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Ancient Egypt </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Egypt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carthage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carthage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.2.2 Carthage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carthage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greece_and_Rome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greece_and_Rome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.2.3 Greece and Rome </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greece_and_Rome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.2.4 Middle Ages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Judaism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Judaism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.2.5 Judaism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Judaism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pagan_European_tribes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pagan_European_tribes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.2.6 Pagan European tribes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pagan_European_tribes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Christianity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arabia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arabia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Arabia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arabia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Islam </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ukraine_and_Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ukraine_and_Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6 Ukraine and Russia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ukraine_and_Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Great_Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Great_Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7 Great Britain </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Great_Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.8 Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.8.1 China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.8.2 Japan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.8.3 South Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.9 Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.10 Australia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-South_Australia_and_Victoria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_Australia_and_Victoria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.10.1 South Australia and Victoria </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_Australia_and_Victoria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Western_Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Western_Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.10.2 Western Australia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Western_Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Australian_Capital_Territory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australian_Capital_Territory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.10.3 Australian Capital Territory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australian_Capital_Territory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_South_Wales" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_South_Wales"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.10.4 New South Wales </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_South_Wales-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Northern_Territory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Northern_Territory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.10.5 Northern Territory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Northern_Territory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oceania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oceania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.11 Oceania </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oceania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-New_Zealand" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Zealand"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.11.1 New Zealand </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Zealand-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marshall_Islands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marshall_Islands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.11.2 Marshall Islands </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marshall_Islands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.12 North America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Inuit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inuit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.12.1 Inuit </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inuit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.12.2 Canada </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Native_Americans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Native_Americans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.12.3 Native Americans </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Native_Americans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mexico" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mexico"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.12.4 Mexico </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mexico-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.13 South America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Brazil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brazil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.13.1 Brazil </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brazil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peru,_Paraguay_and_Bolivia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peru,_Paraguay_and_Bolivia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.13.2 Peru, Paraguay and Bolivia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peru,_Paraguay_and_Bolivia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_times" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_times"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Modern times </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_times-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Modern times subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_times-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Benin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Benin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Benin </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Benin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mainland_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mainland_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Mainland China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mainland_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 India </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pakistan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pakistan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Pakistan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pakistan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oceania_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oceania_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Oceania </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oceania_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-England_and_Wales" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#England_and_Wales"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 England and Wales </div> </a> <ul id="toc-England_and_Wales-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canada_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 Canada </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.9 Spain </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intersex_children" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intersex_children"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.10 Intersex children </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intersex_children-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Explanations_for_the_practice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Explanations_for_the_practice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Explanations for the practice </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Explanations_for_the_practice-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Explanations for the practice subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Explanations_for_the_practice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Religious" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Religious </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Economic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-UK_in_the_18th_and_19th_centuries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#UK_in_the_18th_and_19th_centuries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 UK in the 18th and 19th centuries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-UK_in_the_18th_and_19th_centuries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Population_control" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Population_control"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Population control </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Population_control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychological" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychological"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Psychological </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychological-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Evolutionary_psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolutionary_psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.1 Evolutionary psychology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolutionary_psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Early_infanticidal_childrearing"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Early_infanticidal_childrearing""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.2 "Early infanticidal childrearing" </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Early_infanticidal_childrearing"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wider_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wider_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.3 Wider effects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wider_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychiatric" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychiatric"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Psychiatric </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychiatric-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sex_selection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sex_selection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Sex selection </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sex_selection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Current_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Current_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Current law </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Current_law-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Current law subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Current_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Australia_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Australia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Zealand_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Zealand_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 New Zealand </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Zealand_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canada_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Canada </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-England_and_Wales_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#England_and_Wales_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 England and Wales </div> </a> <ul id="toc-England_and_Wales_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Netherlands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Netherlands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 The Netherlands </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Netherlands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Poland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Romania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 Romania </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Romania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-State_legislation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State_legislation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8.1 State legislation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State_legislation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Federal_legislation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Federal_legislation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8.2 Federal legislation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Federal_legislation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prevention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prevention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Prevention </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Prevention-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Prevention subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Prevention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sex_education_and_birth_control" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sex_education_and_birth_control"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Sex education and birth control </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sex_education_and_birth_control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychiatric_intervention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychiatric_intervention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Psychiatric intervention </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychiatric_intervention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Safe_surrender" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Safe_surrender"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Safe surrender </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Safe_surrender-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Employment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Employment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Employment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Employment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 In animals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_art_and_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_art_and_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 In art and literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_art_and_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div 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Available in 37 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-37" aria-hidden="true" > 37 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%AA%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%B6%D9%8A%D8%B9" title="قتل الرضيع – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قتل الرضيع" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Дзетазабойства – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Дзетазабойства" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infanticidi" title="Infanticidi – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Infanticidi" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infanticida_(lid%C3%A9)" title="Infanticida (lidé) – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Infanticida (lidé)" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kindst%C3%B6tung" title="Kindstötung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kindstötung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infanticidio" title="Infanticidio – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Infanticidio" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infanmortigo" title="Infanmortigo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Infanmortigo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infantizidio" title="Infantizidio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Infantizidio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%88%D8%AF%DA%A9%E2%80%8C%DA%A9%D8%B4%DB%8C" title="کودک‌کشی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کودک‌کشی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infanticide" title="Infanticide – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Infanticide" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ynfantiside" title="Ynfantiside – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Ynfantiside" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%98%81%EC%95%84_%EC%82%B4%ED%95%B4" title="영아 살해 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="영아 살해" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashe_jarirai" title="Kashe jarirai – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Kashe jarirai" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Մանկասպանություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մանկասպանություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A7" title="शिशु वध – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="शिशु वध" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infanticid" title="Infanticid – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Infanticid" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infantisida" title="Infantisida – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Infantisida" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infanticidio" title="Infanticidio – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Infanticidio" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinderdoding" title="Kinderdoding – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kinderdoding" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AD%90%E6%AE%BA%E3%81%97" title="子殺し – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="子殺し" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Бердиер – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Бердиер" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infanticidi" title="Infanticidi – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Infanticidi" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B4%D9%88%D9%85%E2%80%8C%D9%88%DA%98%D9%86%D9%87" title="ماشوم‌وژنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ماشوم‌وژنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dzieciob%C3%B3jstwo" title="Dzieciobójstwo – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Dzieciobójstwo" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infantic%C3%ADdio" title="Infanticídio – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Infanticídio" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Детоубийство – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Детоубийство" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infanticide" title="Infanticide – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Infanticide" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infantic%C3%ADda" title="Infanticída – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Infanticída" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detomor" title="Detomor – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Detomor" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B4" title="Инфантицид – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Инфантицид" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infanticid" title="Infanticid – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Infanticid" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vauvojen_surmaaminen" title="Vauvojen surmaaminen – Finnish" lang="fi" 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div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about infanticide in humans. For infanticide among animals, see <a href="/wiki/Infanticide_(zoology)" title="Infanticide (zoology)">Infanticide (zoology)</a>. For practices of killing newborns within 24 hours of a child's birth, see <a href="/wiki/Neonaticide" title="Neonaticide">Neonaticide</a>. For the killing of older children by a parent, see <a href="/wiki/Filicide" title="Filicide">Filicide</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · 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.sidebar-above{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-below{padding:0.4em;border-top:1px #aaa solid;font-weight:normal;font-size:smaller}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist law-sidebar"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Homicide" title="Homicide">Homicide</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Murder" title="Murder">Murder</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> Note: Varies by <a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction_(area)" title="Jurisdiction (area)">jurisdiction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assassination" title="Assassination">Assassination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attempted_murder" title="Attempted murder">Attempted murder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_murder" title="Child murder">Child murder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consensual_homicide" title="Consensual homicide">Consensual homicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_killing" title="Contract killing">Contract killing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_passion" title="Crime of passion">Crime of passion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depraved-heart_murder" title="Depraved-heart murder">Depraved-heart murder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felony_murder_rule" title="Felony murder rule">Felony murder rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foeticide" title="Foeticide">Foeticide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honor_killing" title="Honor killing">Honor killing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_cannibalism" title="Human cannibalism">Human cannibalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_cannibalism" title="Child cannibalism">Child cannibalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice" title="Human sacrifice">Human sacrifice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_sacrifice" title="Child sacrifice">Child sacrifice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_homicide" title="Internet homicide">Internet homicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lonely_hearts_killer" title="Lonely hearts killer">Lonely hearts killer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lust_murder" title="Lust murder">Lust murder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_murder" title="Mass murder">Mass murder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_shooting" title="Mass shooting">Mass shooting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_stabbing" title="Mass stabbing">Mass stabbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misdemeanor_murder" title="Misdemeanor murder">Misdemeanor murder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_for_body_parts" title="Murder for body parts">Murder for body parts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder%E2%80%93suicide" title="Murder–suicide">Murder–suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poisoning" title="Poisoning">Poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxy_murder" title="Proxy murder">Proxy murder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudocommando" title="Pseudocommando">Pseudocommando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serial_killer" title="Serial killer">Serial killer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angel_of_mercy_(criminology)" title="Angel of mercy (criminology)">Angel of mercy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spree_killer" title="Spree killer">Spree killer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrill_killing" title="Thrill killing">Thrill killing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torture_murder" title="Torture murder">Torture murder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vehicle-ramming_attack" title="Vehicle-ramming attack">Vehicle-ramming attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrongful_execution" title="Wrongful execution">Wrongful execution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_murder" title="Judicial murder">Judicial murder</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Manslaughter" title="Manslaughter">Manslaughter</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manslaughter_in_English_law" title="Manslaughter in English law">In English law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_manslaughter" title="Voluntary manslaughter">Voluntary manslaughter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negligent_homicide" title="Negligent homicide">Negligent homicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vehicular_homicide" title="Vehicular homicide">Vehicular homicide</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Non-criminal homicide</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> Note: Varies by <a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction_(area)" title="Jurisdiction (area)">jurisdiction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assisted_suicide" title="Assisted suicide">Assisted suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthanasia" title="Euthanasia">Euthanasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foeticide" title="Foeticide">Foeticide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justifiable_homicide" title="Justifiable homicide">Justifiable homicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Licence_to_kill_(concept)" title="Licence to kill (concept)">"License to kill"</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Family</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avunculicide" title="Avunculicide">Avunculicide/Nepoticide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familicide" title="Familicide">Familicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariticide" title="Mariticide">Mariticide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uxoricide" title="Uxoricide">Uxoricide</a></li> <li>Prolicide <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Filicide" title="Filicide">Filicide</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Infanticide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neonaticide" title="Neonaticide">Neonaticide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siblicide" title="Siblicide">Siblicide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fratricide" title="Fratricide">Fratricide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sororicide" title="Sororicide">Sororicide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parricide" title="Parricide">Parricide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matricide" title="Matricide">Matricide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricide" title="Patricide">Patricide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senicide" title="Senicide">Senicide</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Other</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion" title="Crucifixion">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deicide" title="Deicide">Deicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democide" title="Democide">Democide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friendly_fire" title="Friendly fire">Friendly fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendercide" title="Gendercide">Gendercide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Femicide" title="Femicide">Femicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Androcide" title="Androcide">Androcide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_extinction" title="Human extinction">Omnicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regicide" title="Regicide">Regicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoning" title="Stoning">Stoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suspicious_death" title="Suspicious death">Suspicious death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrannicide" title="Tyrannicide">Tyrannicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War crime</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Homicide" title="Template:Homicide"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Homicide" title="Template talk:Homicide"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Homicide" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Homicide"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Infanticide (or infant homicide) is the intentional killing of <a href="/wiki/Infant" title="Infant">infants</a> or offspring. Infanticide was a widespread practice throughout human history that was mainly used to dispose of unwanted children,<a href="#cite_note-InfAnAn-1">[1]</a>: 61  its main purpose being the prevention of resources being spent on weak or disabled offspring. Unwanted infants were usually abandoned to die of exposure, but in some societies they were deliberately killed. Infanticide is generally illegal, but in some places the practice is tolerated, or the prohibition is not strictly enforced. Most <a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a> human societies routinely practiced infanticide, and estimates of children killed by infanticide in the <a href="/wiki/Mesolithic" title="Mesolithic">Mesolithic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> eras vary from 15 to 50 percent. Infanticide continued to be common in most societies after the historical era began, including <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">ancient Rome</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Phoenicians" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoenicians">Phoenicians</a>, ancient <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, ancient <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Pre-Islamic Arabia">Pre-Islamic Arabia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Australians" title="Aboriginal Australians">Aboriginal Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Native Americans</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Native_Alaskan" class="mw-redirect" title="Native Alaskan">Native Alaskans</a>. Infanticide became forbidden in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a> during the 1st millennium. <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> forbade infanticide from its earliest times, which led <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a> and <a href="/wiki/Valentinian_I" title="Valentinian I">Valentinian I</a> to ban infanticide across the Roman Empire in the 4th century. The practice ceased in <a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabia</a> in the 7th century after the founding of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, since the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> prohibits infanticide.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Infanticide of male babies had become uncommon in China by the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> (1368–1644), whereas infanticide of female babies became more common during the <a href="/wiki/One-Child_Policy" class="mw-redirect" title="One-Child Policy">One-Child Policy</a> era (1979–2015). During the period of <a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_India" title="Company rule in India">Company rule in India</a>, the <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a> attempted to eliminate infanticide but were only partially successful, and female infanticide in some parts of India still continues. Infanticide is very rare in industrialised countries but may persist elsewhere. Parental infanticide researchers have found that mothers are more likely to commit infanticide.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> In the special case of <a href="/wiki/Neonaticide" title="Neonaticide">neonaticide</a> (murder in the first 24 hours of life), mothers account for almost all the perpetrators. Fatherly cases of neonaticide are so rare that they are individually recorded.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:InfanticidioGarciaVega.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/InfanticidioGarciaVega.jpg/220px-InfanticidioGarciaVega.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/InfanticidioGarciaVega.jpg/330px-InfanticidioGarciaVega.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/InfanticidioGarciaVega.jpg/440px-InfanticidioGarciaVega.jpg 2x" data-file-width="587" data-file-height="393" /></a><figcaption>Infanticidio by Mexican artist <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Garc%C3%ADa_Vega" title="Antonio García Vega">Antonio García Vega</a></figcaption></figure> The practice of infanticide has taken many forms over time. <a href="/wiki/Child_sacrifice" title="Child sacrifice">Child sacrifice</a> to supernatural figures or forces, such as that believed to have been practiced in ancient <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a>, may be only the most notorious example in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient world">ancient world</a>. A frequent method of infanticide in ancient <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a> was simply to <a href="/wiki/Child_abandonment" title="Child abandonment">abandon the infant</a>, leaving it to die by exposure (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Hypothermia" title="Hypothermia">hypothermia</a>, hunger, thirst, or animal attack).<a href="#cite_note-Justin_Martyr-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ex&Ob-5">[5]</a> On at least one island in <a href="/wiki/Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a>, infanticide was carried out until the 20th century by suffocating the infant,<a href="#cite_note-Collapse-6">[6]</a> while in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica and in the <a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca Empire</a> it was carried out by sacrifice (see below). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paleolithic_and_Neolithic">Paleolithic and Neolithic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Paleolithic and Neolithic">edit</a>]</div> Many Neolithic groups routinely resorted to infanticide in order to control their numbers so that their lands could support them. <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Birdsell" title="Joseph Birdsell">Joseph Birdsell</a> believed that infanticide rates in <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistoric times</a> were between 15% and 50% of the total number of births,<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> while Laila Williamson estimated a lower rate ranging from 15% to 20%.<a href="#cite_note-InfAnAn-1">[1]</a>: 66  Both <a href="/wiki/Anthropologist" title="Anthropologist">anthropologists</a> believed that these high rates of infanticide persisted until the development of agriculture during the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hardness-8">[8]</a>: 19  A book published in 1981 stated that comparative anthropologists estimated that 50% of female newborn babies may have been killed by their parents during the <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a> era.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> The anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Dart" title="Raymond Dart">Raymond Dart</a> has interpreted fractures on the skulls of <a href="/wiki/Hominid" class="mw-redirect" title="Hominid">hominid</a> infants (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Taung_Child" title="Taung Child">Taung Child</a>) as due to deliberate killing followed by <a href="/wiki/Human_cannibalism" title="Human cannibalism">cannibalism</a>, but such explanations are by now considered uncertain and possibly wrong.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Children were not necessarily actively killed, but neglect and intentional malnourishment may also have occurred, as proposed by Vicente Lull as an explanation for an apparent surplus of men and the below average height of women in prehistoric <a href="/wiki/Menorca" title="Menorca">Menorca</a>.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_ancient_history">In ancient history</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: In ancient history">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="In_the_New_World">In the New World</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: In the New World">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Child_sacrifice_in_pre-Columbian_cultures" class="mw-redirect" title="Child sacrifice in pre-Columbian cultures">Child sacrifice in pre-Columbian cultures</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Archaeologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeologist">Archaeologists</a> have uncovered physical evidence of <a href="/wiki/Child_sacrifice" title="Child sacrifice">child sacrifice</a> at several locations.<a href="#cite_note-Hardness-8">[8]</a>: 16–22  Some of the best attested examples are the diverse rites which were part of the religious practices in <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="In_the_Old_World">In the Old World</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: In the Old World">edit</a>]</div> Three thousand bones of young children, with evidence of sacrificial rituals, have been found in <a href="/wiki/Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pelasgians" title="Pelasgians">Pelasgians</a> offered a sacrifice of every tenth child during difficult times. Many remains of children have been found in <a href="/wiki/Gezer" title="Gezer">Gezer</a> excavations with signs of sacrifice. Child skeletons with the marks of sacrifice have been found also in Egypt dating 950–720 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a> "[child] sacrifice in the ancient world reached its infamous zenith".[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Attribution_needed" title="Wikipedia:Attribution needed">attribution needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-Hardness-8">[8]</a>: 324  Besides the Carthaginians, other <a href="/wiki/Phoenicians" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoenicians">Phoenicians</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Canaanites" class="mw-redirect" title="Canaanites">Canaanites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moabites" class="mw-redirect" title="Moabites">Moabites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sepharvite" class="mw-redirect" title="Sepharvite">Sepharvites</a> offered their first-born as a sacrifice to their gods. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Ancient_Egypt">Ancient Egypt</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ancient Egypt">edit</a>]</div> In Egyptian households, at all social levels, children of both sexes were valued and there is no evidence of infanticide.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">religion of the ancient Egyptians</a> forbade infanticide and during the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Roman">Greco-Roman</a> period they rescued abandoned babies from manure heaps, a common method of infanticide by Greeks or Romans, and were allowed to either adopt them as foundling or raise them as slaves, often giving them names such as "copro -" to memorialize their rescue.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> considered it a peculiarity of the Egyptians that every child must be reared.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> <a href="/wiki/Diodorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Diodorus">Diodorus</a> indicates infanticide was a punishable offence.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Egypt was heavily dependent on the annual flooding of the Nile to irrigate the land and in years of low inundation, severe famine could occur with breakdowns in social order resulting, notably between 930–1070 CE and 1180–1350 CE. Instances of cannibalism are recorded during these periods, but it is unknown if this happened during the pharaonic era of ancient Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Beatrix Midant-Reynes describes human sacrifice as having occurred at Abydos in the early dynastic period (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3150–2850 BCE),<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> while <a href="/wiki/Jan_Assmann" title="Jan Assmann">Jan Assmann</a> asserts there is no clear evidence of human sacrifice ever happening in ancient Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Carthage">Carthage</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Carthage">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Punic_religion#Tophets_and_child_sacrifice" title="Punic religion">Carthaginian religion – child sacrifice question</a></div> According to Shelby Brown, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginians</a>, descendants of the <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicians</a>, sacrificed infants to their gods.<a href="#cite_note-Brown_1991-23">[23]</a> Charred bones of hundreds of infants have been found in Carthaginian archaeological sites. One such area harbored as many as 20,000 burial <a href="/wiki/Urn" title="Urn">urns</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brown_1991-23">[23]</a> Skeptics suggest that the bodies of children found in Carthaginian and Phoenician cemeteries were merely the cremated remains of children who died naturally.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 46–120 CE) mentions the practice, as do <a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paulus_Orosius" class="mw-redirect" title="Paulus Orosius">Orosius</a>, Diodorus Siculus and <a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a> also mentions what appears to be child sacrifice practiced at a place called the <a href="/wiki/Tophet" title="Tophet">Tophet</a> (from the Hebrew taph or toph, to burn) by the <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaanites</a>. Writing in the 3rd century BCE, <a href="/wiki/Kleitarchos" class="mw-redirect" title="Kleitarchos">Kleitarchos</a>, one of the historians of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, described that the infants rolled into the flaming pit. <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a> wrote that babies were roasted to death inside the burning pit of the god <a href="/wiki/Baal#Ba'al" title="Baal">Baal Hamon</a>, a bronze statue.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Greece_and_Rome">Greece and Rome</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Greece and Rome">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eug%C3%A8ne_Ferdinand_Victor_Delacroix_031.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Eug%C3%A8ne_Ferdinand_Victor_Delacroix_031.jpg/220px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Ferdinand_Victor_Delacroix_031.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="307" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Eug%C3%A8ne_Ferdinand_Victor_Delacroix_031.jpg/330px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Ferdinand_Victor_Delacroix_031.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Eug%C3%A8ne_Ferdinand_Victor_Delacroix_031.jpg/440px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Ferdinand_Victor_Delacroix_031.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="2822" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Medea" title="Medea">Medea</a> killing her sons, by <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Ferdinand_Victor_Delacroix" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugène Ferdinand Victor Delacroix">Eugène Ferdinand Victor Delacroix</a> (1862)</figcaption></figure> The historical Greeks considered the practice of adult and child sacrifice <a href="/wiki/Barbarian" title="Barbarian">barbarous</a>,<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> however, <a href="/wiki/Infant_exposure" title="Infant exposure">infant exposure</a> was widely practiced in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a>.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> It was advocated by Aristotle in the case of congenital deformity: "As to the exposure of children, let there be a law that no deformed child shall live."<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> In Greece, the decision to expose a child was typically the father's, although in Sparta the decision was made by a group of elders.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Exposure was the preferred method of disposal, as that act in itself was not considered to be murder; moreover, the exposed child technically had a chance of being rescued by the gods or any passersby.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> This very situation was a recurring motif in <a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Greek mythology</a>. To notify the neighbors of a birth of a child, a woolen strip was hung over the front door to indicate a female baby and an olive branch to indicate a boy had been born. Families did not always keep their new child. After a woman had a baby, she would show it to her husband. If the husband accepted it, it would live, but if he refused it, it would die. Babies would often be rejected if they were illegitimate, unhealthy or deformed, the wrong sex, or too great a burden on the family. These babies would not be directly killed, but put in a clay pot or jar and deserted outside the front door or on the roadway. In ancient Greek religion, this practice took the responsibility away from the parents because the child would die of natural causes, for example, hunger, asphyxiation or exposure to the elements.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The practice was prevalent in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Rome</a>, as well. <a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a> was the first known philosopher to speak out against it.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> A letter from a Roman citizen to his sister, or a pregnant wife from her husband,<a href="#cite_note-Woolf2007-37">[37]</a> dating from 1 BCE, demonstrates the casual nature with which infanticide was often viewed: <dl><dd>"I am still in Alexandria. ... I beg and plead with you to take care of our little child, and as soon as we receive wages, I will send them to you. In the meantime, if (good fortune to you!) you give birth, if it is a boy, let it live; if it is a girl, expose it.",<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> "If you give birth to a boy, keep it. If it is a girl, expose it. Try not to worry. I'll send the money as soon as we get paid."<a href="#cite_note-Woolf2007_1-40">[40]</a></dd></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Schnorr_von_Carolsfeld_Bibel_in_Bildern_1860_172.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Schnorr_von_Carolsfeld_Bibel_in_Bildern_1860_172.png/220px-Schnorr_von_Carolsfeld_Bibel_in_Bildern_1860_172.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Schnorr_von_Carolsfeld_Bibel_in_Bildern_1860_172.png/330px-Schnorr_von_Carolsfeld_Bibel_in_Bildern_1860_172.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Schnorr_von_Carolsfeld_Bibel_in_Bildern_1860_172.png/440px-Schnorr_von_Carolsfeld_Bibel_in_Bildern_1860_172.png 2x" data-file-width="1136" data-file-height="897" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_the_Innocents" title="Massacre of the Innocents">Massacre of the Innocents</a> by <a href="/wiki/Julius_Schnorr_von_Karolsfeld" class="mw-redirect" title="Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld">Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld</a>, 1860</figcaption></figure> In some periods of <a href="/wiki/Roman_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman history">Roman history</a> it was traditional for a newborn to be brought to the <a href="/wiki/Pater_familias" title="Pater familias">pater familias</a>, the family <a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">patriarch</a>, who would then decide whether the child was to be kept and raised, or left to die by exposure.<a href="#cite_note-Crossan-41">[41]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a> of <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> obliged him to put to death a child that was visibly deformed. The concurrent practices of <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">slavery</a> and infanticide contributed to the "background noise" of the <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Roman_Republic#Institution_of_Slavery" title="Crisis of the Roman Republic">crises during the Republic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Crossan-41">[41]</a> Infanticide became a <a href="/wiki/Capital_offense" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital offense">capital offense</a> in Roman law in 374, but offenders were rarely if ever prosecuted.<a href="#cite_note-SXR-42">[42]</a> According to mythology, <a href="/wiki/Romulus_and_Remus" title="Romulus and Remus">Romulus and Remus</a>, twin infant sons of the war god <a href="/wiki/Mars_(mythology)" title="Mars (mythology)">Mars</a>, survived near-infanticide after being tossed into the Tiber River. According to the myth, they were raised by wolves, and later founded the city of Rome. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Middle Ages">edit</a>]</div> Whereas theologians and clerics preached sparing their lives, newborn abandonment continued as registered in both the literature record and in legal documents.<a href="#cite_note-Ex&Ob-5">[5]</a>: 16  According to <a href="/wiki/William_Edward_Hartpole_Lecky" title="William Edward Hartpole Lecky">William Lecky</a>, exposure in the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">early Middle Ages</a>, as distinct from other forms of infanticide, "was practiced on a gigantic scale with absolute impunity, noticed by writers with most frigid indifference and, at least in the case of destitute parents, considered a very venial offence".<a href="#cite_note-InfHisSu-43">[43]</a>: 355–56  However the first foundling house in Europe was established in <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a> in 787 on account of the high number of infanticides and out-of-wedlock births. The <a href="/wiki/Ospedale_di_Santo_Spirito_in_Sassia" title="Ospedale di Santo Spirito in Sassia">Hospital of the Holy Spirit</a> in Rome was founded by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_III" title="Pope Innocent III">Pope Innocent III</a> because women were throwing their infants into the <a href="/wiki/Tiber_river" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiber river">Tiber river</a>.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Unlike other European regions, in the Middle Ages the German mother had the right to expose the newborn.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> In the High Middle Ages, abandoning unwanted children finally eclipsed infanticide.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Unwanted children were left at the door of church or abbey, and the clergy was assumed to take care of their upbringing. This practice also gave rise to the first <a href="/wiki/Orphanage" title="Orphanage">orphanages</a>. However, very high sex ratios were common in even late medieval Europe, which may indicate sex-selective infanticide.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a>, a pre-Reformation medieval Christian sect deemed heretical by the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>, were accused of participating in infanticide.<a href="#cite_note-Griesse_Barget_de_Boer_2021_p._97-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Judaism">Judaism</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Judaism">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Schnorr_von_Carolsfeld_Bibel_in_Bildern_1860_028.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Schnorr_von_Carolsfeld_Bibel_in_Bildern_1860_028.png/220px-Schnorr_von_Carolsfeld_Bibel_in_Bildern_1860_028.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Schnorr_von_Carolsfeld_Bibel_in_Bildern_1860_028.png/330px-Schnorr_von_Carolsfeld_Bibel_in_Bildern_1860_028.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Schnorr_von_Carolsfeld_Bibel_in_Bildern_1860_028.png/440px-Schnorr_von_Carolsfeld_Bibel_in_Bildern_1860_028.png 2x" data-file-width="1150" data-file-height="918" /></a><figcaption>In this depiction of the <a href="/wiki/Binding_of_Isaac" title="Binding of Isaac">Binding of Isaac</a> by <a href="/wiki/Julius_Schnorr_von_Karolsfeld" class="mw-redirect" title="Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld">Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld</a>, 1860, Abraham is shown not sacrificing Isaac.</figcaption></figure> Judaism prohibits infanticide, and has for some time, dating back to at least early <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">Common Era</a>. Roman historians wrote about the ideas and customs of other peoples, which often diverged from their own. <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a> recorded that the Jews "take thought to increase their numbers, for they regard it as a crime to kill any late-born children".<a href="#cite_note-Histories-48">[48]</a> <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a>, whose works give an important insight into 1st-century Judaism, wrote that God "forbids women to cause abortion of what is begotten, or to destroy it afterward".