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class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 40 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-40" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">40 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A5%D8%B4%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="كيمياء إشعاعية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="كيمياء إشعاعية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiokimya" title="Radiokimya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Radiokimya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C" title="رادیوشیمی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="رادیوشیمی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%8F%D1%85%D1%96%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Радыяхімія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Радыяхімія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Радиохимия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Радиохимия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioqu%C3%ADmica" title="Radioquímica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Radioquímica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Радиохими – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Радиохими" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiokemi" title="Radiokemi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Radiokemi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiochemie" title="Radiochemie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Radiochemie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A1%CE%B1%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%87%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Ραδιοχημεία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ραδιοχημεία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioqu%C3%ADmica" title="Radioquímica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Radioquímica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio%C4%A5emio" title="Radioĥemio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Radioĥemio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C" title="رادیوشیمی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رادیوشیمی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiochimie" title="Radiochimie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Radiochimie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radaicheimic" title="Radaicheimic – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Radaicheimic" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%A9%EC%82%AC%ED%99%94%ED%95%99" title="방사화학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="방사화학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%A1%D5%A4%D5%AB%D5%B8%D6%84%D5%AB%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Ռադիոքիմիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ռադիոքիմիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B-%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8" title="रेडियो-रसायन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="रेडियो-रसायन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiokimia" title="Radiokimia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Radiokimia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiochimica" title="Radiochimica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Radiochimica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%93%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%94" title="רדיוכימיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="רדיוכימיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Радиохимия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Радиохимия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Радиохимия – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Радиохимия" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiok%C3%A9mia" title="Radiokémia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Radiokémia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiochemie" title="Radiochemie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Radiochemie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%94%BE%E5%B0%84%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="放射化学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="放射化学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiokjemi" title="Radiokjemi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Radiokjemi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiokimyo" title="Radiokimyo – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Radiokimyo" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiochemia" title="Radiochemia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Radiochemia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioqu%C3%ADmica" title="Radioquímica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Radioquímica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiochimie" title="Radiochimie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Radiochimie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Радиохимия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Радиохимия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A1dioch%C3%A9mia" title="Rádiochémia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Rádiochémia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Радиохемија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Радиохемија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiokemia" title="Radiokemia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Radiokemia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiokemi" title="Radiokemi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Radiokemi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radyokimya" title="Radyokimya – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Radyokimya" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%BE%D1%85%D1%96%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Радіохімія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Радіохімія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%94%BE%E5%B0%84%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8" title="放射化學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="放射化學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%94%BE%E5%B0%84%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="放射化学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="放射化学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q750955#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div 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data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Chemistry of radioactive materials</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Radiochemistry_work_in_Glovebox.