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Ray</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pierson_v._Ray-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bivens_and_42_USC_§_1983_lawsuits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bivens_and_42_USC_§_1983_lawsuits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span><i>Bivens</i> and 42 USC § 1983 lawsuits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bivens_and_42_USC_§_1983_lawsuits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Harlow_v._Fitzgerald" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Harlow_v._Fitzgerald"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span><i>Harlow v. Fitzgerald</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Harlow_v._Fitzgerald-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Saucier_v._Katz" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Saucier_v._Katz"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span><i>Saucier v. Katz</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Saucier_v._Katz-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pearson_v._Callahan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pearson_v._Callahan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span><i>Pearson v. Callahan</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pearson_v._Callahan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Application_of_qualified_immunity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Application_of_qualified_immunity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Application of qualified immunity</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Application_of_qualified_immunity-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Application of qualified immunity subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Application_of_qualified_immunity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Discretionary_function_requirement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discretionary_function_requirement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Discretionary function requirement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discretionary_function_requirement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clearly_established_law_requirement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clearly_established_law_requirement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Clearly established law requirement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clearly_established_law_requirement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Qualified_immunity_sequencing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qualified_immunity_sequencing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Qualified immunity sequencing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qualified_immunity_sequencing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Objections_and_criticisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Objections_and_criticisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Objections and criticisms</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Objections_and_criticisms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Objections and criticisms subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Objections_and_criticisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Difficulty_of_suing_public_officials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Difficulty_of_suing_public_officials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Difficulty of suing public officials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Difficulty_of_suing_public_officials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Police_brutality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Police_brutality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Police brutality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Police_brutality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Judicial_activism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Judicial_activism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Judicial activism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Judicial_activism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scholarly_critiques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scholarly_critiques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Scholarly critiques</span> </div> </a> <ul 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litigation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Through_litigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legislative_attempts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legislative_attempts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Legislative attempts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legislative_attempts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-State_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>State law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relevant_cases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relevant_cases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Relevant cases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relevant_cases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> 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blocks <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan_Act#Section_1_(42_USC_§_1983)" title="Ku Klux Klan Act">Section 1983</a> claims against <a href="/wiki/State_action" title="State action">government actors</a> who exercise discretion as long as they do not violate "clearly established <a href="/wiki/Statutory_right" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory right">statutory</a> or <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_right" title="Constitutional right">constitutional rights</a> of which a <a href="/wiki/Reasonable_person" title="Reasonable person">reasonable person</a> would have known".<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is less strict than <a href="/wiki/Absolute_immunity" title="Absolute immunity">absolute immunity</a>, by protecting officials who "make reasonable but mistaken judgments about open legal questions",<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> extending to "all [officials] but the plainly incompetent or those who knowingly violate the law".<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Qualified immunity applies only to government officials in civil litigation, and does not protect the government itself from suits arising from officials' actions.