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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Technique of writing with the hand</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Penmanship_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Penmanship (disambiguation)">Penmanship (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Lead_too_short plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-lead_too_short" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/60px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/80px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="44" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section#Length" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section">lead section</a> <b>may be too short to adequately <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Summary_style" title="Wikipedia:Summary style">summarize</a> the key points</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please consider expanding the lead to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section#Provide_an_accessible_overview" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section">provide an accessible overview</a> of all important aspects of the article.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spencerian_example.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Spencerian_example.jpg/220px-Spencerian_example.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="365" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Spencerian_example.jpg/330px-Spencerian_example.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Spencerian_example.jpg/440px-Spencerian_example.jpg 2x" data-file-width="836" data-file-height="1388" /></a><figcaption>Example of classic American business cursive handwriting known as <a href="/wiki/Spencerian_script" title="Spencerian script">Spencerian script</a> from 1884</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82_(%D1%80%D1%83%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0),_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%85_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%85,_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%8C_%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B8.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82_%28%D1%80%D1%83%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0%29%2C_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%85_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%85%2C_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%8C_%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B8.JPG/220px-%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82_%28%D1%80%D1%83%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0%29%2C_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%85_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%85%2C_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%8C_%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B8.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82_%28%D1%80%D1%83%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0%29%2C_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%85_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%85%2C_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%8C_%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B8.JPG/330px-%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82_%28%D1%80%D1%83%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0%29%2C_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%85_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%85%2C_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%8C_%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B8.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82_%28%D1%80%D1%83%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0%29%2C_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%85_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%85%2C_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%8C_%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B8.JPG/440px-%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82_%28%D1%80%D1%83%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0%29%2C_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%85_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%85%2C_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%8C_%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B8.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>A thin object (pen), held with three fingers, allows you to draw thin lines</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Penmanship</b> is the technique of <a href="/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">writing</a> with the hand using a <a href="/wiki/Writing_instrument" class="mw-redirect" title="Writing instrument">writing instrument</a>. Today, this is most commonly done with a <a href="/wiki/Pen" title="Pen">pen</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Pencil" title="Pencil">pencil</a>, but throughout history has included many different <a href="/wiki/Writing_implement" title="Writing implement">implements</a>. The various generic and formal historical styles of writing are called "<a href="/wiki/Hand_(handwriting)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hand (handwriting)">hands</a>" while an individual's style of penmanship is referred to as "<a href="/wiki/Handwriting" title="Handwriting">handwriting</a>". </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penmanship&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins">Origins</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penmanship&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_writing" title="History of writing">History of writing</a></div> <p>The earliest example of systematic writing is the <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a> pictographic system found on clay tablets, which eventually developed around 3200 BC into a modified version called <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was impressed on wet clay with a sharpened reed.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This form of writing eventually evolved into an ideographic system (where a sign represents an idea) and then to a syllabic system (where a sign represents a syllable).