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vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_and_cited_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_and_cited_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>General and cited references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_and_cited_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li 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.ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Globe icon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/48px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png" decoding="async" width="48" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/73px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/97px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this article <b>deal primarily with Western culture and do not represent a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> You may <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_concept_of_creativity&action=edit">improve this article</a>, discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:History_of_the_concept_of_creativity" title="Talk:History of the concept of creativity">talk page</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Article_wizard" title="Wikipedia:Article wizard">create a new article</a>, as appropriate.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The ways in which societies have perceived the <a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">concept</a> of <a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">creativity</a> have changed throughout history, as has the <a href="/wiki/Terminology" title="Terminology">term</a> itself. The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greek</a> concept of art (in Greek, "<i><a href="/wiki/Techne" title="Techne">techne</a></i><span style="padding-left:.15em;">"</span>—the root of "technique" and "technology"), with the exception of <a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poetry</a>, involved not freedom of action but subjection to <i>rules</i>. In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a>, the Greek concept was partly shaken, and <a href="/wiki/Visual_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual art">visual artists</a> were viewed as sharing, with poets, <a href="/wiki/Imagination" title="Imagination">imagination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Artistic_inspiration" title="Artistic inspiration">inspiration</a>. </p><p>Under <a href="/wiki/Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval">medieval</a> <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> "<i>creatio</i><span style="padding-left:.15em;">"</span> came to designate <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>'s act of "<i><a href="/wiki/Creatio_ex_nihilo" title="Creatio ex nihilo">creatio ex nihilo</a></i><span style="padding-left:.15em;">"</span> ("creation from nothing"); thus "<i>creatio</i><span style="padding-left:.15em;">"</span> ceased to apply to human activities. The Middle Ages, however, went even further than antiquity, when they revoked poetry's exceptional status: it, too, was an art and therefore craft and not creativity. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> men sought to voice their sense of their freedom and creativity. The first to apply the word "creativity", however, was the 17th-century Polish poet <a href="/wiki/Maciej_Kazimierz_Sarbiewski" title="Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski">Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski</a>—but he applied it only to poetry. For over a century and a half, the idea of <i>human</i> creativity met with resistance, because the term "creation" was reserved for creation "from nothing". </p><p>Nineteenth century <a href="/wiki/Religious_skepticism" title="Religious skepticism">religious skepticism</a> allowed for a change in definition: now not only was art recognized as creativity, but <i>it alone</i> was. And at the turn of the 20th century, when there began to be discussion as well of creativity in the <a href="/wiki/Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Sciences">sciences</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a>, this was taken as the transference, to the sciences and to nature, of concepts that were proper to art. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Term_and_concept">Term and concept</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_concept_of_creativity&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Term and concept"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Greece">Ancient Greece</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_concept_of_creativity&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ancient Greece"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greeks">ancient Greeks</a> had no terms corresponding to "to create" or "creator." The expression "<i>poiein</i><span style="padding-left:.15em;">"</span> ("to make") was applied specifically to <i>poiesis</i> (poetry) and to the <i>poietes</i> (poet, or "maker") who <i>made</i> it rather than to art in general in its modern understanding. For example, <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> asks in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Republic_(Plato)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Republic (Plato)">The Republic</a></i>, "Will we say, of a painter, that he makes something?" and answers, "Certainly not, he merely <a href="/wiki/Mimesis" title="Mimesis">imitates</a>." To the ancient Greeks, the concept of a creator and of creativity implied freedom of action, whereas the Greeks' concept of art involved subjection to laws and rules. Art (in Greek, "<i>techne</i><span style="padding-left:.15em;">"</span>) was "the making of things, according to rules." It contained no creativity, and it would have been—in the Greeks' view—a bad state of affairs if it <i>had</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This understanding of art had a distinct premise: <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">Nature</a> is <a href="/wiki/Perfection" title="Perfection">perfect</a> and is subject to laws, therefore man ought to discover its laws and submit to them, and not seek freedom, which