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It developed over time from accepted norms within indigenous societies. The laws regulated human behaviour and relationships, mandated sanctions for misdeeds, and connected people with the land and each other through a system of relationships.<sup id="cite_ref-lrcwa_2005_7_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lrcwa_2005_7-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Such law is often intertwined with cultural customs, stories, and practices. These customs were and are passed on intergenerationally through <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral tradition</a>, often incorporated within cultural works such as <a href="/wiki/Songline" title="Songline">songlines</a>, stories and dance. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reception_of_English_law">Reception of English law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_legal_system&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Reception of English law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Reception_statute" title="Reception statute">Reception statute</a>, <a href="/wiki/Common_law#History" title="Common law">Common law § History</a>, and <a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">English law</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Courtroom_Sydney_c1817.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Courtroom_Sydney_c1817.jpg/220px-Courtroom_Sydney_c1817.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Courtroom_Sydney_c1817.jpg/330px-Courtroom_Sydney_c1817.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Courtroom_Sydney_c1817.jpg/440px-Courtroom_Sydney_c1817.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="1072" /></a><figcaption>Courtroom scene Sydney c1817. <a href="/wiki/State_Library_of_New_South_Wales" title="State Library of New South Wales">State Library of New South Wales</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The laws of England had evolved over centuries, with the common law emerging following the 1200s. This law was introduced to Australia through the colonisation of Australia by the British. By 1824, a court system based on the English model had been established through Acts of the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">British Parliament</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NSW_Act_1823_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NSW_Act_1823-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/New_South_Wales_Act_1823" title="New South Wales Act 1823"><i>New South Wales Act</i> 1823</a> provided for the establishment of a <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_New_South_Wales" title="Supreme Court of New South Wales">Supreme Court</a> with the power to deal with all criminal and civil matters "as fully and amply as Her Majesty's Court of <a href="/wiki/Court_of_King%27s_Bench_(England)" title="Court of King's Bench (England)">King's Bench</a>, <a href="/wiki/Court_of_Common_Pleas_(England)" title="Court of Common Pleas (England)">Common Pleas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Exchequer" title="Exchequer">Exchequer</a> at <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Westminster" title="Palace of Westminster">Westminster</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-NSW_Act_1823_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NSW_Act_1823-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Inferior courts were also established, including courts of <a href="/wiki/Courts_of_General_Sessions_(Australia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Courts of General Sessions (Australia)">General</a> or <a href="/wiki/Quarter_Sessions" class="mw-redirect" title="Quarter Sessions">Quarter Sessions</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Court_of_Requests" title="Court of Requests">Courts of Requests</a>. </p><p>Despite the presence of indigenous inhabitants, Australia was determined to be "settled" rather than "conquered" and as a result all English law "applicable to the new situation and condition of the infant colony" applied, as opposed to the continuation of indigenous laws.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was confirmed by the <i>Australian Courts Act 1828</i><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an act of the Imperial Parliament which had the effect of ensuring that all English common and statute law up to 28 July 1828 was to have effect in New South Wales and Tasmania, and later Victoria and Queensland when they separated from New South Wales. The reception of English law in Western Australia and South Australia was later deemed by statute to have occurred on 1 June 1829<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 28 December 1836<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> respectively. </p><p>The earliest civil and criminal courts established from the beginnings of the colony of New South Wales were rudimentary, adaptive and military in character. Although <a href="/wiki/Legality" title="Legality">legality</a> was not always observed, the courts limited the powers of the <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_New_South_Wales" title="Governor of New South Wales">Governor</a>, and the law of the colony was at times more egalitarian than in Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Representative government emerged in the 1840s and 1850s, and a considerable measure of autonomy was given to local legislatures in the second half of the nineteenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Colonial Parliaments introduced certain reforms such as <a href="/wiki/Secret_ballots" class="mw-redirect" title="Secret ballots">secret ballots</a> and <a href="/wiki/Female_suffrage" class="mw-redirect" title="Female suffrage">female suffrage</a>, which were not to occur in Britain until many years later. Nevertheless, Acts of the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="United Kingdom Parliament">United Kingdom Parliament</a> extending to the colonies could override contrary colonial legislation and would apply by "paramount force".