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Radiochemistry_work_in_Glovebox.jpg/220px-Radiochemistry_work_in_Glovebox.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Radiochemistry_work_in_Glovebox.jpg/330px-Radiochemistry_work_in_Glovebox.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Radiochemistry_work_in_Glovebox.jpg/440px-Radiochemistry_work_in_Glovebox.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2700" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>Glovebox</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Radiochemistry</b> is the <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> of <a href="/wiki/Radioactive" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive">radioactive</a> materials, where radioactive <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotopes</a> of elements are used to study the properties and <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">chemical reactions</a> of non-radioactive isotopes (often within radiochemistry the absence of radioactivity leads to a substance being described as being <i>inactive</i> as the isotopes are <i>stable</i>). Much of radiochemistry deals with the use of <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">radioactivity</a> to study ordinary <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">chemical reactions</a>. This is very different from <a href="/wiki/Radiation_chemistry" title="Radiation chemistry">radiation chemistry</a> where the radiation levels are kept too low to influence the chemistry. </p><p>Radiochemistry includes the study of both natural and man-made radioisotopes. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Main_decay_modes">Main decay modes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiochemistry&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Main decay modes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>All radioisotopes are unstable <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotopes</a> of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">elements</a>— that undergo <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_decay" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear decay">nuclear decay</a> and emit some form of <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">radiation</a>. The radiation emitted can be of several types including <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle">beta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gamma_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma radiation">gamma radiation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">proton</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutron</a> emission along with <a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">neutrino</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antiparticle" title="Antiparticle">antiparticle</a> emission decay pathways. </p><p>1. <a href="/wiki/Alpha_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha radiation">α (alpha) radiation</a>—the emission of an <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha particle</a> (which contains 2 protons and 2 neutrons) from an <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">atomic nucleus</a>. When this occurs, the atom's <a href="/wiki/Atomic_mass" title="Atomic mass">atomic mass</a> will decrease by 4 units and the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">atomic number</a> will decrease by 2. </p><p>2. <a href="/wiki/Beta_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta radiation">β (beta) radiation</a>—the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">transmutation</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutron</a> into an <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">proton</a>. After this happens, the electron is emitted from the nucleus into the <a href="/wiki/Electron_cloud" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron cloud">electron cloud</a>. </p><p>3. <a href="/wiki/Gamma_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma radiation">γ (gamma) radiation</a>—the emission of <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic energy">electromagnetic energy</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Gamma_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma rays">gamma rays</a>) from the nucleus of an atom. This usually occurs during alpha or beta <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive decay</a>. </p><p>These three types of radiation can be distinguished by their difference in penetrating power. </p><p>Alpha can be stopped quite easily by a few centimetres of air or a piece of paper and is equivalent to a helium nucleus. Beta can be cut off by an aluminium sheet just a few millimetres thick and are electrons. Gamma is the most penetrating of the three and is a massless chargeless high-energy <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photon</a>. Gamma radiation requires an appreciable amount of heavy metal <a href="/wiki/Radiation_shielding" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation shielding">radiation shielding</a> (usually <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> or <a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">barium</a>-based) to reduce its intensity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Activation_analysis">Activation analysis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiochemistry&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Activation analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutron</a> irradiation of objects, it is possible to induce radioactivity; this activation of stable isotopes to create radioisotopes is the basis of <a href="/wiki/Neutron_activation_analysis" title="Neutron activation analysis">neutron activation analysis</a>. A high-energy most interesting object which has been studied in this way is the hair of <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a>'s head, which has been examined for its <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a> content.