<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Developing around the same time, the Egyptian system of <a href="/wiki/Hieroglyphics" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyphics">hieroglyphics</a> also began as a pictographic script and evolved into a system of syllabic writing. Two cursive scripts were eventually created, <a href="/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">hieratic</a>, shortly after hieroglyphs were invented, and <a href="/wiki/Demotic_(Egyptian)" title="Demotic (Egyptian)">demotic (Egyptian)</a> in the seventh century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scribes wrote these scripts usually on <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a>, with ink on a reed pen. </p><p>The first known alphabetical system came from the <a href="/wiki/Phoenicians" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoenicians">Phoenicians</a>, who developed a vowel-less system of 22 letters around the eleventh century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Greeks eventually adapted the Phoenician alphabet around the eighth century BC. Adding vowels to the alphabet, dropping some consonants and altering the order, the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greeks">Ancient Greeks</a> developed a script which included only what we know of as capital Greek letters.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lowercase letters of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Greek">Classical Greek</a> were a later invention of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. The Phoenician alphabet also influenced the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> scripts, which follow a vowel-less system. One Hebrew script was only used for religious literature and by a small community of Samaritans up until the sixth century BC. Aramaic was the official script of the Babylonian, Assyrian and Persian empires and 'Square Hebrew' (the script now used in Israel) developed from Aramaic around the third century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Handwriting_based_on_Latin_script">Handwriting based on Latin script</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penmanship&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Handwriting based on Latin script"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Palaeography" title="Palaeography">Palaeography</a></div> <p>The Romans in Southern Italy eventually adopted the Greek alphabet as modified by the <a href="/wiki/Etruscans" class="mw-redirect" title="Etruscans">Etruscans</a> to develop Latin writing.<sup id="cite_ref-Fairbank,_Alfred_J._1977_pg_10_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fairbank,_Alfred_J._1977_pg_10-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like the Greeks, the Romans employed stone, metal, clay, and papyrus as writing surfaces. Handwriting styles which were used to produce manuscripts included <a href="/wiki/Roman_square_capitals" title="Roman square capitals">square capitals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rustic_capitals" title="Rustic capitals">rustic capitals</a>, uncials, and <a href="/wiki/Half_uncial" class="mw-redirect" title="Half uncial">half-uncials</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nickell,_Joe_2003_pg_118_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nickell,_Joe_2003_pg_118-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Square capitals were employed for more-formal texts based on stone inscriptional letters, while rustic capitals freer, compressed, and efficient.<sup id="cite_ref-Fairbank,_Alfred_J._1977_pg_10_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fairbank,_Alfred_J._1977_pg_10-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Uncials" class="mw-redirect" title="Uncials">Uncials</a> were rounded capitals (<a href="/wiki/Majuscules" class="mw-redirect" title="Majuscules">majuscules</a>) that originally were developed by the Greeks in the third century BC, but became popular in Latin manuscripts by the fourth century AD. <a href="/wiki/Roman_cursive" title="Roman cursive">Roman cursive</a> or informal handwriting started out as a derivative of the capital letters, though the tendency to write quickly and efficiently made the letters less precise.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Half-uncials (minuscules) were lowercase letters, which eventually became the national hand of Ireland.<sup id="cite_ref-Nickell,_Joe_2003_pg_118_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nickell,_Joe_2003_pg_118-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other combinations of half-uncial and cursive handwriting developed throughout Europe, including <a href="/wiki/Visigothic_script" title="Visigothic script">Visigothic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Merovingian_script" title="Merovingian script">Merovingian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the end of the eighth century, <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> decreed that all writings in his empire were to be written in a standard handwriting, which came to be known as <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_minuscule" title="Carolingian minuscule">Carolingian minuscule</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Alcuin_of_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcuin of York">Alcuin of York</a> was commissioned by Charlemagne to create this new handwriting, which he did in collaboration with other scribes and based on the tradition of other Roman handwriting.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carolingian minuscule was used to produce many of the manuscripts from monasteries until the eleventh century and most lower-case letters of today's European scripts derive from it.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gothic or black-letter script, evolved from Carolingian, became the dominant handwriting from the twelfth century until the Italian Renaissance (1400–1600 AD). This script was not as clear as the Carolingian, but instead was narrower, darker, and denser. Because of this, the dot above the <i>i</i> was added in order to differentiate it from the similar pen strokes of the <i>n</i>, <i>m</i>, and <i>u</i>. Also, the letter <i>u</i> was created as separate from the <i>v</i>, which had previously been used for both sounds.<sup id="cite_ref-vletter.com_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vletter.com-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Part of the reason for such compact handwriting was to save space, since <a href="/wiki/Parchment" title="Parchment">parchment</a> was expensive.