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a> first introduced the qualified immunity doctrine in <a href="/wiki/Pierson_v._Ray" title="Pierson v. Ray"><i>Pierson v. Ray</i> (1967)</a>, a case litigated during the height of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights movement</a>. It is stated to have been originally introduced with the rationale of protecting law enforcement officials from frivolous lawsuits and financial liability in cases where they acted in good faith in unclear legal situations.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cops_who_kill_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cops_who_kill-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Starting around 2005, courts increasingly applied the doctrine to cases involving the use of <a href="/wiki/Police_brutality_in_the_United_States" title="Police brutality in the United States">excessive</a> or <a href="/wiki/Police_use_of_deadly_force_in_the_United_States" title="Police use of deadly force in the United States">deadly force</a> by police, leading to widespread criticism that it "has become a nearly failsafe tool to let police brutality go unpunished and deny victims their constitutional rights" (as summarized in a 2020 Reuters report).<sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_and_background">History and background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualified_immunity&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History and background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pierson_v._Ray"><i>Pierson v. Ray</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualified_immunity&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Pierson v. Ray"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Pierson_v._Ray" title="Pierson v. Ray">Pierson v. Ray</a></i> (1967), the Supreme Court first "justified qualified immunity as a means of protecting government defendants from financial burdens when acting in good faith in legally murky areas. Qualified immunity was necessary, according to the Court, because '[a] policeman's lot is not so unhappy that he must choose between being charged with dereliction of duty if he does not arrest when he had <a href="/wiki/Probable_cause" title="Probable cause">probable cause</a>, and being mulcted in damages if he does.<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>"<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bivens_and_42_USC_§_1983_lawsuits"><span id="Bivens_and_42_USC_.C2.A7_1983_lawsuits"></span><i>Bivens</i> and 42 USC § 1983 lawsuits</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualified_immunity&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Bivens and 42 USC § 1983 lawsuits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Qualified immunity frequently arises in <a href="/wiki/Civil_right" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil right">civil rights</a> cases,<sup id="cite_ref-AmJur314_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AmJur314-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> particularly in lawsuits arising under <a href="/wiki/Title_42_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 42 of the United States Code">42 USC</a> <a href="/wiki/Section_1983" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 1983">§ 1983</a> and <i><a href="/wiki/Bivens_v._Six_Unknown_Named_Agents" title="Bivens v. Six Unknown Named Agents">Bivens v. Six Unknown Named Agents</a></i> (1971).<sup id="cite_ref-Bivens_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bivens-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under 42 USC § 1983, a plaintiff can sue for damages when state officials violate their constitutional rights or other federal rights. The text of 42 USC § 1983 reads as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>Every person who, under color of any statute, ordinance, regulation, custom, or usage, of any State or Territory or the District of Columbia, subjects, or causes to be subjected, any citizen of the United States or other person within the jurisdiction thereof to the deprivation of any rights, privileges, or immunities secured by the Constitution and laws, shall be liable to the party injured ...</p></blockquote> <p>Similarly, under <i>Bivens v. Six Unknown Named Agents</i>, plaintiffs may sue for damages if federal officials violate their constitutional rights. However, not all Constitutional violations give rise to a <i>Bivens</i> <a href="/wiki/Cause_of_action" title="Cause of action">cause of action</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus far the Supreme Court has recognized <i>Bivens</i> claims for violations of the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourth Amendment</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Bivens_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bivens-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifth Amendment</a>'s equal protection component of <a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">due process</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Eighth Amendment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Harlow_v._Fitzgerald"><i>Harlow v. Fitzgerald</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualified_immunity&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Harlow v. Fitzgerald"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The modern test for qualified immunity was established in <i><a href="/wiki/Harlow_v._Fitzgerald" title="Harlow v. Fitzgerald">Harlow v. Fitzgerald</a></i> (1982).<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Harvard_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harvard-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prior to <i>Harlow v. Fitzgerald</i>, the U.S. Supreme Court granted immunity to government officials only if: (1) the official believed in good faith that their conduct was lawful, and (2) the conduct was objectively reasonable.<sup id="cite_ref-Harvard_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harvard-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, determining an official's <a href="/wiki/Subjective_and_objective_standard_of_reasonableness" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjective and objective standard of reasonableness">subjective state of mind</a> (i.e. did they have a good faith belief that their action was lawful) required a trial, often by jury.