<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New doctrines of English common law continued to be treated as representing the common law of Australia. For example, the doctrine of the famous case of <i><a href="/wiki/Donoghue_v_Stevenson" title="Donoghue v Stevenson">Donoghue v Stevenson</a></i> from which the modern <a href="/wiki/Negligence" title="Negligence">negligence</a> law derived, was treated as being latent already within the common law at the time of reception.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Federation_and_divergence">Federation and divergence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_legal_system&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Federation and divergence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Australia_Act_1986.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Australia_Act_1986.jpg/250px-Australia_Act_1986.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Australia_Act_1986.jpg/375px-Australia_Act_1986.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Australia_Act_1986.jpg/500px-Australia_Act_1986.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="543" /></a><figcaption><i>Australia Act</i> 1986 (United Kingdom) document, located in <a href="/wiki/Parliament_House,_Canberra" title="Parliament House, Canberra">Parliament House, Canberra</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Following a number of <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Australia" title="Federation of Australia">constitutional conventions during the 1890s</a> to develop a federal nation from the several colonies, the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Australia" title="Constitution of Australia"><i>Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act</i></a> (Imp) was passed and came into force on 1 January 1901. Section 9 of this act contains Australia's constitution, to this day within a British act. </p><p>Following federation, Britain's role in the government of Australia became increasingly nominal in the 20th century. However, there was little momentum for Australia to obtain legislative independence. The Australian States did not participate in the conferences leading up to the <i><a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Westminster_1931" title="Statute of Westminster 1931">Statute of Westminster</a></i> 1931, which provided that no British Act should be deemed to extend to the <a href="/wiki/Dominion" title="Dominion">dominions</a> without the consent of the dominion. The Australian Government did not invoke the provisions of the statute until 1942. The High Court also followed the decisions of the Privy Council during the first half of the twentieth century. </p><p>Complete legislative independence was finally established by the <i><a href="/wiki/Australia_Act_1986" title="Australia Act 1986">Australia Act 1986</a></i>, passed by the United Kingdom Parliament. It removed the possibility of legislation being enacted at the consent and request of a dominion, and applied to the States as well as the Commonwealth. It also provided for the complete abolition of appeals to the Privy Council from any Australian court. The Australia Act represented an important symbolic break with Britain, emphasised by <a href="/wiki/Queen_Elizabeth_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Queen Elizabeth II">Queen Elizabeth II</a>'s visit to Australia to sign the legislation in her legally distinct capacity as the Queen of Australia. </p><p>Legislative independence has been paralleled by a growing divergence between Australian and English common law in the last quarter of the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, a large body of English law received in Australia has been progressively repealed in state parliaments, such as in New South Wales by the <i>Imperial Acts Application Act 1969</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources_of_law">Sources of law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_legal_system&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Sources of law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constitutional_law">Constitutional law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_legal_system&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Constitutional law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Australia" title="Constitution of Australia">Constitution of Australia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Australian_constitutional_law" title="Australian constitutional law">Australian constitutional law</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Australia_Constitution_Act" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act">Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act</a></b></div></div></div> </div> <p>The Australian colonies were federated into 'The Commonwealth' in 1901. To achieve this, the British Parliament enacted a written constitution drawn up by the Australian colonists. The document was influenced by constitutional systems of the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">UK</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Australia's constitution 'establishes the form of the federal government and sets out the basis for relations between the Commonwealth and the states'.