<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Pagan_European_tribes">Pagan European tribes</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Pagan European tribes">edit</a>]</div> In his book <a href="/wiki/Germania_(book)" title="Germania (book)">Germania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a> wrote in 98 CE that the ancient <a href="/wiki/Germanic_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic tribes">Germanic tribes</a> enforced a similar prohibition. He found such mores remarkable and commented: "To restrain generation and the increase of children, is esteemed [by the Germans] an abominable sin, as also to kill infants newly born."<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> It has become clear over the millennia, though, that Tacitus' description was inaccurate; the consensus of modern scholarship significantly differs. <a href="/wiki/John_Boswell" title="John Boswell">John Boswell</a> believed that in ancient Germanic tribes unwanted children were exposed, usually in the forest.<a href="#cite_note-KofS-51">[51]</a>: 218  "It was the custom of the [Teutonic] pagans, that if they wanted to kill a son or daughter, they would be killed before they had been given any food."<a href="#cite_note-KofS-51">[51]</a>: 211  Usually children born out of wedlock were disposed of that way. In his highly influential Pre-historic Times, <a href="/wiki/John_Lubbock,_1st_Baron_Avebury" title="John Lubbock, 1st Baron Avebury">John Lubbock</a> described burnt bones indicating the practice of child sacrifice in pagan Britain.<a href="#cite_note-Pre-historic_Times-52">[52]</a> The last canto, Marjatan poika (Son of Marjatta), of <a href="/wiki/Finnish_literature" title="Finnish literature">Finnish</a> national epic <a href="/wiki/Kalevala" title="Kalevala">Kalevala</a> describes assumed infanticide. <a href="/wiki/V%C3%A4in%C3%A4m%C3%B6inen" title="Väinämöinen">Väinämöinen</a> orders the infant <a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(family_law)" title="Legitimacy (family law)">bastard</a> son of Marjatta to be drowned in a <a href="/wiki/Marsh" title="Marsh">marsh</a>. The <a href="/wiki/%C3%8Dslendingab%C3%B3k" title="Íslendingabók">Íslendingabók</a>, the main source for the early history of <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>, recounts that on the <a href="/wiki/%C3%8Dslendingab%C3%B3k#7._Conversion_of_Iceland_to_Christianity" title="Íslendingabók">Conversion of Iceland to Christianity</a> in 1000 it was provided – in order to make the transition more palatable to Pagans – that "the old laws allowing exposure of newborn children will remain in force". However, this provision – among other concessions made at the time to the Pagans – was abolished some years later. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christianity">Christianity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Christianity">edit</a>]</div> Christianity explicitly rejects infanticide. The Teachings of the <a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles</a> or <a href="/wiki/Didache" title="Didache">Didache</a> said "thou shalt not kill a child by <a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">abortion</a>, neither shalt thou slay it when born".<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Epistle_of_Barnabas" title="Epistle of Barnabas">Epistle of Barnabas</a> stated an identical command, both thus condemning both abortion and infanticide.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Apologists <a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Athenagoras_of_Athens" title="Athenagoras of Athens">Athenagoras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Minucius_Felix" class="mw-redirect" title="Minucius Felix">Minucius Felix</a>, <a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a> also maintained that exposing a baby to death was a wicked act.<a href="#cite_note-Justin_Martyr-4">[4]</a> In 318, <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine I</a> considered infanticide a crime, and in 374, <a href="/wiki/Valentinian_I" title="Valentinian I">Valentinian I</a> mandated the rearing of all children (exposing babies, especially girls, was still common). The <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Constantinople_(1094)" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of Constantinople (1094)">Council of Constantinople</a> declared that infanticide was homicide, and in 589, the <a href="/wiki/Third_Council_of_Toledo" title="Third Council of Toledo">Third Council of Toledo</a> took measures against the custom of killing their own children.<a href="#cite_note-SXR-42">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arabia">Arabia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Arabia">edit</a>]</div> Some Muslim sources allege that <a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Pre-Islamic Arabia">pre-Islamic Arabian</a> society practiced infanticide as a form of "post-partum birth control".<a href="#cite_note-Children-55">[55]</a> The word waʾd was used to describe the practice.<a href="#cite_note-EoQ-Infanticide-56">[56]</a> These sources state that infanticide was practiced either out of destitution (thus practiced on males and females alike), or as "disappointment and fear of social disgrace felt by a father upon the birth of a daughter".<a href="#cite_note-Children-55">[55]</a> Some authors believe that there is little evidence that infanticide was prevalent in pre-Islamic <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabia</a> or early <a href="/wiki/Muslim_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim history">Muslim history</a>, except for the case of the <a href="/wiki/Banu_Tamim" title="Banu Tamim">Tamim tribe</a>, who practiced it during severe famine according to Islamic sources.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Others state that "female infanticide was common all over Arabia during this period of time" (pre-Islamic Arabia), especially by burying alive a female newborn.<a href="#cite_note-Hardness-8">[8]</a>: 59 <a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> A tablet discovered in <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>, forbidding the people of a certain town from engaging in the practice, is the only written reference to infanticide within the peninsula in pre-Islamic times.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islam">Islam</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Islam">edit</a>]</div> Infanticide is explicitly <a href="/wiki/Islam_and_children#Against_infanticide" title="Islam and children">prohibited by the Qur'an</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Oxford-60">[60]</a> "And do not kill your children for fear of poverty; We give them sustenance and yourselves too; surely to kill them is a great wrong."<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Together with <a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">polytheism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Homicide" title="Homicide">homicide</a>, infanticide is regarded as a grave sin (see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quran.com/6?startingVerse=151">6:151</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quran.com/60?startingVerse=12">60:12</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Children-55">[55]</a> Infanticide is also implicitly denounced in the story of Pharaoh's slaughter of the male children of Israelites (see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quran.com/2?startingVerse=49">2:49</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quran.com/7?startingVerse=127">7:127</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quran.com/7?startingVerse=141">7:141</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quran.com/14?startingVerse=6">14:6</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quran.com/28?startingVerse=4">28:4</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quran.com/40?startingVerse=25">40:25</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Children-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ukraine_and_Russia">Ukraine and Russia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Ukraine and Russia">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Russian_woman_throwing_her_baby_to_wolves_(Geoffroy,_1845).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Russian_woman_throwing_her_baby_to_wolves_%28Geoffroy%2C_1845%29.JPG/220px-Russian_woman_throwing_her_baby_to_wolves_%28Geoffroy%2C_1845%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Russian_woman_throwing_her_baby_to_wolves_%28Geoffroy%2C_1845%29.JPG/330px-Russian_woman_throwing_her_baby_to_wolves_%28Geoffroy%2C_1845%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Russian_woman_throwing_her_baby_to_wolves_%28Geoffroy%2C_1845%29.JPG/440px-Russian_woman_throwing_her_baby_to_wolves_%28Geoffroy%2C_1845%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="872" data-file-height="618" /></a><figcaption>Femme Russe <a href="/wiki/Child_abandonment" title="Child abandonment">abandonnant</a> ses enfants à des loups ("Russian Woman Abandoning Her Children to the Wolves"). <a href="/w/index.php?title=Charles-Michel_Geoffroy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charles-Michel Geoffroy (page does not exist)">Charles-Michel Geoffroy</a> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles-Michel_Geoffroy" class="extiw" title="fr:Charles-Michel Geoffroy">fr</a>], 1845</figcaption></figure> Infanticide may have been practiced as human sacrifice, as part of the <a href="/wiki/Pagan" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan">pagan</a> cult of <a href="/wiki/Perun" title="Perun">Perun</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Fadlan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Fadlan">Ibn Fadlan</a> describes sacrificial practices at the time of his trip to Kiev Rus (present-day Ukraine) in 921–922, and describes an incident of a woman voluntarily sacrificing her life as part of a <a href="/wiki/Funeral_rite" class="mw-redirect" title="Funeral rite">funeral rite</a> for a prominent leader, but makes no mention of infanticide. The <a href="/wiki/Primary_Chronicle" title="Primary Chronicle">Primary Chronicle</a>, one of the most important literary sources before the 12th century, indicates that human sacrifice to idols may have been introduced by <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_the_Great" title="Vladimir the Great">Vladimir the Great</a> in 980. The same Vladimir the Great formally converted Kiev Rus into <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> just 8 years later, but pagan cults continued to be practiced clandestinely in remote areas as late as the 13th century. American explorer <a href="/wiki/George_Kennan_(explorer)" title="George Kennan (explorer)">George Kennan</a> noted that among the <a href="/wiki/Koryaks" title="Koryaks">Koryaks</a>, a people of north-eastern <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>, infanticide was still common in the nineteenth century. One of a pair of twins was always sacrificed.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Great_Britain">Great Britain</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Great Britain">edit</a>]</div> Infanticide (as a crime) gained both popular and bureaucratic significance in <a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian</a> Britain. By the mid-19th century, in the context of criminal lunacy and the <a href="/wiki/Insanity_defense" title="Insanity defense">insanity defence</a>, killing one's own child(ren) attracted ferocious debate, as the role of women in society was defined by motherhood, and it was thought that any woman who murdered her own child was by definition insane and could not be held responsible for her actions. Several cases were subsequently highlighted during the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Commission_on_Capital_Punishment_1864%E2%80%9366" title="Royal Commission on Capital Punishment 1864–66">Royal Commission on Capital Punishment 1864–66</a>, as a particular felony where an effective avoidance of the <a href="/wiki/Death_penalty_in_the_UK" class="mw-redirect" title="Death penalty in the UK">death penalty</a> had informally begun. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Amelia_dyer1893.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Amelia_dyer1893.jpg/170px-Amelia_dyer1893.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Amelia_dyer1893.jpg/255px-Amelia_dyer1893.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Amelia_dyer1893.jpg/340px-Amelia_dyer1893.jpg 2x" data-file-width="468" data-file-height="605" /></a><figcaption>Baby killer <a href="/wiki/Amelia_Dyer" title="Amelia Dyer">Amelia Dyer</a> (pictured upon entry to <a href="/wiki/Mendip_Hospital" title="Mendip Hospital">Wells Asylum</a> in 1893). Her trial led to stricter laws for adoption and raised the profile of the fledgling <a href="/wiki/National_Society_for_the_Prevention_of_Cruelty_to_Children" class="mw-redirect" title="National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children">National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children</a> (NSPCC) which formed in 1884.<a href="#cite_note-monster-63">[63]</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Poor_Law_Amendment_Act_1834" title="Poor Law Amendment Act 1834">New Poor Law Act of 1834</a> ended <a href="/wiki/English_Poor_Laws" title="English Poor Laws">parish relief</a> for unmarried mothers and allowed fathers of illegitimate children to avoid paying for "child support".<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Unmarried mothers then received little assistance, and the poor were left with the option of either entering the <a href="/wiki/Workhouse" title="Workhouse">workhouse</a>, turning to prostitution, resorting to infanticide, or choosing abortion. By the middle of the century infanticide was common for social reasons, such as illegitimacy, and the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Child_life_insurance" title="Child life insurance">child life insurance</a> additionally encouraged some women to kill their children for gain. Examples include <a href="/wiki/Mary_Ann_Cotton" title="Mary Ann Cotton">Mary Ann Cotton</a>, who murdered many of her 15 children as well as three husbands; <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Waters" title="Margaret Waters">Margaret Waters</a>, the 'Brixton Baby Farmer', a professional <a href="/wiki/Baby_farming" title="Baby farming">baby-farmer</a> who was found guilty of infanticide in 1870; Jessie King, who was hanged in 1889; <a href="/wiki/Amelia_Dyer" title="Amelia Dyer">Amelia Dyer</a>, the 'Angel Maker', who murdered over 400 babies in her care; and <a href="/wiki/Ada_Williams_(baby_farmer)" title="Ada Williams (baby farmer)">Ada Chard-Williams</a>, a baby farmer who was later hanged at Newgate prison. The Times reported that 67 infants were murdered in London in 1861 and 150 more recorded as "found dead", many of which were found on the streets. Another 250 were suffocated, half of them not recorded as accidental deaths. The report noted that "infancy in London has to creep into life in the midst of foes."<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Recording a birth as a <a href="/wiki/Stillbirth" title="Stillbirth">still-birth</a> was also another way of concealing infanticide because still-births did not need to be registered until 1926 and they did not need to be buried in public cemeteries.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> In 1895 The Sun (London) published the article, "Massacre of the Innocents", highlighting the dangers of baby-farming, the recording of stillbirths, and quoting <a href="/wiki/Athelstan_Braxton_Hicks" title="Athelstan Braxton Hicks">Athelstan Braxton Hicks</a>, the London coroner, on lying-in houses: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">I have not the slightest doubt that a large amount of crime is covered by the expression 'still-birth'. There are a large number of cases of what are called newly-born children, which are found all over England, more especially in London and large towns, abandoned in streets, rivers, on commons, and so on... [A] great deal of that crime is due to what are called lying-in houses, which are not registered, or under the supervision of that sort, where the people who act as midwives constantly, as soon as the child is born, either drop it into a pail of water or smother it with a damp cloth. It is a very common thing, also, to find that they bash their heads on the floor and break their skulls.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></blockquote> The last British woman to be executed for infanticide of her own child was <a href="/wiki/Rebecca_Smith_(infanticide)" title="Rebecca Smith (infanticide)">Rebecca Smith</a>, who was hanged in Wiltshire in 1849. The Infant Life Protection Act of 1897 required local authorities to be notified within 48 hours of changes in custody or the death of children under seven years. Under the <a href="/wiki/Children_Act_1908" title="Children Act 1908">Children's Act of 1908</a> "no infant could be kept in a home that was so unfit and so overcrowded as to endanger its health, and no infant could be kept by an unfit nurse who threatened, by neglect or abuse, its proper care, and maintenance." <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asia">Asia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Asia">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="China">China</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: China">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Burying_Babies_in_China_(p.40,_March_1865,_XXII).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Burying_Babies_in_China_%28p.40%2C_March_1865%2C_XXII%29.jpg/220px-Burying_Babies_in_China_%28p.40%2C_March_1865%2C_XXII%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Burying_Babies_in_China_%28p.40%2C_March_1865%2C_XXII%29.jpg/330px-Burying_Babies_in_China_%28p.40%2C_March_1865%2C_XXII%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Burying_Babies_in_China_%28p.40%2C_March_1865%2C_XXII%29.jpg/440px-Burying_Babies_in_China_%28p.40%2C_March_1865%2C_XXII%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1583" data-file-height="965" /></a><figcaption>Burying Babies in China (p. 40, March 1865, XXII)<a href="#cite_note-Offering1865-68">[68]</a></figcaption></figure> As of the <a href="/wiki/3rd_century_BC" title="3rd century BC">3rd century BC</a>, short of execution, the harshest penalties were imposed on practitioners of infanticide by the legal codes of the <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> of ancient China.<a href="#cite_note-Makeham2008-69">[69]</a> China's society practiced sex selective infanticide. Philosopher <a href="/wiki/Han_Fei_Tzu" class="mw-redirect" title="Han Fei Tzu">Han Fei Tzu</a>, a member of the ruling aristocracy of the 3rd century BCE, who developed a school of law, wrote: "As to children, a father and mother when they produce a boy congratulate one another, but when they produce a girl they put it to death."<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Among the <a href="/wiki/Hakka_people" title="Hakka people">Hakka people</a>, and in <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anhui" title="Anhui">Anhui</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jiangxi" title="Jiangxi">Jiangxi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fujian_Province,_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Fujian Province, Republic of China">Fujian</a> a method of killing the baby was to put her into a bucket of cold water, which was called "baby water".<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Infanticide was reported as early as the 3rd century BCE, and, by the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> (960–1279 CE), it was widespread in some provinces. Belief in <a href="/wiki/Reincarnation" title="Reincarnation">reincarnation</a> allowed poor residents of the country to kill their newborn children if they felt unable to care for them, hoping that they would be reborn in better circumstances. Furthermore, 18th and 19th century Qing reports of villagers in Liaoning show that they did not consider newborn children fully human, instead regarding life as beginning at some point after the sixth month after birth.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> The Venetian explorer <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a> claimed to have seen newborns exposed in <a href="/wiki/Manzi_(geography)" class="mw-redirect" title="Manzi (geography)">Manzi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Contemporary writers from the Song dynasty note that, in <a href="/wiki/Hubei" title="Hubei">Hubei</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a> provinces, residents would only keep three sons and two daughters (among poor farmers, two sons, and one daughter), and kill all babies beyond that number at birth.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Initially the sex of the child was only one factor to consider. By the time of the Ming dynasty, however (1368–1644), male infanticide was becoming increasingly uncommon. The prevalence of female infanticide remained high much longer. The magnitude of this practice is subject to some dispute; however, one commonly quoted estimate is that, by late <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a>, between one fifth and one-quarter of all newborn girls, across the entire social spectrum, were victims of infanticide. If one includes excess mortality among female children under 10 (ascribed to gender-differential neglect), the share of victims rises to one third.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Scottish physician <a href="/wiki/John_Dudgeon" title="John Dudgeon">John Dudgeon</a>, who worked in <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Peking</a>, China, during the early 20th century said that, "Infanticide does not prevail to the extent so generally believed among us, and in the north, it does not exist at all."<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sex_ratio_at_birth_in_mainland_China.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Sex_ratio_at_birth_in_mainland_China.png/300px-Sex_ratio_at_birth_in_mainland_China.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="77" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Sex_ratio_at_birth_in_mainland_China.png/450px-Sex_ratio_at_birth_in_mainland_China.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Sex_ratio_at_birth_in_mainland_China.png/600px-Sex_ratio_at_birth_in_mainland_China.png 2x" data-file-width="808" data-file-height="208" /></a><figcaption>Sex ratio at birth in mainland China, males per 100 females, 1980–2010</figcaption></figure> Gender-selected abortion or sex identification (without medical uses<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a>), abandonment, and infanticide are illegal in present-day mainland China. Nevertheless, the <a href="/wiki/US_State_Department" class="mw-redirect" title="US State Department">US State Department</a>,<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a> organization <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> have all declared that mainland China's family planning programs, called the <a href="/wiki/One_child_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="One child policy">one child policy</a> (which has since changed to a <a href="/wiki/Two-child_policy" title="Two-child policy">two-child policy</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a>), contribute to infanticide.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> The sex gap between males and females aged 0–19 years old was estimated to be 25 million in 2010 by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Population_Fund" title="United Nations Population Fund">United Nations Population Fund</a>.<a href="#cite_note-czg-87">[87]</a> But in some cases, in order to avoid mainland China's family planning programs, parents will not report to government when a child is born (in most cases a girl), so she or he will not have an identity in the government and they can keep on giving birth until they are satisfied, without fines or punishment. In 2017, the government announced that all children without an identity can now have an identity legally, known as <a href="/wiki/Family_register" class="mw-redirect" title="Family register">family register</a>.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Japan">Japan</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Japan">edit</a>]</div> Since feudal Edo era <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> the common slang for infanticide was mabiki (間引き), which means to pull plants from an overcrowded garden. A typical method in Japan was smothering the baby's mouth and nose with wet paper.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> It became common as a method of population control. Farmers would often kill their second or third sons. Daughters were usually spared, as they could be married off, sold off as servants or prostitutes, or sent off to become <a href="/wiki/Geisha" title="Geisha">geishas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> Mabiki persisted in the 19th century and early 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> According to one estimate, at least 97% of homicide victims in Japan in 1900 were newborns.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> To bear twins was perceived as barbarous and unlucky and efforts were made to hide or kill one or both twins.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="South_Asia">South Asia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: South Asia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Infanticide_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Infanticide in India">Infanticide in India</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hindoo_Woman_and_Child_(March_1852,_p.24,_IX)_-_Copy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Hindoo_Woman_and_Child_%28March_1852%2C_p.24%2C_IX%29_-_Copy.jpg/220px-Hindoo_Woman_and_Child_%28March_1852%2C_p.24%2C_IX%29_-_Copy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="368" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Hindoo_Woman_and_Child_%28March_1852%2C_p.24%2C_IX%29_-_Copy.jpg/330px-Hindoo_Woman_and_Child_%28March_1852%2C_p.24%2C_IX%29_-_Copy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Hindoo_Woman_and_Child_%28March_1852%2C_p.24%2C_IX%29_-_Copy.jpg/440px-Hindoo_Woman_and_Child_%28March_1852%2C_p.24%2C_IX%29_-_Copy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="1638" /></a><figcaption>Hindu Woman carrying her child to be drowned in the River <a href="/wiki/Ganges" title="Ganges">Ganges</a> at Bengal (1852)<a href="#cite_note-Juvenile1852-94">[94]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hindoo_Mother_Sacrificing_her_infant_(November_1853,_X,_p.120).