<sup id="cite_ref-Harvard_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harvard-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Concerns over allowing suits to go this far deterred officials from performing their duties, "[diverted] official energy from pressing public issues, and [deterred] able citizens from acceptance of public office",<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Supreme Court handed down the current rule for qualified immunity: "[G]overnment officials performing discretionary functions generally are shielded from liability for <a href="/wiki/Civil_damages" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil damages">civil damages</a> insofar as their conduct does not violate clearly established statutory or constitutional rights of which a reasonable person would have known."<sup id="cite_ref-Harlow818_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harlow818-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, the application of qualified immunity no longer depends upon an official's subjective state of mind, but on whether or not a <a href="/wiki/Reasonable_person" title="Reasonable person">reasonable person</a> in the official's position would have known their actions were in line with clearly established legal principles. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Saucier_v._Katz"><i>Saucier v. Katz</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualified_immunity&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Saucier v. Katz"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Saucier_v._Katz" title="Saucier v. Katz">Saucier v. Katz</a></i> (2001), military officers Saucier and Parker were warned of possible protests during a speech from Vice President Albert Gore, Jr. When Katz began putting up a banner in defense of animal rights, Saucier detained Katz in his military van. Katz sued because he felt his Fourth Amendment rights had been violated. The court ultimately ruled in favor of Saucier, due to qualified immunity.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Supreme Court held that "the ruling on qualified immunity requires an analysis not susceptible of fusion with the question whether unreasonable force was used in making the arrest".<sup id="cite_ref-:3_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other words, the analysis applied to claims of excessive force is not the same as the analysis applied to the merits of the claim. The Court's decision in this case provides a two-step inquiry into claims brought against a government official: first, whether the official's actions violated the constitutional rights of the plaintiff, and second, whether those rights were clearly established at the time of the incident.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pearson_v._Callahan"><i>Pearson v. Callahan</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualified_immunity&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Pearson v. Callahan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Supreme Court's 2009 decision in <a href="/wiki/Pearson_v._Callahan" title="Pearson v. Callahan"><i>Pearson et al. v. Callahan</i></a> overturned its decision in <i>Saucier v. Katz</i> and the two-step inquiry giving more discretion to the lower courts. The inquiry into the law or into the Constitution in relation to similar cases brought before the courts was up to the courts to decide.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Application_of_qualified_immunity">Application of qualified immunity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualified_immunity&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Application of qualified immunity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discretionary_function_requirement">Discretionary function requirement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualified_immunity&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Discretionary function requirement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Qualified immunity only applies to acts that are "discretionary" rather than ministerial.<sup id="cite_ref-Harlow818_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harlow818-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Courts specifically distinguish discretionary acts from <a href="/wiki/Ministerial_act" title="Ministerial act">ministerial acts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A discretionary act requires an official to determine "whether an act should be done or a course pursued" and to determine the best means of achieving the chosen objective.<sup id="cite_ref-AmJur318_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AmJur318-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By contrast, a ministerial act is of a "clerical nature" – the official is typically required to perform the action regardless of their own opinion.<sup id="cite_ref-AmJur318_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AmJur318-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even ministerial tasks will sometimes involve a small amount of discretion, but this discretion will not necessarily satisfy the requirements of qualified immunity.<sup id="cite_ref-AmJur319_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AmJur319-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clearly_established_law_requirement">Clearly established law requirement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualified_immunity&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Clearly established law requirement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Qualified immunity does not protect officials who violate "clearly established statutory or constitutional rights of which reasonable person would have known".<sup id="cite_ref-Harlow818_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harlow818-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is an <a href="/wiki/Objective_standard" class="mw-redirect" title="Objective standard">objective standard</a>, meaning that the standard does not depend on the subjective state of mind of the official but rather on whether a <a href="/wiki/Reasonable_person" title="Reasonable person">reasonable person</a> would determine that the relevant conduct violated clearly established law.<sup id="cite_ref-AmJur315_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AmJur315-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Whether the law is "clearly established" depends on whether the <a href="/wiki/Case_law" title="Case law">case law</a> has addressed the disputed issue or has established the "contours of the right" such that it is clear that the official's conduct is illegal.