<sup id="cite_ref-handwrite.net_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-handwrite.net-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gothic script, being the writing style of scribes in Germany when <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg">Gutenberg</a> invented movable type, became the model for the first typeface. Another variation of Carolingian minuscule was created by the Italian humanists in the fifteenth century, called by them <i>littera antiqua</i> and now called <a href="/wiki/Humanist_minuscule" title="Humanist minuscule">humanist minuscule</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was a combination of Roman capitals and the rounded version of Carolingian minuscule. A cursive form eventually developed, and it became increasingly slanted due to the quickness with which it could be written. This manuscript handwriting, called <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cursive_humanistic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cursive humanistic (page does not exist)">cursive humanistic</a>, became known as the typeface <a href="/wiki/Italic_type" title="Italic type">Italic</a> used throughout Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Intaglio_printing" class="mw-redirect" title="Intaglio printing">Copperplate engraving</a> influenced handwriting as it allowed penmanship copybooks to be more widely printed. Copybooks first appeared in Italy around the sixteenth century; the earliest writing manuals were published by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sigismondo_Fanti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sigismondo Fanti (page does not exist)">Sigismondo Fanti</a> and Ludovico degli Arrighi.<sup id="cite_ref-Nickell,_Joe_2003_pg_131_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nickell,_Joe_2003_pg_131-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other manuals were produced by Dutch and French writing masters later in the century, including Pierre Hamon.<sup id="cite_ref-Nickell,_Joe_2003_pg_131_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nickell,_Joe_2003_pg_131-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, copybooks only became commonplace in England with the invention of copperplate engraving. Engraving could better produce the flourishes in handwritten script, which helped penmanship masters to produce beautiful examples for students.<sup id="cite_ref-vletter.com_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vletter.com-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of these early penmanship manuals included those of <a href="/wiki/Edward_Cocker" title="Edward Cocker">Edward Cocker</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Seddon_(calligrapher)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Seddon (calligrapher) (page does not exist)">John Seddon</a>, and John Ayer. By the eighteenth century, schools were established to teach penmanship techniques from master penmen, especially in England and the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-handwrite.net_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-handwrite.net-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Penmanship became part of the curriculum in American schools by the early 1900s, rather than just reserved for specialty schools teaching adults penmanship as a professional skill. Several different penmanship methods have been developed and published, including Spencerian, Getty-Dubay, Barchowsky Fluent Handwriting, Icelandic (Italic), Zaner-Bloser, and D’Nealian methods among others used in American education.<sup id="cite_ref-handwrite.net_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-handwrite.net-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Semi-cursive_style_Calligraphy_of_Chinese_poem_by_Mo_Ruzhong.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Semi-cursive_style_Calligraphy_of_Chinese_poem_by_Mo_Ruzhong.jpg/220px-Semi-cursive_style_Calligraphy_of_Chinese_poem_by_Mo_Ruzhong.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="468" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Semi-cursive_style_Calligraphy_of_Chinese_poem_by_Mo_Ruzhong.jpg/330px-Semi-cursive_style_Calligraphy_of_Chinese_poem_by_Mo_Ruzhong.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Semi-cursive_style_Calligraphy_of_Chinese_poem_by_Mo_Ruzhong.jpg/440px-Semi-cursive_style_Calligraphy_of_Chinese_poem_by_Mo_Ruzhong.jpg 2x" data-file-width="942" data-file-height="2005" /></a><figcaption>Example of semi-cursive style Chinese calligraphy</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Handwriting_based_on_Chinese_script">Handwriting based on Chinese script</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penmanship&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Handwriting based on Chinese script"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Writing systems developed in East Asia include <a href="/wiki/Chinese_character" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese character">Chinese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Japanese_writing_system" title="Japanese writing system">Japanese</a> writing systems. Chinese characters represent whole morphemes rather than individual sounds, and consequently are visually far more complex than European scripts; in some cases their pictographic origins are still visible. The earliest form of Chinese was written on bones and shells (called <a href="/wiki/Jiaguwen" class="mw-redirect" title="Jiaguwen">Jiaguwen</a>) in the fourteenth century BC. Other writing surfaces used during this time included bronze, stone, jade, pottery, and clay, which became more popular after the twelfth century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Greater Seal script (<a href="/wiki/Dazhuan" class="mw-redirect" title="Dazhuan">Dazhuan</a>) flourished during 1100 BC and 700 BC and appeared mainly in bronze vessels.<sup id="cite_ref-ancientscripts.com_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ancientscripts.com-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lesser Seal script (<a href="/wiki/Xiaozhuan" class="mw-redirect" title="Xiaozhuan">Xiaozhuan</a>) is the precursor of modern complex Chinese script, which is more stylized than the Greater Seal.