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Hindoo_Mother_Sacrificing_her_infant_%28November_1853%2C_X%2C_p.120%29.jpg/220px-Hindoo_Mother_Sacrificing_her_infant_%28November_1853%2C_X%2C_p.120%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="344" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Hindoo_Mother_Sacrificing_her_infant_%28November_1853%2C_X%2C_p.120%29.jpg/330px-Hindoo_Mother_Sacrificing_her_infant_%28November_1853%2C_X%2C_p.120%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Hindoo_Mother_Sacrificing_her_infant_%28November_1853%2C_X%2C_p.120%29.jpg/440px-Hindoo_Mother_Sacrificing_her_infant_%28November_1853%2C_X%2C_p.120%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1043" data-file-height="1632" /></a><figcaption>Hindoo Mother Sacrificing her infant (November 1853, X, p. 120)<a href="#cite_note-Juvenile1853-95">[95]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Female_infanticide" title="Female infanticide">Female infanticide</a> of newborn girls was systematic in feudatory <a href="/wiki/Rajput" title="Rajput">Rajputs</a> in <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a> for <a href="/wiki/Illegitimate" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegitimate">illegitimate</a> female children during the Middle Ages. According to <a href="/wiki/Firishta" title="Firishta">Firishta</a>, as soon as the illegitimate female child was born she was held "in one hand, and a knife in the other, that any person who wanted a wife might take her now, otherwise she was immediately put to death".<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> The practice of female infanticide was also common among the Kutch, Kehtri, Nagar, Bengal, Miazed, Kalowries and <a href="/wiki/Sindh" title="Sindh">Sindh</a> communities.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> It was not uncommon that parents threw a child to the <a href="/wiki/Ganges_shark" title="Ganges shark">sharks</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Ganges_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganges River">Ganges River</a> as a sacrificial offering. The <a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_India" title="Company rule in India">East India Company administration</a> were unable to outlaw the custom until the beginning of the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-HumSac-98">[98]</a>: 78  According to social activists, female infanticide has remained a problem in India into the 21st century, with both <a href="/wiki/NGO" class="mw-redirect" title="NGO">NGOs</a> and the government conducting awareness campaigns to combat it.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa">Africa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Africa">edit</a>]</div> In some <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">African</a> societies some neonates were killed because of beliefs in evil omens or because they were considered unlucky. Twins were usually put to death in Arebo; as well as by the <a href="/wiki/Nama_people" title="Nama people">Nama people</a> of <a href="/wiki/South_West_Africa" title="South West Africa">South West Africa</a>; in the <a href="/wiki/Lake_Victoria" title="Lake Victoria">Lake Victoria Nyanza</a> region; by the <a href="/wiki/Tswana_people" title="Tswana people">Tswana</a> in <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_East_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese East Africa">Portuguese East Africa</a>; in some parts of <a href="/wiki/Igboland" title="Igboland">Igboland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> twins were sometimes abandoned in a forest at birth (as depicted in <a href="/wiki/Things_Fall_Apart" title="Things Fall Apart">Things Fall Apart</a>), oftentimes one twin was killed or hidden by midwives of wealthier mothers; and by the <a href="/wiki/%C7%83Kung_people" title="ǃKung people">ǃKung people</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Kalahari_Desert" title="Kalahari Desert">Kalahari Desert</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hardness-8">[8]</a>: 160–61  The <a href="/wiki/Kikuyu_people" title="Kikuyu people">Kikuyu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a>'s most populous ethnic group, practiced ritual killing of twins.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> Infanticide is rooted in the old traditions and beliefs prevailing all over Kenya. A survey conducted by <a href="/wiki/Disability_Rights_International" title="Disability Rights International">Disability Rights International</a> found that 45% of women interviewed by them in Kenya were pressured to kill their children born with disabilities. The pressure is much higher in the rural areas, with every two mothers out of three being forced to kill their disabled child.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australia">Australia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Australia">edit</a>]</div> Estimations of the prevalence of infanticide among <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Australians" title="Aboriginal Australians">Aboriginal Australians</a> vary widely.<a href="#cite_note-Berndt-Berndt-p470-102">[102]</a> Many early European settlers considered it to be extremely common. For example, an 1866 issue of The Australian News for Home Readers informed readers that "the crime of infanticide is so prevalent amongst the natives that it is rare to see an infant".<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> In later times, attitudes shifted and the issue became contested. Author <a href="/wiki/Susanna_de_Vries" title="Susanna de Vries">Susanna de Vries</a> said in 2007 that her accounts of Aboriginal violence, including infanticide, were censored by publishers in the 1980s and 1990s. She told reporters that the censorship "stemmed from guilt over the <a href="/wiki/Stolen_Generations" title="Stolen Generations">stolen children</a> question". <a href="/wiki/Keith_Windschuttle" title="Keith Windschuttle">Keith Windschuttle</a> weighed in on the conversation, saying this type of censorship started in the 1970s. In the same article <a href="/wiki/Louis_Nowra" title="Louis Nowra">Louis Nowra</a> suggested that infanticide in customary Aboriginal law may have been because it was difficult to keep an abundant number of Aboriginal children alive; there were life-and-death decisions modern-day Australians no longer have to face.<a href="#cite_note-Aboriginalviolence'Sanitised'2007-104">[104]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Daisy_may_bates.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Daisy_may_bates.jpg/250px-Daisy_may_bates.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Daisy_may_bates.jpg/375px-Daisy_may_bates.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Daisy_may_bates.jpg/500px-Daisy_may_bates.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="364" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Daisy_Bates_(author)" title="Daisy Bates (author)">Daisy Bates</a> with a group of Aboriginal women, circa 1911</figcaption></figure> Liz Conor's 2016 work, Skin Deep: Settler Impressions of Aboriginal Women, a culmination of 10 years of research, found that stories about Aboriginal women were told through a colonial lens of racism and misogyny. Vague stories of infanticide and cannibalism were repeated as reliable facts, and sometimes originated in accounts told by members of rival tribes about the other. She also refers to <a href="/wiki/Daisy_Bates_(author)" title="Daisy Bates (author)">Daisy Bates</a>' now contested accounts of such practices, reproaching some historians for accepting them too uncritically.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> The anthropologists <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Berndt" title="Ronald Berndt">Ronald Berndt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Berndt" title="Catherine Berndt">Catherine Berndt</a> are more balanced in their evaluation, noting that "infanticide does seem to have been practised occasionally almost all over Aboriginal Australia, but it cannot have been so frequent as <a href="/wiki/George_Taplin" title="George Taplin">Taplin</a> ... and Bates ... suggest", while also cautioning that others "underestimated" its prevalence. The flesh of killed infants could be <a href="/wiki/Child_cannibalism" title="Child cannibalism">eaten</a>, but this was not always the case.<a href="#cite_note-Berndt-Berndt-p470-102">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="South_Australia_and_Victoria">South Australia and Victoria</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: South Australia and Victoria">edit</a>]</div> According to <a href="/wiki/William_D._Rubinstein" class="mw-redirect" title="William D. Rubinstein">William D. Rubinstein</a>, "Nineteenth-century European observers of <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Australians" title="Aboriginal Australians">Aboriginal</a> life in South Australia and <a href="/wiki/Victoria_(Australia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Victoria (Australia)">Victoria</a> reported that about 30% of Aboriginal infants were killed at birth."<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> In 1881 <a href="/wiki/James_Dawson_(activist)" title="James Dawson (activist)">James Dawson</a> wrote a passage about infanticide among Indigenous people in the western district of Victoria, which stated that "Twins are as common among them as among Europeans; but as food is occasionally very scarce, and a large family troublesome to move about, it is lawful and customary to destroy the weakest twin child, irrespective of sex. It is usual also to destroy those which are malformed."<a href="#cite_note-VictorianAboriginalInfanticide-108">[108]</a> He also wrote "When a woman has children too rapidly for the convenience and necessities of the parents, she makes up her mind to let one be killed, and consults with her husband which it is to be. As the strength of a tribe depends more on males than females, the girls are generally sacrificed. The child is put to death and buried, or burned without ceremony; not, however, by its father or mother, but by relatives. No one wears mourning for it. Sickly children are never killed on account of their bad health, and are allowed to die naturally."<a href="#cite_note-VictorianAboriginalInfanticide-108">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Western_Australia">Western Australia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Western Australia">edit</a>]</div> In 1937, a Christian reverend in the <a href="/wiki/Kimberley_(Western_Australia)" title="Kimberley (Western Australia)">Kimberley</a> offered a "baby bonus" to Aboriginal families as a deterrent against infanticide and to increase the birthrate of the local Indigenous population.<a href="#cite_note-RevLoveBabyBonus-109">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Australian_Capital_Territory">Australian Capital Territory</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Australian Capital Territory">edit</a>]</div> A <a href="/wiki/Canberra" title="Canberra">Canberran</a> journalist in 1927 wrote of the "cheapness of life" to the Aboriginal people local to the Canberra area 100 years before. "If drought or bush fires had devastated the country and curtailed food supplies, babies got a short shift. Ailing babies, too would not be kept", he wrote.<a href="#cite_note-CanberraBlacks1927-110">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="New_South_Wales">New South Wales</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: New South Wales">edit</a>]</div> A bishop wrote in 1928 that it was common for Aboriginal Australians to restrict the size of their tribal groups, including by infanticide, so that the food resources of the tribal area may be sufficient for them.<a href="#cite_note-AustraliaSMH1928-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Northern_Territory">Northern Territory</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Northern Territory">edit</a>]</div> Annette Hamilton, a professor of anthropology at <a href="/wiki/Macquarie_University" title="Macquarie University">Macquarie University</a>, who carried out research in the Aboriginal community of <a href="/wiki/Maningrida" class="mw-redirect" title="Maningrida">Maningrida</a> in <a href="/wiki/Arnhem_Land" title="Arnhem Land">Arnhem Land</a> during the 1960s, wrote that prior to that time part-European babies born to Aboriginal mothers had not been allowed to live, and that "mixed-unions are frowned on by men and women alike as a matter of principle".<a href="#cite_note-Australia1999Brunton-112">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oceania">Oceania</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Oceania">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="New_Zealand">New Zealand</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: New Zealand">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Infanticide_in_19th-century_New_Zealand" title="Infanticide in 19th-century New Zealand">Infanticide in 19th-century New Zealand</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Marshall_Islands">Marshall Islands</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Marshall Islands">edit</a>]</div> When Russian explorer <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Kotzebue" title="Otto von Kotzebue">Otto von Kotzebue</a> visited the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Islands" title="Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a> in Micronesia in 1817, he noted that Marshallese families practiced infanticide after the birth of a third child as a form of <a href="/wiki/Human_population_planning" title="Human population planning">population planning</a> due to frequent <a href="/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">famines</a>.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_America">North America</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: North America">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Inuit">Inuit</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Inuit">edit</a>]</div> There is no agreement about the actual estimates of the frequency of newborn female infanticide in the <a href="/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Inuit</a> population. <a href="/wiki/Carmel_Schrire" title="Carmel Schrire">Carmel Schrire</a> mentions diverse studies ranging from 15% to 80%.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> Polar Inuit (<a href="/wiki/Inughuit" title="Inughuit">Inughuit</a>) killed the child by throwing him or her into the sea.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> There is even a legend in <a href="/wiki/Inuit_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Inuit mythology">Inuit mythology</a>, "The Unwanted Child", where a mother throws her child into the <a href="/wiki/Fjord" title="Fjord">fjord</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Yukon" title="Yukon">Yukon</a> and the Mahlemuit tribes of <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a> exposed the female newborns by first stuffing their mouths with grass before leaving them to die.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Arctic" title="Arctic">Arctic</a> Canada the Inuit exposed their babies on the ice and left them to die.<a href="#cite_note-InfHisSu-43">[43]</a>: 354  Female Inuit infanticide disappeared in the 1930s and 1940s after contact with the Western cultures from the South.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> However, it must be acknowledged these infanticide claims came from non-Inuit observers, whose writings were later used to justify the forced westernization of indigenous peoples. In 2009, Travis Hedwig argued that infanticide runs counter to cultural norms at the time and that researchers were misinterpreting the actions of an unfamiliar culture and people.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Canada">Canada</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Canada">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Handbook_of_North_American_Indians" title="Handbook of North American Indians">Handbook of North American Indians</a> reports infanticide among the <a href="/wiki/Dene" title="Dene">Dene</a> Natives and those of the <a href="/wiki/Mackenzie_Mountains" title="Mackenzie Mountains">Mackenzie Mountains</a>.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Native_Americans">Native Americans</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Native Americans">edit</a>]</div> In the Eastern <a href="/wiki/Shoshone" title="Shoshone">Shoshone</a> there was a scarcity of Native American women as a result of female infanticide.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> For the <a href="/wiki/Maidu" title="Maidu">Maidu</a> <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> twins were so dangerous that they not only killed them, but the mother as well.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> In the region known today as southern <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a>, the Mariame Native Americans practiced infanticide of females on a large scale. Wives had to be obtained from neighboring groups.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mexico">Mexico</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Mexico">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Bernal_D%C3%ADaz" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernal Díaz">Bernal Díaz</a> recounted that, after landing on the <a href="/wiki/Veracruz" title="Veracruz">Veracruz</a> coast, they came across a temple dedicated to <a href="/wiki/Tezcatlipoca" title="Tezcatlipoca">Tezcatlipoca</a>. "That day they had sacrificed two boys, cutting open their chests and offering their blood and hearts to that accursed idol".<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> In <a href="/wiki/The_Conquest_of_New_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="The Conquest of New Spain">The Conquest of New Spain</a> Díaz describes more child sacrifices in the towns before the Spaniards reached the large <a href="/wiki/Aztec" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec">Aztec</a> city <a href="/wiki/Tenochtitlan" title="Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_America">South America</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: South America">edit</a>]</div> Although academic data of infanticides among the indigenous people in <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a> is not as abundant as that of North America, the estimates seem to be similar. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Brazil">Brazil</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Brazil">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Tapirap%C3%A9_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tapirapé people">Tapirapé</a> indigenous people of <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> allowed no more than three children per woman, and no more than two of the same sex. If the rule was broken infanticide was practiced.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Bororo" title="Bororo">Bororo</a> killed all the newborns that did not appear healthy enough. Infanticide is also documented in the case of the <a href="/wiki/Korubo_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Korubo people">Korubo people</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Amazon Basin">Amazon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Yanomami" title="Yanomami">Yanomami</a> men killed children while raiding enemy villages.<a href="#cite_note-valero-127">[127]</a> <a href="/wiki/Yanoama" title="Yanoama">Helena Valero</a>, a Brazilian woman kidnapped by Yanomami warriors in the 1930s, witnessed a Karawetari raid on her tribe: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">They killed so many. I was weeping for fear and for pity but there was nothing I could do. They snatched the children from their mothers to kill them, while the others held the mothers tightly by the arms and wrists as they stood up in a line. All the women wept. ... The men began to kill the children; little ones, bigger ones, they killed many of them.<a href="#cite_note-valero-127">[127]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Peru,_Paraguay_and_Bolivia">Peru, Paraguay and Bolivia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Peru, Paraguay and Bolivia">edit</a>]</div> While <a href="/wiki/Qhapaq_hucha" class="mw-redirect" title="Qhapaq hucha">qhapaq hucha</a> was practiced in the <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peruvian</a> large cities, child sacrifice in the pre-Columbian tribes of the region is less documented. However, even today studies on the <a href="/wiki/Aymara_people" title="Aymara people">Aymara</a> Indians reveal high incidences of mortality among the newborn, especially female deaths, suggesting infanticide.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Abipones" class="mw-redirect" title="Abipones">Abipones</a>, a small tribe of <a href="/wiki/Guaycuru_peoples" title="Guaycuru peoples">Guaycuruan</a> stock, of about 5,000 by the end of the 18th century in <a href="/wiki/Paraguay" title="Paraguay">Paraguay</a>, practiced systematic infanticide; with never more than two children being reared in one family. The Machigenga killed their disabled children. Infanticide among the <a href="/wiki/Chaco_(tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaco (tribe)">Chaco</a> in Paraguay was estimated as high as 50% of all newborns in that tribe, who were usually buried.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> The infanticidal custom had such roots among the <a href="/wiki/Ayoreo" title="Ayoreo">Ayoreo</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bolivia" title="Bolivia">Bolivia</a> and Paraguay that it persisted until the late 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_times">Modern times</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Modern times">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Missing_women" title="Missing women">Missing women</a></div> Infanticide has become less common in the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a>. The frequency has been estimated to be 1 in approximately 3000 to 5000 children of all ages<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> and 2.1 per 100,000 newborns per year.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> It is thought that infanticide today continues at a much higher rate in areas of extremely high <a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">poverty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_overpopulation" title="Human overpopulation">overpopulation</a>, such as parts of <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> Female infants, then and even now, are particularly vulnerable, a factor in sex-selective infanticide. Recent estimates suggest that over 100 million girls and women are 'missing' in Asia.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Benin">Benin</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Benin">edit</a>]</div> In spite of the fact that it is illegal, in <a href="/wiki/Benin" title="Benin">Benin</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a>, parents secretly continue with infanticidal customs.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mainland_China">Mainland China</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Mainland China">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sex-ratio_imbalance_in_China" title="Sex-ratio imbalance in China">Sex-ratio imbalance in China</a></div> There have been some accusations that infanticide occurs in <a href="/wiki/Mainland_China" title="Mainland China">mainland China</a> due to the <a href="/wiki/One-child_policy" title="One-child policy">one-child policy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> In the 1990s, a certain stretch of the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtze River">Yangtze River</a> was known to be a common site of infanticide by drowning, until government projects made access to it more difficult. A study from 2012 suggests that over 40 million girls and women are missing in mainland China (Klasen and Wink 2002).<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India">India</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: India">edit</a>]</div> The practice has continued in some <a href="/wiki/Rural_area" title="Rural area">rural areas</a> of India.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> India has the highest infanticide rate in the world, despite infanticide being illegal.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> According to a 2005 report by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Children%27s_Fund" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Children's Fund">United Nations Children's Fund</a> (<a href="/wiki/UNICEF" title="UNICEF">UNICEF</a>) up to 50 million girls and <a href="/wiki/Missing_women_of_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Missing women of Asia">women are missing</a> in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>'s population as a result of systematic sex <a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">discrimination</a> and sex selective abortions.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pakistan">Pakistan</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Pakistan">edit</a>]</div> Killings of newborn babies have been on the rise in <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, corresponding to an increase in poverty across the country.<a href="#cite_note-tribune-142">[142]</a> More than 1,000 infants, mostly girls, were killed or abandoned to die in Pakistan in 2009 according to a Pakistani charity organization.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Edhi_Foundation" title="Edhi Foundation">Edhi Foundation</a> found 1,210 dead babies in 2010. Many more are abandoned and left at the doorsteps of <a href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">mosques</a>. As a result, Edhi centers feature signs "Do not murder, lay them here." Though female infanticide is punishable by life in prison, such crimes are rarely prosecuted.<a href="#cite_note-tribune-142">[142]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oceania_2">Oceania</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Oceania">edit</a>]</div> On November 28, 2008, The National, one of Papua New Guinea's two largest newspapers at the time, ran a story entitled "Male Babies Killed To Stop Fights"<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> which claimed that in Agibu and Amosa villages of Gimi region of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Highlands_(Papua_New_Guinea)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Highlands (Papua New Guinea)">Eastern Highlands</a> province of <a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a> where tribal fighting in the region of Gimi has been going on since 1986 (many of the clashes arising over claims of <a href="/wiki/Witchcraft" title="Witchcraft">sorcery</a>) women had agreed that if they stopped producing males, allowing only female babies to survive, their tribe's stock of boys would go down and there would be no men in the future to fight. They had supposedly agreed to have all newborn male babies killed. It is not known how many male babies were supposedly killed by being smothered, but it had reportedly happened to all males over a 10-year period. However, this claim about male infanticide in Papua New Guinea was probably just the result of inaccurate and sensationalistic news reporting, because <a href="/wiki/Salvation_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Salvation Army">Salvation Army</a> workers in the region of Gimi denied that the supposed male infanticide actually happened, and said that the tribal women were merely speaking hypothetically and hyperbolically about male infanticide at a peace and reconciliation workshop in order to make a point. The tribal women had never planned to actually kill their own sons.