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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Radiation_interactions_with_matter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radiation_interactions_with_matter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Radiation interactions with matter</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radiation_interactions_with_matter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reduction_of_organics_by_solvated_electrons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reduction_of_organics_by_solvated_electrons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Reduction of organics by solvated electrons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reduction_of_organics_by_solvated_electrons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reduction_of_metal_compounds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reduction_of_metal_compounds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Reduction of metal compounds</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reduction_of_metal_compounds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polymer_modification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polymer_modification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Polymer modification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polymer_modification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Water_chemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_chemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Water chemistry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water_chemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Equipment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Equipment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Equipment</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Equipment-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Equipment subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Equipment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Radiation_chemistry_applied_in_industrial_processing_equipment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radiation_chemistry_applied_in_industrial_processing_equipment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Radiation chemistry applied in industrial processing equipment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radiation_chemistry_applied_in_industrial_processing_equipment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_equipment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_equipment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Research equipment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research_equipment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chemosensor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemosensor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Chemosensor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chemosensor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header 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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Radiation chemistry</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B4%D8%B9%D8%A9" title="كيمياء الأشعة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="كيمياء الأشعة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%8F%D1%86%D1%8B%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%85%D1%96%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Радыяцыйная хімія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Радыяцыйная хімія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Радиационна химия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Радиационна химия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strahlenchemie" title="Strahlenchemie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Strahlenchemie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%AA%D9%88_%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C" title="پرتو شیمی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پرتو شیمی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%A9%EC%82%AC%EC%84%A0%ED%99%94%ED%95%99" title="방사선화학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="방사선화학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%A1%D5%A4%D5%AB%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%B8%D5%B6_%D6%84%D5%AB%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Ռադիացիոն քիմիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ռադիացիոն քիմիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8" title="विकिरण रसायन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="विकिरण रसायन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimica_delle_radiazioni" title="Chimica delle radiazioni – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Chimica delle radiazioni" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemia_radiacyjna" title="Chemia radiacyjna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Chemia radiacyjna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Радиационная химия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Радиационная химия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="विकिरणशास्त्रम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="विकिरणशास्त्रम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A4teilykemia" title="Säteilykemia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Säteilykemia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Str%C3%A5lningskemi" title="Strålningskemi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Strålningskemi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="கதிர்வீச்சு வேதியியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கதிர்வீச்சு வேதியியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radyasyon_kimyas%C4%B1" title="Radyasyon kimyası – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Radyasyon kimyası" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%85%D1%96%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Радіаційна хімія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Радіаційна хімія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%BC%BB%E5%B0%84%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8" title="輻射化學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="輻射化學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p><b>Radiation chemistry</b> is a subdivision of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry" title="Nuclear chemistry">nuclear chemistry</a> which studies the chemical effects of <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a> on matter. This is quite different from <a href="/wiki/Radiochemistry" title="Radiochemistry">radiochemistry</a>, as no <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">radioactivity</a> needs to be present in the material which is being chemically changed by the radiation. An example is the conversion of water into <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> gas and <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_peroxide" title="Hydrogen peroxide">hydrogen peroxide</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Radiation_interactions_with_matter">Radiation interactions with matter</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_chemistry&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Radiation interactions with matter"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As ionizing radiation moves through matter its energy is deposited through interactions with the electrons of the absorber.