<sup id="cite_ref-AmJur316_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AmJur316-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is undisputed that Supreme Court opinions can "clearly establish" the rule for the entire country. However, circuit court of appeals opinions may have a more limited effect. <a href="/wiki/United_States_courts_of_appeals" title="United States courts of appeals">Circuit courts of appeals</a> typically treat their opinions as clearly establishing the law within that circuit<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—though the Supreme Court has cast doubt on this theory.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In order to meet the requirement of clearly established law, the facts of the instant case must also fairly closely resemble the facts of the case relied on as precedent.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Contrary to popular misconception, the clearly established standard does not always require a case law. In <i><a href="/wiki/Hope_v._Pelzer" title="Hope v. Pelzer">Hope v. Pelzer</a></i> (2002), the Supreme Court held the correctional officers who tied inmates to a hitching post as a form of punishment were not entitled to qualified immunity because while there is no similar case law prior to <i>Hope</i>, the eighth amendment’s prohibition on cruel and unusual punishment would be recognizable to any reasonable person. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Qualified_immunity_sequencing">Qualified immunity sequencing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualified_immunity&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Qualified immunity sequencing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The concept of testing whether the official action was covered by qualified immunity was first raised in the 1991 case <i>Siegert v. Gilley</i> (1991) in which the Supreme Court affirmed a dismissal of a lawsuit due to lack of clear demonstration that a constitutional right had been violated at the time of the action as a necessary precursor for any <a href="/wiki/Judicial_relief" class="mw-redirect" title="Judicial relief">judicial relief</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ucla_lr_sequence_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ucla_lr_sequence-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2001, the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Supreme Court">U.S. Supreme Court</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Saucier_v._Katz" title="Saucier v. Katz">Saucier v. Katz</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> formalized this rigid order, or sequencing, in which courts must decide the merits of a defendant's qualified immunity defense. First, the court determines whether the complaint states a constitutional violation. If so, the next sequential step is to determine whether the right at issue was clearly established at the time of the official's conduct. The Court subsequently modified this mandatory sequencing from <i>Saucier</i> in <i><a href="/wiki/Pearson_v._Callahan" title="Pearson v. Callahan">Pearson v. Callahan</a></i> in 2009, holding that "the <i>Saucier</i> protocol should not be regarded as mandatory in all cases,"<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that its decision "does not prevent the lower courts from following the <i>Saucier</i> procedure; it simply recognizes that those courts should have the discretion to decide whether that procedure is worthwhile in particular cases."<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Pearson</i> opinion gave courts the discretion to evaluate either the constitutional violation or the rights issue first. This can have benefits of expediting some cases and reducing waste of resources in the court system, but has also led to cases that focus heavily on one side of the case and weigh in favor of government officials, particularly in the area of <a href="/wiki/Police_brutality" title="Police brutality">police brutality</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ucla_lr_sequence_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ucla_lr_sequence-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cops_who_kill_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cops_who_kill-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Objections_and_criticisms">Objections and criticisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualified_immunity&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Objections and criticisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Difficulty_of_suing_public_officials">Difficulty of suing public officials</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualified_immunity&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Difficulty of suing public officials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Critics have argued that qualified immunity makes it excessively difficult to sue public officials for <a href="/wiki/Police_misconduct" title="Police misconduct">misconduct</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Criticism is aimed in particular at the "clearly established law" test. This test is typically read as requiring not only that an official's behavior likely violates written law but that there exists a clear <a href="/wiki/Judicial_precedent" class="mw-redirect" title="Judicial precedent">judicial precedent</a> that establishes the behavior as unlawful.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Critics have noted that in practice this has meant that plaintiffs must prove that there exists a prior court determination made in actual litigation under facts extremely close to those of the case at hand, or else the case is dismissed.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Critics argue that the difficulty plaintiffs face in finding an <i>exact</i> match in both law <i>and</i> precedent makes it excessively challenging to sue public officials, giving government officials undue latitude for lawless conduct in new or unusual situations.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-techdirt-qi-appellate_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-techdirt-qi-appellate-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> George Leef, for instance, argued in <i><a href="/wiki/Forbes" title="Forbes">Forbes</a></i> that: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>This doctrine, invented by the Court out of whole cloth, immunizes public officials even when they commit legal misconduct unless they violated 'clearly established law'. That standard is incredibly difficult for civil rights plaintiffs to overcome because the courts have required not just a clear legal rule, but a prior case on the books with functionally identical facts.