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="England_and_Wales">England and Wales</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: England and Wales">edit</a>]</div> In England and Wales there were typically 30 to 50 homicides per million children less than 1 year old between 1982 and 1996.<a href="#cite_note-Marks2009-146">[146]</a> The younger the infant, the higher the risk.<a href="#cite_note-Marks2009-146">[146]</a> The rate for children 1 to 5 years was around 10 per million children.<a href="#cite_note-Marks2009-146">[146]</a> The homicide rate of infants less than 1 year is significantly higher than for the general population.<a href="#cite_note-Marks2009-146">[146]</a> In <a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">English law</a> infanticide is established as a distinct offence by the <a href="/wiki/Infanticide_Act" title="Infanticide Act">Infanticide Acts</a>. Defined as the killing of a child under 12 months of age by their mother, the effect of the Acts are to establish a <a href="/wiki/Partial_defence" title="Partial defence">partial defence</a> to charges of murder.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</div> In the United States the infanticide rate during the first hour of life outside the womb dropped from 1.41 per 100,000 during 1963 to 1972 to 0.44 per 100,000 for 1974 to 1983; the rates during the first month after birth also declined, whereas those for older infants rose during this time.<a href="#cite_note-Paul-148">[148]</a> <a href="/wiki/Roe_v._Wade" title="Roe v. Wade">The legalization of abortion, which was completed in 1973</a>, was the most important factor in the decline in neonatal mortality during the period from 1964 to 1977, according to a study by economists associated with the National Bureau of Economic Research.<a href="#cite_note-Paul-148">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-BestIntent-149">[149]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canada_2">Canada</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Canada">edit</a>]</div> In Canada, 114 cases of infanticide by a parent were reported during 1964–1968.<a href="#cite_note-Rodenburg_1971_43-150">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spain">Spain</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Spain">edit</a>]</div> In Spain, far-right political party Vox has claimed that female perpetrators of infanticide outnumber male perpetrators of femicide.<a href="#cite_note-Alfageme-151">[151]</a> However, neither the Spanish National Statistics Institute nor the Ministry of the Interior keep data on the gender of perpetrators, but victims of femicide consistently number higher than victims of infanticide.<a href="#cite_note-Alfageme-151">[151]</a> From 2013 to March 2018, 28 infanticide cases perpetrated by 22 mothers and three stepmothers were reported in Spain.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intersex_children">Intersex children</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Intersex children">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Intersex" title="Intersex">Intersex</a> infants commonly suffer from infanticide particularly in <a href="/wiki/Developing_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing countries">developing countries</a>, largely caused by stigma surrounding intersex conditions. Often intersex infants are <a href="/wiki/Child_abandonment" title="Child abandonment">abandoned</a>, while others are actively killed. Many intersex individuals are forced to <a href="/wiki/Exile" title="Exile">flee</a> due to persecution and violence. Many intersex individuals commonly seek <a href="/wiki/Political_asylum" class="mw-redirect" title="Political asylum">political asylum</a> due to oppression according to the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Human_Rights_Council" title="United Nations Human Rights Council">United Nations Human Rights Council</a>.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-OHCR1-154">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Explanations_for_the_practice">Explanations for the practice</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Explanations for the practice">edit</a>]</div> There are various reasons for infanticide. Neonaticide typically has different patterns and causes than for the killing of older infants. Traditional neonaticide is often related to economic necessity – the inability to provide for the infant. In the United Kingdom and the United States, older infants are typically killed for reasons related to <a href="/wiki/Child_abuse" title="Child abuse">child abuse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence" title="Domestic violence">domestic violence</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mental_illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental illness">mental illness</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Marks2009-146">[146]</a> For infants older than one day, younger infants are more at risk, and boys are more at risk than girls.<a href="#cite_note-Marks2009-146">[146]</a> Risk factors for the parent include: Family history of violence, violence in a current relationship, history of abuse or neglect of children, and personality disorder and/or depression.<a href="#cite_note-Marks2009-146">[146]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious">Religious</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Religious">edit</a>]</div> In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, "loopholes" were invented by some suicidal members of <a href="/wiki/Lutheran" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran">Lutheran</a> churches<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> who wanted to avoid the damnation that was promised by most Christian doctrine as a penalty of suicide. One famous example of someone who wished to end their life but avoid the eternity in hell was <a href="/wiki/Christina_Johansdotter" title="Christina Johansdotter">Christina Johansdotter</a> (died 1740). She was a Swedish murderer who killed a child in Stockholm with the sole purpose of being executed. She is an example of those who seek suicide through execution by committing a murder. It was a common act, frequently targeting young children or infants as they were believed to be free from sin, thus believing to go "straight to heaven".<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> Although mainstream Christian denominations, including Lutherans, view the murder of an innocent as being condemned in the Fifth Commandment, the suicidal members of Lutheran churches who deliberately killed children with the intent of getting executed were usually well aware of Christian doctrine against murder, and planned to repent and seek forgiveness of their sins afterwards. For example, in 18th century <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> up until the year 1767, murderers were given the opportunity to repent of their sins before they were executed either way. In 1767, religiously motivated suicidal murders ceased in Denmark with the abolishment of the <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_Denmark" title="Capital punishment in Denmark">death penalty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> In 1888, Lieut. F. Elton reported that <a href="/wiki/Ugi_Island" title="Ugi Island">Ugi</a> beach people in the <a href="/wiki/Solomon_Islands" title="Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a> killed their infants at birth by burying them, and women were also said to practice abortion. They reported that it was too much trouble to raise a child, and instead preferred to buy one from the bush people.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic">Economic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Economic">edit</a>]</div> Many historians believe the reason to be primarily economic, with more children born than the family is prepared to support. In societies that are <a href="/wiki/Patrilineal" class="mw-redirect" title="Patrilineal">patrilineal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Patrilocal" class="mw-redirect" title="Patrilocal">patrilocal</a>, the family may choose to allow more sons to live and kill some daughters, as the former will support their birth family until they die, whereas the latter will leave economically and geographically to join their husband's family, possibly only after the payment of a burdensome <a href="/wiki/Dowry" title="Dowry">dowry</a> price. Thus the decision to bring up a boy is more economically rewarding to the parents.<a href="#cite_note-Hardness-8">[8]</a>: 362–68  However, this does not explain why infanticide would occur equally among rich and poor, nor why it would be as frequent during decadent periods of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> as during earlier, less affluent, periods.<a href="#cite_note-Hardness-8">[8]</a>: 28–34, 187–92  Before the appearance of effective <a href="/wiki/Contraception" class="mw-redirect" title="Contraception">contraception</a>, infanticide was a common occurrence in ancient brothels. Unlike usual infanticide – where historically girls have been more likely to be killed – prostitutes in certain areas preferred to kill their male offspring.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="UK_in_the_18th_and_19th_centuries">UK in the 18th and 19th centuries</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: UK in the 18th and 19th centuries">edit</a>]</div> Instances of infanticide in Britain in 18th and 19th centuries are often attributed to the economic position of the women, with juries committing <a href="/wiki/Jury_nullification" title="Jury nullification">"pious perjury"</a> in many subsequent murder cases. The knowledge of the difficulties faced in the 18th century by those women who attempted to keep their children can be seen as a reason for juries to show compassion. If the woman chose to keep the child, society was not set up to ease the pressure placed upon the woman, legally, socially or economically.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> In mid-18th century Britain there was assistance available for women who were not able to raise their children. The <a href="/wiki/Foundling_Hospital" title="Foundling Hospital">Foundling Hospital</a> opened in 1756 and was able to take in some of the illegitimate children. However, the conditions within the hospital caused <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Great_Britain" title="Parliament of Great Britain">Parliament</a> to withdraw funding and the governors to live off of their own incomes.<a href="#cite_note-unknown_1878-162">[162]</a> This resulted in a stringent entrance policy, with the committee requiring that the hospital: <dl><dd>Will not receive a child that is more than a year old, nor the child of a domestic servant, nor any child whose father can be compelled to maintain it.<a href="#cite_note-unknown_1878-162">[162]</a></dd></dl> Once a mother had admitted her child to the hospital, the hospital did all it could to ensure that the parent and child were not re-united.<a href="#cite_note-unknown_1878-162">[162]</a> MacFarlane argues in Illegitimacy and Illegitimates in Britain (1980) that English society greatly concerned itself with the burden that a bastard child places upon its communities and had gone to some lengths to ensure that the father of the child is identified in order to maintain its well-being.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> Assistance could be gained through maintenance payments from the father, however, this was capped "at a miserable 2 <a href="/wiki/Shilling" title="Shilling">s</a> and 6 <a href="/wiki/Pence" class="mw-redirect" title="Pence">d</a> a week".<a href="#cite_note-Rose_1986_28-164">[164]</a> If the father fell behind with the payments he could only be asked "to pay a maximum of 13 weeks arrears".<a href="#cite_note-Rose_1986_28-164">[164]</a> Despite the accusations of some that women were getting a free hand-out, there is evidence that many women were far from receiving adequate assistance from their parish. "Within Leeds in 1822 ... relief was limited to 1 <a href="/wiki/Shilling" title="Shilling">s</a> per week".<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> Sheffield required women to enter the <a href="/wiki/Workhouse" title="Workhouse">workhouse</a>, whereas Halifax gave no relief to the women who required it. The prospect of entering the workhouse was certainly something to be avoided. Lionel Rose quotes Dr <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rogers_(physician)" title="Joseph Rogers (physician)">Joseph Rogers</a> in Massacre of the Innocents ... (1986). Rogers, who was employed by a London workhouse in 1856 stated that conditions in the nursery were 'wretchedly damp and miserable ... [and] ... overcrowded with young mothers and their infants'.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> The loss of social standing for a servant girl was a particular problem in respect of producing a bastard child as they relied upon a good character reference in order to maintain their job and more importantly, to get a new or better job. In a large number of trials for the crime of infanticide, it is the servant girl that stood accused.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> The disadvantage of being a servant girl is that they had to live to the social standards of their superiors or risk dismissal and no references. Whereas within other professions, such as in the factory, the relationship between employer and employee was much more anonymous and the mother would be better able to make other provisions, such as employing a minder.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> The result of the lack of basic social care in Britain in the 18th and 19th century is the numerous accounts in court records of women, particularly servant girls, standing trial for the murder of their child.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> There may have been no specific offense of infanticide in England before about 1623 because infanticide was a matter for the by <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_court" title="Ecclesiastical court">ecclesiastical courts</a>, possibly because <a href="/wiki/Infant_mortality" title="Infant mortality">infant mortality</a> from natural causes was high (about 15% or one in six).<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> Thereafter the accusation of the suppression of bastard children by lewd mothers was a crime incurring the presumption of guilt.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Infanticide_Act" title="Infanticide Act">Infanticide Acts</a> are several <a href="/wiki/English_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="English Law">laws</a>. That of 1922 made the killing of an infant child by its mother during the early months of life a lesser crime than murder. The acts of 1938 and 1939 abolished the earlier act but introduced the idea that <a href="/wiki/Postpartum_depression" title="Postpartum depression">postpartum depression</a> was legally to be regarded as a form of <a href="/wiki/Diminished_responsibility" title="Diminished responsibility">diminished responsibility</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Population_control">Population control</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Population control">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Marvin_Harris" title="Marvin Harris">Marvin Harris</a> estimated that among <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a> hunters 23–50% of newborn children were killed. He argued that the goal was to preserve the 0.001% population growth of that time.<a href="#cite_note-Cannibals&Kings-172">[172]</a>: 15  He also wrote that female infanticide may be a form of population control.<a href="#cite_note-Cannibals&Kings-172">[172]</a>: 5  Population control is achieved not only by limiting the number of potential mothers; increased fighting among men for access to relatively scarce wives would also lead to a decline in population. For example, on the <a href="/wiki/Melanesia" title="Melanesia">Melanesian</a> island of <a href="/wiki/Tikopia" title="Tikopia">Tikopia</a> infanticide was used to keep a stable population in line with its <a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">resource base</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Collapse-6">[6]</a> Research by Marvin Harris and <a href="/wiki/William_Divale" title="William Divale">William Divale</a> supports this argument, it has been cited as an example of <a href="/wiki/Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">environmental determinism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychological">Psychological</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Psychological">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Evolutionary_psychology">Evolutionary psychology</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Evolutionary psychology">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a> has proposed several theories for different forms of infanticide. Infanticide by stepfathers, as well as child abuse in general by stepfathers, has been explained by spending resources on not genetically related children reducing <a href="/wiki/Reproductive_success" title="Reproductive success">reproductive success</a> (See the <a href="/wiki/Cinderella_effect" title="Cinderella effect">Cinderella effect</a> and <a href="/wiki/Infanticide_(zoology)" title="Infanticide (zoology)">Infanticide (zoology)</a>). Infanticide is one of the few forms of violence more often done by women than men. Cross-cultural research has found that this is more likely to occur when the child has deformities or illnesses as well as when there are lacking resources due to factors such as poverty, other children requiring resources, and no male support. Such a child may have a low chance of reproductive success in which case it would decrease the mother's <a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness" title="Inclusive fitness">inclusive fitness</a>, in particular since women generally have a greater <a href="/wiki/Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">parental investment</a> than men, to spend resources on the child.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id=""Early_infanticidal_childrearing"">"Early infanticidal childrearing"</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: "Early infanticidal childrearing"">edit</a>]</div> A minority of academics subscribe to an alternate school of thought, considering the practice as "<a href="/wiki/Early_infanticidal_childrearing" title="Early infanticidal childrearing">early infanticidal childrearing</a>".<a href="#cite_note-EMOL-175">[175]</a>: 246–47  They attribute parental infanticidal wishes to massive <a href="/wiki/Projection_(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Projection (psychology)">projection</a> or <a href="/wiki/Displacement_(psychology)" title="Displacement (psychology)">displacement</a> of the parents' <a href="/wiki/Unconscious_mind" title="Unconscious mind">unconscious</a> onto the child, because of intergenerational, ancestral abuse by their own parents.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> Clearly, an infanticidal parent may have multiple motivations, conflicts, emotions, and thoughts about their baby and their relationship with their baby, which are often colored both by their individual psychology, current relational context and attachment history, and, perhaps most saliently, their psychopathology<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> Almeida, Merminod, and Schechter suggest that parents with fantasies, projections, and delusions involving infanticide need to be taken seriously and assessed carefully, whenever possible, by an interdisciplinary team that includes infant mental health specialists or mental health practitioners who have experience in working with parents, children, and families. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Wider_effects">Wider effects</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Wider effects">edit</a>]</div> In addition to debates over the morality of infanticide itself, there is some debate over the effects of infanticide on surviving children, and the effects of childrearing in societies that also sanction infanticide. Some argue that the practice of infanticide in any widespread form causes enormous psychological damage in children.<a href="#cite_note-EMOL-175">[175]</a>: 261–62  Conversely, studying societies that practice infanticide <a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9za_R%C3%B3heim" title="Géza Róheim">Géza Róheim</a> reported that even infanticidal mothers in <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a>, who ate a child, did not affect the personality development of the surviving children; that "these are good mothers who eat their own children".<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> Harris and Divale's work on the relationship between female infanticide and warfare suggests that there are, however, extensive negative effects. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychiatric">Psychiatric</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Psychiatric">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_disorders_of_childbirth" title="Psychiatric disorders of childbirth">Psychiatric disorders of childbirth</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Postpartum_psychosis" title="Postpartum psychosis">Postpartum psychosis</a> is also a causative factor of infanticide. Stuart S. Asch, MD, a professor of psychiatry at <a href="/wiki/Weill_Cornell_Medicine" title="Weill Cornell Medicine">Cornell University Medical School</a> established the connections between some cases of infanticide and <a href="/wiki/Postpartum_depression" title="Postpartum depression">postpartum depression</a>.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a>,<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a>,<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> The books, From Cradle to Grave,<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> and The Death of Innocents,<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> describe selected cases of maternal infanticide and the investigative research of Professor Asch working in concert with the New York City Medical Examiner's Office. Stanley Hopwood wrote that childbirth and lactation entail severe stress on women, and that under certain circumstances attempts at infanticide and suicide are common.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> A study published in the <a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Psychiatry" class="mw-redirect" title="American Journal of Psychiatry">American Journal of Psychiatry</a> revealed that 44% of filicidal <a href="/wiki/Father" title="Father">fathers</a> had a diagnosis of <a href="/wiki/Psychosis" title="Psychosis">psychosis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> In addition to postpartum psychosis, dissociative psychopathology, and sociopathy have also been found to be associated with neonaticide in some cases.<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sex_selection">Sex selection</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Sex selection">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Sex_selection" title="Sex selection">Sex selection</a> may be one of the contributing factors of infanticide. In the absence of <a href="/wiki/Sex-selective_abortion" title="Sex-selective abortion">sex-selective abortion</a>, sex-selective infanticide[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍] can be deduced from very skewed birth statistics. The biologically normal <a href="/wiki/Sex_ratio_for_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex ratio for humans">sex ratio for humans</a> at birth is approximately 105 males per 100 females; normal ratios hardly ranging beyond 102–108.<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> When a society has an infant male to female ratio which is <a href="/wiki/Statistical_significance" title="Statistical significance">significantly</a> higher or lower than the biological norm, and biased data can be ruled out, sex selection can usually be inferred.<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> <a href="/wiki/Intersex" title="Intersex">Intersex</a> infants with ambiguous or atypical genitalia often suffer from infanticide.<a href="#cite_note-OHCR1-154">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Current_law">Current law</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Current law">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australia_2">Australia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Australia">edit</a>]</div> In <a href="/wiki/New_South_Wales_(Australia)" class="mw-redirect" title="New South Wales (Australia)">New South Wales</a>, infanticide is defined in Section 22A(1) of the Crimes Act 1900 (NSW) as follows:<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Where a woman by any willful act or omission causes the death of her child, being a child under the age of twelve months, but at the time of the act or omission the balance of her mind was disturbed by reason of her not having fully recovered from the effect of giving birth to the child or by reason of the effect of lactation consequent upon the birth of the child, then, notwithstanding that the circumstances were such that but for this section the offense would have amounted to murder, she shall be guilty of infanticide, and may for such offense be dealt with and punished as if she had been guilty of the offense of manslaughter of such child.</blockquote> Because Infanticide is punishable as manslaughter, as per s24,<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> the maximum penalty for this offence is therefore 25 years imprisonment. In <a href="/wiki/Victoria_(Australia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Victoria (Australia)">Victoria</a>, infanticide is defined by Section 6 of the Crimes Act of 1958 with a maximum penalty of five years.