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A series of different experimental methods exist, these have been designed to enable the measurement of a range of different elements in different matrices. To reduce the effect of the <a href="/wiki/Matrix_(chemical_analysis)" title="Matrix (chemical analysis)">matrix</a> it is common to use the chemical extraction of the wanted element <i>and/or</i> to allow the radioactivity due to the matrix elements to decay before the measurement of the radioactivity. Since the matrix effect can be corrected by observing the decay spectrum, little or no sample preparation is required for some samples, making neutron activation analysis less susceptible to contamination. </p><p>The effects of a series of different cooling times can be seen if a hypothetical sample that contains sodium, uranium, and cobalt in a 100:10:1 ratio was subjected to a very short pulse of <a href="/wiki/Thermal_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal neutron">thermal neutrons</a>. The initial radioactivity would be dominated by the <sup>24</sup>Na activity (<a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a> 15 h) but with increasing time the <sup>239</sup>Np (half-life 2.4 d after formation from parent <sup>239</sup>U with half-life 24 min) and finally the <sup>60</sup>Co activity (5.3 yr) would predominate. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biology_applications">Biology applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiochemistry&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Biology applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One biological application is the study of <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> using radioactive <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a>-32. In these experiments, stable phosphorus is replaced by the chemically identical radioactive P-32, and the resulting radioactivity is used in the analysis of the molecules and their behaviour. </p><p>Another example is the work that was done on the methylation of elements such as <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">selenium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tellurium" title="Tellurium">tellurium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Polonium" title="Polonium">polonium</a> by living organisms. It has been shown that <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> can convert these elements into volatile compounds,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it is thought that <a href="/wiki/Methylcobalamin" title="Methylcobalamin">methylcobalamin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vitamin_B12" title="Vitamin B12">vitamin B<sub>12</sub></a>) alkylates these elements to create the dimethyls. It has been shown that a combination of <a href="/wiki/Cobaloxime" class="mw-redirect" title="Cobaloxime">Cobaloxime</a> and inorganic polonium in <a href="/wiki/Asepsis" title="Asepsis">sterile</a> water forms a volatile polonium compound, while a control experiment that did not contain the <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a> compound did not form the volatile polonium compound.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> work, the isotope <sup>35</sup>S was used, while for polonium <sup>207</sup>Po was used. In some related work by the addition of <sup>57</sup>Co to the bacterial culture, followed by isolation of the cobalamin from the bacteria (and the measurement of the radioactivity of the isolated cobalamin) it was shown that the bacteria convert available cobalt into methylcobalamin. </p><p>In medicine PET (Positron Emission Tomography) scans are commonly used for diagnostic purposes in. A radiative tracer is injected intravenously into the patient and then taken to the PET machine. The radioactive tracer releases radiation outward from the patient and the cameras in the machine interpret the radiation rays from the tracer. PET scan machines use solid state scintillation detection because of their high detection efficiency, NaI(Tl) crystals absorb the tracer's radiation and produce photons that get converted into an electrical signal for the machine to analyze.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Environmental">Environmental</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiochemistry&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Environmental"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Radiochemistry also includes the study of the behaviour of radioisotopes in the environment; for instance, a forest or grass fire can make radioisotopes mobile again.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In these experiments, fires were started in the exclusion zone around <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl" title="Chernobyl">Chernobyl</a> and the radioactivity in the air downwind was measured. </p><p>It is important to note that a vast number of processes can release radioactivity into the environment, for example, the action of <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">cosmic rays</a> on the air is responsible for the formation of radioisotopes (such as <sup>14</sup>C and <sup>32</sup>P), the decay of <sup>226</sup>Ra forms <sup>222</sup>Rn which is a gas which can diffuse through rocks before entering buildings<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and dissolve in water and thus enter <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">drinking water</a><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, human activities such as <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Nuclear weapons testing">bomb tests</a>, accidents,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and normal releases from industry have resulted in the release of radioactivity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemical_form_of_the_actinides">Chemical form of the actinides</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiochemistry&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Chemical form of the actinides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The environmental chemistry of some radioactive elements such as plutonium is complicated by the fact that solutions of this element can undergo <a href="/wiki/Disproportionation" title="Disproportionation">disproportionation</a><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and as a result, many different oxidation states can coexist at once. Some work has been done on the identification of the oxidation state and coordination number of plutonium and the other actinides under different conditions.