will deflect him from that <i>optimum</i> which he can attain. The artist was a <a href="/wiki/Discovery_(observation)" title="Discovery (observation)">discoverer</a>, not an <a href="/wiki/Inventor" class="mw-redirect" title="Inventor">inventor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tatarkiewicz,_p._245_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tatarkiewicz,_p._245-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The sole exception to this Greek view—a <i>great</i> exception—was poetry. The poet made new things—brought to life a new world—while the artist merely <i>imitated</i>. And the poet, unlike the artist, was <i>not</i> bound by laws. There were no terms corresponding to "creativity" or "creator," but in reality the poet was understood to be one who creates. And only he was so understood. In music, there was no freedom: melodies were prescribed, particularly for ceremonies and entertainments, and were known tellingly as "<i>nomoi</i><span style="padding-left:.15em;">"</span> ("laws"). In the <a href="/wiki/Visual_arts" title="Visual arts">visual arts</a>, freedom was limited by the <a href="/wiki/Body_proportions" title="Body proportions">proportions</a> that <a href="/wiki/Polyclitus_(sculptor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyclitus (sculptor)">Polyclitus</a> had established for the human frame, and which he called "the canon" (meaning, "measure"). <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> argued in <i><a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a></i> that, to execute a good work, one must contemplate an eternal model. Later the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, would write that art embraces those things "of which we have knowledge" ("<i>quae sciuntur</i><span style="padding-left:.15em;">"</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-Tatarkiewicz,_p._245_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tatarkiewicz,_p._245-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Poets saw things differently. Book I of the <i><a href="/wiki/Odyssey" title="Odyssey">Odyssey</a></i> asks, "Why forbid the singer to please us with singing <i>as he himself will?</i><span style="padding-left:.15em;">"</span> <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> had doubts as to whether poetry was imitation of reality, and as to whether it required adherence to truth: it was, rather, the realm of that "which is neither true nor false."<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Rome_and_medieval_period">Ancient Rome and medieval period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_concept_of_creativity&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ancient Rome and medieval period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the Roman era, these Greek concepts were partly challenged. <a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a> wrote that not only poets but painters as well were entitled to the privilege of daring whatever they wished to ("<i>quod libet audendi</i><span style="padding-left:.15em;">"</span>). In the declining period of antiquity, <a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a> wrote that "one can discover a similarity between poetry and art and find that they have <a href="/wiki/Imagination" title="Imagination">imagination</a> in common." <a href="/w/index.php?title=Callistratos&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Callistratos (page does not exist)">Callistratos</a> averred that "Not only is the art of the poets and <a href="/wiki/Prose" title="Prose">prosaists</a> inspired, but likewise the hands of <a href="/wiki/Sculptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Sculptor">sculptors</a> are gifted with the blessing of divine <a href="/wiki/Artistic_inspiration" title="Artistic inspiration">inspiration</a>." This was something new: <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">classical Greeks</a> had not applied the <a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">concepts</a> of <a href="/wiki/Imagination" title="Imagination">imagination</a> and inspiration to the <a href="/wiki/Visual_arts" title="Visual arts">visual arts</a> but had restricted them to poetry. <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> was richer than Greek: it had a term for "creating" ("<i>creatio</i><span style="padding-left:.15em;">"</span>) and for "<i>creator</i>," and had <i>two</i> expressions—"<i>facere</i><span style="padding-left:.15em;">"</span> and "<i>creare</i><span style="padding-left:.15em;">"</span>—where Greek had but one, "<i>poiein</i>." Still, the two Latin terms meant much the same thing.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A fundamental change, however, came in the Christian period: "<i>creatio</i><span style="padding-left:.15em;">"</span> came to designate <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>'s act of "creation from nothing" ("<i>creatio ex nihilo</i><span style="padding-left:.15em;">"</span>). "<i>Creatio</i><span style="padding-left:.15em;">"</span> thus took on a different meaning than "<i>facere</i><span style="padding-left:.15em;">"</span> ("to make"), and ceased to apply to human functions. As the 6th-century Roman official and literary figure <a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a> wrote, "things made and created differ, for we can make, who cannot create."<sup id="cite_ref-Tatarkiewicz,_p._247_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tatarkiewicz,_p._247-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Alongside this new, <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religious</a> interpretation of the expression, there persisted the ancient view that art is not a domain of creativity. This is seen in two early and influential Christian writers, <a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Dionysius" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudo-Dionysius">Pseudo-Dionysius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">St. Augustine</a>. Later <a href="/wiki/Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval">medieval</a> men such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hraban_the_Moor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hraban the Moor (page does not exist)">Hraban the Moor</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Grosseteste" title="Robert Grosseteste">Robert Grosseteste</a> in the 13th century, thought much the same way. The <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> here went even further than <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">antiquity</a>; they made no exception of poetry: it too had its rules, was an art, and was therefore <a href="/wiki/Craft" title="Craft">craft</a> and not creativity.