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chapter I defines the role and powers of the legislature, Chapter II defines that of the Executive, and Chapter III defines that of the Judiciary. </p><p>In addition to the document's text, Australian constitutional law is affected by the structure of the document. The division of the three branches of government into chapters is understood to establish a <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of Powers</a> doctrine in Australia. </p><p>It is also known that a number of unwritten constitutional conventions are present within the document. E.g. the constitutional doctrines of <a href="/wiki/Responsible_government" title="Responsible government">responsible government</a>, and the requirement of the governor-general to accept the <a href="/wiki/Advice_(constitutional)" class="mw-redirect" title="Advice (constitutional)">advice</a> of the prime minister. </p><p>The Australian constitution is notable for not containing a <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_rights" title="Bill of rights">bill of rights</a>, and express constitutional restrictions upon Commonwealth power are minimal in number and scope. Nevertheless, some restrictions upon Commonwealth power have been recognised by implications drawn constitutional sections unconcerned with the establishment of rights. The stipulations of Section 7 and 24 that the members of the respective Commonwealth legislatures be 'directly chosen by the people'; have been interpreted by the High Court as giving rise to doctrines protecting freedom of political communication, and a right to vote.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The constitution may only be amended by a national referendum, a provision inspired by the Swiss Canton system. </p><p>The respective state governments of Australia also have constitutional documents, many of which have carried over from the colonial era. Those documents, however, are amenable to state legislation, and thus do not bind on the respective state parliaments in the same way that the Commonwealth and the States are bound by Australia's written constitution as supreme law. (see also: <i><a href="/wiki/Marbury_v._Madison" title="Marbury v. Madison">Marbury v. Madison</a></i>) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Statute_law">Statute law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_legal_system&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Statute law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The legislative powers of the federal Parliament are limited to those set out under an enumerated list of subject matters in the Constitution. These powers include a power to legislate on matters "incidental" to the other powers.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Parliament of the Commonwealth can also legislate on matters referred to it by the Parliament of one or more States.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> In contrast, with a few exceptions<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the State legislatures generally have plenary power to enact laws on any subject. However, federal laws prevail in the event of collision, according to <a href="/wiki/Section_109_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 109 of the Constitution of Australia">Section 109 of the Constitution of Australia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Constitution_s109_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Constitution_s109-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/About_Parliament-_Making_a_Law_updated_January_2018.webm/220px--About_Parliament-_Making_a_Law_updated_January_2018.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="220" data-mwtitle="About_Parliament-_Making_a_Law_updated_January_2018.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:About_Parliament-_Making_a_Law_updated_January_2018.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9a/About_Parliament-_Making_a_Law_updated_January_2018.webm/About_Parliament-_Making_a_Law_updated_January_2018.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/About_Parliament-_Making_a_Law_updated_January_2018.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9a/About_Parliament-_Making_a_Law_updated_January_2018.webm/About_Parliament-_Making_a_Law_updated_January_2018.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9a/About_Parliament-_Making_a_Law_updated_January_2018.webm/About_Parliament-_Making_a_Law_updated_January_2018.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9a/About_Parliament-_Making_a_Law_updated_January_2018.webm/About_Parliament-_Making_a_Law_updated_January_2018.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9a/About_Parliament-_Making_a_Law_updated_January_2018.webm/About_Parliament-_Making_a_Law_updated_January_2018.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AAbout_Parliament-_Making_a_Law_updated_January_2018.webm&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video></span><figcaption>"Making a Law" by the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Australia" title="Parliament of Australia">Parliamentary</a> Education Office</figcaption></figure> <p>The process of creating a statute involves a Bill being drafted, usually by <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_Counsel" class="mw-redirect" title="Parliamentary Counsel">Parliamentary Counsel</a>. The Bill is read, debated and sometimes amended in both houses of parliament before being approved. Once a bill has been passed it must be assented to by the <a href="/wiki/Governor-General_of_Australia" title="Governor-General of Australia">representative of the sovereign</a>. Legislation may also be delegated to local councils, statutory authorities or government departments. Usually, this is done in respect of minor statute laws such as road rules. </p><p>Most statutes are applied by administrative decision makers rather than judges.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When laws are brought before a court, judges are not bound to select an interpretation proffered by one of the parties and instead their role is to seek an objective interpretation of the law.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a> of statutory interpretation is not settled in Australia. Interpretive doctrines such as the <a href="/wiki/Plain_Meaning_Rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Plain Meaning Rule">literal rule</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Golden_rule_(law)" title="Golden rule (law)">golden rule</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Mischief_rule" title="Mischief rule">mischief rule</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> must comply with the Commonwealth's mandate in the Acts Interpretation Act that statutes be interpreted according to their purpose.