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://fas.org/sgp/othergov/doe/lanl/pubs/00818043.pdf">[2]</a> This includes work on both solutions of relatively simple complexes<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and work on <a href="/wiki/Colloids" class="mw-redirect" title="Colloids">colloids</a><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two of the key matrixes are <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a>/<a href="/wiki/Rock_(geology)" title="Rock (geology)">rocks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</a>, in these systems the chemical properties of plutonium have been studied using methods such as <a href="/wiki/EXAFS" class="mw-redirect" title="EXAFS">EXAFS</a> and <a href="/wiki/XANES" class="mw-redirect" title="XANES">XANES</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070926101426/http://www.wmsym.org/Abstracts/2002/Proceedings/6b/188.pdf">[3]</a><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.lanl.gov/orgs/nmt/nmtdo/AQarchive/02spring/synchrotron.html">[4]</a> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Movement_of_colloids">Movement of colloids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiochemistry&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Movement of colloids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While binding of a metal to the surfaces of the soil particles can prevent its movement through a layer of soil, it is possible for the particles of soil that bear the radioactive metal can migrate as colloidal particles through the soil. This has been shown to occur using soil particles labeled with <sup>134</sup>Cs, these are able to move through cracks in the soil.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Normal_background">Normal background</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiochemistry&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Normal background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Radioactivity is present everywhere on Earth since its formation. According to the <a href="/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="International Atomic Energy Agency">International Atomic Energy Agency</a>, one kilogram of soil typically contains the following amounts of the following three natural radioisotopes 370 Bq <sup>40</sup>K (typical range 100–700 Bq), 25 Bq <sup>226</sup>Ra (typical range 10–50 Bq), 25 Bq <sup>238</sup>U (typical range 10–50 Bq) and 25 Bq <sup>232</sup>Th (typical range 7–50 Bq).<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Action_of_microorganisms">Action of microorganisms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiochemistry&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Action of microorganisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The action of micro-organisms can fix uranium; <a href="/wiki/Thermoanaerobacter" title="Thermoanaerobacter">Thermoanaerobacter</a> can use <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">chromium</a>(VI), <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>(III), <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a>(III), <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a>(IV), and uranium(VI) as electron acceptors while <a href="/wiki/Acetate" title="Acetate">acetate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lactic_acid" title="Lactic acid">lactate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pyruvate" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyruvate">pyruvate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Succinate" class="mw-redirect" title="Succinate">succinate</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Xylose" title="Xylose">xylose</a> can act as electron donors for the metabolism of the bacteria. In this way, the metals can be reduced to form <a href="/wiki/Magnetite" title="Magnetite">magnetite</a> (Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>), <a href="/wiki/Siderite" title="Siderite">siderite</a> (FeCO<sub>3</sub>), <a href="/wiki/Rhodochrosite" title="Rhodochrosite">rhodochrosite</a> (MnCO<sub>3</sub>), and <a href="/wiki/Uraninite" title="Uraninite">uraninite</a> (UO<sub>2</sub>).<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other researchers have also worked on the fixing of uranium using bacteria <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.physorg.com/news67270244.html">[5]</a><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0040282">[6]</a><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.pnl.gov/news/release.asp?id=175">[7]</a>, Francis R. Livens <i>et al.</i> (Working at <a href="/wiki/Manchester" title="Manchester">Manchester</a>) have suggested that the reason why <i>Geobacter sulfurreducens</i> can reduce <span class="chemf nowrap">UO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span> cations to <a href="/wiki/Uranium_dioxide" title="Uranium dioxide">uranium dioxide</a> is that the bacteria reduce the uranyl cations to <span class="chemf nowrap">UO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span> which then undergoes disproportionation to form <span class="chemf nowrap">UO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span> and UO<sub>2</sub>. This reasoning was based (at least in part) on the observation that <span class="chemf nowrap">NpO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span> is not converted to an insoluble neptunium oxide by the bacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Education">Education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiochemistry&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Despite the growing use of nuclear medicine, the potential expansion of nuclear power plants, and worries about protection against nuclear threats and the management of the nuclear waste generated in past decades, the number of students opting to specialize in nuclear and radiochemistry has decreased significantly over the past few decades. Now, with many experts in these fields approaching retirement age, action is needed to avoid a workforce gap in these critical fields, for example by building student interest in these careers, expanding the educational capacity of universities and colleges, and providing more specific on-the-job training.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nuclear and Radiochemistry (NRC) is mostly being taught at the university level, usually first at the Master- and PhD-degree level. In Europe, substantial effort is being done to harmonize and prepare the NRC education for the industry's and society's future needs. This effort is being coordinated in projects funded by the Coordinated Action supported by the European Atomic Energy Community's 7th Framework Program: The CINCH-II project - Cooperation in education and training In Nuclear Chemistry. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiochemistry&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. Smith, S. Forshufvud and A. Wassén, <i>Nature</i>, 1962, <b>194</b>(26 May), 725–726</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">N. Momoshima, Li-X. Song, S. Osaki and Y. Maeda, "Biologically induced Po emission from fresh water", <i>Journal of Environmental Radioactivity</i>, 2002, <b>63</b>, 187–197</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">N. Momoshima, Li-X. Song, S. Osaki and Y. Maeda, "Formation and emission of volatile polonium compound by microbial activity and polonium methylation with methylcobalamin", <i>Environmental Science and Technology</i>, 2001, <b>35</b>, 2956–2960</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSaha2010" class="citation book cs1">Saha, Gopal B. (2010). "PET Scanning Systems". <i>Basics of PET Imaging</i>. Springer, New York, NY. pp. 19–39. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-0805-6_2">10.1007/978-1-4419-0805-6_2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781441908049" title="Special:BookSources/9781441908049"><bdi>9781441908049</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=PET+Scanning+Systems&rft.btitle=Basics+of+PET+Imaging&rft.pages=19-39&rft.pub=Springer%2C+New+York%2C+NY&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4419-0805-6_2&rft.isbn=9781441908049&rft.aulast=Saha&rft.aufirst=Gopal+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiochemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yoschenko VI <i>et al.</i> (2006) Resuspension and redistribution of radionuclides during grassland and forest fires in the Chernobyl exclusion zone: part I. Fire experiments <i>J Envir Radioact</i> <b>86</b>:143–63 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16213067">16213067</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Janja Vaupotič and Ivan Kobal, "Effective doses in schools based on nanosize radon progeny aerosols", <i>Atmospheric Environment</i>, 2006, <b>40</b>, 7494–7507</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Durand, <i>Building and Environment</i>, "Indoor air pollution caused by geothermal gases", 2006, <b>41</b>, 1607–1610</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paolo Boffetta, "Human cancer from environmental pollutants: The epidemiological evidence", <i>Mutation Research/Genetic Toxicology and Environmental Mutagenesis</i>, 2006, <b>608</b>, 157–162</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. Forte, R. Rusconi, M. T. Cazzaniga and G. Sgorbati, "The measurement of radioactivity in Italian drinking waters". <i>Microchemical Journal</i>, 2007, <b>85</b>, 98–102</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. Pöllänen, M. E. Ketterer, S. Lehto, M. Hokkanen, T. K. Ikäheimonen, T. Siiskonen, M. Moring, M. P. Rubio Montero and A. Martín Sánchez, "Multi-technique characterization of a nuclearbomb particle from the Palomares accident", <i>Journal of Environmental Radioactivity</i>, 2006, <b>90</b>, 15–28</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rabideau, S.W., <i>Journal of the American Chemical Society</i>, 1957, <b>79</b>, 6350–6353</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">P. G. Allen, J. J. Bucher, D. K. Shuh, N. M. Edelstein, and T. Reich, "Investigation of Aquo and Chloro Complexes of UO<sub>2</sub><sup>2+</sup>, NpO<sup>2+</sup>, Np<sup>4+</sup>, and Pu<sup>3+</sup> by X-ray Absorption Fine Structure Spectroscopy", <i>Inorganic Chemistry</i>, 1997, <b>36</b>, 4676–4683</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David L. Clark, Steven D. Conradson, D. Webster Keogh Phillip D. Palmer Brian L. Scott and C. Drew Tait, "Identification of the Limiting Species in the Plutonium(IV) Carbonate System. Solid State and Solution Molecular Structure of the [Pu(CO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>5</sub>]<sup>6−</sup> Ion", <i>Inorganic Chemistry</i>, 1998, <b>37</b>, 2893–2899</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jörg Rothe, Clemens Walther, Melissa A. Denecke, and Th. Fanghänel, "XAFS and LIBD Investigation of the Formation and Structure of Colloidal Pu(IV) Hydrolysis Products ", <i>Inorganic Chemistry</i>, 2004, <b>43</b>, 4708–4718</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. C. Duff, D. B. Hunter, I. R. Triay, P. M. Bertsch, D. T. Reed, S. R. Sutton, G. Shea-McCarthy, J. Kitten, P. Eng, S. J. Chipera, and D. T. Vaniman, "Mineral Associations and Average Oxidation States of Sorbed Pu on Tuff", <i>Environ. Sci. Technol.</i>, 1999, <b>33</b>, 2163–2169</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. D. Whicker and S. A. Ibrahim, "Vertical migration of <sup>134</sup>Cs bearing soil particles in arid soils: implications for plutonium redistribution", <i>Journal of Environmental Radioactivity</i>, 2006, <b>88</b>, 171–188.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Generic Procedures for Assessment and Response during a Radiological Emergency", International Atomic Energy Agency TECDOC Series number 1162, published in 2000 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PubDetails.asp?pubId=5926">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yul Roh, Shi V. Liu, Guangshan Li, Heshu Huang, Tommy J. Phelps, and Jizhong Zhou, "Isolation and Characterization of Metal-Reducing Thermoanaerobacter Strains from Deep Subsurface Environments of the Piceance Basin, Colorado", <i>Applied and Environmental Microbiology</i>, 2002, <b>68</b>, 6013–6020.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joanna C. Renshaw, Laura J. C. Butchins, Francis R. Livens, Iain May, John M. Charnock, and Jonathan R. Lloyd, <i>Environ. Sci. Technol.</i>, 2005, <b>39</b>(15), 5657–5660.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Assuring a Future U.S.-Based Nuclear and Radiochemistry Expertise</i>. Board on Chemical Sciences and Technology. 2012. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-22534-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-22534-2"><bdi>978-0-309-22534-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Assuring+a+Future+U.S.