<sup id="cite_ref-ancientscripts.com_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ancientscripts.com-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chinese handwriting is considered an art, more so than illuminated manuscripts in Western culture. <a href="/wiki/Calligraphy" title="Calligraphy">Calligraphy</a> is widely practiced in China, which employs scripts such as <a href="/wiki/Kaishu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaishu">Kaishu</a> (standard), <a href="/wiki/Xingshu" class="mw-redirect" title="Xingshu">Xingshu</a> (semi-cursive), and <a href="/wiki/Caoshu" class="mw-redirect" title="Caoshu">Caoshu</a> (cursive).<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chinese calligraphy is meant to represent the artistic personality in a way western calligraphy cannot, and therefore penmanship is valued higher than in any other nation.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Standard Script (<a href="/wiki/Kaishu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaishu">Kaishu</a>) is main traditional script used today. </p><p>Japanese writing evolved from Chinese script and Chinese characters, called <a href="/wiki/Kanji" title="Kanji">kanji</a>, or ideograms, were adopted to represent Japanese words and grammar.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kanji were simplified to create two other scripts, called <a href="/wiki/Hiragana" title="Hiragana">hiragana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Katakana" title="Katakana">katakana</a>. Hiragana is the more widely used script in Japan today, while katakana, meant for formal documents originally, is used similarly to italics in alphabetic scripts.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Teaching_methods_and_history">Teaching methods and history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penmanship&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Teaching methods and history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books_used_in_North_America">Books used in North America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penmanship&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Books used in North America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Handwriting.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Handwriting.png/220px-Handwriting.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Handwriting.png/330px-Handwriting.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Handwriting.png/440px-Handwriting.png 2x" data-file-width="701" data-file-height="580" /></a><figcaption>'<a href="/wiki/The_quick_brown_fox_jumps_over_the_lazy_dog" title="The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog">The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog</a>', written by two different hands</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Platt_Rogers_Spencer" title="Platt Rogers Spencer">Platt Rogers Spencer</a> is known as the "Father of American Penmanship". His writing system was first published in 1848, in his book <i>Spencer and Rice's System of Business and Ladies' Penmanship</i>. The most popular Spencerian manual was <i>The Spencerian Key to Practical Penmanship</i>, published by his sons in 1866. This "<a href="/wiki/Spencerian_Script" class="mw-redirect" title="Spencerian Script">Spencerian Method</a>" Ornamental Style was taught in American schools until the mid-1920s, and has seen a resurgence in recent years through <a href="/wiki/Charter_schools" class="mw-redirect" title="Charter schools">charter schools</a> and <a href="/wiki/Home_schooling" class="mw-redirect" title="Home schooling">home schooling</a> using revised Spencerian books and methods produced by former <a href="/wiki/IAMPETH" class="mw-redirect" title="IAMPETH">IAMPETH</a> president <a href="/wiki/Michael_Sull" title="Michael Sull">Michael Sull</a> (born 1946). </p><p>George A. Gaskell (1845–1886), a student of Spencer, authored two popular books on penmanship, <i>Gaskell's Complete Compendium of Elegant Writing</i> and <i>The Penman's Hand-Book</i> (1883). <a href="/wiki/L._H._Hausam" title="L. H. Hausam">Louis Henry Hausam</a> published the "New Education in Penmanship" in 1908, called "the greatest work of the kind ever published."<sup id="cite_ref-Hausam_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hausam-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many copybooks were produced in North America at the start of the 20th century, mostly for Business Style penmanship (a simplified form of Ornamental Style). These included those produced by <a href="/wiki/Austin_Norman_Palmer" class="mw-redirect" title="Austin Norman Palmer">A. N. Palmer</a>, a student of Gaskell, who developed the <a href="/wiki/Palmer_Method" title="Palmer Method">Palmer Method</a>, as reflected in his <i>Palmer's Guide to Business Writing</i>, published in 1894. Also popular was <a href="/wiki/Zaner-Bloser_Method" class="mw-redirect" title="Zaner-Bloser Method">Zaner-Bloser Method</a>, introduced by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Paxton_Zaner" title="Charles Paxton Zaner">Charles Paxton Zaner</a> (15 February 1864 – 1 December 1918) and Elmer Ward Bloser (6 November 1865 – 1929) of the Zanerian <a href="/wiki/Business_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Business College">Business College</a>. The A. N. Palmer Company folded in the early 1980s. </p><p>Modern Styles include more than 200 published textbook curricula including: <a href="/wiki/D%27Nealian" title="D'Nealian">D'Nealian Method</a> (a derivative of the Palmer Method which uses a slanted, serifed manuscript form followed by an entirely joined and looped cursive), Modern Zaner-Bloser which accounts for the majority of handwriting textbook sales in the US, A Beka, Schaffer, Peterson, Loops and Groups, McDougal, Steck Vaughn, and many others. </p><p>Italic Styles include <a href="/wiki/Getty-Dubay_Italic" title="Getty-Dubay Italic">Getty-Dubay Italic</a> (slightly slanted), Eager, Portland, <a href="/wiki/Barchowsky_Fluent_Handwriting" title="Barchowsky Fluent Handwriting">Barchowsky Fluent Handwriting</a>, Queensland, etc. </p><p>Other copybook styles that are unique and do not fall into any previous categories are Smithhand, Handwriting without Tears, Ausgangsschrift, Bob Jones, etc. These may differ greatly from each other in a variety of ways. The first made video for correcting messy handwriting especially for people with ADHD and or dysgraphia was "Anyone Can Improve Their Own Handwriting" by learning specialist Jason Mark Alster MSc. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Schools_in_East_Asia">Schools in East Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penmanship&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Schools in East Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KanjiPractice.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/KanjiPractice.jpg/220px-KanjiPractice.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/KanjiPractice.jpg/330px-KanjiPractice.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/KanjiPractice.jpg/440px-KanjiPractice.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>A typical Kanji practice notebook of a 3rd grader</figcaption></figure> <p>By the nineteenth century, attention was increasingly given to developing quality penmanship in Eastern schools. Countries that had a writing system based on logographs and syllabaries placed particular emphasis on form and quality when learning.<sup id="cite_ref-Gray,_William_S._1961_pg_189_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gray,_William_S._1961_pg_189-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These countries, such as China and Japan, have pictophonetic characters that are difficult to learn. Chinese children start by learning the most fundamental characters first and building to the more esoteric ones. Often, children trace the different strokes in the air with the teacher and eventually start writing them on paper.<sup id="cite_ref-Gray,_William_S._1961_pg_189_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gray,_William_S._1961_pg_189-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, there have been more efforts to simplify these systems and standardize handwriting. For example, in China in 1955, in order to respond to illiteracy among people, the government introduced a Romanized version of Chinese script, called <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinyin">Pinyin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson,_Andrew_2007_pg_196_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson,_Andrew_2007_pg_196-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, by the 1960s, people rebelled against the infringement upon traditional Chinese by foreign influences.<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson,_Andrew_2007_pg_196_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson,_Andrew_2007_pg_196-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This writing reform did not help illiteracy among peasants. Japanese also has simplified the Chinese characters it uses into scripts called kana. However kanji are still used in preference over kana in many contexts, and a large part of children's schooling is learning kanji.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, Japan has tried to hold on to handwriting as an art form while not compromising the more modern emphasis on speed and efficiency. In the early 1940s, handwriting was taught twice, once as calligraphy in the art section of school curricula, and then again as a functional skill in the language section.<sup id="cite_ref-Adal,_Raja_2009_pg_244_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adal,_Raja_2009_pg_244-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The practical function of penmanship in Japan did not start to be questioned until the end of the twentieth century; while typewriters proved more efficient than penmanship in the modern West, these technologies had a hard time transferring to Japan, since the thousands of characters involved in the language made typing unfeasible.<sup id="cite_ref-Adal,_Raja_2009_pg_244_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adal,_Raja_2009_pg_244-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Motor_control">Motor control</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penmanship&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Motor control"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Handwriting requires the <a href="/wiki/Motor_coordination" title="Motor coordination">motor coordination</a> of multiple joints in the <a href="/wiki/Hand" title="Hand">hand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wrist" title="Wrist">wrist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elbow" title="Elbow">elbow</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Shoulder" title="Shoulder">shoulder</a> to form letters and to arrange them on the page. Holding the pen and guiding it across paper depends mostly upon sensory information from skin, joints and muscles of the hand and this adjusts movement to changes in the friction between pen and paper.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With practice and familiarity, handwriting becomes highly automated using motor programs stored in <a href="/wiki/Motor_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Motor memory">motor memory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Compared to other complex motor skills handwriting is far less dependent on a moment-to-moment visual guidance.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hepp-Reymond_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hepp-Reymond-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Research in individuals with complete <a href="/wiki/Neuropathy" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuropathy">peripheral deafferentation</a> with and without vision of their writing hand finds increase of number of pen touches, increase in number of inversions in velocity, decrease of mean stroke frequency and longer writing movement duration. The changes show that <a href="/wiki/Cutaneous" class="mw-redirect" title="Cutaneous">cutaneous</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proprioceptive" class="mw-redirect" title="Proprioceptive">proprioceptive</a> feedback play a critical role in updating the motor memories and <a href="/wiki/Internal_model_(motor_control)" title="Internal model (motor control)">internal models</a> that underlie handwriting. In contrast, sight provides only a secondary role in adjusting motor commands.