<sup id="cite_ref-Tatarkiewicz,_p._247_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tatarkiewicz,_p._247-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Renaissance">Renaissance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_concept_of_creativity&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Renaissance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> saw a change in perspective. The philosopher <a href="/wiki/Marsilio_Ficino" title="Marsilio Ficino">Marsilio Ficino</a> wrote that the artist "thinks up" ("<i>excogitatio</i><span style="padding-left:.15em;">"</span>) his works; the theoretician of architecture and painting, <a href="/wiki/Leon_Battista_Alberti" title="Leon Battista Alberti">Leon Battista Alberti</a>, that he "preordains" ("<i>preordinazione</i><span style="padding-left:.15em;">"</span>); <a href="/wiki/Raphael" title="Raphael">Raphael</a>, that he shapes a painting according to his idea; <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a>, that he employs "shapes that do not exist in nature"; <a href="/wiki/Michelangelo" title="Michelangelo">Michelangelo</a>, that the artist realizes his vision rather than imitating nature; <a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Vasari" title="Giorgio Vasari">Giorgio Vasari</a>, that "nature is conquered by art"; the Venetian art theoretician, <a href="/wiki/Paolo_Pino" title="Paolo Pino">Paolo Pino</a>, that painting is "inventing what is not"; <a href="/wiki/Paolo_Veronese" title="Paolo Veronese">Paolo Veronese</a>, that painters avail themselves of the same liberties as do poets and madmen; <a href="/wiki/Federico_Zuccari" title="Federico Zuccari">Federico Zuccari</a> (1542–1609), that the artist shapes "a new world, new paradises"; <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Cesariano" title="Cesare Cesariano">Cesare Cesariano</a> (1483–1541), that architects are "demi-gods." Among musicians, the <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flemish</a> composer and musicologist <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Tinctoris" title="Johannes Tinctoris">Johannes Tinctoris</a> (1446–1511) demanded novelty in what a composer did, and defined a composer as "one who produces <i>new</i> songs."<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Still more emphatic were those who wrote about poetry: <a href="/w/index.php?title=G.P._Capriano&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="G.P. Capriano (page does not exist)">G.P. Capriano</a> held (1555) that the poet's invention springs "from nothing." <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Patrizi" class="mw-redirect" title="Francesco Patrizi">Francesco Patrizi</a> (1586) saw poetry as "fiction," "shaping," "transformation."<sup id="cite_ref-Tatarkiewicz,_p._248_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tatarkiewicz,_p._248-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1600s">1600s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_concept_of_creativity&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 1600s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first to apply the word "creation" to a human activity (poetry) was the 17th-century Polish poet and theoretician of poetry, <a href="/wiki/Maciej_Kazimierz_Sarbiewski" title="Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski">Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski</a> (1595–1640), known as "the last Latin poet." In his treatise, <i>De perfecta poesi</i>, he not only wrote that a poet "invents," "after a fashion builds," but also that the poet "<i>creates anew</i><span style="padding-left:.15em;">"</span> ("<i>de novo creat</i><span style="padding-left:.15em;">"</span>). Sarbiewski even added: "in the manner of God" ("<i>instar Dei</i><span style="padding-left:.15em;">"</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-Tatarkiewicz,_p._248_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tatarkiewicz,_p._248-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sarbiewski, however, regarded creativity as the exclusive privilege of poetry; creativity was not open to visual artists. "Other arts merely imitate and copy but do not create, because they assume the existence of the material from which they create or of the subject." As late as the end of the 17th century, <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_F%C3%A9libien" title="André Félibien">André Félibien</a> (1619–75) would write that the painter is "so to speak [a] creator." The Spanish <a href="/wiki/Jesuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit">Jesuit</a> <a href="/wiki/Baltasar_Graci%C3%A1n" title="Baltasar Gracián">Baltasar Gracián</a> (1601–58) wrote similarly as Sarbiewski: "Art is the completion of nature, as it were <i>a second Creator</i>..."<sup id="cite_ref-Tatarkiewicz,_p._248_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tatarkiewicz,_p._248-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1700s">1700s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_concept_of_creativity&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 1700s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the 18th century, the concept of creativity was appearing more often in art theory. It was linked with the concept of <a href="/wiki/Imagination" title="Imagination">imagination</a>, which was on all lips. <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Addison" title="Joseph Addison">Joseph Addison</a> wrote that the imagination "has something in it like creation." <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> declared (1740) that "the true poet is creative." With both these authors, however, this was rather only a <i>comparison</i> of poet with creator.