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The result of an interaction between the radiation and the absorbing species is removal of an electron from an atom or molecular bond to form <a href="/wiki/Radical_(chemistry)" title="Radical (chemistry)">radicals</a> and excited species. The radical species then proceed to react with each other or with other molecules in their vicinity. It is the reactions of the radical species that are responsible for the changes observed following irradiation of a chemical system.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Charged radiation species (α and β particles) interact through <a href="/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law" title="Coulomb's law">Coulombic</a> forces between the charges of the electrons in the absorbing medium and the charged radiation particle. These interactions occur continuously along the path of the incident particle until the kinetic energy of the particle is sufficiently depleted. Uncharged species (γ photons, x-rays) undergo a single event per photon, totally consuming the energy of the photon and leading to the ejection of an electron from a single atom.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Electrons with sufficient energy proceed to interact with the absorbing medium identically to β radiation. </p><p>An important factor that distinguishes different radiation types from one another is the linear energy transfer (<a href="/wiki/Linear_energy_transfer" title="Linear energy transfer">LET</a>), which is the rate at which the radiation loses energy with distance traveled through the absorber. Low LET species are usually low mass, either photons or electron mass species (<a href="/wiki/Beta_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta radiation">β particles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Positrons" class="mw-redirect" title="Positrons">positrons</a>) and interact sparsely along their path through the absorber, leading to isolated regions of reactive radical species. High LET species are usually greater in mass than one electron,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for example α particles, and lose energy rapidly resulting in a cluster of ionization events in close proximity to one another. Consequently, the heavy particle travels a relatively short distance from its origin. </p><p>Areas containing a high concentration of reactive species following absorption of energy from radiation are referred to as <a href="/wiki/Spur_(chemistry)" title="Spur (chemistry)"><i>spurs</i></a>. In a medium irradiated with low LET radiation, the spurs are sparsely distributed across the track and are unable to interact. For high LET radiation, the spurs can overlap, allowing for inter-spur reactions, leading to different yields of products when compared to the same medium irradiated with the same energy of low LET radiation.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reduction_of_organics_by_solvated_electrons">Reduction of organics by solvated electrons</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_chemistry&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Reduction of organics by solvated electrons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A recent area of work has been the destruction of toxic organic compounds by irradiation;<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> after irradiation, "<a href="/wiki/Polychlorinated_dibenzodioxins" title="Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins">dioxins</a>" (polychlorodibenzo-<i>p</i>-dioxins) are dechlorinated in the same way as PCBs can be converted to <a href="/wiki/Biphenyl" title="Biphenyl">biphenyl</a> and inorganic chloride. This is because the <a href="/wiki/Solvated_electron" title="Solvated electron">solvated electrons</a> react with the organic compound to form a <a href="/wiki/Radical_(chemistry)" title="Radical (chemistry)">radical</a> anion, which decomposes by the loss of a <a href="/wiki/Chloride" title="Chloride">chloride</a> anion. If a deoxygenated mixture of PCBs in <a href="/wiki/Isopropanol" class="mw-redirect" title="Isopropanol">isopropanol</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mineral_oil" title="Mineral oil">mineral oil</a> is irradiated with <a href="/wiki/Gamma_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma rays">gamma rays</a>, then the PCBs will be dechlorinated to form inorganic <a href="/wiki/Chloride" title="Chloride">chloride</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biphenyl" title="Biphenyl">biphenyl</a>. The reaction works best in isopropanol if <a href="/wiki/Potassium_hydroxide" title="Potassium hydroxide">potassium hydroxide</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Caustic_potash" class="mw-redirect" title="Caustic potash">caustic potash</a></i>) is added. The base deprotonates the hydroxydimethylmethyl radical to be converted into acetone and a solvated electron, as the result the G value (yield for a given energy due to radiation deposited in the system) of chloride can be increased because the radiation now starts a chain reaction, each solvated electron formed by the action of the gamma rays can now convert more than one PCB molecule.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acetone" title="Acetone">acetone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">nitrous oxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_hexafluoride" title="Sulfur hexafluoride">sulfur hexafluoride</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nitrobenzene" title="Nitrobenzene">nitrobenzene</a><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is present in the mixture, then the reaction rate is reduced. This work has been done recently in the US, often with used <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">nuclear fuel</a> as the radiation source.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to the work on the destruction of aryl chlorides, it has been shown that <a href="/wiki/Aliphatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aliphatic">aliphatic</a> chlorine and <a href="/wiki/Bromine" title="Bromine">bromine</a> compounds such as perchloroethylene,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Freon" title="Freon">Freon</a> (1,1,2-trichloro-1,2,2-trifluoroethane) and <a href="/wiki/Dibromotetrafluoroethane" title="Dibromotetrafluoroethane">halon-2402</a> (1,2-dibromo-1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethane) can be dehalogenated by the action of radiation on alkaline isopropanol solutions. Again a chain reaction has been reported.