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The legitimate role of extrinsic materials is not settled law in Australia.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Common_law">Common law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_legal_system&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Common law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">Common law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Common_law_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Common law in Australia">Common law in Australia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Common_law_world.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Common_law_world.png/220px-Common_law_world.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Common_law_world.png/330px-Common_law_world.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Common_law_world.png/440px-Common_law_world.png 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="625" /></a><figcaption>Common law legal systems</figcaption></figure> <p>Australia's common law system originated in the system of common law in the UK. Although similarities remain, and the influence of UK common law decisions remain influential on Australian courts, there exists substantial divergence between each system.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Until 1963, the High Court regarded decisions of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a> binding,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and there was substantial uniformity between Australian and English common law. In 1978, the High Court declared that it was no longer bound by decisions of the <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Committee_of_the_Privy_Council" title="Judicial Committee of the Privy Council">Judicial Committee of the Privy Council</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The High Court has declared that Australia's system of common law is uniform across all states:<sup id="cite_ref-Lange_v_ABC_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lange_v_ABC-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this may be contrasted with other jurisdictions, like the United States, that have maintained distinct systems of common law within each state. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_law">International law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_legal_system&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: International law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">Treaty</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Australian_treaties" title="List of Australian treaties">List of Australian treaties</a></div> <p>Australia has entered into many treaties.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Treaties are not automatically incorporated into Australian domestic law upon signature or ratification (aside from those terminating a state of war). </p><p>The role of treaties in influencing the development of the common law is controversial. The text within a treaty is a valid interpretive aid to an act which attempts to give effect to that treaty.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By reliance on the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_v_Tasmania" title="Commonwealth v Tasmania">external affairs power</a>, matters subject of a treaty may be legislated upon by the Commonwealth Parliament; even in the absence of the matter among other the heads of power. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_legal_system&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Law of the United Kingdom">Law of the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">Law of the United States</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_legal_system&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Patrick Parkinson, <i>Tradition and Change in Australian Law</i> (Sydney: LBC Information Services, 2001) at 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lange_v_ABC-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lange_v_ABC_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lange_v_ABC_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Lange_v_Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation">Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation</a> ("Political Free Speech case")</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1997/25.html">[1997] HCA 25</a> at p. 563, (1997) 189 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 520 (8 July 1997).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Constitution</i> (Cth) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/coaca430/s51.html">s 51</a> Legislative powers of the Parliament.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Constitution</i> (Cth) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/coaca430/s73.html">s 73</a> Appellate jurisdiction of High Court.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Mabo_v_Queensland_(No_2)" title="Mabo v Queensland (No 2)">Mabo v Queensland (No 2)</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1992/23.html">[1992] HCA 23</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-alrc_1986_24-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-alrc_1986_24_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAustralian_Law_Reform_Commission1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Australian_Law_Reform_Commission" title="Australian Law Reform Commission">Australian Law Reform Commission</a> (12 June 1986). "24. The Proof of Aboriginal Customary Laws". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.alrc.gov.au/publications/24.%20The%20Proof%20of%20Aboriginal%20Customary%20Laws/proof-aboriginal-customary-laws-australian-e"><i>Recognition of Aboriginal Customary Laws (ALRC Report 31)</i></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 May</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=24.