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other writers took a different view. <a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Denis Diderot</a> felt that imagination is merely "the memory of forms and contents," and "creates nothing" but only combines, magnifies or diminishes. It was precisely in 18th-century France, indeed, that the idea of man's creativity met with resistance. <a href="/wiki/Charles_Batteux" title="Charles Batteux">Charles Batteux</a> wrote that "The human mind <i>cannot create</i>, strictly speaking; all its products bear the stigmata of their model; even monsters invented by an imagination unhampered by laws can only be composed of parts taken from nature." <a href="/wiki/Luc_de_Clapiers,_marquis_de_Vauvenargues" title="Luc de Clapiers, marquis de Vauvenargues">Luc de Clapiers, marquis de Vauvenargues</a> (1715–47), and <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Bonnot_de_Condillac" title="Étienne Bonnot de Condillac">Étienne Bonnot de Condillac</a> (1715–80) spoke to a similar effect.<sup id="cite_ref-Tatarkiewicz,_p._249_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tatarkiewicz,_p._249-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Their resistance to the idea of human creativity had a triple source. The expression, "creation," was then reserved for creation <i>ex nihilo</i> (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">from nothing</i>), which was inaccessible to man. Second, creation is a mysterious act, and <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> psychology did not admit of mysteries. Third, artists of the age were attached to their rules, and creativity seemed irreconcilable with rules. The latter objection was the weakest, as it was already beginning to be realized (e.g., by <a href="/wiki/Houdar_de_la_Motte" class="mw-redirect" title="Houdar de la Motte">Houdar de la Motte</a>, 1715) that rules ultimately are a <i>human invention</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tatarkiewicz,_p._249_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tatarkiewicz,_p._249-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1800s_to_today">1800s to today</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_concept_of_creativity&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 1800s to today"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 19th century, art took its compensation for the resistance of preceding centuries against recognizing it as creativity. Now not only was art regarded as creativity, but <i>it alone</i> was.<sup id="cite_ref-Tatarkiewicz,_p._249_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tatarkiewicz,_p._249-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The art critic <a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">John Ruskin</a> has often been referred to in the context of the transition to self-expression in the history of art education, though some scholars believe this to be a misreading.<sup id="cite_ref-Kayoko_Komatsu,_Genealogy_of_self-expression_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kayoko_Komatsu,_Genealogy_of_self-expression-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the turn of the 20th century, when there began to be discussion as well of creativity in the <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">sciences</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Jan_%C5%81ukasiewicz" title="Jan Łukasiewicz">Jan Łukasiewicz</a>, 1878–1956) and in <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a>), this was generally taken as the transference, to the sciences and to nature, of concepts proper to art.<sup id="cite_ref-Tatarkiewicz,_p._249_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tatarkiewicz,_p._249-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The start of the <i>scientific</i> study of creativity is sometimes taken as <a href="/wiki/J._P._Guilford" title="J. P. Guilford">J. P. Guilford</a>'s 1950 address to the <a href="/wiki/American_Psychological_Association" title="American Psychological Association">American Psychological Association</a>, which helped popularize the subject.<sup id="cite_ref-metro_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-metro-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Head_Platon_Glyptothek_Munich_548.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Plato"><img alt="Plato" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Head_Platon_Glyptothek_Munich_548.jpg/144px-Head_Platon_Glyptothek_Munich_548.jpg" decoding="async" width="144" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Head_Platon_Glyptothek_Munich_548.jpg/216px-Head_Platon_Glyptothek_Munich_548.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Head_Platon_Glyptothek_Munich_548.jpg/288px-Head_Platon_Glyptothek_Munich_548.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1619" data-file-height="2251" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cicero_-_Musei_Capitolini.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Cicero"><img alt="Cicero" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Cicero_-_Musei_Capitolini.JPG/150px-Cicero_-_Musei_Capitolini.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Cicero_-_Musei_Capitolini.JPG/225px-Cicero_-_Musei_Capitolini.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Cicero_-_Musei_Capitolini.JPG/300px-Cicero_-_Musei_Capitolini.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1227" data-file-height="1636" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Quintus_Horatius_Flaccus.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Horace"><img alt="Horace" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Quintus_Horatius_Flaccus.jpg/100px-Quintus_Horatius_Flaccus.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Quintus_Horatius_Flaccus.jpg/150px-Quintus_Horatius_Flaccus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Quintus_Horatius_Flaccus.jpg/200px-Quintus_Horatius_Flaccus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="412" data-file-height="821" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gesta_Theodorici_-_Flavius_Magnus_Aurelius_Cassiodorus_(c_485_-_c_580).