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href="#Information_processing_model:_the_working_memory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Information processing model: the working memory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Information_processing_model:_the_working_memory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cognitive_development_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cognitive_development_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Cognitive development theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cognitive_development_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input 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<div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Approach to understanding human thinking</div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive psychology</a>, <b>information processing</b> is an approach to the goal of understanding human thinking that treats <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognition</a> as essentially <a href="/wiki/Computing" title="Computing">computational</a> in nature, with the <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a> being the <i>software</i> and the <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a> being the <i>hardware</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShannon_&_Weaver1963_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShannon_&_Weaver1963-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It arose in the 1940s and 1950s, after World War II.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESternberg2012_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESternberg2012-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The information processing approach in psychology is closely allied to the <a href="/wiki/Computational_theory_of_mind" title="Computational theory of mind">computational theory of mind</a> in philosophy; it is also related to <a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">cognitivism</a> in psychology and <a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">functionalism</a> in philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHorst2011_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorst2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Two_types">Two types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_processing_(psychology)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Two types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Information processing may be <i>vertical</i> or <i>horizontal</i>, either of which may be <i>centralized</i> or <a href="/wiki/Decentralized" class="mw-redirect" title="Decentralized">decentralized</a> (<i>distributed</i>). The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Horizontally_distributed_processing&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Horizontally distributed processing (page does not exist)">horizontally distributed processing</a> approach of the mid-1980s became popular under the name <a href="/wiki/Connectionism" title="Connectionism">connectionism</a>. The connectionist network is made up of different nodes, and it works by a "priming effect," and this happens when a "prime node activates a connected node".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESternberg2012_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESternberg2012-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But "unlike in <a href="/wiki/Semantic_network" title="Semantic network">semantic networks</a>, it is not a single node that has a specific meaning, but rather the knowledge is represented in a combination of differently activated nodes"(Goldstein, as cited in Sternberg, 2012). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Models_and_theories">Models and theories</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_processing_(psychology)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Models and theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Information_processing_theory" title="Information processing theory">Information processing theory</a></div> <p>There are several proposed models or theories that describe the way in which we process information. Every individual has different information overload point with the same information load because individuals have different information-processing capacities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEppler_&_Mengis2004_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEppler_&_Mengis2004-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sternberg's_triarchic_theory_of_intelligence"><span id="Sternberg.27s_triarchic_theory_of_intelligence"></span>Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_processing_(psychology)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Robert_Sternberg" title="Robert Sternberg">Sternberg</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Triarchic_theory_of_intelligence" title="Triarchic theory of intelligence">theory of intelligence</a> is made up of three different components: creative, analytical, and practical abilities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESternberg2012_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESternberg2012-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Creativeness" class="mw-redirect" title="Creativeness">Creativeness</a> is the ability to have new original ideas, and being analytical can help a person decide whether the idea is a good one or not. "Practical abilities are used to implement the ideas and persuade others of their value".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESternberg201221_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESternberg201221-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the middle of Sternberg's theory is <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognition</a> and with that is information processing. In Sternberg's theory, he says that information processing is made up of three different parts, meta components, performance components, and knowledge-acquisition components.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESternberg2012_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESternberg2012-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These processes move from higher-order executive functions to lower-order functions. Meta components are used for planning and evaluating problems, while performance components follow the orders of the meta components, and the <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_acquisition" title="Knowledge acquisition">knowledge-acquisition</a> component learns how to solve the problems.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESternberg2012_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESternberg2012-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This theory in action can be explained by working on an art project. First is a decision about what to draw, then a plan and a sketch. During this process there is simultaneous monitoring of the process, and whether it is producing the desired accomplishment. All these steps fall under the meta component processing, and the performance component is the art. The knowledge-acquisition portion is the learning or improving drawing skills. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Information_processing_model:_the_working_memory">Information processing model: the working memory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_processing_(psychology)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Information processing model: the working memory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Information_Processing_Model_-_Atkinson_%26_Shiffrin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="information processing model with sensory memory, working, memory and long-term memory" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Information_Processing_Model_-_Atkinson_%26_Shiffrin.jpg/400px-Information_Processing_Model_-_Atkinson_%26_Shiffrin.