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Critics have cited examples such as a November 2018 ruling by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Sixth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit</a>, which found that an earlier court case ruling it unconstitutional for police to <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sic#Etymology_2" class="extiw" title="wikt:sic">sic</a> dogs on suspects who have surrendered by lying on the ground did not apply under the "clearly established" rule to a case in which Tennessee police allowed their police dog to bite a surrendered suspect because the suspect had surrendered not by lying down but by sitting on the ground and raising his hands.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-USA_Today_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USA_Today-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Critics further argue that the "clearly established" standard discourages or delays the <i>establishment</i> of clear rules, even for common circumstances.<sup id="cite_ref-techdirt-qi-appellate_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-techdirt-qi-appellate-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first litigant to bring a case against an official under a given set of facts is likely to lose because there is as yet no clearly established standard.<sup id="cite_ref-Millhiser_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Millhiser-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, such a person may choose not to bring the case at all. Furthermore, even if a case is brought and carried to judgment, there is no certainty the decision will establish a clear and generally applicable legal standard. Until such a standard is articulated, qualified immunity will continue to apply in analogous cases. As the <a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Justice" title="Institute for Justice">Institute for Justice</a> puts it, "Qualified immunity means that government officials can get away with violating your rights as long as they violate them in a way nobody thought of before."<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, federal judge <a href="/wiki/Carlton_W._Reeves" title="Carlton W. Reeves">Carlton W. Reeves</a> wrote in a case denying qualified immunity, "A cynic might say that with qualified immunity, government agents are at liberty to violate your constitutional rights as long as they do so in a novel way", and called for change.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (May 2024)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Police_brutality">Police brutality</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualified_immunity&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Police brutality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A significant amount of criticism contends that qualified immunity allows <a href="/wiki/Police_brutality" title="Police brutality">police brutality</a> to go unpunished.<sup id="cite_ref-cops_who_kill_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cops_who_kill-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Legal researchers Amir H. Ali and Emily Clark, for instance, have argued that "qualified immunity permits law enforcement and other government officials to violate people's constitutional rights with virtual impunity".<sup id="cite_ref-The-Appeal_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The-Appeal-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Supreme Court Justice <a href="/wiki/Sonia_Sotomayor" title="Sonia Sotomayor">Sonia Sotomayor</a> has noted a "disturbing trend" of siding with <a href="/wiki/Police_ranks_of_the_United_States" title="Police ranks of the United States">police officers</a> using excessive force with qualified immunity,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> describing it as "sanctioning a 'shoot first, think later' approach to policing".<sup id="cite_ref-The-Appeal_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The-Appeal-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She stated: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>We have not hesitated to summarily reverse courts for wrongly denying officers the protection of qualified immunity in cases involving the use of force ... But we rarely intervene where courts wrongly afford officers the benefit of qualified immunity in these same cases.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>A 2020 <a href="/wiki/Reuters" title="Reuters">Reuters</a> report concurred with Sotomayor, concluding that "the Supreme Court has built qualified immunity into an often insurmountable police defense by intervening in cases mostly to favor the police". The report reviewed over 200 cases involving excess force by police since 2007, and found since the 2009 <i>Pearson</i> change from mandatory sequencing to discretionary sequencing, plaintiffs have had a more difficult time moving their case past the qualified immunity stage.<sup id="cite_ref-cops_who_kill_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cops_who_kill-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Judicial_activism">Judicial activism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualified_immunity&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Judicial activism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>No federal statute explicitly grants qualified immunity—it is a <a href="/wiki/Judicial_precedent" class="mw-redirect" title="Judicial precedent">judicial precedent</a> established by the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Supreme Court">Supreme Court</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Millhiser_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Millhiser-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While qualified immunity has been repeatedly affirmed by courts and legislation has established similar immunity at the state level, critics have argued that the adoption of qualified immunity in federal law amounts to <a href="/wiki/Judicial_activism" title="Judicial activism">judicial activism</a>, as the legal doctrine has little basis in written law.