+The+Proof+of+Aboriginal+Customary+Laws&rft.btitle=Recognition+of+Aboriginal+Customary+Laws+%28ALRC+Report+31%29&rft.date=1986-06-12&rft.au=Australian+Law+Reform+Commission&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.alrc.gov.au%2Fpublications%2F24.%2520The%2520Proof%2520of%2520Aboriginal%2520Customary%2520Laws%2Fproof-aboriginal-customary-laws-australian-e&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+legal+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lrcwa_2005_7-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lrcwa_2005_7_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaw_Reform_Commission_of_Western_Australia2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Law_Reform_Commission_of_Western_Australia" title="Law Reform Commission of Western Australia">Law Reform Commission of Western Australia</a> (February 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lrc.justice.wa.gov.au/P/project_94.aspx"><i>Aboriginal Customary Laws (Project 94) - Discussion Paper Overview</i></a>. Quality Press. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-74035-056-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-74035-056-1"><bdi>1-74035-056-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aboriginal+Customary+Laws+%28Project+94%29+-+Discussion+Paper+Overview&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Quality+Press&rft.date=2006-02&rft.isbn=1-74035-056-1&rft.au=Law+Reform+Commission+of+Western+Australia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lrc.justice.wa.gov.au%2FP%2Fproject_94.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+legal+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NSW_Act_1823-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NSW_Act_1823_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NSW_Act_1823_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.courts.justice.nsw.gov.au/Documents/nsw5_doc_1823.pdf"><i><span></span></i>New South Wales Act<i> 1823</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170919025956/http://www.courts.justice.nsw.gov.au/Documents/nsw5_doc_1823.pdf">archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 19 September 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 September</span> 2017</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+South+Wales+Act+1823&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.courts.justice.nsw.gov.au%2FDocuments%2Fnsw5_doc_1823.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+legal+system" class="Z3988"></span> (IMP); <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://media.sclqld.org.au/documents/digitisation/v02_pp691-702_Constitution_Australian%20Courts%20Act,%201828%209%20Goo.%204,%20c.%2083%20(Imperial).pdf"><i><span></span></i>Australian Courts Act<i> 1828</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160302223744/http://media.sclqld.org.au/documents/digitisation/v02_pp691-702_Constitution_Australian%20Courts%20Act,%201828%209%20Goo.%204,%20c.%2083%20(Imperial).pdf">archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 September</span> 2017</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Australian+Courts+Act+1828&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmedia.sclqld.org.au%2Fdocuments%2Fdigitisation%2Fv02_pp691-702_Constitution_Australian%2520Courts%2520Act%2C%25201828%25209%2520Goo.%25204%2C%2520c.%252083%2520%28Imperial%29.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+legal+system" class="Z3988"></span> (IMP).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCastles1963" class="citation journal cs1">Castles, Alex C (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www8.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/viewdoc/au/journals/AdelLawRw/1963/1.html">"The Reception and Status of English Law in Australia"</a>. <i>Adelaide Law Review</i>. <b>2</b> – via <a href="/wiki/Austlii" class="mw-redirect" title="Austlii">Austlii</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Adelaide+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Reception+and+Status+of+English+Law+in+Australia&rft.volume=2&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Castles&rft.aufirst=Alex+C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww8.austlii.edu.au%2Fcgi-bin%2Fviewdoc%2Fau%2Fjournals%2FAdelLawRw%2F1963%2F1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+legal+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Case 15 - Anonymous</i> (1722) 2 Peer William's Reports 75, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.commonlii.org/uk/cases/EngR/1722/1.pdf">24 ER 646</a>, <a href="/wiki/Court_of_King%27s_Bench_(England)" title="Court of King's Bench (England)">King's Bench</a> (UK).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://media.sclqld.org.au/documents/digitisation/v02_pp691-702_Constitution_Australian%20Courts%20Act,%201828%209%20Goo.%204,%20c.%2083%20(Imperial).pdf">Australian Courts Act 1828</a></i> (Imp) 9 Geo 3, c 83, s 24</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Interpretation Act 1984</i> (WA) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/wa/consol_act/ia1984191/s73.html">s 73</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/sa/num_act/aola2o6a7v1843270/">Adoption of Laws Ordinance 1842</a></i> (SA) now expressed in <i>Legislation Interpretation Act 2021</i> (SA) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/sa/consol_act/lia2021303/s23.html">s 23</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKercher,_B1995" class="citation book cs1">Kercher, B (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.allenandunwin.com/browse/books/academic-professional/law/An-Unruly-Child-Bruce-Kercher-9781863738910"><i>An Unruly Child: A History of Law in Australia</i></a>. Allen & Unwin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781863738910" title="Special:BookSources/9781863738910"><bdi>9781863738910</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170918160914/https://www.allenandunwin.com/browse/books/academic-professional/law/An-Unruly-Child-Bruce-Kercher-9781863738910">Archived</a> from the original on 18 September 