-Based+Nuclear+and+Radiochemistry+Expertise&rft.pub=Board+on+Chemical+Sciences+and+Technology&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-309-22534-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiochemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiochemistry&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ac60345a003">ACS radioelectrochemistry</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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title="Chemistry">chemistry</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_chemical_formulae" title="Glossary of chemical formulae">Glossary of chemical formulae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biomolecules" title="List of biomolecules">List of biomolecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds" title="List of inorganic compounds">List of inorganic compounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">Periodic table</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Analytical_chemistry" title="Analytical chemistry">Analytical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_chemistry" title="Instrumental chemistry">Instrumental chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electroanalytical_methods" title="Electroanalytical methods">Electroanalytical methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopy" title="Infrared spectroscopy">IR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raman_spectroscopy" title="Raman spectroscopy">Raman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible_spectroscopy" title="Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy">UV-Vis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy">NMR</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">Mass spectrometry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron_ionization" title="Electron ionization">EI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductively_coupled_plasma_mass_spectrometry" title="Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry">ICP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrix-assisted_laser_desorption/ionization" title="Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization">MALDI</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_process" title="Separation process">Separation process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_chromatography" title="Gas chromatography">GC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-performance_liquid_chromatography" title="High-performance liquid chromatography">HPLC</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Characterization_(materials_science)" title="Characterization (materials science)">Characterization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titration" title="Titration">Titration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_chemistry" title="Wet chemistry">Wet chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calorimetry" title="Calorimetry">Calorimetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elemental_analysis" title="Elemental analysis">Elemental analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_chemistry" title="Theoretical chemistry">Theoretical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_chemistry" title="Quantum chemistry">Quantum chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_chemistry" title="Computational chemistry">Computational chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_chemistry" title="Mathematical chemistry">Mathematical chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_modelling" title="Molecular modelling">Molecular modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_mechanics" title="Molecular mechanics">Molecular mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_dynamics" title="Molecular dynamics">Molecular dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_geometry" title="Molecular geometry">Molecular geometry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/VSEPR_theory" title="VSEPR theory">VSEPR theory</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">Physical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemistry" title="Electrochemistry">Electrochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spectroelectrochemistry" title="Spectroelectrochemistry">Spectroelectrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoelectrochemistry" title="Photoelectrochemistry">Photoelectrochemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermochemistry" title="Thermochemistry">Thermochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_thermodynamics" title="Chemical thermodynamics">Chemical thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_science" title="Surface science">Surface science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interface_and_colloid_science" title="Interface and colloid science">Interface and colloid science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Micromeritics" title="Micromeritics">Micromeritics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryochemistry" title="Cryochemistry">Cryochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonochemistry" title="Sonochemistry">Sonochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_chemistry" title="Structural chemistry">Structural chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_physics" title="Chemical physics">Chemical physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_physics" title="Molecular physics">Molecular physics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femtochemistry" title="Femtochemistry">Femtochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_kinetics" title="Chemical kinetics">Chemical kinetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photochemistry" title="Photochemistry">Photochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spin_chemistry" title="Spin chemistry">Spin chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave_chemistry" title="Microwave chemistry">Microwave chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equilibrium_chemistry" title="Equilibrium chemistry">Equilibrium chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanochemistry" title="Mechanochemistry">Mechanochemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inorganic_chemistry" title="Inorganic chemistry">Inorganic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coordination_complex" title="Coordination complex">Coordination chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetochemistry" title="Magnetochemistry">Magnetochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organometallic_chemistry" title="Organometallic chemistry">Organometallic chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organolanthanide_chemistry" title="Organolanthanide chemistry">Organolanthanide chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atom_cluster" class="mw-redirect" title="Atom cluster">Cluster chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry" title="Solid-state chemistry">Solid-state chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceramic chemistry">Ceramic chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">Organic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereochemistry" title="Stereochemistry">Stereochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkane_stereochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkane stereochemistry">Alkane stereochemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_organic_chemistry" title="Physical organic chemistry">Physical