<sup id="cite_ref-Cato_campaign_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cato_campaign-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-is-qi-unlawful_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-is-qi-unlawful-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The late Supreme Court Justice <a href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Antonin Scalia</a> argued as much in his dissent in <i>Crawford-El v. Britton</i>: "[the Supreme Court] find[s] [itself] engaged ... in the essentially legislative activity of crafting a sensible scheme of qualified immunities for the statute we have invented—rather than applying the common law embodied in the statute that Congress wrote".<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a> has likewise expressed "growing concern with our qualified immunity jurisprudence", stating that there is no apparent basis for it in the original intent of the law;<sup id="cite_ref-The-Appeal_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The-Appeal-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in <i><a href="/wiki/Ziglar_v._Abbasi" title="Ziglar v. Abbasi">Ziglar v. Abbasi</a></i>, Thomas urged the court to reconsider qualified immunity, which he considered a doctrine that "substitute[s] our own policy preferences for the mandates of Congress".<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a case denying qualified immunity and ruling it unconstitutional, federal judge <a href="/wiki/Carlton_W._Reeves" title="Carlton W. Reeves">Carlton W. Reeves</a> wrote, "Congress's intent to protect citizens from government abuse cannot be overridden by judges who think they know better."<sup id="cite_ref-:4_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some critics have argued that the Supreme Court's creation of qualified immunity amounts to "gutting"<sup id="cite_ref-Adelman_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adelman-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Section 1983 of the United States Code, which allows any citizen to sue a public official who deprives them "of any rights, privileges, or immunities secured by the Constitution and laws".<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> U.S. District Court Judge Lynn Adelman has argued that "qualified immunity is a limitation on Section 1983 that the Court created in 1982 without support in the statute's text or legislative history".<sup id="cite_ref-Adelman_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adelman-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a> professor of law David Rudovsky similarly argued that "the Court ... has engaged in an aggressive reconstruction of the scope of § 1983 ... This reorientation of civil rights jurisprudence has blunted the impact of § 1983".<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scholarly_critiques">Scholarly critiques</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualified_immunity&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Scholarly critiques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a 2017 <i><a href="/wiki/Yale_Law_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Yale Law Journal">Yale Law Journal</a></i> paper titled "How Qualified Immunity Fails", UCLA law professor Joanna C. Schwartz examined 1,183 Section 1983 cases and found that it was being invoked primarily when it should not have been, and therefore was being ignored or dismissed frequently. Her conclusion was that it is ineffective for its stated goals in such a way that it could not be strengthened, and should be replaced by other mechanisms for obtaining those ends.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Court has stated that it bases qualified immunity on three factors: a "good faith" defense at common law, making up for the supposedly mistaken broadening of § 1983, and serving as a "warning" to government officials. In a 2018 <i><a href="/wiki/California_Law_Review" title="California Law Review">California Law Review</a></i> article, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Law_School" title="University of Chicago Law School">University of Chicago Law School</a> professor <a href="/wiki/William_Baude" title="William Baude">William Baude</a> states that "there is no such defense, there was no such mistake, and lenity [warning] should not apply. And even if these things were otherwise, the doctrine of qualified immunity would not be the best response."<sup id="cite_ref-is-qi-unlawful_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-is-qi-unlawful-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a 2023 <i>California Law Review</i> article, <a href="/wiki/Cardozo_School_of_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardozo School of Law">Cardozo School of Law</a> professor <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Reinert" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Reinert">Alexander Reinert</a> critiqued qualified immunity in the context of Supreme Court <a href="/wiki/Derogation" title="Derogation">derogation</a> canon, and also suggested that the legal foundation of qualified immunity is based on the erroneous omission of language in the 1874 <a href="/wiki/Revised_Statutes_of_the_United_States" title="Revised Statutes of the United States">Revised Statutes of the United States</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-qi-flawed-foundation_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-qi-flawed-foundation-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reinert observed that the <a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Act_of_1871" class="mw-redirect" title="Enforcement Act of 1871">Enforcement Act of 1871</a> included a clause regarding liability with the text, "any such law, statute, ordinance, regulation, custom, or usage of the State to the contrary notwithstanding",<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was not included in the Revised Statutes or <a href="/wiki/Title_42_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 42 of the United States Code">42 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/42/1983">§ 1983</a>. Reinert termed this language the "Notwithstanding Clause". His analysis received press coverage<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and has been subsequently critiqued by William Baude, who stated, "it was a change introduced by the drafters of the 1874 Revised Statutes, and <em>passed into law by Congress</em>" (emphasis original).<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Questions regarding the impact of the Notwithstanding Clause on qualified immunity doctrine were presented to the U.S. Supreme Court in a petition for a <a href="/wiki/Writ_of_certiorari" class="mw-redirect" title="Writ of certiorari">writ of certiorari</a> in the case of <i>Hulbert v. Pope</i>, which was denied.