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cassiodorus"><img alt="Cassiodorus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Gesta_Theodorici_-_Flavius_Magnus_Aurelius_Cassiodorus_%28c_485_-_c_580%29.jpg/129px-Gesta_Theodorici_-_Flavius_Magnus_Aurelius_Cassiodorus_%28c_485_-_c_580%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="129" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Gesta_Theodorici_-_Flavius_Magnus_Aurelius_Cassiodorus_%28c_485_-_c_580%29.jpg/193px-Gesta_Theodorici_-_Flavius_Magnus_Aurelius_Cassiodorus_%28c_485_-_c_580%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Gesta_Theodorici_-_Flavius_Magnus_Aurelius_Cassiodorus_%28c_485_-_c_580%29.jpg/258px-Gesta_Theodorici_-_Flavius_Magnus_Aurelius_Cassiodorus_%28c_485_-_c_580%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1098" data-file-height="1701" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Michelango_Portrait_by_Volterra.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Michelangelo"><img alt="Michelangelo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Michelango_Portrait_by_Volterra.jpg/150px-Michelango_Portrait_by_Volterra.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Michelango_Portrait_by_Volterra.jpg/225px-Michelango_Portrait_by_Volterra.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Michelango_Portrait_by_Volterra.jpg/300px-Michelango_Portrait_by_Volterra.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5744" data-file-height="7653" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Michelangelo" title="Michelangelo">Michelangelo</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sarbiewski.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Sarbiewski"><img alt="Sarbiewski" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Sarbiewski.gif/130px-Sarbiewski.gif" decoding="async" width="130" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Sarbiewski.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="150" data-file-height="230" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Maciej_Kazimierz_Sarbiewski" title="Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski">Sarbiewski</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Baltasar_Graci%C3%A1n_por_Carderera.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Gracián"><img alt="Gracián" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Baltasar_Graci%C3%A1n_por_Carderera.jpg/141px-Baltasar_Graci%C3%A1n_por_Carderera.jpg" decoding="async" width="141" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Baltasar_Graci%C3%A1n_por_Carderera.jpg/212px-Baltasar_Graci%C3%A1n_por_Carderera.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Baltasar_Graci%C3%A1n_por_Carderera.jpg/283px-Baltasar_Graci%C3%A1n_por_Carderera.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="565" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Baltasar_Graci%C3%A1n" title="Baltasar Gracián">Gracián</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Atelier_de_Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re,_portrait_de_Voltaire,_d%C3%A9tail_(mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet)_-002.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Voltaire"><img alt="Voltaire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Atelier_de_Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re%2C_portrait_de_Voltaire%2C_d%C3%A9tail_%28mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet%29_-002.jpg/160px-Atelier_de_Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re%2C_portrait_de_Voltaire%2C_d%C3%A9tail_%28mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet%29_-002.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Atelier_de_Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re%2C_portrait_de_Voltaire%2C_d%C3%A9tail_%28mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet%29_-002.jpg/240px-Atelier_de_Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re%2C_portrait_de_Voltaire%2C_d%C3%A9tail_%28mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet%29_-002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Atelier_de_Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re%2C_portrait_de_Voltaire%2C_d%C3%A9tail_%28mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet%29_-002.jpg/320px-Atelier_de_Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re%2C_portrait_de_Voltaire%2C_d%C3%A9tail_%28mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet%29_-002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="5000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greuze_Portrait_of_Diderot.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Diderot"><img alt="Diderot" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Greuze_Portrait_of_Diderot.jpg/157px-Greuze_Portrait_of_Diderot.jpg" decoding="async" width="157" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Greuze_Portrait_of_Diderot.jpg/235px-Greuze_Portrait_of_Diderot.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Greuze_Portrait_of_Diderot.jpg/313px-Greuze_Portrait_of_Diderot.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2144" data-file-height="2736" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Diderot</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Henri_Bergson.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Bergson"><img alt="Bergson" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Henri_Bergson.jpg/135px-Henri_Bergson.jpg" decoding="async" width="135" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Henri_Bergson.jpg/203px-Henri_Bergson.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Henri_Bergson.jpg/270px-Henri_Bergson.jpg 2x" data-file-width="543" data-file-height="803" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_concept_of_creativity&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_discovery#Mechanism" title="Multiple discovery">Multiple discovery § Mechanism</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_concept_of_creativity&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Tatarkiewicz" title="Władysław Tatarkiewicz">Władysław Tatarkiewicz</a>, <i>A History of Six Ideas: An Essay in Aesthetics</i>, p. 244.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tatarkiewicz,_p._245-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tatarkiewicz,_p._245_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tatarkiewicz,_p._245_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Tatarkiewicz, p. 245.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tatarkiewicz, pp. 245–46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tatarkiewicz, p. 246.