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to the work on the reduction of organic compounds by irradiation, some work on the radiation induced oxidation of organic compounds has been reported. For instance, the use of radiogenic hydrogen peroxide (formed by irradiation) to remove sulfur from <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a> has been reported. In this study it was found that the addition of <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a> dioxide to the coal increased the rate of sulfur removal.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The degradation of <a href="/wiki/Nitrobenzene" title="Nitrobenzene">nitrobenzene</a> under both reducing and oxidizing conditions in water has been reported.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reduction_of_metal_compounds">Reduction of metal compounds</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_chemistry&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Reduction of metal compounds"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In addition to the reduction of organic compounds by the solvated electrons it has been reported that upon irradiation a <a href="/wiki/Pertechnetate" title="Pertechnetate">pertechnetate</a> solution at pH 4.1 is converted to a <a href="/wiki/Colloid" title="Colloid">colloid</a> of technetium dioxide. Irradiation of a solution at pH 1.8 soluble Tc(IV) complexes are formed. Irradiation of a solution at pH 2.7 forms a mixture of the colloid and the soluble Tc(IV) compounds.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gamma irradiation has been used in the synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Nanoparticles" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanoparticles">nanoparticles</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a> on iron oxide (Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>).<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It has been shown that the irradiation of aqueous solutions of <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> compounds leads to the formation of elemental lead. When an inorganic solid such as <a href="/wiki/Bentonite" title="Bentonite">bentonite</a> and sodium formate are present then the lead is removed from the aqueous solution.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Polymer_modification">Polymer modification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_chemistry&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Polymer modification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another key area uses radiation chemistry to modify polymers. Using radiation, it is possible to convert <a href="/wiki/Monomer" title="Monomer">monomers</a> to <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymers</a>, to crosslink polymers, and to break polymer chains.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both man-made and natural polymers (such as <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrates</a><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) can be processed in this way. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Water_chemistry">Water chemistry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_chemistry&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Water chemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Both the harmful effects of radiation upon biological systems (induction of <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radiation_sickness" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation sickness">acute radiation injuries</a>) and the useful effects of radiotherapy involve the radiation chemistry of water. The vast majority of biological molecules are present in an aqueous medium; when water is exposed to radiation, the water absorbs energy, and as a result forms chemically reactive species that can interact with dissolved substances (<a href="/wiki/Solutes" class="mw-redirect" title="Solutes">solutes</a>). Water is ionized to form a <a href="/wiki/Solvated_electron" title="Solvated electron">solvated electron</a> and H<sub>2</sub>O<sup>+</sup>, the H<sub>2</sub>O<sup>+</sup> cation can react with water to form a hydrated proton (H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup>) and a hydroxyl radical (HO<sup>.</sup>). Furthermore, the solvated electron can recombine with the H<sub>2</sub>O<sup>+</sup> cation to form an excited state of the water. This excited state then decomposes to species such as <a href="/wiki/Hydroxyl_radical" title="Hydroxyl radical">hydroxyl radicals</a> (HO<sup>.</sup>), hydrogen atoms (H<sup>.</sup>) and oxygen atoms (O<sup>.</sup>). Finally, the solvated electron can react with solutes such as solvated protons or oxygen molecules to form hydrogen atoms and dioxygen radical anions, respectively. The fact that oxygen changes the radiation chemistry might be one reason why oxygenated tissues are more sensitive to irradiation than the deoxygenated tissue at the center of a tumor. The free radicals, such as the hydroxyl radical, chemically modify biomolecules such as <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>, leading to damage such as breaks in the DNA strands. Some substances can protect against radiation-induced damage by reacting with the reactive species generated by the irradiation of the water. </p><p>It is important to note that the reactive species generated by the radiation can take part in <i>following reactions</i>; this is similar to the idea of the non-electrochemical reactions which follow the electrochemical event which is observed in <a href="/wiki/Cyclic_voltammetry" title="Cyclic voltammetry">cyclic voltammetry</a> when a non-reversible event occurs. For example, the SF<sub>5</sub> radical formed by the reaction of solvated electrons and SF<sub>6</sub> undergo further reactions which lead to the formation of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_fluoride" title="Hydrogen fluoride">hydrogen fluoride</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In water, the dimerization reaction of hydroxyl radicals can form <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_peroxide" title="Hydrogen peroxide">hydrogen peroxide</a>, while in saline systems the reaction of the hydroxyl radicals with <a href="/wiki/Chloride" title="Chloride">chloride</a> anions forms <a href="/wiki/Hypochlorite" title="Hypochlorite">hypochlorite</a> anions. </p><p>The action of radiation upon underground water is responsible for the formation of hydrogen which is converted by bacteria into <a href="/wiki/Methanogen" title="Methanogen">methane</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Equipment">Equipment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_chemistry&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Equipment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radiation_chemistry_applied_in_industrial_processing_equipment">Radiation chemistry applied in industrial processing equipment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_chemistry&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Radiation chemistry applied in industrial processing equipment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To process materials, either a gamma source or an electron beam can be used. The international type IV (<i>wet storage</i>) irradiator is a common design, of which the JS6300 and JS6500 gamma sterilizers (made by 'Nordion International'<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050610074410/http://www.mds.nordion.com/">[2]</a>, which used to trade as 'Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd') are typical examples.