organic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_reactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic reactions">Organic reactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_synthesis" title="Organic synthesis">Organic synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrosynthetic_analysis" title="Retrosynthetic analysis">Retrosynthetic analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enantioselective_synthesis" title="Enantioselective synthesis">Enantioselective synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_synthesis" title="Total synthesis">Total synthesis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semisynthesis" title="Semisynthesis">Semisynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fullerene_chemistry" title="Fullerene chemistry">Fullerene chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_chemistry" title="Polymer chemistry">Polymer chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrochemistry">Petrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_covalent_chemistry" title="Dynamic covalent chemistry">Dynamic covalent chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioorthogonal_chemistry" title="Bioorthogonal chemistry">Bioorthogonal chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicinal_chemistry" title="Medicinal chemistry">Medicinal chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurochemistry" title="Neurochemistry">Neurochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioorganic_chemistry" title="Bioorganic chemistry">Bioorganic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioorganometallic_chemistry" title="Bioorganometallic chemistry">Bioorganometallic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinorganic_chemistry" title="Bioinorganic chemistry">Bioinorganic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysical_chemistry" title="Biophysical chemistry">Biophysical chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinarity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry" title="Nuclear chemistry">Nuclear chemistry</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Radiochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_chemistry" title="Radiation chemistry">Radiation chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinide_chemistry" title="Actinide chemistry">Actinide chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmochemistry" title="Cosmochemistry">Cosmochemistry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">Astrochemistry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Stellar_chemistry" title="Stellar chemistry">Stellar chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemistry" title="Biogeochemistry">Biogeochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photogeochemistry" title="Photogeochemistry">Photogeochemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_chemistry" title="Environmental chemistry">Environmental chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_chemistry" title="Atmospheric chemistry">Atmospheric chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean chemistry">Ocean chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clay_chemistry" title="Clay chemistry">Clay chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbochemistry" title="Carbochemistry">Carbochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chemistry" title="Food chemistry">Food chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbohydrate chemistry">Carbohydrate chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_physical_chemistry" title="Food physical chemistry">Food physical chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_chemistry" title="Agricultural chemistry">Agricultural chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_chemistry" title="Soil chemistry">Soil chemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemistry_education" title="Chemistry education">Chemistry education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amateur_chemistry" title="Amateur chemistry">Amateur chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_chemistry" title="General chemistry">General chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry" title="Clandestine chemistry">Clandestine chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_chemistry" title="Forensic chemistry">Forensic chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_toxicology" title="Forensic toxicology">Forensic toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-mortem_chemistry" title="Post-mortem chemistry">Post-mortem chemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanochemistry" title="Nanochemistry">Nanochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supramolecular_chemistry" title="Supramolecular chemistry">Supramolecular chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_synthesis" title="Chemical synthesis">Chemical synthesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Green_chemistry" title="Green chemistry">Green chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Click_chemistry" title="Click chemistry">Click chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combinatorial_chemistry" title="Combinatorial chemistry">Combinatorial chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosynthesis" title="Biosynthesis">Biosynthesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical engineering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stoichiometry" title="Stoichiometry">Stoichiometry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_engineering" title="Ceramic engineering">Ceramic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_science" title="Polymer science">Polymer science</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_chemistry" title="History of chemistry">History of chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_chemistry" title="Timeline of chemistry">Timeline of chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_chemical_elements" title="Discovery of chemical elements">of element discoveries</a></li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_central_science" title="The central science">The central science</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">Chemical reaction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">Catalysis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">Chemical element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">Chemical compound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">Ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">Chemical substance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" 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