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Information_Processing_Model_-_Atkinson_%26_Shiffrin.jpg/600px-Information_Processing_Model_-_Atkinson_%26_Shiffrin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Information_Processing_Model_-_Atkinson_%26_Shiffrin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="638" data-file-height="479" /></a><figcaption>Adapted from Atkinson, R.C. and Shiffrin, R.M. (1968). 'Human memory: A Proposed System and its Control Processes'.</figcaption></figure> <p>Information processing has been described as "the sciences concerned with gathering, manipulating, storing, retrieving, and classifying recorded information".<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the <a href="/wiki/Atkinson-Shiffrin_memory_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model">Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model</a> or multi-store model, for information to be firmly implanted in memory it must pass through three stages of mental processing: <a href="/wiki/Sensory_memory" title="Sensory memory">sensory memory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Short-term_memory" title="Short-term memory">short-term memory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Long-term_memory" title="Long-term memory">long-term memory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An example of this is the working memory model. This includes the central executive, phonologic loop, episodic buffer, visuospatial sketchpad, verbal information, long-term memory, and visual information.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESternberg2012_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESternberg2012-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The central executive is like the secretary of the brain. It decides what needs attention and how to respond. The central executive then leads to three different subsections. The first is phonological storage, subvocal rehearsal, and the phonological loop. These sections work together to understand words, put the information into memory, and then hold the memory. The result is verbal information storage. The next subsection is the visuospatial sketchpad which works to store visual images. The storage capacity is brief but leads to an understanding of visual stimuli. Finally, there is an episodic buffer. This section is capable of taking information and putting it into long-term memory. It is also able to take information from the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad, combining them with long-term memory to make "a unitary episodic representation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESternberg2012_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESternberg2012-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In order for these to work, the sensory register takes in via the five senses: visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, and taste. These are all present since birth and are able to handle simultaneous processing (e.g., food – taste it, smell it, see it). In general, learning benefits occur when there is a developed process of pattern recognition. The sensory register has a large capacity and its behavioral response is very short (1–3 seconds). Within this model, sensory store and short term memory or working memory has limited capacity. Sensory store is able to hold very limited amounts of information for very limited amounts of time. This phenomenon is very similar to having a picture taken with a flash. For a few brief moments after the flash goes off, the flash it seems to still be there. However, it is soon gone and there is no way to know it was there.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESternberg2012_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESternberg2012-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Short term memory holds information for slightly longer periods of time, but still has a limited capacity. According to Linden,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELinden2007_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELinden2007-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "The capacity of STM had initially been estimated at "<a href="/wiki/Seven_plus_or_minus_two" class="mw-redirect" title="Seven plus or minus two">seven plus or minus two</a>" items,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1956_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1956-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which fits the observation from neuropsychological testing that the average digit span of healthy adults is about seven.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan_et_al.2005_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan_et_al.2005-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it emerged that these numbers of items can only be retained if they are grouped into so-called chunks, using perceptual or conceptual associations between individual stimuli." Its duration is of 5–20 seconds before it is out of the subject's mind. This occurs often with names of people newly introduced to. Images or information based on meaning are stored here as well, but it decays without rehearsal or repetition of such information. On the other hand, long-term memory has a potentially unlimited capacity<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESternberg2012_2-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESternberg2012-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and its duration is as good as indefinite. Although sometimes it is difficult to access, it encompasses everything learned until this point in time. One might become forgetful or feel as if the information is on the <a href="/wiki/Tip_of_the_tongue" title="Tip of the tongue">tip of the tongue</a>. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cognitive_development_theory">Cognitive development theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_processing_(psychology)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Cognitive development theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another approach to viewing the ways in which information is processed in humans was suggested by <a href="/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Jean Piaget</a> in what is called the <i>Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPresnell1999_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPresnell1999-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Piaget developed his model based on development and growth. He identified four different stages between different age brackets characterized by the type of information and by a distinctive thought process. The four stages are: the sensorimotor (from birth to 2 years), preoperational (2–6 years), concrete operational (6–11 years), and formal operational periods (11 years and older). During the sensorimotor stage, newborns and toddlers rely on their senses for information processing to which they respond with reflexes. In the preoperational stage, children learn through imitation and remain unable to take other people's point of view. The concrete operational stage is characterized by the developing ability to use logic and to consider multiple factors to solve a problem. The last stage is the formal operational, in which preadolescents and adolescents begin to understand abstract concepts and to develop the ability to create arguments and counter arguments. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Furthermore, adolescence is characterized by a series of changes in the biological, cognitive, and social realms. In the cognitive area, the brain's <a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">prefrontal cortex</a> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Limbic_system" title="Limbic system">limbic system</a> undergoes important changes. The prefrontal cortex is the part of the brain that is active when engaged in complicated cognitive activities such as planning, generating goals and strategies, intuitive decision-making, and <a href="/wiki/Metacognition" title="Metacognition">metacognition</a> (thinking about thinking). This is consistent with Piaget's last stage of formal operations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLeod2010_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod2010-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The prefrontal cortex becomes complete between adolescence and early adulthood. The limbic system is the part of the brain that modulates reward sensitivity based on changes in the levels of <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitters</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Emotions" class="mw-redirect" title="Emotions">emotions</a>. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In short, cognitive abilities vary according to our development and stages in life. It is at the adult stage that we are better able to be better planners, process and comprehend abstract concepts, and evaluate risks and benefits more aptly than an adolescent or child would be able to. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In computing, <i>information processing</i> broadly refers to the use of algorithms to transform data—the defining activity of computers;<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> indeed, a broad computing professional organization is known as the International Federation for Information Processing (<a href="/wiki/IFIP" class="mw-redirect" title="IFIP">IFIP</a>). It is essentially synonymous with the terms <a href="/wiki/Data_processing" title="Data processing">data processing</a> or <a href="/wiki/Computation" title="Computation">computation</a>, although with a more general connotation.<sup id="cite_ref-Ralston2000_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ralston2000-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_processing_(psychology)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_engineering" title="Information engineering">Information engineering</a> – Engineering discipline</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_data_processing" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer data processing">Computer data processing</a> – Use of automated methods to process commercial data<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_processing_technology_and_aging" class="mw-redirect" title="Information processing technology and aging">Information processing technology and aging</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_processing_(psychology)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShannon_&_Weaver1963-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShannon_&_Weaver1963_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShannon_&_Weaver1963">Shannon & Weaver 1963</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESternberg2012-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESternberg2012_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESternberg2012_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESternberg2012_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESternberg2012_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESternberg2012_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESternberg2012_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESternberg2012_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESternberg2012_2-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESternberg2012_2-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSternberg2012">Sternberg 2012</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorst2011-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHorst2011_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHorst2011">Horst 2011</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEppler_&_Mengis2004-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEppler_&_Mengis2004_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEppler_&_Mengis2004">Eppler & Mengis 2004</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESternberg201221-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESternberg201221_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSternberg2012">Sternberg 2012</a>, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thefreedictionary.com/information+processing">"Definition of information processing"</a>. <i>The Free Dictionary</i>. Princeton University. 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 26,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Free+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Definition+of+information+processing&rft.date=2012&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thefreedictionary.com%2Finformation%2Bprocessing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+processing+%28psychology%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtkinsonShiffrin1968" class="citation book cs1">Atkinson, R.C.; Shiffrin, R.M. (1968). "Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes". <i>The Psychology of Learning and Motivation</i>. New York: Academic Press. pp. 89–195.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Human+memory%3A+A+proposed+system+and+its+control+processes&rft.btitle=The+Psychology+of+Learning+and+Motivation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=89-195&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Atkinson&rft.aufirst=R.C.&rft.au=Shiffrin%2C+R.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+processing+%28psychology%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELinden2007-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELinden2007_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLinden2007">Linden 2007</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1956-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1956_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiller1956">Miller 1956</a>.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFMiller1956 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan_et_al.2005-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan_et_al.2005_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowan_et_al.2005">Cowan et al. 2005</a>.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFCowan_et_al.2005 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPresnell1999-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPresnell1999_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPresnell1999">Presnell 1999</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod2010-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLeod2010_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcLeod2010">McLeod 2010</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIllingworth1997" class="citation book cs1">Illingworth, Valerie (11 December 1997). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofcomp00illi/page/241"><i>Dictionary of Computing</i></a></span>. Oxford Paperback Reference (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofcomp00illi/page/241">241</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780192800466" title="Special:BookSources/9780192800466"><bdi>9780192800466</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Computing&rft.series=Oxford+Paperback+Reference&rft.pages=241&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997-12-11&rft.isbn=9780192800466&rft.aulast=Illingworth&rft.aufirst=Valerie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdictionaryofcomp00illi%2Fpage%2F241&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+processing+%28psychology%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ralston2000-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ralston2000_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnthony_Ralston2000" class="citation book cs1">Anthony Ralston (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yQ9LAQAAIAAJ"><i>Encyclopedia of computer science</i></a>. Nature Pub. Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56159-248-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56159-248-7"><bdi>978-1-56159-248-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+computer+science&rft.pub=Nature+Pub.+Group&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-56159-248-7&rft.au=Anthony+Ralston&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyQ9LAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+processing+%28psychology%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_processing_(psychology)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDenning,_P._J.Bell,_T.2012" class="citation magazine cs1">Denning, P. J. & Bell, T. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americanscientist.org/article/the-information-paradox">"The Information Paradox"</a>. <i>American Scientist</i>. Vol. 100, no. 6. pp. 470–477. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1511%2F2012.99.470">10.1511/2012.99.470</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Scientist&rft.atitle=The+Information+Paradox&rft.volume=100&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=470-477&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1511%2F2012.99.470&rft.au=Denning%2C+P.+J.&rft.au=Bell%2C+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanscientist.org%2Farticle%2Fthe-information-paradox&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+processing+%28psychology%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorst2011" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Horst, Steven (Spring 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2011/entries/computational-mind/">"The Computational Theory of Mind"</a>. In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Spring 2011 ed.).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Computational+Theory+of+Mind&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Spring+2011&rft.date=2011&rft.au=Horst%2C+Steven&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fspr2011%2Fentries%2Fcomputational-mind%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+processing+%28psychology%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLehrl,_S.Fischer,_B.1990" class="citation journal cs1">Lehrl, S. & Fischer, B. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.v-weiss.de/lehrl-full.html">"A Basic Information Psychological Parameter (BIP) for the Reconstruction of Concepts of Intelligence"</a>. <i>European Journal of Personality</i>. <b>4</b> (4): 259–286. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fper.2410040402">10.1002/per.2410040402</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143547241">143547241</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Personality&rft.atitle=A+Basic+Information+Psychological+Parameter+%28BIP%29+for+the+Reconstruction+of+Concepts+of+Intelligence&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=259-286&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fper.2410040402&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143547241%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Lehrl%2C+S.&rft.au=Fischer%2C+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.v-weiss.de%2Flehrl-full.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+processing+%28psychology%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLinden2007" class="citation journal cs1">Linden, D. E. (2007). "The working memory networks of the human brain". <i>The Neuroscientist</i>. <b>13</b> (3): 257–269. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1073858406298480">10.1177/1073858406298480</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17519368">17519368</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:23799348">23799348</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Neuroscientist&rft.atitle=The+working+memory+networks+of+the+human+brain&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=257-269&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A23799348%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17519368&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1073858406298480&rft.au=Linden%2C+D.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+processing+%28psychology%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGonigle,_D.Mastrian,_K.2011" class="citation book cs1">McGonigle, D. & Mastrian, K. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://samples.jbpub.com/9781449631741/92367_CH02_017_032.pdf"><i>Introduction to information, information science, and information systems</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (2 ed.). Jones & Bartlett. p. 22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+information%2C+information+science%2C+and+information+systems&rft.pages=22&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett&rft.date=2011&rft.au=McGonigle%2C+D.&rft.au=Mastrian%2C+K.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsamples.jbpub.com%2F9781449631741%2F92367_CH02_017_032.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+processing+%28psychology%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLeod2010" class="citation web cs1">McLeod, S. A. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.simplypsychology.org/formal-operational.html">"Formal operational stage"</a>. <i>SimplyPsychology</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SimplyPsychology&rft.atitle=Formal+operational+stage&rft.date=2010&rft.au=McLeod%2C+S.+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.simplypsychology.org%2Fformal-operational.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+processing+%28psychology%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNake,_F.1974" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Frieder_Nake" title="Frieder Nake">Nake, F.</a> (1974). <i>Ästhetik als Informationsverarbeitung</i> [<i><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a> as information processing</i>] (in German). Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-211-81216-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-211-81216-7"><bdi>978-3-211-81216-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%C3%84sthetik+als+Informationsverarbeitung&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-3-211-81216-7&rft.au=Nake%2C+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+processing+%28psychology%29" class="Z3988"></span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-211-81216-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-211-81216-7">978-3-211-81216-7</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPresnell1999" class="citation web cs1">Presnell, F. 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Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+mathematical+theory+of+communication&rft.place=Urbana%2C+IL&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=1963&rft.au=Shannon%2C+C.&rft.au=Weaver%2C+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+processing+%28psychology%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinberg,_L.2010" class="citation book cs1">Steinberg, L. (2010). <i>Adolescence</i> (9th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Adolescence&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.edition=9th&rft.pub=McGraw+Hill&rft.date=2010&rft.au=Steinberg%2C+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+processing+%28psychology%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSternberg2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Sternberg" title="Robert Sternberg">Sternberg, R. J.</a> & Sternberg, K. (2012). <i>Cognitive psychology</i> (6th ed.). Belmont, California: Wadsworth. pp. 21, 193–205, 212–213.