<sup id="cite_ref-Hulbert_v._Pope_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hulbert_v._Pope-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Challenges_to_qualified_immunity">Challenges to qualified immunity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualified_immunity&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Challenges to qualified immunity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Through_litigation">Through litigation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualified_immunity&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Through litigation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On March 1, 2018, the <a href="/wiki/Cato_Institute" title="Cato Institute">Cato Institute</a> launched a strategic campaign to challenge the doctrine of qualified immunity, centered on "a series of targeted <a href="/wiki/Amicus_brief" class="mw-redirect" title="Amicus brief">amicus briefs</a> urging the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Supreme Court">Supreme Court</a> to reverse its precedents and eliminate the doctrine outright".<sup id="cite_ref-Cato_campaign_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cato_campaign-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By January 2020, this campaign had garnered the support of a cross-ideological spectrum of <a href="/wiki/Public_interest" title="Public interest">public interest</a> organizations, including the <a href="/wiki/ACLU" class="mw-redirect" title="ACLU">ACLU</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Alliance_Defending_Freedom" title="Alliance Defending Freedom">Alliance Defending Freedom</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Justice" title="Institute for Justice">Institute for Justice</a>, the <a href="/wiki/NAACP_Legal_Defense_Fund" class="mw-redirect" title="NAACP Legal Defense Fund">NAACP Legal Defense Fund</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_Foundation" title="Second Amendment Foundation">Second Amendment Foundation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cato_campaign_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cato_campaign-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In August 2018, Circuit Judge <a href="/wiki/Don_Willett" title="Don Willett">Don Willett</a> concurred <i><a href="/wiki/Dubitante" title="Dubitante">dubitante</a></i> when the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Fifth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit</a> found that the <a href="/wiki/Texas_Medical_Board" title="Texas Medical Board">Texas Medical Board</a> was entitled to qualified immunity for an unconstitutional warrantless search it made of a doctor's patient records.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Willett called for "thoughtful reappraisal" of the <span style="padding-right:.15em;">"</span>'clearly established law' prong of qualified-immunity analysis", citing a tendency for many courts to grant immunity based on no clear precedent, while avoiding the question of whether a Constitutional violation has occurred. Hence, those courts do not establish new law, so "[w]rongs are not righted, and wrongdoers are not reproached."<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He wrote: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> <p>To some observers, qualified immunity smacks of unqualified impunity, letting public officials duck consequences for bad behavior—no matter how palpably unreasonable—as long as they were the <i>first</i> to behave badly. Merely proving a constitutional deprivation doesn't cut it; plaintiffs must cite functionally identical precedent that places the legal question "beyond debate" to "every" reasonable officer. Put differently, it's immaterial that someone acts unconstitutionally if no prior case held such misconduct unlawful. This current "yes harm, no foul" imbalance leaves victims violated but not vindicated. </p><p>[...] </p><p> Section 1983 meets <a href="/wiki/Catch-22_(logic)" title="Catch-22 (logic)">Catch-22</a>. Important constitutional questions go unanswered precisely because those questions are yet unanswered. Courts then rely on that judicial silence to conclude there's no equivalent case on the books. No precedent = no clearly established law = no liability. An Escherian Stairwell. Heads government wins, tails plaintiff loses.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In 2020, there were several cases awaiting a Supreme Court decision involving qualified immunity.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, on June 15, 2020, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> declined to hear cases involving revisiting qualified immunity.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was until November 2, 2020, when the Supreme Court ruled in a 7–1 <i>per curiam</i> decision that the 5th Circuit erred in granting two prison guards qualified immunity despite severe abuses.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Erwin Chemerinsky of the UC Berkeley School of Law calls this "a rare civil rights victory on qualified immunity".<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legislative_attempts">Legislative attempts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualified_immunity&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Legislative attempts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On May 30, 2020, <a href="/wiki/U.S._Representative" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Representative">U.S. Representative</a> <a href="/wiki/Justin_Amash" title="Justin Amash">Justin Amash</a> (<a href="/wiki/Libertarian_Party_(United_States)" title="Libertarian Party (United States)">L</a>-<a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Representatives_from_Michigan" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Representatives from Michigan">Michigan</a>) proposed the <a href="/wiki/Ending_Qualified_Immunity_Act" title="Ending Qualified Immunity Act">Ending Qualified Immunity Act</a>, stating: "The brutal killing of <a href="/wiki/George_Floyd" title="George Floyd">George Floyd</a> by Minneapolis police is merely the latest in a long line of incidents of egregious police misconduct ... police are legally, politically, and culturally insulated from consequences for violating the rights of the people whom they have sworn to serve".