<sup id="cite_ref-Hepp-Reymond_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hepp-Reymond-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penmanship&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Typography" title="Typography">Typography</a> – the appearance, arrangement, and style of printed text</li></ul> <p><b>Types of writing</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Handwriting" title="Handwriting">Handwriting</a>, a person's particular style of writing by pen or a pencil</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_(handwriting)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hand (handwriting)">Hand (handwriting)</a>, in paleography, refers to a distinct generic style of penmanship</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Block_letters" title="Block letters">Block letters</a> – also called printing, is the use of the simple letters children are taught to write when first learning</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calligraphy" title="Calligraphy">Calligraphy</a> – the art of <a href="/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">writing</a> itself, generally more concerned with aesthetics for decorative effect than normal handwriting.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursive" title="Cursive">Cursive</a> – any style of handwriting written in a flowing (cursive) manner, which connects many or all of the letters in a word, or the strokes in a <a href="/wiki/CJK_characters" title="CJK characters">CJK</a> <a href="/wiki/Character_(symbol)" title="Character (symbol)">character</a> or other <a href="/wiki/Grapheme" title="Grapheme">grapheme</a>.</li></ul> <p><b>Studies of writing and penmanship</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chirography" title="Chirography">Chirography</a> – handwriting, its style and character</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatics" title="Diplomatics">Diplomatics</a> – forensic paleography (seeks the provenance of written documents).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphonomics" title="Graphonomics">Graphonomics</a> – is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the handwriting process and the handwritten product</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaeography" title="Palaeography">Palaeography</a> – the study of script.</li></ul> <p><b>Penmanship-related professions</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Letterer" title="Letterer">Letterer</a> – comic book lettering profession.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_certificate" title="Marriage certificate">Marriage certificates</a> design or calligraphy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_lettering" title="Technical lettering">Technical lettering</a> – the process of forming letters, numerals, and other characters in technical drawing.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questioned_document_examination" title="Questioned document examination">Questioned document examiner</a> – <a href="/wiki/Forensic_science" title="Forensic science">forensic science</a> discipline which includes handwriting examination</li> <li>Penmanship instructor, at a <a href="/wiki/Vocational_school" title="Vocational school">Vocational school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wedding_invitation" title="Wedding invitation">Wedding invitations</a> design</li></ul> <p><b>Other penmanship-related topics</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Handwriting_recognition" title="Handwriting recognition">Handwriting recognition</a> – the ability of a computer to receive and interpret handwritten input</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_handwriting_variation" title="Regional handwriting variation">Regional handwriting variation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signature" title="Signature">Signature</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penmanship&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nickell, Joe. (2003) <i>Pen, Ink & Evidence: A Study of Writing and Writing Materials for the Penman, Collector, and Document Detective</i>. New Castle: Oak Knoll Press. p. 115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tschichold, Jan. (1948) <i>An Illustrated History of Writing and Lettering</i>. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fairbank, Alfred J. (1977). <i>A Book of Scripts</i>. London: Faber. p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nickell, Joe (2003). <i>Pen, Ink & Evidence: A Study of Writing and Writing Materials for the Penman, Collector, and Document Detective</i>. New Castle: Oak Knoll Press. p. 117.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robinson, Andrew (2007). <i>The Story of Writing</i>. London: Thames & Hudson Ltd. p. 165.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ullman, B. L. (1977). <i>Ancient Writing and Its Influence</i>. Buffalo: University of Toronto Press. p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robinson, Andrew (2007). <i>The Story of Writing</i>. London: Thames & Hudson Ltd. p. 171.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fairbank,_Alfred_J._1977_pg_10-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fairbank,_Alfred_J._1977_pg_10_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fairbank,_Alfred_J._1977_pg_10_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Fairbank, Alfred J. (1977). <i>A Book of Scripts</i>. London: Faber. p. 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nickell,_Joe_2003_pg_118-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nickell,_Joe_2003_pg_118_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nickell,_Joe_2003_pg_118_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Nickell, Joe (2003). <i>Pen, Ink & Evidence: A Study of Writing and Writing Materials for the Penman, Collector, and Document Detective</i>. New Castle: Oak Knoll Press. p. 118.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fairbank, 1977, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fairbank, 1977, p. 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?groupid=1592&HistoryID=ab33&gtrack=pthc">"History of Handwriting"</a>. 