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cognitive+psychology&rft.place=Belmont%2C+California&rft.pages=21%2C+193-205%2C+212-213&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Wadsworth&rft.date=2012&rft.au=Sternberg%2C+R.+J.&rft.au=Sternberg%2C+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+processing+%28psychology%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEppler_&_Mengis2004" class="citation journal cs1">Eppler, M.J.; Mengis, J. (2004). "The Concept of Information Overload: A Review of Literature from Organization Science, Accounting, Marketing, MIS, and Related Disciplines". <i>The Information Society</i>. <b>20</b> (5): 325–344. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01972240490507974">10.1080/01972240490507974</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Information+Society&rft.atitle=The+Concept+of+Information+Overload%3A+A+Review+of+Literature+from+Organization+Science%2C+Accounting%2C+Marketing%2C+MIS%2C+and+Related+Disciplines&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=325-344&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01972240490507974&rft.au=Eppler%2C+M.J.&rft.au=Mengis%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+processing+%28psychology%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div 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style="width:1%">Information processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">information processes by function</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">attention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_influence" title="Social influence">influence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_control" title="Remote control">operating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_storage" class="mw-redirect" title="Information storage">storing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">decision-making</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">information processing abstractions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Event_processing" class="mw-redirect" title="Event processing">event processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">sign processesing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal" title="Signal">signal processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_processing" title="Data processing">data processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_processing" title="Stream processing">stream processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-agent_system" title="Multi-agent system">agent processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(computer_science)" title="State (computer science)">state processing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Information processors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">natural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_computing#Nature_as_information_processing" title="Natural computing">nature as information processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_processing_theory#Humans_as_Information_Processing_Systems" title="Information processing theory">humans as information processing systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_information_processing" title="Social information processing">society as information processing system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">mixed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_reality" title="Mixed reality">mixed reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface" title="Brain–computer interface">brain–computer interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_computing" title="Physical computing">physical computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">human–computer interaction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">artificial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Processor_(computing)" title="Processor (computing)">processors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Process_(computing)" title="Process (computing)">processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bio-inspired_computing" title="Bio-inspired computing">bio-inspired computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubiquitous_computing" title="Ubiquitous computing">ubiquitous computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_brain" title="Artificial brain">artificial brain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mind_uploading" title="Mind uploading">mind uploading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_reality" title="Virtual reality">virtual reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_world" title="Virtual world">virtual world</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Information processing <br />theories and concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">in biology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">computational</a> and <a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome_informatics" title="Genome informatics">genetic informatics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cellular_computing" class="mw-redirect" title="Cellular computing">cellular computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_neuroscience" title="Computational neuroscience">computational neuroscience</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neurocomputing" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurocomputing">neurocomputing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">in cognitive psychology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_processing_theory" title="Information processing theory">information processing theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_informatics" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive informatics">cognitive informatics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neuroinformatics" title="Neuroinformatics">neuroinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavior_informatics" title="Behavior informatics">behavior informatics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">in computer science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neural_computation" title="Neural computation">neural computation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_computation" title="Theory of computation">computation theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algorithms" class="mw-redirect" title="Algorithms">algorithms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Information_structure" title="Information structure">information structures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_(computer_science)" title="Circuit (computer science)">computational circuits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">in philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computational_theory_of_mind" title="Computational theory of mind">computational theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">philosophy of artificial intelligence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">interdisciplinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">information theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decision_theory" title="Decision theory">decision theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">systems theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Infosphere" title="Infosphere">infosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inforg" title="Inforg">inforg</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Decoding_the_Universe" title="Decoding the Universe">Decoding the Universe</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_overload" title="Information overload">information overload</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" 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