<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_Zealand_2">New Zealand</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: New Zealand">edit</a>]</div> In New Zealand, infanticide is provided for by Section 178 of the Crimes Act 1961 which states: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Where a woman causes the death of any child of hers under the age of 10 years in a manner that amounts to culpable homicide, and where at the time of the offence the balance of her mind was disturbed, by reason of her not having fully recovered from the effect of giving birth to that or any other child, or by reason of the effect of lactation, or by reason of any disorder consequent upon childbirth or lactation, to such an extent that she should not be held fully responsible, she is guilty of infanticide, and not of murder or manslaughter, and is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 3 years.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canada_3">Canada</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: Canada">edit</a>]</div> In Canada, infanticide is a specific offence under section 237 of the <a href="/wiki/Criminal_Code_(Canada)" title="Criminal Code (Canada)">Criminal Code</a>. It is defined as a form of culpable homicide which is neither murder nor manslaughter, and occurs when "a female person... by a wilful act or omission... causes the death of her newly-born child [defined as a child under one year of age], if at the time of the act or omission she is not fully recovered from the effects of giving birth to the child and by reason thereof or of the effect of lactation consequent on the birth of the child her mind is then disturbed."<a href="#cite_note-CanCrC-193">[193]</a> Infanticide is also a defence to murder, in that a person accused of murder who successfully presents the defence is entitled to be convicted of infanticide rather than murder.<a href="#cite_note-RvLB-194">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a> The maximum sentence for infanticide is five years' imprisonment; by contrast, the maximum sentence for manslaughter is life, and the mandatory sentence for murder is life.<a href="#cite_note-CanCrC-193">[193]</a> The offence derives from an offence created in English law in 1922, which aimed to address the issue of judges and juries who were reluctant to return verdicts of murder against women and girls who killed their newborns out of poverty, depression, the shame of illegitimacy, or otherwise desperate circumstances, since the mandatory sentence was death (even though in those circumstances the death penalty was likely not to be carried out). With infanticide as a separate offence with a lesser penalty, convictions were more likely. The offence of infanticide was created in Canada in 1948.<a href="#cite_note-RvLB-194">[194]</a> There is ongoing debate in the Canadian legal and political fields about whether section 237 of the Criminal Code should be amended or abolished altogether.<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="England_and_Wales_2">England and Wales</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: England and Wales">edit</a>]</div> In <a href="/wiki/England_and_Wales" title="England and Wales">England and Wales</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Infanticide_Act_1938" title="Infanticide Act 1938">Infanticide Act 1938</a> describes the offense of infanticide as one which would otherwise amount to murder (by their mother) if the victim was older than 12 months and the mother did not have an "imbalance of mind" due to the effects of childbirth or lactation. Where a mother who has killed such an infant has been charged with murder rather than infanticide s.1(3) of the Act confirms that a jury has the power to find alternative verdicts of <a href="/wiki/Manslaughter" title="Manslaughter">Manslaughter in English law</a> or guilty but insane. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Netherlands">The Netherlands</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: The Netherlands">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Groningen_Protocol" title="Groningen Protocol">Groningen Protocol</a></div> Infanticide is illegal in the Netherlands, although the maximum sentence is lower than for homicide. The Groningen Protocol regulates <a href="/wiki/Child_euthanasia" title="Child euthanasia">euthanasia for infants</a> who are believed to "suffer hopelessly and unbearably" under strict conditions.<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poland">Poland</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: Poland">edit</a>]</div> Article 149 of the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Penal_Code#The_Penal_Code_of_1997" title="Polish Penal Code">Penal Code of Poland</a> stipulates that a mother who kills her child in labour, while under the influence of the course of the delivery, is liable to imprisonment for between three months and five years.<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Romania">Romania</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: Romania">edit</a>]</div> Article 200 of the <a href="/wiki/Penal_Code_of_Romania#The_Penal_Code_of_2014" title="Penal Code of Romania">Penal Code of Romania</a> stipulates that the killing of a newborn during the first 24 hours, by the mother who is in a state of mental distress, shall be punished with imprisonment of one to five years.<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> The previous Romanian Penal Code also defined infanticide (pruncucidere) as a distinct criminal offense, providing for punishment of two to seven years imprisonment,<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> recognizing the fact that a mother's judgment may be impaired immediately after birth. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States_2">United States</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Born-Alive_Infants_Protection_Act" title="Born-Alive Infants Protection Act">Born-Alive Infants Protection Act</a> and <a href="/wiki/Born_alive_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Born alive laws in the United States">Born alive laws in the United States</a></div> While legislation regarding infanticide in some countries focuses on rehabilitation, believing that treatment and education will prevent repetitive action, the United States remains focused on delivering punishment. One justification for punishment is the difficulty of implementing rehabilitation services. With an overcrowded prison system, the United States can not provide the necessary treatment and services.<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="State_legislation">State legislation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=70" title="Edit section: State legislation">edit</a>]</div> In 2009, <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a> state representative <a href="/wiki/Jessica_Farrar" title="Jessica Farrar">Jessica Farrar</a> proposed legislation that would define infanticide as a distinct and lesser crime than <a href="/wiki/Homicide" title="Homicide">homicide</a>.<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> Under the terms of the proposed legislation, if jurors concluded that a mother's "judgment was impaired as a result of the effects of giving birth or the effects of lactation following the birth," they would be allowed to convict her of the crime of infanticide, rather than murder.<a href="#cite_note-When_Infanticide_Isn't_Murder-203">[203]</a> The maximum penalty for infanticide would be two years in prison.<a href="#cite_note-When_Infanticide_Isn't_Murder-203">[203]</a> Farrar's introduction of this bill prompted liberal bioethics scholar <a href="/wiki/Jacob_M._Appel" title="Jacob M. Appel">Jacob M. Appel</a> to call her "the bravest politician in America".<a href="#cite_note-When_Infanticide_Isn't_Murder-203">[203]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Federal_legislation">Federal legislation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=71" title="Edit section: Federal legislation">edit</a>]</div> The MOTHERS Act (Moms Opportunity To access Health, Education, Research and Support), precipitated by the death of a Chicago woman with postpartum psychosis was introduced in 2009. The act was ultimately incorporated into the <a href="/wiki/Patient_Protection_and_Affordable_Care_Act" title="Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act">Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act</a> which passed in 2010. The act requires screening for postpartum mood disorders at any time of the adult lifespan as well as expands research on postpartum depression. Provisions of the act also authorize grants to support clinical services for women who have, or are at risk for, postpartum psychosis.<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prevention">Prevention</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=72" title="Edit section: Prevention">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sex_education_and_birth_control">Sex education and birth control</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=73" title="Edit section: Sex education and birth control">edit</a>]</div> Since infanticide, especially neonaticide, is often a response to an unwanted birth,<a href="#cite_note-Marks2009-146">[146]</a> preventing <a href="/wiki/Unwanted_pregnancies" class="mw-redirect" title="Unwanted pregnancies">unwanted pregnancies</a> through improved <a href="/wiki/Sex_education" title="Sex education">sex education</a> and increased <a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">contraceptive</a> access are advocated as ways of preventing infanticide.<a href="#cite_note-Friedman2009-205">[205]</a> Increased use of contraceptives and access to safe legal <a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">abortions</a><a href="#cite_note-Hardness-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Paul-148">[148]</a>: 122–23  have greatly reduced neonaticide in many developed nations. Some say[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>][<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words">weasel words</a>] that where abortion is illegal, as in Pakistan, infanticide would decline if safer legal abortions were available.<a href="#cite_note-tribune-142">[142]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychiatric_intervention">Psychiatric intervention</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=74" title="Edit section: Psychiatric intervention">edit</a>]</div> Cases of infanticide have also garnered increasing attention and interest from advocates for the mentally ill as well as organizations dedicated to postpartum disorders. Following the trial of <a href="/wiki/Andrea_Yates" title="Andrea Yates">Andrea Yates</a>, a mother from the United States who garnered national attention for drowning her 5 children, representatives from organizations such as the Postpartum Support International and the Marcé Society for Treatment and Prevention of Postpartum Disorders began requesting clarification of diagnostic criteria for postpartum disorders and improved guidelines for treatments. While accounts of postpartum psychosis have dated back over 2,000 years ago, perinatal mental illness is still largely under-diagnosed despite postpartum psychosis affecting 1 to 2 per 1000 women.<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a> However, with clinical research continuing to demonstrate the large role of rapid neurochemical fluctuation in postpartum psychosis, prevention of infanticide points ever strongly towards psychiatric intervention.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Screening for psychiatric disorders or risk factors, and providing treatment or assistance to those at risk may help prevent infanticide.<a href="#cite_note-FriedmanDepress-208">[208]</a> Current diagnostic considerations include symptoms, psychological history, thoughts of self-harm or harming one's children, physical and neurological examination, laboratory testing, substance abuse, and brain imaging. As psychotic symptoms may fluctuate, it is important that diagnostic assessments cover a wide range of factors.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] While studies on the treatment of postpartum psychosis are scarce, a number of case and cohort studies have found evidence describing the effectiveness of <a href="/wiki/Lithium_(medication)" title="Lithium (medication)">lithium</a> monotherapy for both acute and maintenance treatment of postpartum psychosis, with the majority of patients achieving complete remission. Adjunctive treatments include <a href="/wiki/Electroconvulsive_therapy" title="Electroconvulsive therapy">electroconvulsive therapy</a>, antipsychotic medication, or <a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepine" title="Benzodiazepine">benzodiazepines</a>. Electroconvulsive therapy, in particular, is the primary treatment for patients with <a href="/wiki/Catatonia" title="Catatonia">catatonia</a>, severe agitation, and difficulties eating or drinking. Antidepressants should be avoided throughout the acute treatment of postpartum psychosis due to risk of worsening mood instability.<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a> Though screening and treatment may help prevent infanticide, in the developed world, significant proportions of neonaticides that are detected occur in young women who deny their pregnancy and avoid outside contacts, many of whom may have limited contact with these health care services.<a href="#cite_note-Marks2009-146">[146]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Safe_surrender">Safe surrender</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=75" title="Edit section: Safe surrender">edit</a>]</div> In some areas <a href="/wiki/Baby_hatch" title="Baby hatch">baby hatches</a> or safe surrender sites, safe places for a mother to anonymously leave an infant, are offered, in part to reduce the rate of infanticide. In other places, like the United States, <a href="/wiki/Safe-haven_law" title="Safe-haven law">safe-haven laws</a> allow mothers to anonymously give infants to designated officials; they are frequently located at hospitals and police and fire stations. Additionally, some countries in Europe have the laws of <a href="/wiki/Anonymous_birth" title="Anonymous birth">anonymous birth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Confidential_birth" title="Confidential birth">confidential birth</a> that allow mothers to give up an infant after birth. In anonymous birth, the mother does not attach her name to the birth certificate. In confidential birth, the mother registers her name and information, but the document containing her name is sealed until the child comes to age. Typically such babies are put up for adoption, or cared for in orphanages.<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Employment">Employment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=76" title="Edit section: Employment">edit</a>]</div> Granting women employment raises their status and autonomy. Having a <a href="/wiki/Gainful_employment" title="Gainful employment">gainful employment</a> can raise the perceived worth of females. This can lead to an increase in the number of women getting an education and a decrease in the number of female infanticide. As a result, the <a href="/wiki/Infant_mortality" title="Infant mortality">infant mortality</a> rate will decrease and economic development will increase.<a href="#cite_note-Fuse-211">[211]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_animals">In animals</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=77" title="Edit section: In animals">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Infanticide_(zoology)" title="Infanticide (zoology)">Infanticide (zoology)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mones.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Mones.jpg/220px-Mones.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Mones.jpg/330px-Mones.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Mones.jpg/440px-Mones.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1142" data-file-height="578" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Hanuman_langur" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanuman langur">Hanuman langurs</a> are among the species where infanticide occurs.<a href="#cite_note-Sugiyama-langurs-212">[212]</a></figcaption></figure> The practice has been observed in many other species of the <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animal</a> kingdom since it was first seriously studied by <a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9D%89%E5%B1%B1%E5%B9%B8%E4%B8%B8" class="extiw" title="jp:杉山幸丸">Yukimaru Sugiyama</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sugiyama-langurs-212">[212]</a> These include from microscopic <a href="/wiki/Rotifer" title="Rotifer">rotifers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a>, including primates such as <a href="/wiki/Chacma_baboon" title="Chacma baboon">chacma baboons</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hoogland-213">[213]</a> According to studies carried out by <a href="/wiki/Kyoto_University" title="Kyoto University">Kyoto University</a> in primates, including certain types of gorillas and chimpanzees, several conditions favor the tendency to kill their offspring in some species (to be performed only by males), among them are: Nocturnal life, the absence of nest construction, the marked sexual dimorphism in which the male is much larger than the female, the mating in a specific season and the high period of lactation without resumption of the estrus state in the female. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_art_and_literature">In art and literature</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=78" title="Edit section: In art and literature">edit</a>]</div> An instance in which a child born on an inauspicious day is to live or die according to the chance of being trampled by cattle (death being likely) is provided by <a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Letitia_Elizabeth_Landon_(L._E._L.)_in_Fisher%27s_Drawing_Room_Scrap_Book,_1838/Infanticide_in_Madagascar" class="extiw" title="s:Letitia Elizabeth Landon (L. E. L.) in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1838/Infanticide in Madagascar">Infanticide in Madagascar</a>, painted by Henry Melville and engraved by J Redaway for Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1838 with a poetical illustration and notes by <a href="/wiki/Letitia_Elizabeth_Landon" title="Letitia Elizabeth Landon">Letitia Elizabeth Landon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=79" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Infanticide" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Infanticide">Infanticide</a>.</div></div> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_cannibalism" title="Child cannibalism">Child cannibalism</a> – Practice of eating a child or fetus</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_euthanasia" title="Child euthanasia">Child euthanasia</a> – Euthanasia applied to gravely ill children</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Cruel_Mother" title="The Cruel Mother">The Cruel Mother</a> – Traditional song</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_perversion#Violence_against_children" title="Female perversion">Female perversion</a> – Violence against children by women</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filicide" title="Filicide">Filicide</a> – Deliberate act of a parent killing their own child</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Garner" title="Margaret Garner">Margaret Garner</a> – United States fugitive slave</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jen%C5%AFfa" title="Jenůfa">Jenůfa</a> (opera by <a href="/wiki/Leo%C5%A1_Jan%C3%A1%C4%8Dek" title="Leoš Janáček">Leoš Janáček</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_infant_mortality_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries by infant mortality rate">List of countries by infant mortality rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Llorona" title="La Llorona">La Llorona</a> (Mexican legend)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medea_(play)" title="Medea (play)">Medea</a> (<a href="/wiki/Euripides" title="Euripides">Euripides</a>' play)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miyuki_Ishikawa" title="Miyuki Ishikawa">Miyuki Ishikawa</a> – Japanese infanticide serial killer (1897–1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Modest_Proposal" title="A Modest Proposal">A Modest Proposal</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Swift" title="Jonathan Swift">Jonathan Swift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overlaying" title="Overlaying">Overlaying</a> – child-smothering during carer's sleep</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudden_infant_death_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Sudden infant death syndrome">Sudden infant death syndrome</a> – Sudden unexplained death of a child who is less than one year of agePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=80" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-InfAnAn-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-InfAnAn_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-InfAnAn_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWilliamson1978" class="citation book cs1">Williamson, Laila (1978). "Infanticide: an anthropological analysis". In Kohl, Marvin (ed.). Infanticide and the Value of Life. New York: <a href="/wiki/Prometheus_Books" title="Prometheus Books">Prometheus Books</a>. pp. 61–75. <q>Infanticide has been practiced on every continent and by people on every level of cultural complexity, from hunter gatherers to high civilizations. Rather than being an exception, then, it has been the rule.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Infanticide%3A+an+anthropological+analysis&rft.btitle=Infanticide+and+the+Value+of+Life&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=61-75&rft.pub=Prometheus+Books&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Williamson&rft.aufirst=Laila&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> MARLENE L. DALLEY, Ph.D. The Killing of Canadian Children by Parent(s) or Guardian(s): Characteristics and Trends 1990–1993, January 1997 & 2000 </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Neil S. Kaye M.D – Families, Murder, and Insanity: A Psychiatric Review of Paternal Neonaticide </li> <li id="cite_note-Justin_Martyr-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Justin_Martyr_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Justin_Martyr_4-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a>, <a href="/wiki/First_Apology" class="mw-redirect" title="First Apology">First Apology</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Ex&Ob-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ex&Ob_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ex&Ob_5-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoswell1984" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Boswell" title="John Boswell">Boswell, John Eastburn</a> (1984). "Exposition and oblation: the abandonment of children and the ancient and medieval family". <a href="/wiki/American_Historical_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="American Historical Review">American Historical Review</a>. 89 (1): 10–33. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1855916">10.2307/1855916</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1855916">1855916</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11611460">11611460</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Exposition+and+oblation%3A+the+abandonment+of+children+and+the+ancient+and+medieval+family&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=10-33&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11611460&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1855916%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1855916&rft.aulast=Boswell&rft.aufirst=John+Eastburn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Collapse-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Collapse_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Collapse_6-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Jared_Diamond" title="Jared Diamond">Diamond, Jared</a> (2005). <a href="/wiki/Collapse_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Collapse (book)">Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-303655-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-303655-6">0-14-303655-6</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBirdsell1986" class="citation book cs1">Birdsell, Joseph B. (1986). "Some predictions for the Pleistocene based on equilibrium systems among recent hunter gatherers". In Lee, Richard; DeVore, Irven (eds.). Man the Hunter. New York: Aldine Publishing Co. p. 239.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Some+predictions+for+the+Pleistocene+based+on+equilibrium+systems+among+recent+hunter+gatherers&rft.btitle=Man+the+Hunter&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=239&rft.pub=Aldine+Publishing+Co.&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Birdsell&rft.aufirst=Joseph+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hardness-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hardness_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hardness_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hardness_8-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hardness_8-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hardness_8-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hardness_8-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hardness_8-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hardness_8-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMilner2000" class="citation book cs1">Milner, Larry S. (2000). Hardness of Heart / Hardness of Life: The Stain of Human Infanticide. Lanham/New York/Oxford: University Press of America. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-1578-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-1578-5"><bdi>978-0-7618-1578-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hardness+of+Heart+%2F+Hardness+of+Life%3A+The+Stain+of+Human+Infanticide&rft.place=Lanham%2FNew+York%2FOxford&rft.pub=University+Press+of+America&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7618-1578-5&rft.aulast=Milner&rft.aufirst=Larry+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHofferHull1981" class="citation book cs1">Hoffer, Peter; Hull, N.E.H. (1981). Murdering Mothers: Infanticide in England and America, 1558–1803. New York: New York University Press. p. 3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Murdering+Mothers%3A+Infanticide+in+England+and+America%2C+1558%E2%80%931803&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Hoffer&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Hull%2C+N.E.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimons1989" class="citation journal cs1">Simons, Elwyn L. (1989). "Human origins". <a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a>. 245 (4924): 1344. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989Sci...245.1343S">1989Sci...245.1343S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.2506640">10.1126/science.2506640</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2506640">2506640</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:38430465">38430465</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Human+origins&rft.volume=245&rft.issue=4924&rft.pages=1344&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.2506640&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A38430465%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F2506640&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1989Sci...245.1343S&rft.aulast=Simons&rft.aufirst=Elwyn+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLullMicoRihueteRisch2006" class="citation book cs1">Lull, Vicente; Mico, R.; Rihuete, C.; Risch, R. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marqalicante.com/Publicaciones/es/PEINANDO-LA-MUERTE-RITUALES-DE-VIDA-Y-MUERTE-EN-LA-PREHISTORIA-DE-MENORCA-P21.html">Peinando la Muerte: Rituales de vida y muerte en la prehistoria de menorca</a>. Barcelona: Museo Arqueológico de Alicante. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231111073025/https://www.marqalicante.com/Publicaciones/es/PEINANDO-LA-MUERTE-RITUALES-DE-VIDA-Y-MUERTE-EN-LA-PREHISTORIA-DE-MENORCA-P21.html">Archived</a> from the original on 11 November 2023. Retrieved 24 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peinando+la+Muerte%3A+Rituales+de+vida+y+muerte+en+la+prehistoria+de+menorca&rft.place=Barcelona&rft.pub=Museo+Arqueol%C3%B3gico+de+Alicante&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Lull&rft.aufirst=Vicente&rft.au=Mico%2C+R.&rft.au=Rihuete%2C+C.&rft.au=Risch%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.marqalicante.com%2FPublicaciones%2Fes%2FPEINANDO-LA-MUERTE-RITUALES-DE-VIDA-Y-MUERTE-EN-LA-PREHISTORIA-DE-MENORCA-P21.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReinhardMaria_Stenzel1999" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Johan_Reinhard" title="Johan Reinhard">Reinhard, Johan</a>; Maria Stenzel (November 1999). "A 6,700 metros niños incas sacrificados quedaron congelados en el tiempo". <a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_(magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Geographic (magazine)">National Geographic</a>: 36–55.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic&rft.atitle=A+6%2C700+metros+ni%C3%B1os+incas+sacrificados+quedaron+congelados+en+el+tiempo&rft.pages=36-55&rft.date=1999-11&rft.aulast=Reinhard&rft.aufirst=Johan&rft.au=Maria+Stenzel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080506113520/http://www.exn.ca/mummies/story.asp?id=1999041452">"Discovery Channel: The mystery of Inca child sacrifice"</a>. Exn.ca. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.exn.ca/mummies/story.asp?id=1999041452">the original</a> on 6 May 2008. Retrieved 18 July 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Discovery+Channel%3A+The+mystery+of+Inca+child+sacrifice&rft.pub=Exn.ca&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.exn.ca%2Fmummies%2Fstory.asp%3Fid%3D1999041452&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Sahagún1950–1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bernardino_de_Sahag%C3%BAn" title="Bernardino de Sahagún">de Sahagún, Bernardino</a> (1950–1982). <a href="/wiki/Florentine_Codex" title="Florentine Codex">Florentine Codex: History of the Things of New Spain</a>. Utah: University of Utah Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Florentine+Codex%3A+History+of+the+Things+of+New+Spain&rft.place=Utah&rft.pub=University+of+Utah+Press&rft.date=1950%2F1982&rft.aulast=de+Sahag%C3%BAn&rft.aufirst=Bernardino&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTort2017" class="citation book cs1">Tort, César (2017). Day of Wrath. Minneapolis: Daybreak. p. 165. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-291-88444-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-291-88444-9"><bdi>978-1-291-88444-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Day+of+Wrath&rft.place=Minneapolis&rft.pages=165&rft.pub=Daybreak&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-291-88444-9&rft.aulast=Tort&rft.aufirst=C%C3%A9sar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Egypt and the Egyptians, Emily Teeter, p. 97, Cambridge University Press, 1999, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521449847" title="Special:BookSources/0521449847">0521449847</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> "Eroticism and Infanticide at Ashkelon", Lawrence E. Stager, Biblical Archaeology Review, July/August 1991 </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> Folkways: A Study of Mores, Manners, Customs and Morals, <a href="/wiki/William_Graham_Sumner" title="William Graham Sumner">William Graham Sumner</a>, p. 318, org pub 1906, Cosmo 2007, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1602067585" title="Special:BookSources/978-1602067585">978-1602067585</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Life in Ancient Egypt, <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Erman" title="Adolf Erman">Adolf Erman</a>, Translated by H. M. Tirard, p. 141, org pub 1894, republished Kessinger 2003, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7661-7660-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7661-7660-6">0-7661-7660-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Ancient Egypt, David P. Silverman, p. 13, Oxford University Press US, 2003, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-521952-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-521952-X">0-19-521952-X</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Ian Shaw, p. 54, Oxford University Press, 2002, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-280293-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-280293-3">0-19-280293-3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> Of God and Gods, Jan Assmann, p. 32, University of Wisconsin Press, 2008, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-299-22554-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-299-22554-2">0-299-22554-2</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brown_1991-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brown_1991_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brown_1991_23-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1991" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Shelby (1991). Late Carthaginian Child Sacrifice and Sacrificial Monuments in their Mediterranean Context. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Late+Carthaginian+Child+Sacrifice+and+Sacrificial+Monuments+in+their+Mediterranean+Context&rft.place=Sheffield&rft.pub=Sheffield+Academic+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Shelby&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Sergio Ribichini, "Beliefs and Religious Life" in Moscati, Sabatino (ed), The Phoenicians, 1988, p.141 </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1991" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Shelby (1991). Late Carthaginian Child Sacrifice and Sacrificial Monuments in their Mediterranean Context. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press. pp. 22–23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Late+Carthaginian+Child+Sacrifice+and+Sacrificial+Monuments+in+their+Mediterranean+Context&rft.place=Sheffield&rft.pages=22-23&rft.pub=Sheffield+Academic+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Shelby&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStagerSamuel_R._Wolff1984" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Stager" title="Lawrence Stager">Stager, Lawrence</a>; Samuel R. Wolff (1984). "Child sacrifice at Carthage – religious rite or population control?". <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Archaeology_Review" title="Biblical Archaeology Review">Biblical Archaeology Review</a>. 10 (Jan/Feb): 31–51.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biblical+Archaeology+Review&rft.atitle=Child+sacrifice+at+Carthage+%E2%80%93+religious+rite+or+population+control%3F&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=Jan%2FFeb&rft.pages=31-51&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Stager&rft.aufirst=Lawrence&rft.au=Samuel+R.+Wolff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHughes1991" class="citation book cs1">Hughes, Dennis D. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/humansacrificean00hugh">Human Sacrifice in Ancient Greece</a>. Routledge. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/humansacrificean00hugh/page/n201">187</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-03483-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-03483-8"><bdi>978-0-415-03483-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Human+Sacrifice+in+Ancient+Greece&rft.pages=187&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-415-03483-8&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=Dennis+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhumansacrificean00hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Robert Garland, "Mother and child in the Greek world" History Today (March 1986), Vol. 36, pp 40-46 </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Sarah_B._Pomeroy" title="Sarah B. Pomeroy">Sarah B. Pomeroy</a>, "Infanticide in Hellenistic Greece" in Images of women in antiquity (Wayne State Univ Press, 1983), pp 207-222. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> Richard Harrow Feen, "The historical dimensions of infanticide and abortion: the experience of classical Greece" The Linacre Quarterly, vol 51 Aug 1984, pp 248-254. </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunn_PM2006" class="citation journal cs1">Dunn PM (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2672651">"Aristotle (384–322 BCE): philosopher and scientist of ancient Greece"</a>. Archives of Disease in Childhood: Fetal and Neonatal Edition. 91 (1): F75–77. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fadc.2005.074534">10.1136/adc.2005.074534</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2672651">2672651</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16371395">16371395</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archives+of+Disease+in+Childhood%3A+Fetal+and+Neonatal+Edition&rft.atitle=Aristotle+%28384%E2%80%93322+BCE%29%3A+philosopher+and+scientist+of+ancient+Greece&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=F75-77&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2672651%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16371395&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fadc.2005.074534&rft.au=Dunn+PM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2672651&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> (Alternate translation: "let there be a law that no deformed child shall be reared") <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:abo:tlg,0086,035:7:1335b">Politics, Book VII, section 1335b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220513082601/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:abo:tlg,0086,035:7:1335b">Archived</a> 13 May 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> See Plutarch's Life of Lycurgus. </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> See (e.g.) Budin 2004, 122–23. </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhilo1950" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a> (1950). The Special Laws. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. III, XX.117, Volume VII, pp. 118, 551, 549.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Special+Laws&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=III%2C+XX.117%2C+Volume+VII%2C+pp.+118%2C+551%2C+549&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1950&rft.au=Philo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences-and-law/anthropology-and-archaeology/customs-and-artifacts/infanticide">"Infanticide | Encyclopedia.com"</a>. www.encyclopedia.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220323013809/https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences-and-law/anthropology-and-archaeology/customs-and-artifacts/infanticide">Archived</a> from the original on 23 March 2022. Retrieved 23 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.encyclopedia.com&rft.atitle=Infanticide+%7C+Encyclopedia.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fsocial-sciences-and-law%2Fanthropology-and-archaeology%2Fcustoms-and-artifacts%2Finfanticide&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Woolf2007-37"><a href="#cite_ref-Woolf2007_37-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreg_Woolf2007" class="citation book cs1">Greg Woolf (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=94NuSg3tlsgC&q=letter+pregnant">Ancient civilizations: the illustrated guide to belief, mythology, and art</a>. 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New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 138. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512559-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512559-7"><bdi>978-0-19-512559-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Islam&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=138&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-19-512559-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6VeCWQfVNjkC%26pg%3DPA138&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a>, XVII:31. Other passages condemning infanticide in the Qur'an appear in LXXXI:8–9, XVI:60–62, XVII:42 and XLII:48. </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennan1871" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Kennan_(explorer)" title="George Kennan (explorer)">Kennan, George</a> (1871). Tent Life in Siberia. New York: Gibbs Smith.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tent+Life+in+Siberia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Gibbs+Smith&rft.date=1871&rft.aulast=Kennan&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-monster-63"><a href="#cite_ref-monster_63-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/amelia-dyer-the-woman-who-murdered-300-babies-8507570.html">"Amelia Dyer: the woman who murdered 300 babies"</a>. The Independent. Retrieved 29 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Amelia+Dyer%3A+the+woman+who+murdered+300+babies&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fuk%2Fcrime%2Famelia-dyer-the-woman-who-murdered-300-babies-8507570.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaller" class="citation web cs1">Haller, Dorothy L. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190523012357/http://people.loyno.edu/~history/journal/1989-0/haller.htm">"Bastardy and Baby Farming in Victorian England"</a>. Loyola University New Orleans. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://people.loyno.edu/~history/journal/1989-0/haller.htm">the original</a> on 23 May 2019. Retrieved 31 August 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Loyola+University+New+Orleans&rft.atitle=Bastardy+and+Baby+Farming+in+Victorian+England&rft.aulast=Haller&rft.aufirst=Dorothy+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpeople.loyno.edu%2F~history%2Fjournal%2F1989-0%2Fhaller.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://find.galegroup.com/ttda/infomark.do?&source=gale&prodId=TTDA&userGroupName=rtl_ttda&tabID=T003&docPage=article&searchType=&docId=CS135043741&type=multipage&contentSet=LTO&version=1.0">"Infanticide in London"</a>. The Times [London, England]. 29 April 1862. p. 8. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190605020856/http://find.galegroup.com/ttda/infomark.do">Archived</a> from the original on 5 June 2019. Retrieved 31 August 2018 – via The Times Digital Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Times+%5BLondon%2C+England%5D&rft.atitle=Infanticide+in+London&rft.pages=8&rft.date=1862-04-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffind.galegroup.com%2Fttda%2Finfomark.do%3F%26source%3Dgale%26prodId%3DTTDA%26userGroupName%3Drtl_ttda%26tabID%3DT003%26docPage%3Darticle%26searchType%3D%26docId%3DCS135043741%26type%3Dmultipage%26contentSet%3DLTO%26version%3D1.0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002148/18950201/084/0006">"Trafficking in Babies. An Interview with Coroner Braxton Hicks"</a>. Leicester Daily Post. 1 February 1895. p. 6 – via British Newspaper Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Leicester+Daily+Post&rft.atitle=Trafficking+in+Babies.+An+Interview+with+Coroner+Braxton+Hicks&rft.pages=6&rft.date=1895-02-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk%2Fviewer%2Fbl%2F0002148%2F18950201%2F084%2F0006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonovanRubery2012" class="citation book cs1">Donovan, Stephen; Rubery, Matthew (2012). "Herbert Cadett. Massacre of the Innocents". Secret Commissions: An Anthology of Victorian Investigative Journalism. Peterborough, Ontario: Broadview Press. pp. 232–69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55111-330-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55111-330-2"><bdi>978-1-55111-330-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Herbert+Cadett.+Massacre+of+the+Innocents&rft.btitle=Secret+Commissions%3A+An+Anthology+of+Victorian+Investigative+Journalism&rft.place=Peterborough%2C+Ontario&rft.pages=232-69&rft.pub=Broadview+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-55111-330-2&rft.aulast=Donovan&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft.au=Rubery%2C+Matthew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Offering1865-68"><a href="#cite_ref-Offering1865_68-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1VwEAAAAQAAJ">"Burying Babies in China"</a>. Wesleyan Juvenile Offering. XXII: 40. March 1865. Retrieved 1 December 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wesleyan+Juvenile+Offering&rft.atitle=Burying+Babies+in+China&rft.volume=XXII&rft.pages=40&rft.date=1865-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1VwEAAAAQAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Makeham2008-69"><a href="#cite_ref-Makeham2008_69-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Makeham2008" class="citation book cs1">John Makeham (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TQ4NAQAAMAAJ&q=child">China: The World's Oldest Living Civilization Revealed</a>. Thames & Hudson. pp. 134–35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-25142-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-25142-3"><bdi>978-0-500-25142-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%3A+The+World%27s+Oldest+Living+Civilization+Revealed&rft.pages=134-35&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-500-25142-3&rft.au=John+Makeham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTQ4NAQAAMAAJ%26q%3Dchild&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYu-Lan1952" class="citation book cs1">Yu-Lan, Fung (1952). A History of Chinese Philosophy. Princeton: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. p. 327.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Chinese+Philosophy&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pages=327&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1952&rft.aulast=Yu-Lan&rft.aufirst=Fung&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYao1983" class="citation book cs1">Yao, Esther S. Lee (1983). Chinese Women: Past and Present. Mesquite: Ide House. p. 75.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Women%3A+Past+and+Present&rft.place=Mesquite&rft.pages=75&rft.pub=Ide+House&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Yao&rft.aufirst=Esther+S.+Lee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_Z._LeeCameron_D._Campbell" class="citation book cs1">James Z. Lee; Cameron D. Campbell. Fate and fortune in rural China: social organization and population behavior in Liaoning, 1774–1873. p. 70.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fate+and+fortune+in+rural+China%3A+social+organization+and+population+behavior+in+Liaoning%2C+1774%E2%80%931873&rft.pages=70&rft.au=James+Z.+Lee&rft.au=Cameron+D.+Campbell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolo1965" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Polo, Marco</a> (1965). The Travels. Middlesex: <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>. p. 174.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Travels&rft.place=Middlesex&rft.pages=174&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Polo&rft.aufirst=Marco&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_E._Mungello" class="citation book cs1">David E. Mungello. Drowning girls in China: female infanticide since 1650. pp. 5–8.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Drowning+girls+in+China%3A+female+infanticide+since+1650&rft.pages=5-8&rft.au=David+E.+Mungello&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michelle_T._King" title="Michelle T. King">King, Michelle Tien</a>. Drowning daughters: A cultural history of female infanticide in late nineteenth-century China.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Drowning+daughters%3A+A+cultural+history+of+female+infanticide+in+late+nineteenth-century+China&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=Michelle+Tien&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_Z._LeeCameron_D._Campbell" class="citation book cs1">James Z. Lee; Cameron D. Campbell. Fate and fortune in rural China: social organization and population behavior in Liaoning, 1774–1873. pp. 58–82.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fate+and+fortune+in+rural+China%3A+social+organization+and+population+behavior+in+Liaoning%2C+1774%E2%80%931873&rft.pages=58-82&rft.au=James+Z.+Lee&rft.au=Cameron+D.+Campbell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> Bernice J. Lee, "Female Infanticide in China." Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques 8#3 (1981), pp. 163–77 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41298766">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201121005656/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41298766">Archived</a> 21 November 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_Hamilton_Jefferys1910" class="citation book cs1">William Hamilton Jefferys (1910). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/diseaseschinain00maxwgoog">The Diseases of China, including Formosa and Korea</a>. Philadelphia: P. Blakiston's son & Co. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/diseaseschinain00maxwgoog/page/n290">258</a>. Retrieved 20 December 2011. <q>Chinese children make delightful patients. They respond readily to kindness and are in every way satisfactory from a professional point of view. Not infrequently simply good feeding and plenty of oxygen will work the most marvelous cures. Permission is almost invariably asked to remain with the child in the hospital, and it is far better to grant the request, since, after a few days when all is well and the child is happy, the adult will gladly enough withdraw. Meanwhile, much has been gained. Whereas the effort to argue parents into leaving a child at once and the difficulty of winning the frightened child are enormous. The Chinese infant usually has a pretty good start in life. "Infanticide does not prevail to the extent so generally believed among us, and in the north, it does not exist at all."—Dudgeon, Peking.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Diseases+of+China%2C+including+Formosa+and+Korea&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=258&rft.pub=P.+Blakiston%27s+son+%26+Co.&rft.date=1910&rft.au=William+Hamilton+Jefferys&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdiseaseschinain00maxwgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhfpc.gov.cn/fzs/s3576/201808/45d292b302b4422ab9b0ffc8723924d6.shtml">"《禁止非医学需要的胎儿性别鉴定和选择性别人工终止妊娠的规定》"</a>. National Health and Family Planning Commission of China (in Chinese).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Health+and+Family+Planning+Commission+of+China&rft.atitle=%E3%80%8A%E7%A6%81%E6%AD%A2%E9%9D%9E%E5%8C%BB%E5%AD%A6%E9%9C%80%E8%A6%81%E7%9A%84%E8%83%8E%E5%84%BF%E6%80%A7%E5%88%AB%E9%89%B4%E5%AE%9A%E5%92%8C%E9%80%89%E6%8B%A9%E6%80%A7%E5%88%AB%E4%BA%BA%E5%B7%A5%E7%BB%88%E6%AD%A2%E5%A6%8A%E5%A8%A0%E7%9A%84%E8%A7%84%E5%AE%9A%E3%80%8B&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nhfpc.gov.cn%2Ffzs%2Fs3576%2F201808%2F45d292b302b4422ab9b0ffc8723924d6.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cache.baiducontent.com/c?m=9d78d513d9d431d94f99e4697b12c016124381132ba7d5020ed18449e3732d41501695ac51210777d6d27d1716d94b4b9dfa2104371453c48cc9f85dadbc8559299c60742e13dc0754910eaeb85b388465d54de9d845bdeeb26384aea586821044ca2454269da4c31b1d55cb68f5102ce3a49a4217550dbcea6665f45927289d2310b041f9e0613e0cd1f489081dc92fd0601a97a963b42912c252fe59447a&p=81759a4ed08318b30be296351154&newp=8b2a971c899e11a053eb8c3e525e92695d0fc20e3dd1c44324b9d71fd325001c1b69e7bf2d221606d9c47e6406af4f58e0f23370301766dada9fca458ae7c47170d5&user=baidu&fm=sc&query=%BD%FB%D6%B9%B7%C7%D2%BD%D1%A7%D0%E8%D2%AA%B5%C4&qid=b4525e840005e09d&p1=2">Alt URL</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> Diseases or abnormal will be affected by gender. Such as <a href="/wiki/Duchenne_muscular_dystrophy" title="Duchenne muscular dystrophy">Duchenne muscular dystrophy</a> will effect boy if his mother carry the gene. </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> See Associated Press article <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.phillyburbs.com/pb-dyn/news/27-12142004-416868.html">US State Department position</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070226032823/http://www.phillyburbs.com/pb-dyn/news/27-12142004-416868.html">Archived</a> February 26, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> See Amnesty International's report on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amnesty.ie/content/view/full/1683/">violence against women in China</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061009055656/http://www.amnesty.ie/content/view/full/1683/">Archived</a> 2006-10-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190503122241/http://news.163.com/15/1029/18/B746VT6C0001124J.html">"中共全会公报允许普遍二孩政策"</a>. Wangyi News (in Chinese). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.163.com/15/1029/18/B746VT6C0001124J.html">the original</a> on 3 May 2019. Retrieved 3 May 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Wangyi+News&rft.atitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%B1%E5%85%A8%E4%BC%9A%E5%85%AC%E6%8A%A5%E5%85%81%E8%AE%B8%E6%99%AE%E9%81%8D%E4%BA%8C%E5%AD%A9%E6%94%BF%E7%AD%96&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.163.com%2F15%2F1029%2F18%2FB746VT6C0001124J.