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In these irradiation plants, the source is stored in a deep well filled with water when not in use. When the source is required, it is moved by a steel wire to the irradiation room where the products which are to be treated are present; these objects are placed inside boxes which are moved through the room by an automatic mechanism. By moving the boxes from one point to another, the contents are given a uniform dose. After treatment, the product is moved by the automatic mechanism out of the room. The irradiation room has very thick concrete walls (about 3 m thick) to prevent gamma rays from escaping. The source consists of <sup>60</sup>Co rods sealed within two layers of stainless steel. The rods are combined with inert dummy rods to form a rack with a total activity of about 12.6PBq (340kCi). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Research_equipment">Research equipment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_chemistry&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Research equipment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While it is possible to do some types of research using an irradiator much like that used for gamma sterilization, it is common in some areas of science to use a <i>time resolved</i> experiment where a material is subjected to a pulse of radiation (normally <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> from a <a href="/wiki/LINAC" class="mw-redirect" title="LINAC">LINAC</a>). After the pulse of radiation, the concentration of different substances within the material are measured by <a href="/wiki/Emission_spectroscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Emission spectroscopy">emission spectroscopy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Absorption_spectroscopy" title="Absorption spectroscopy">Absorption spectroscopy</a>, hence the rates of reactions can be determined. This allows the relative abilities of substances to react with the reactive species generated by the action of radiation on the solvent (commonly water) to be measured. This experiment is known as <a href="/wiki/Pulse_radiolysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulse radiolysis">pulse radiolysis</a><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is closely related to <a href="/wiki/Flash_photolysis" title="Flash photolysis">flash photolysis</a>. </p><p>In the latter experiment the sample is excited by a pulse of light to examine the decay of the excited states by <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectroscopy</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> sometimes the formation of new compounds can be investigated.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Flash photolysis experiments have led to a better understanding of the effects of <a href="/wiki/Halogen" title="Halogen">halogen</a>-containing compounds upon the <a href="/wiki/Ozone_layer" title="Ozone layer">ozone layer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chemosensor">Chemosensor</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_chemistry&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Chemosensor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The SAW <a href="/wiki/Molecular_sensor" title="Molecular sensor">chemosensor</a><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is nonionic and nonspecific. It directly measures the total mass of each chemical compound as it exits the gas <a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">chromatography</a> column and condenses on the crystal surface, thus causing a change in the fundamental acoustic frequency of the crystal. Odor concentration is directly measured with this integrating type of detector. Column flux is obtained from a microprocessor that continuously calculates the derivative of the <a href="/wiki/Surface_acoustic_wave" title="Surface acoustic wave">SAW</a> frequency. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_chemistry&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiolysis" title="Radiolysis">Radiolysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Burton" title="Milton Burton">Milton Burton</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_chemistry&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. W. T. Spinks. R. J. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-04-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Atmospheric+Chemistry+of+Iodine+Monoxide&rft.date=1995&rft.au=RE+Huie&rft.au=B+Laszlo&rft.au=MJ+Kurylo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nist.gov%2Fel%2Ffire_research%2Fupload%2FR0000232.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/reprint/22/13/5291?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&minscore=5000&resourcetype=HWCIT">Abnormal Chemosensory Jump 6 Is a Positive Transcriptional Regulator of the Cholinergic Gene Locus in Drosophila Olfactory Neurons - Lee and Salvaterra 22 (13): 5291 - Journal of Neuroscience</a></span> </li> </ol></div> <div 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style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">Physical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemistry" title="Electrochemistry">Electrochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spectroelectrochemistry" title="Spectroelectrochemistry">Spectroelectrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoelectrochemistry" title="Photoelectrochemistry">Photoelectrochemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermochemistry" title="Thermochemistry">Thermochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_thermodynamics" title="Chemical thermodynamics">Chemical thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_science" title="Surface science">Surface science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interface_and_colloid_science" title="Interface and colloid science">Interface and colloid science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Micromeritics" title="Micromeritics">Micromeritics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryochemistry" title="Cryochemistry">Cryochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonochemistry" title="Sonochemistry">Sonochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_chemistry" title="Structural chemistry">Structural chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_physics" title="Chemical physics">Chemical physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_physics" title="Molecular physics">Molecular