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Unruly+Child%3A+A+History+of+Law+in+Australia&rft.pub=Allen+%26+Unwin&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9781863738910&rft.au=Kercher%2C+B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.allenandunwin.com%2Fbrowse%2Fbooks%2Facademic-professional%2Flaw%2FAn-Unruly-Child-Bruce-Kercher-9781863738910&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+legal+system" class="Z3988"></span> at 7, 52. Kercher refers to the case of <a href="/wiki/Henry_Kable" title="Henry Kable">Henry Kable</a>, who successfully sued the captain of the ship <a href="/wiki/Alexander_(1783_ship)" title="Alexander (1783 ship)"><i>Alexander</i></a>. <i>Cable v Sinclair</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/other/NSWSupC/1788/7.html">[1788] NSWSupC 7</a>, [1788] <abbr title="New South Wales Kercher Reports">NSWKR</abbr> 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Great_Reform_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Reform Act">Great Reform Act</a></i> 1832; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://media.sclqld.org.au/documents/digitisation/v02_pp684-685_Constitution_Australian%20Constitutions%20Act,%201842%205%20&%206%20Vic.%20c.%2076%20(Imperial).pdf"><i><span></span></i>Australian Constitutions Act<i> 1842</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160302223724/http://media.sclqld.org.au/documents/digitisation/v02_pp684-685_Constitution_Australian%20Constitutions%20Act%2C%201842%205%20%26%206%20Vic.%20c.%2076%20%28Imperial%29.pdf">archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 May</span> 2020</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Australian+Constitutions+Act+1842&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmedia.sclqld.org.au%2Fdocuments%2Fdigitisation%2Fv02_pp684-685_Constitution_Australian%2520Constitutions%2520Act%2C%25201842%25205%2520%26%25206%2520Vic.%2520c.%252076%2520%28Imperial%29.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+legal+system" class="Z3988"></span> (IMP); <i>Australian Constitutions Act (No 2)</i> (IMP).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://media.sclqld.org.au/documents/digitisation/v02_pp724-727_Constitution_Colonial%20Laws%20Validity%20Act,%201865%2028%20&%2029%20Vic.%20c.%2063%20(Imperial).pdf"><i><span></span></i>Colonial Laws Validity Act<i> 1865</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160311141446/http://media.sclqld.org.au/documents/digitisation/v02_pp724-727_Constitution_Colonial%20Laws%20Validity%20Act%2C%201865%2028%20%26%2029%20Vic.%20c.%2063%20%28Imperial%29.pdf">archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 11 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 May</span> 2020</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Colonial+Laws+Validity+Act+1865&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmedia.sclqld.org.au%2Fdocuments%2Fdigitisation%2Fv02_pp724-727_Constitution_Colonial%2520Laws%2520Validity%2520Act%2C%25201865%252028%2520%26%252029%2520Vic.%2520c.%252063%2520%28Imperial%29.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+legal+system" class="Z3988"></span> (Imp), s 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>State Government Insurance Commission v Trigwell</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1979/40.html">[1979] HCA 40</a>, (1979) 142 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 617.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. Ellinghaus, A. Bradbrook and A. Duggan (eds.), <i>The Emergence of Australian Law</i> (Butterworths: Sydney, 1989) at 70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www5.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/ALRCRefJl/2001/2.html">"Saunders, Cheryl --- "Australian Federalism" [2001] ALRCRefJl 2; (2001) 78 Australian Law Reform Commission Reform Journal 5"</a>. <i>www5.austlii.edu.au</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 August</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www5.austlii.edu.au&rft.atitle=Saunders%2C+Cheryl+---+%22Australian+Federalism%22+%5B2001%5D+ALRCRefJl+2%3B+%282001%29+78+Australian+Law+Reform+Commission+Reform+Journal+5&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww5.austlii.edu.au%2Fau%2Fjournals%2FALRCRefJl%2F2001%2F2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+legal+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKercher,_B1995" class="citation book cs1">Kercher, B (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.allenandunwin.com/browse/books/academic-professional/law/An-Unruly-Child-Bruce-Kercher-9781863738910"><i>An Unruly Child: A History of Law in Australia</i></a>. Allen & Unwin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781863738910" title="Special:BookSources/9781863738910"><bdi>9781863738910</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170918160914/https://www.allenandunwin.com/browse/books/academic-professional/law/An-Unruly-Child-Bruce-Kercher-9781863738910">Archived</a> from the original on 18 September 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Unruly+Child%3A+A+History+of+Law+in+Australia&rft.pub=Allen+%26+Unwin&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9781863738910&rft.au=Kercher%2C+B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.allenandunwin.com%2Fbrowse%2Fbooks%2Facademic-professional%2Flaw%2FAn-Unruly-Child-Bruce-Kercher-9781863738910&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+legal+system" class="Z3988"></span> at 157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFcorporateName=Commonwealth_Parliament;_address=Parliament_House" class="citation web cs1">corporateName=Commonwealth Parliament; address=Parliament House, Canberra. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/House_of_Representatives/Powers_practice_and_procedure/00_-_Infosheets/Infosheet_13_-_The_Constitution">"Infosheet 13 - The Constitution"</a>. <i>www.aph.gov.au</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 August</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.aph.gov.au&rft.atitle=Infosheet+13+-+The+Constitution&rft.aulast=corporateName%3DCommonwealth+Parliament%3B+address%3DParliament+House&rft.aufirst=Canberra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aph.gov.au%2FAbout_Parliament%2FHouse_of_Representatives%2FPowers_practice_and_procedure%2F00_-_Infosheets%2FInfosheet_13_-_The_Constitution&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+legal+system" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Australian_Capital_Television_Pty_Ltd_v_Commonwealth" title="Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth">Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1992/45.html">[1992] HCA 45</a>, (1992) 177 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Constitution</i> (Cth) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/coaca430/s51.html">s 51</a> Placitum xxxix.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Constitution</i> (Cth) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/coaca430/s51.html">s 51</a> Placitum xxxvii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Constitution</i> (Cth) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/coaca430/s52.html">s 52</a> Exclusive powers of the Parliament.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Constitution_s109-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Constitution_s109_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Constitution</i> (Cth) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/coaca430/s109.html">s 109</a> Inconsistency of laws.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnes" class="citation web cs1">Barnes, Jeffrey W. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/FedLRev/1994/5.html">"Statutory Interpretation, Law Reform and Sampford's Theory of the Disorder of Law Part One"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180319213752/http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/FedLRev/1994/5.html">Archived</a> from the original on 19 March 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Statutory+Interpretation%2C+Law+Reform+and+Sampford%27s+Theory+of+the+Disorder+of+Law+Part+One&rft.aulast=Barnes&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+W&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.austlii.edu.au%2Fau%2Fjournals%2FFedLRev%2F1994%2F5.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+legal+system" class="Z3988"></span> (1994) 22 <i><a href="/wiki/Federal_Law_Review" title="Federal Law Review">Federal Law Review</a></i> 116; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/FedLRev/1995/3.html"><i>Part Two</i></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180319214019/http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/FedLRev/1995/3.html">archived</a> from the original on 19 March 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 March</span> 2018</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Part+Two&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.austlii.edu.au%2Fau%2Fjournals%2FFedLRev%2F1995%2F3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+legal+system" class="Z3988"></span>, (1995) 23 <i><a href="/wiki/Federal_Law_Review" title="Federal Law Review">Federal Law Review</a></i> 77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dennis C. 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Geddes, <i>Statutory Interpretation in Australia</i> (4th edition, Butterworths: Sydney, 1996), p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Saif Ali v Sydney Mitchell v Co</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/1978/6.html">[1978] UKHL 6</a>, [1980] <abbr title="Appeal Cases">AC</abbr> 198 at 212.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Grey v Pearson</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/int/cases/EngR/1857/335.pdf">[1857] EngR 335</a>; (1857) 6 <abbr title="House of Lords Cases">HLC</abbr> 61 at 106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Heydon's Case</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/int/cases/EngR/1584/9.pdf">[1584] Eng R 9</a>; (1584) 3 Co Rep 7a at 7b.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For example, <i>Acts Interpretation Act 1901</i> (Cth) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/aia1901230/s15aa.html">s 15AA</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDharmananda2014" class="citation journal cs1">Dharmananda, Jacinta (1 June 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.22145/flr.42.2.5">"Outside the Text: Inside the use of Extrinsic Materials in Statutory Interpretation"</a>. <i>Federal Law Review</i>. <b>42</b> (2): 333–356. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.22145%2Fflr.42.2.5">10.22145/flr.42.2.5</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220285163">220285163</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Federal+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Outside+the+Text%3A+Inside+the+use+of+Extrinsic+Materials+in+Statutory+Interpretation&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=333-356&rft.date=2014-06-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.22145%2Fflr.42.2.5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A220285163%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Dharmananda&rft.aufirst=Jacinta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.22145%2Fflr.42.2.5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+legal+system" class="Z3988"></span> (2014) 42(2) <i><a href="/wiki/Federal_Law_Review" title="Federal Law Review">Federal Law Review</a></i> 333.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinn" class="citation web cs1">Finn, Paul. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/MelbULawRw/2013/20.html">"Common Law Divergences"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170408081954/http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/MelbULawRw/2013/20.html">Archived</a> from the original on 8 April 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Common+Law+Divergences&rft.aulast=Finn&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.austlii.edu.au%2Fau%2Fjournals%2FMelbULawRw%2F2013%2F20.