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rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,1912419,00.html">Mourning the Death of Handwriting</a> Article in TIME</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080522042306/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,766608,00.html">Handwriting as Character</a> TIME's 1942 article</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/10/10/AR2006101001475.html">The Handwriting Is on the Wall; Researchers See a Downside as Keyboards Replace Pens in Schools</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/news/a-brief-history-of-penmanship-on-national-handwriting-day">A Brief History of Penmanship</a> Article from History.com</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pens" title="Template:Pens"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pens" title="Template talk:Pens"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pens" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pens"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pens" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pen" title="Pen">Pens</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_pen" title="Active pen">Active</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballpoint_pen" title="Ballpoint pen">Ballpoint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fudepen" title="Fudepen">Brush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonstrator_pen" title="Demonstrator pen">Demonstrator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_pen" title="Digital pen">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dip_pen" title="Dip pen">Dip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fountain_pen" title="Fountain pen">Fountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gel_pen" title="Gel pen">Gel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_pen" title="Light pen">Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marker_pen" title="Marker pen">Marker</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marker_pen" title="Marker pen">dry erase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highlighter" title="Highlighter">highlighter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paint_marker" title="Paint marker">paint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permanent_marker" title="Permanent marker">permanent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UV_marker" title="UV marker">UV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qalam" title="Qalam">Qalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quill" title="Quill">Quill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastrum" title="Rastrum">Rastrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reed_pen" title="Reed pen">Reed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rollerball_pen" title="Rollerball pen">Rollerball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_pen" title="Ruling pen">Ruling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skin_pen" title="Skin pen">Skin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stylus" title="Stylus">Stylus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_pen" title="Technical pen">Technical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Parts and tools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blotting_paper" title="Blotting paper">Blotting paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desk_blotter" class="mw-redirect" title="Desk blotter">Ink blotter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inkwell" title="Inkwell">Inkwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nib_(pen)" title="Nib (pen)">Nib</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flex_nib" title="Flex nib">flex nib</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penknife" title="Penknife">Penknife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pounce_(calligraphy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pounce (calligraphy)">Pounce</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ink" title="Ink">Inks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alizarine_ink" title="Alizarine ink">Alizarine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fountain_pen_ink" title="Fountain pen ink">Fountain pen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_ink" title="India ink">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_gall_ink" title="Iron gall ink">Iron gall</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stark%27s_ink" title="Stark's ink">Stark's</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ballpoint_pen_artwork" title="Ballpoint pen artwork">Ballpoint pen artwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballpoint_pen_knife" title="Ballpoint pen knife">Ballpoint pen knife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterfeit_banknote_detection_pen" title="Counterfeit banknote detection pen">Counterfeit banknote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_pen_trade" title="Birmingham pen trade">Birmingham pen trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pen_Museum" title="Pen Museum">Pen Museum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pen_computing" title="Pen computing">Pen computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pen_gun" title="Pen gun">Pen gun</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Penmanship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pen_painting" title="Pen painting">Pen painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pen_spinning" title="Pen spinning">Pen spinning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retipping" title="Retipping">Retipping</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calligraphy" title="Calligraphy">Calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartoonist" title="Cartoonist">Cartooning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comics" title="Comics">Comics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inking_(comic_book_production)" class="mw-redirect" title="Inking (comic book production)">Inking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letterer" title="Letterer">Lettering</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pen_types,_brands_and_companies" title="List of pen types, brands and companies">List of types, brands and companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pencil" title="Pencil">Pencil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_pencil" title="Mechanical pencil">Mechanical pencil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narayam" title="Narayam">Narayam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div 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href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph297049&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="ručně psané písmo"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph957872&CON_LNG=ENG">2</a></span></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000052220&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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