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theinterim.com/issues/abortion/steve-mosher%E2%80%99s-china-report/">"Steve Mosher's China report"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190828224837/http://www.theinterim.com/issues/abortion/steve-mosher%E2%80%99s-china-report/">Archived</a> 28 August 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> The Interim, 1986 </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gendercide.org/case_infanticide.html">"Case Study: Female Infanticide"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080421141103/http://www.gendercide.org/case_infanticide.html">Archived</a> 2008-04-21 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Gendercide Watch, 2000 </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.allgirlsallowed.org/infanticide-china-statistics">"Infanticide Statistics: Infanticide in China"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121101014043/http://www.allgirlsallowed.org/infanticide-china-statistics">Archived</a> 2012-11-01 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> AllGirlsAllowed.org, 2010 </li> <li id="cite_note-czg-87"><a href="#cite_ref-czg_87-0">^</a> Christophe Z Guilmoto, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20120604063319/https://www.unfpa.org/webdav/site/global/shared/documents/Guilmoto_Revised_presentation_Hanoi_Oct2011.pdf">Sex imbalances at birth Trends, consequences and policy implications</a> United Nations Population Fund, Hanoi (October 2011) </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.china.com/news100/11038989/20170619/30772432.html">"2017重磅!超生、非婚生子女也能上户口了, 这7类人可合法落户!"</a> (in Chinese). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190503122243/https://news.china.com/news100/11038989/20170619/30772432.html">Archived</a> from the original on 3 May 2019. Retrieved 3 May 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=2017%E9%87%8D%E7%A3%85%21%E8%B6%85%E7%94%9F%E3%80%81%E9%9D%9E%E5%A9%9A%E7%94%9F%E5%AD%90%E5%A5%B3%E4%B9%9F%E8%83%BD%E4%B8%8A%E6%88%B7%E5%8F%A3%E4%BA%86%2C+%E8%BF%997%E7%B1%BB%E4%BA%BA%E5%8F%AF%E5%90%88%E6%B3%95%E8%90%BD%E6%88%B7%21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.china.com%2Fnews100%2F11038989%2F20170619%2F30772432.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShionoAtoyo_MayaNoriko_TabataMasataka_Fujiwara1986" class="citation journal cs1">Shiono, Hiroshi; Atoyo Maya; Noriko Tabata; Masataka Fujiwara; Jun-ich Azumi; Mashahiko Morita (1986). "Medicolegal aspects of infanticide in Hokkaido District, Japan". American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology. 7 (2): 104–06. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2F00000433-198607020-00004">10.1097/00000433-198607020-00004</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3740005">3740005</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:483615">483615</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Forensic+Medicine+and+Pathology&rft.atitle=Medicolegal+aspects+of+infanticide+in+Hokkaido+District%2C+Japan&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=104-06&rft.date=1986&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A483615%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F3740005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2F00000433-198607020-00004&rft.aulast=Shiono&rft.aufirst=Hiroshi&rft.au=Atoyo+Maya&rft.au=Noriko+Tabata&rft.au=Masataka+Fujiwara&rft.au=Jun-ich+Azumi&rft.au=Mashahiko+Morita&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1973/12/08/archives/infanticide-in-japan-sign-of-the-times-daughters-spared.html">"Infanticide in Japan: Sign of the Times?"</a>. The New York Times. 8 December 1973. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180303230043/https://www.nytimes.com/1973/12/08/archives/infanticide-in-japan-sign-of-the-times-daughters-spared.html">Archived</a> from the original on 3 March 2018. Retrieved 1 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Infanticide+in+Japan%3A+Sign+of+the+Times%3F&rft.date=1973-12-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1973%2F12%2F08%2Farchives%2Finfanticide-in-japan-sign-of-the-times-daughters-spared.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVaux1989" class="citation book cs1">Vaux, Kenneth (1989). Birth Ethics. New York: Crossroad. p. 12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Birth+Ethics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Crossroad&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Vaux&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrixlerMatsuzaki2024" class="citation journal cs1">Drixler, Fabian; Matsuzaki, Reo (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00323292241253135">"Façade Fictions: False Statistics and Spheres of Autonomy in Meiji Japan"</a>. Politics & Society. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F00323292241253135">10.1177/00323292241253135</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0032-3292">0032-3292</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Politics+%26+Society&rft.atitle=Fa%C3%A7ade+Fictions%3A+False+Statistics+and+Spheres+of+Autonomy+in+Meiji+Japan&rft.date=2024&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F00323292241253135&rft.issn=0032-3292&rft.aulast=Drixler&rft.aufirst=Fabian&rft.au=Matsuzaki%2C+Reo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1177%2F00323292241253135&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,770452,00.html">"Science: Japanese Twins"</a>. Time. 9 November 1936. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190606223356/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,770452,00.html">Archived</a> from the original on 6 June 2019. Retrieved 19 March 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=Science%3A+Japanese+Twins&rft.date=1936-11-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcontent.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C770452%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Juvenile1852-94"><a href="#cite_ref-Juvenile1852_94-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/download/wesleyanjuvenil08socigoog/wesleyanjuvenil08socigoog.pdf">"Hindoo Woman and Child"</a> (PDF). The Wesleyan Juvenile Offering: A Miscellany of Missionary Information for Young Persons. IX: 24. March 1852. Retrieved 24 February 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Wesleyan+Juvenile+Offering%3A+A+Miscellany+of+Missionary+Information+for+Young+Persons&rft.atitle=Hindoo+Woman+and+Child&rft.volume=IX&rft.pages=24&rft.date=1852-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdownload%2Fwesleyanjuvenil08socigoog%2Fwesleyanjuvenil08socigoog.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Juvenile1853-95"><a href="#cite_ref-Juvenile1853_95-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil19socigoog">"Hindoo Mother Sacrificing her infant"</a>. The Wesleyan Juvenile Offering: A Miscellany of Missionary Information for Young Persons. X: 120. November 1853. Retrieved 29 February 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Wesleyan+Juvenile+Offering%3A+A+Miscellany+of+Missionary+Information+for+Young+Persons&rft.atitle=Hindoo+Mother+Sacrificing+her+infant&rft.volume=X&rft.pages=120&rft.date=1853-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwesleyanjuvenil19socigoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestermarck1968" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Westermarck" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Westermarck">Westermarck, Edward</a> (1968). A Short History of Marriage. 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New York: William Morrow & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-22384-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-22384-0"><bdi>978-0-333-22384-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Human+Sacrifice&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=William+Morrow+%26+Co&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-333-22384-0&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStaff_reporter2011" class="citation news cs1">Staff reporter (11 July 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/2011-census-average-literacy-rate-improves-in-krishnagiri-district/article2217649.ece">"2011 census: average literacy rate improves in Krishnagiri district"</a>. The Hindu. Chennai, India. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130427195220/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/2011-census-average-literacy-rate-improves-in-krishnagiri-district/article2217649.ece">Archived</a> from the original on 27 April 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hindu&rft.atitle=2011+census%3A+average+literacy+rate+improves+in+Krishnagiri+district&rft.date=2011-07-11&rft.au=Staff+reporter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thehindu.com%2Ftodays-paper%2Ftp-national%2Ftp-tamilnadu%2F2011-census-average-literacy-rate-improves-in-krishnagiri-district%2Farticle2217649.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeVine1981" class="citation book cs1">LeVine, Sarah and Robert LeVine (1981). "Child abuse and neglect in Sub-Saharan Africa". In Korbin, Jill (ed.). Child Abuse and Neglect. Berkeley: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. p. 39.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Child+abuse+and+neglect+in+Sub-Saharan+Africa&rft.btitle=Child+Abuse+and+Neglect&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pages=39&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=LeVine&rft.aufirst=Sarah+and+Robert+LeVine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSoy2018" class="citation news cs1">Soy, Anne (27 September 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-45670750">"Infanticide in Kenya: 'I was told to kill my disabled baby'"</a>. BBC News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190610225502/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-45670750">Archived</a> from the original on 10 June 2019. Retrieved 27 September 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Infanticide+in+Kenya%3A+%27I+was+told+to+kill+my+disabled+baby%27&rft.date=2018-09-27&rft.aulast=Soy&rft.aufirst=Anne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-africa-45670750&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Berndt-Berndt-p470-102">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Berndt-Berndt-p470_102-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Berndt-Berndt-p470_102-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerndtBerndt1977" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Berndt" title="Ronald Berndt">Berndt, Ronald M.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Berndt" title="Catherine Berndt">Berndt, Catherine H.</a> (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldoffirstaust00bern">The World of the First Australians</a> (2 ed.). Sydney: Ure Smith. p. 470. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7254-0272-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7254-0272-3"><bdi>978-0-7254-0272-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+of+the+First+Australians&rft.place=Sydney&rft.pages=470&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Ure+Smith&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-7254-0272-3&rft.aulast=Berndt&rft.aufirst=Ronald+M.&rft.au=Berndt%2C+Catherine+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fworldoffirstaust00bern&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article63170296">"My First Born"</a>. Australian News for Home Readers. Victoria, Australia. 20 January 1866. p. 5. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200526151041/https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/63170296/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 May 2020. Retrieved 13 April 2013 – via National Library of Australia.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Australian+News+for+Home+Readers&rft.atitle=My+First+Born&rft.pages=5&rft.date=1866-01-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnla.gov.au%2Fnla.news-article63170296&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Aboriginalviolence'Sanitised'2007-104"><a href="#cite_ref-Aboriginalviolence'Sanitised'2007_104-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJustine_Ferrari2007" class="citation news cs1">Justine Ferrari (7 July 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/nation/aboriginal-violence-was-sanitised/story-e6frg6nf-1111113906387">"Aboriginal violence was 'sanitised '"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Australian" title="The Australian">The Australian</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200526151048/https://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/nation/aboriginal-violence-was-sanitised/story-e6frg6nf-1111113906387?nk=aee3ce3213cb87117e716c2f6edf4505-1590505847%2F">Archived</a> from the original on 26 May 2020. Retrieved 13 April 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Australian&rft.atitle=Aboriginal+violence+was+%27sanitised+%27&rft.date=2007-07-07&rft.au=Justine+Ferrari&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theaustralian.com.au%2Fnews%2Fnation%2Faboriginal-violence-was-sanitised%2Fstory-e6frg6nf-1111113906387&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231026114551/https://www.auswhn.org.au/blog/a-book-of-lies/">""A Book of Lies": Settler impressions of Aboriginal women"</a>. Australian Women's History Network. 7 May 2017. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.auswhn.org.au/blog/a-book-of-lies/">the original</a> on 26 October 2023. Retrieved 26 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Australian+Women%27s+History+Network&rft.atitle=%22A+Book+of+Lies%22%3A+Settler+impressions+of+Aboriginal+women&rft.date=2017-05-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.auswhn.org.au%2Fblog%2Fa-book-of-lies%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://networks.h-net.org/node/19399/reviews/168406/healy-conor-skin-deep-settler-impressions-aboriginal-women">"Healy on Conor, 'Skin Deep: Settler Impressions of Aboriginal Women'"</a>. H-Net. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231026114551/https://networks.h-net.org/node/19399/reviews/168406/healy-conor-skin-deep-settler-impressions-aboriginal-women">Archived</a> from the original on 26 October 2023. Retrieved 26 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=H-Net&rft.atitle=Healy+on+Conor%2C+%27Skin+Deep%3A+Settler+Impressions+of+Aboriginal+Women%27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnetworks.h-net.org%2Fnode%2F19399%2Freviews%2F168406%2Fhealy-conor-skin-deep-settler-impressions-aboriginal-women&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRubinstein2004" class="citation book cs1">Rubinstein, W. D. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA16">Genocide: a history</a>. Pearson Education. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-50601-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-50601-5"><bdi>978-0-582-50601-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genocide%3A+a+history&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-582-50601-5&rft.aulast=Rubinstein&rft.aufirst=W.+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnMMAk4VwLLwC%26pg%3DPA16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-VictorianAboriginalInfanticide-108">^ <a href="#cite_ref-VictorianAboriginalInfanticide_108-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-VictorianAboriginalInfanticide_108-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_Dawson1881" class="citation journal cs1">James Dawson (1881). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1948095">"Australian Aborigines: The Languages and Customs of Several Tribes of Aborigines in the Western District of Victoria, Australia"</a>. Nature. 24 (623): 529–30. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1881Natur..24..529T">1881Natur..24..529T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F024529a0">10.1038/024529a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4118217">4118217</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191202202336/https://zenodo.org/record/1948095">Archived</a> from the original on 2 December 2019. Retrieved 2 July 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Australian+Aborigines%3A+The+Languages+and+Customs+of+Several+Tribes+of+Aborigines+in+the+Western+District+of+Victoria%2C+Australia&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=623&rft.pages=529-30&rft.date=1881&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4118217%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F024529a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1881Natur..24..529T&rft.au=James+Dawson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1948095&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> Reprinted in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDawson2009" class="citation book cs1">Dawson, James (2009). Australian Aborigines: the Languages and Customs of Several Tribes of Aborigines in the Western District of Victoria, Australia. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-00655-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-00655-2"><bdi>978-1-108-00655-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Australian+Aborigines%3A+the+Languages+and+Customs+of+Several+Tribes+of+Aborigines+in+the+Western+District+of+Victoria%2C+Australia&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-108-00655-2&rft.aulast=Dawson&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RevLoveBabyBonus-109"><a href="#cite_ref-RevLoveBabyBonus_109-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article85590904">"Iron-Roofed Cottage as Baby Bonus"</a>. The Daily News. Perth, Western Australia. 11 March 1937. p. 2. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200314132645/https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/85590904">Archived</a> from the original on 14 March 2020. Retrieved 13 April 2013 – via National Library of Australia.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Daily+News&rft.atitle=Iron-Roofed+Cottage+as+Baby+Bonus&rft.pages=2&rft.date=1937-03-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnla.gov.au%2Fnla.news-article85590904&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CanberraBlacks1927-110"><a href="#cite_ref-CanberraBlacks1927_110-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFW._P._Bluett1927" class="citation news cs1">W. P. Bluett (21 May 1927). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article16374628">"Canberra Blacks. In early settlement days"</a>. The Sydney Morning Herald. p. 11. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200526151045/https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/16374628/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 May 2020. Retrieved 11 April 2013 – via National Library of Australia.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Sydney+Morning+Herald&rft.atitle=Canberra+Blacks.+In+early+settlement+days&rft.pages=11&rft.date=1927-05-21&rft.au=W.+P.+Bluett&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnla.gov.au%2Fnla.news-article16374628&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AustraliaSMH1928-111"><a href="#cite_ref-AustraliaSMH1928_111-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephen_Davies1928" class="citation news cs1">Stephen Davies (1 December 1928). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article16513617">"The Aboriginal. Our great waste product"</a>. The Sydney Morning Herald. p. 11. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200526151053/https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/16513617/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 May 2020. Retrieved 13 April 2013 – via National Library of Australia.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Sydney+Morning+Herald&rft.atitle=The+Aboriginal.+Our+great+waste+product&rft.pages=11&rft.date=1928-12-01&rft.au=Stephen+Davies&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnla.gov.au%2Fnla.news-article16513617&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Australia1999Brunton-112"><a href="#cite_ref-Australia1999Brunton_112-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRon_Brunton1999" class="citation web cs1">Ron Brunton (13 March 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130522000520/http://www.ipa.org.au/news/682/moral-dilemma-not-merely-a-question-of-black-and-white/pg/8">"Moral Dilemma Not Merely A Question of Black and White"</a>. Courier Mail. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ipa.org.au/news/682/moral-dilemma-not-merely-a-question-of-black-and-white/pg/8">the original</a> on 22 May 2013. Retrieved 13 April 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Moral+Dilemma+Not+Merely+A+Question+of+Black+and+White&rft.pub=Courier+Mail&rft.date=1999-03-13&rft.au=Ron+Brunton&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ipa.org.au%2Fnews%2F682%2Fmoral-dilemma-not-merely-a-question-of-black-and-white%2Fpg%2F8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHezel1983" class="citation book cs1">Hezel, Francis X. (1983). The First Taint of Civilization: A History of the Caroline and Marshall Islands in Pre-colonial Days, 1521–1885. Pacific Islands Monograph Series. 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Psychiatry. 8 (1): 10–12. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.mppsy.2008.10.017">10.1016/j.mppsy.2008.10.017</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191204175114/http://www.psychiatryjournal.co.uk/article/S1476-1793(08)00217-6/abstract">Archived</a> from the original on 4 December 2019. 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"Study on Confidential Birth and Safety Measures of Infants from Unmarried Mothers." SNU Open Repository and Archive: Study on Confidential Birth and Safety Measures of Infants from Unmarried Mothers, 서울대학교 대학원, August 2018, s-space.snu.ac.kr/handle/10371/137993#export_btn </li> <li id="cite_note-Fuse-211"><a href="#cite_ref-Fuse_211-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFuseCrenshaw,_E.M2006" class="citation journal cs1">Fuse, K; Crenshaw, E.M (2006). "Gender imbalance in infant mortality: A cross-national study of social structure and female infanticide". 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"poetical illustration". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=49BbAAAAQAAJ&pg=GBS.PA134">Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1838</a>. Fisher, Son & Co. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230309103017/https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=49BbAAAAQAAJ&pg=GBS.PA134">Archived</a> from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=poetical+illustration&rft.btitle=Fisher%27s+Drawing+Room+Scrap+Book%2C+1838&rft.pub=Fisher%2C+Son+%26+Co.&rft.date=1837&rft.aulast=Landon&rft.aufirst=Letitia+Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplay.google.com%2Fbooks%2Freader%3Fid%3D49BbAAAAQAAJ%26pg%3DGBS.PA134&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandon1837" class="citation book cs1">Landon, Letitia Elizabeth (1837). "picture". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=49BbAAAAQAAJ&pg=GBS.PA136">Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1838</a>. Fisher, Son & Co. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230309103021/https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=49BbAAAAQAAJ&pg=GBS.PA136">Archived</a> from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=picture&rft.btitle=Fisher%27s+Drawing+Room+Scrap+Book%2C+1838&rft.pub=Fisher%2C+Son+%26+Co.&rft.date=1837&rft.aulast=Landon&rft.aufirst=Letitia+Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplay.google.com%2Fbooks%2Freader%3Fid%3D49BbAAAAQAAJ%26pg%3DGBS.PA136&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfanticide" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=81" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Backhouse, Constance B. "Desperate women and compassionate courts: infanticide in nineteenth-century Canada." University of Toronto Law Journal 34.4 (1984): 447–78 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/825592">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230409084901/https://www.jstor.org/stable/825592">Archived</a> 9 April 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li>Bechtold, Brigitte H., and Donna Cooper Graves. "The ties that bind: Infanticide, gender, and society." History Compass 8.7 (2010): 704–17.</li> <li>Donovan, James M. "Infanticide and the Juries in France, 1825–1913." Journal of family history 16.2 (1991): 157–76.</li> <li>Feng, Wang; Campbell, Cameron; Lee, James. "Infant and Child Mortality among the Qing Nobility." Population Studies (Nov 1994) 48#3 pp. 395–411; many upper-class Chinese couples regularly used infanticide to control the number and sex of their infants.</li> <li>Giladi, Avner. "Some observations on infanticide in medieval Muslim society." International Journal of Middle East Studies 22.2 (1990): 185–200 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/163739">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230409082850/https://www.jstor.org/stable/163739">Archived</a> 9 April 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li>Hoffer, Peter, and N.E.H. Hull. Murdering Mothers: Infanticide in England and America, 1558–1803 (1981).</li> <li>Kilday, A. A History of Infanticide in Britain, c. 1600 to the Present (Springer, 2013).</li> <li>Langer, William L. "Infanticide: A historical survey." History of Childhood Quarterly: the Journal of Psychohistory 1.3 (1974): 353–65.</li> <li>Leboutte, René. "Offense against family order: infanticide in Belgium from the fifteenth through the early twentieth centuries." Journal of the History of Sexuality 2.2 (1991): 159–85.</li> <li>Lee, Bernice J. "Female infanticide in China." Historical Reflections/Réflexions Historiques (1981): 163–77 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41298766">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201121005656/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41298766">Archived</a> 21 November 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li>Lewis, Margaret Brannan. Infanticide and abortion in early modern Germany (Routledge, 2016).</li> <li>Mays, Simon. "Infanticide in Roman Britain." Antiquity 67.257 (1993): 883–88.</li> <li>Mungello, David Emil. Drowning girls in China: Female infanticide since 1650 (Rowman & Littlefield, 2008).</li> <li>Oberman, Michelle. "Mothers who kill: coming to terms with modern American infanticide." American Criminal Law Review 34 (1996) pp: 1–110 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.law.scu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1515&context=facpubs">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210116044629/https://digitalcommons.law.scu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1515&context=facpubs">Archived</a> 16 January 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li>Pomeroy, Sarah B. "Infanticide in Hellenistic Greece" in A. Cameron and A. Kuhrt, eds., Images of women in antiquity (Wayne State Univ Press, 1983), pp 207–222.</li> <li>Rose, Lionel. Massacre of the Innocents: Infanticide in Great Britain 1800–1939 (1986).</li> <li>Wheeler, Kenneth H. "Infanticide in nineteenth-century Ohio." Journal of Social History (1997): 407–18 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3789945">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230409084858/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3789945">Archived</a> 9 April 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infanticide&action=edit&section=82" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" 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