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+legal+system" class="Z3988"></span> (2013) 37 <i><a href="/wiki/Melbourne_University_Law_Review" title="Melbourne University Law Review">Melbourne University Law Review</a></i> 509.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Parker v The Queen</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1963/14.html">[1963] HCA 14</a>, (1963) 111 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 610 per Dixon J at [17].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Viro v The Queen</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1978/9.html">[1978] HCA 9</a>, (1978) 141 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeddes,_R" class="citation web cs1">Geddes, R. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/FedLRev/1978/28.pdf">"The Authority of Privy Council Decisions in Australian Courts"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170918154925/http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/FedLRev/1978/28.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 18 September 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Authority+of+Privy+Council+Decisions+in+Australian+Courts&rft.au=Geddes%2C+R&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.austlii.edu.au%2Fau%2Fjournals%2FFedLRev%2F1978%2F28.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+legal+system" class="Z3988"></span> (1978) 9 <a href="/wiki/Federal_Law_Review" title="Federal Law Review">Federal Law Review</a> 427.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/other/dfat/">"Australian Treaties Library"</a>. AustLII. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121203090559/http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/other/dfat/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 December 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Australian+Treaties+Library&rft.pub=AustLII&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.austlii.edu.au%2Fau%2Fother%2Fdfat%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+legal+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dfat.gov.au/international-relations/treaties/treaty-making-process/pages/treaty-making-process.aspx">"Treaty making process"</a>. Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170918160503/http://dfat.gov.au/international-relations/treaties/treaty-making-process/pages/treaty-making-process.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 18 September 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Treaty+making+process&rft.pub=Department+of+Foreign+Affairs+and+Trade&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdfat.gov.au%2Finternational-relations%2Ftreaties%2Ftreaty-making-process%2Fpages%2Ftreaty-making-process.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+legal+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_legal_system&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Rosemary Barry, ed. <i>The Law Handbook</i>. Sydney: Redfern Legal Centre Publishing, 2007.</li> <li>John Carvan. <i>Understanding the Australian Legal System</i>. Sydney: Lawbook Co., 2002.</li> <li>Justin T. Gleeson, Ruth C. A. Higgins & Elisabeth Peden, eds. <i>Historical foundations of Australian law</i>. Annandale: Federation Press, 2013.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Australian_legal_system&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=State+Library+of+NSW&rft.atitle=Jurisdiction+and+hierarchy+of+courts&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flegalanswers.sl.nsw.gov.au%2Fhot-topics-courts-and-tribunals%2Fjurisdiction-and-hierarchy-courts&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAustralian+legal+system" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ag.gov.au/">Australian Government - Attorney-General's Department</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/">Australasian Legal Information Institute (AustLII)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.alrc.gov.au/">Australian Law Reform Commission</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.legislation.gov.au/">Federal Register of Legislation</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Law of the United Kingdom">UK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Law_of_Oceania" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a 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href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of the Federated States of Micronesia (page does not exist)">Federated States of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Fiji&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Fiji (page does not exist)">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Kiribati&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Kiribati (page does not exist)">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_Marshall_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of the Marshall Islands (page does not exist)">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Nauru" title="Law of Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_New_Zealand" title="Law of New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Palau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Palau (page does not exist)">Palau</a></li> <li><a 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href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_Cook_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of the Cook Islands (page does not exist)">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Niue&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Niue (page does not exist)">Niue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies<br />and other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_American_Samoa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of American Samoa (page does not exist)">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Christmas_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Christmas Island (page does not exist)">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of 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