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tatarkiewicz,_p._247-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tatarkiewicz,_p._247_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tatarkiewicz,_p._247_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Tatarkiewicz, p. 247.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tatarkiewicz, pp. 247–48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tatarkiewicz,_p._248-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tatarkiewicz,_p._248_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tatarkiewicz,_p._248_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tatarkiewicz,_p._248_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Tatarkiewicz, p. 248.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tatarkiewicz, pp. 248–49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tatarkiewicz,_p._249-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tatarkiewicz,_p._249_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tatarkiewicz,_p._249_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tatarkiewicz,_p._249_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tatarkiewicz,_p._249_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Tatarkiewicz, p. 249.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kayoko_Komatsu,_Genealogy_of_self-expression-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kayoko_Komatsu,_Genealogy_of_self-expression_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKomatsu2017" class="citation journal cs1">Komatsu, Kayoko (2017). "Genealogy of self-expression: a reappraisal of the history of art education in England and Japan". <i>Paedagogica Historica</i>. <b>53</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">214–</span>227. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00309230.2017.1307856">10.1080/00309230.2017.1307856</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:151503505">151503505</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Paedagogica+Historica&rft.atitle=Genealogy+of+self-expression%3A+a+reappraisal+of+the+history+of+art+education+in+England+and+Japan&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E214-%3C%2Fspan%3E227&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00309230.2017.1307856&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A151503505%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Komatsu&rft.aufirst=Kayoko&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+concept+of+creativity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-metro-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-metro_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cocreativity.com/handouts/guilford.pdf">"Guilford's structure of the intellect"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. The Co-Creativity Institute<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 January</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Guilford%27s+structure+of+the+intellect&rft.pub=The+Co-Creativity+Institute&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cocreativity.com%2Fhandouts%2Fguilford.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+concept+of+creativity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_and_cited_references">General and cited references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_concept_of_creativity&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: General and cited references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLehrer2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jonah_Lehrer" title="Jonah Lehrer">Lehrer, Jonah</a> (2012). <i>Imagine: How Creativity Works</i>. Grand Haven, MI: Brilliance Audio. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781441864451" title="Special:BookSources/9781441864451"><bdi>9781441864451</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1230269967">1230269967</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imagine%3A+How+Creativity+Works&rft.place=Grand+Haven%2C+MI&rft.pub=Brilliance+Audio&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1230269967&rft.isbn=9781441864451&rft.aulast=Lehrer&rft.aufirst=Jonah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+concept+of+creativity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSternberg1999" class="citation book cs1">Sternberg, R. J., ed. (1999). <i>Handbook of Creativity</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521572859" title="Special:BookSources/9780521572859"><bdi>9780521572859</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/39605774">39605774</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Creativity&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F39605774&rft.isbn=9780521572859&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+concept+of+creativity" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlbert,_R._S.Runco,_M.A.1999" class="citation book cs1">Albert, R. S.; Runco, M.A. (1999). "A History of Research on Creativity". In Sternberg, R. J. (ed.). <i>Handbook of Creativity</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521572859" title="Special:BookSources/9780521572859"><bdi>9780521572859</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/39605774">39605774</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+History+of+Research+on+Creativity&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Creativity&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F39605774&rft.isbn=9780521572859&rft.au=Albert%2C+R.+S.&rft.au=Runco%2C+M.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+concept+of+creativity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSternberg,_R._J.Lubart,_T.I.1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Sternberg" title="Robert Sternberg">Sternberg, R. J.</a>; Lubart, T.I. (1999). "The Concept of Creativity: Prospects and Paradigms". In Sternberg, R. J. (ed.). <i>Handbook of Creativity</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521572859" title="Special:BookSources/9780521572859"><bdi>9780521572859</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/39605774">39605774</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Concept+of+Creativity%3A+Prospects+and+Paradigms&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Creativity&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F39605774&rft.isbn=9780521572859&rft.au=Sternberg%2C+R.