physics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femtochemistry" title="Femtochemistry">Femtochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_kinetics" title="Chemical kinetics">Chemical kinetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photochemistry" title="Photochemistry">Photochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spin_chemistry" title="Spin chemistry">Spin chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave_chemistry" title="Microwave chemistry">Microwave 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cluster">Cluster chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry" title="Solid-state chemistry">Solid-state chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceramic chemistry">Ceramic chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">Organic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereochemistry" title="Stereochemistry">Stereochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkane_stereochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkane stereochemistry">Alkane stereochemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_organic_chemistry" title="Physical organic chemistry">Physical organic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_reactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic reactions">Organic reactions</a></li> <li><a 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title="Biochemistry">Biological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioorthogonal_chemistry" title="Bioorthogonal chemistry">Bioorthogonal chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicinal_chemistry" title="Medicinal chemistry">Medicinal chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurochemistry" title="Neurochemistry">Neurochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioorganic_chemistry" title="Bioorganic chemistry">Bioorganic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioorganometallic_chemistry" title="Bioorganometallic chemistry">Bioorganometallic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinorganic_chemistry" title="Bioinorganic chemistry">Bioinorganic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysical_chemistry" title="Biophysical chemistry">Biophysical chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinarity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry" title="Nuclear chemistry">Nuclear chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiochemistry" title="Radiochemistry">Radiochemistry</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Radiation chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinide_chemistry" title="Actinide chemistry">Actinide chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmochemistry" title="Cosmochemistry">Cosmochemistry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">Astrochemistry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Stellar_chemistry" title="Stellar chemistry">Stellar chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemistry" title="Biogeochemistry">Biogeochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photogeochemistry" title="Photogeochemistry">Photogeochemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_chemistry" title="Environmental chemistry">Environmental chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_chemistry" title="Atmospheric chemistry">Atmospheric chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean chemistry">Ocean chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clay_chemistry" title="Clay chemistry">Clay chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbochemistry" title="Carbochemistry">Carbochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chemistry" title="Food chemistry">Food chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbohydrate chemistry">Carbohydrate chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_physical_chemistry" title="Food physical chemistry">Food physical chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_chemistry" title="Agricultural chemistry">Agricultural chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_chemistry" title="Soil chemistry">Soil chemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemistry_education" title="Chemistry education">Chemistry education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amateur_chemistry" title="Amateur chemistry">Amateur chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_chemistry" title="General chemistry">General chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry" title="Clandestine chemistry">Clandestine chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_chemistry" title="Forensic chemistry">Forensic chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_toxicology" title="Forensic toxicology">Forensic toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-mortem_chemistry" title="Post-mortem chemistry">Post-mortem chemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanochemistry" title="Nanochemistry">Nanochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supramolecular_chemistry" title="Supramolecular chemistry">Supramolecular chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_synthesis" title="Chemical synthesis">Chemical synthesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Green_chemistry" title="Green chemistry">Green chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Click_chemistry" title="Click chemistry">Click chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combinatorial_chemistry" title="Combinatorial chemistry">Combinatorial chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosynthesis" title="Biosynthesis">Biosynthesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical engineering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stoichiometry" title="Stoichiometry">Stoichiometry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_engineering" title="Ceramic engineering">Ceramic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_science" title="Polymer science">Polymer science</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_chemistry" title="History of chemistry">History of chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_chemistry" title="Timeline of chemistry">Timeline of chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_chemical_elements" title="Discovery of chemical elements">of element discoveries</a></li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_central_science" title="The central science">The central science</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">Chemical reaction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">Catalysis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">Chemical element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">Chemical compound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">Ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">Chemical substance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">Chemical bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Chemistry" title="Category:Chemistry">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" 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