+J.&rft.au=Lubart%2C+T.I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+concept+of+creativity" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTatarkiewicz,_Władysław1980" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Tatarkiewicz" title="Władysław Tatarkiewicz">Tatarkiewicz, Władysław</a> (1980). <i>A History of Six Ideas: An Essay in Aesthetics</i>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Kasparek" title="Christopher Kasparek">Christopher Kasparek</a> (from the Polish). The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789024722334" title="Special:BookSources/9789024722334"><bdi>9789024722334</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/5171592">5171592</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Six+Ideas%3A+An+Essay+in+Aesthetics&rft.place=The+Hague&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhoff&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F5171592&rft.isbn=9789024722334&rft.au=Tatarkiewicz%2C+W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+concept+of+creativity" class="Z3988"></span> The book traces the history of key <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a> <a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">concepts</a>, including art, <a href="/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">beauty</a>, form, creativity, <a href="/wiki/Mimesis" title="Mimesis">mimesis</a>, and the aesthetic experience.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeber2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michel_Weber" title="Michel Weber">Weber, Michel</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/3640181">"Creativity, Efficacy and Vision: Ethics and Psychology in an Open Universe"</a>. In Michel Weber; Pierfrancesco Basile (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DuuEbkzJIQEC"><i>Subjectivity, Process, and Rationality</i></a>. Process Thought XIV. Frankfurt; Piscataway, N.J.: Ontos Verlag; Transaction Books, Rutgers University. pp. <span class="nowrap">263–</span>281. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783938793381" title="Special:BookSources/9783938793381"><bdi>9783938793381</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/77482359">77482359</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Creativity%2C+Efficacy+and+Vision%3A+Ethics+and+Psychology+in+an+Open+Universe&rft.btitle=Subjectivity%2C+Process%2C+and+Rationality&rft.place=Frankfurt%3B+Piscataway%2C+N.J.&rft.series=Process+Thought+XIV&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E263-%3C%2Fspan%3E281&rft.pub=Ontos+Verlag%3B+Transaction+Books%2C+Rutgers+University&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F77482359&rft.isbn=9783938793381&rft.aulast=Weber&rft.aufirst=Michel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F3640181&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+concept+of+creativity" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_concept_of_creativity&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbdelfatahRamtin_Arablouei2023" class="citation web cs1">Abdelfatah, Rund; Ramtin Arablouei (13 July 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2023/07/12/1187308859/no-bad-ideas">"No Bad Ideas?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Throughline" title="Throughline">Throughline</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/NPR" title="NPR">NPR</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Throughline&rft.atitle=No+Bad+Ideas%3F&rft.date=2023-07-13&rft.aulast=Abdelfatah&rft.aufirst=Rund&rft.au=Ramtin+Arablouei&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2023%2F07%2F12%2F1187308859%2Fno-bad-ideas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+concept+of+creativity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranklin2023" class="citation book cs1">Franklin, Samuel W. (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8qmyEAAAQBAJ"><i>The Cult of Creativity: A Surprisingly Recent History</i></a>. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226657851" title="Special:BookSources/9780226657851"><bdi>9780226657851</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1342254547">1342254547</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cult+of+Creativity%3A+A+Surprisingly+Recent+History&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=The+University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1342254547&rft.isbn=9780226657851&rft.aulast=Franklin&rft.aufirst=Samuel+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8qmyEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+concept+of+creativity" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_concept_of_creativity&oldid=1273383560">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_concept_of_creativity&oldid=1273383560</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Art_history" title="Category:Art history">Art history</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Creativity" title="Category:Creativity">Creativity</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Concepts_in_aesthetics" title="Category:Concepts in aesthetics">Concepts in aesthetics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_communication" title="Category:History of communication">History of communication</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_philosophy" title="Category:History of philosophy">History of philosophy</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_August_2019" title="Category:Use dmy dates from August 2019">Use dmy dates from August 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_limited_geographic_scope_from_July_2024" title="Category:Articles with limited geographic scope from July 2024">Articles with limited geographic scope from July 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Western_culture-centric" title="Category:Western culture-centric">Western culture-centric</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Latin-language text">Articles containing Latin-language text</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 2 February 2025, at 01:37<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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