<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Representative <a href="/wiki/Ayanna_Pressley" title="Ayanna Pressley">Ayanna Pressley</a> (<a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">D</a>-<a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Representatives_from_Massachusetts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Representatives from Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 16 additional cosponsors introduced the bill in the <a href="/wiki/US_House_of_Representatives" class="mw-redirect" title="US House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a> on June 4, 2020,<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-H.R.7085_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-H.R.7085-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of September 12, 2020, it had 66 cosponsors (65 <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democrats</a> and 1 <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-H.R.7085_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-H.R.7085-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A second bill aimed at ending qualified immunity for law enforcement, the Justice in Policing Act of 2020 (H.R.7120), was introduced by Rep. <a href="/wiki/Karen_Bass" title="Karen Bass">Karen Bass</a> (D-California) on June 8, 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The bill's sponsorship by members of the <a href="/wiki/Libertarian_Party_(United_States)" title="Libertarian Party (United States)">Libertarian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a> parties made it the first bill to have tripartisan support in Congress. </p><p>On June 3, 2020, <a href="/wiki/US_Senator" class="mw-redirect" title="US Senator">Senators</a> <a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a> (<a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">D</a>-<a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Representatives_from_California" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Representatives from California">California</a>), <a href="/wiki/Edward_Markey" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Markey">Edward Markey</a> (<a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">D</a>-<a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Representatives_from_Massachusetts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Representatives from Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Cory_Booker" title="Cory Booker">Cory Booker</a> (<a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">D</a>-<a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Representatives_from_New_Jersey" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Representatives from New Jersey">New Jersey</a>) introduced a Senate resolution calling for the elimination of qualified immunity for law enforcement.<sup id="cite_ref-Senate-Resolution_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Senate-Resolution-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Senators <a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Bernie Sanders</a> (<a href="/wiki/Independent_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent (United States)">I</a>-<a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Representatives_from_Vermont" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Representatives from Vermont">Vermont</a>), <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Warren" title="Elizabeth Warren">Elizabeth Warren</a> (<a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">D</a>-<a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Representatives_from_Massachusetts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Representatives from Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Chris_Van_Hollen" title="Chris Van Hollen">Chris Van Hollen</a> (<a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">D</a>-<a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Representatives_from_Maryland" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Representatives from Maryland">Maryland</a>) were cosponsors.<sup id="cite_ref-Senate-Resolution_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Senate-Resolution-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On June 23, 2020, <a href="/wiki/Mike_Braun" title="Mike Braun">Senator Mike Braun</a> (R-Indiana) introduced the Reforming Qualified Immunity Act,<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> proposing that "to claim qualified immunity under the Reforming Qualified Immunity Act, a government employee such as a police officer would have to prove that there was a statute or court case in the relevant jurisdiction showing his or her conduct was authorized".<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="State_law">State law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualified_immunity&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: State law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Qualified immunity is a doctrine of federal law, not affected by changes in state law. Nonetheless, some states have passed what they deem to be modifications of qualified immunity in the context of state law claims. These changes do not impact the doctrine of qualified immunity as applied to federal constitutional law. <a href="/wiki/Colorado" title="Colorado">Colorado</a>, <a href="/wiki/Connecticut" title="Connecticut">Connecticut</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a>, and New York City have either ended qualified immunity altogether or limited its application in court cases involving state law claims. </p><p>Through the passing of the Enhance Law Enforcement Integrity Act in June 2020, Colorado became the first state to explicitly remove qualified immunity as a defense for law enforcement officers against state law claims (but not federal constitutional claims).<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (May 2024)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>On April 7, 2021, Governor <a href="/wiki/Michelle_Lujan_Grisham" title="Michelle Lujan Grisham">Michelle Lujan Grisham</a> signed the New Mexico Civil Rights Act guaranteeing that no public official "shall enjoy the defense of qualified immunity for causing the deprivation of any rights, privileges or immunities secured by the constitution of" New Mexico. Again, this applies solely to state law claims, not federal constitutional claims. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/New_York_City_Council" title="New York City Council">New York City Council</a> eliminated qualified immunity for city officers in March 2021, as to state law claims but not as to federal claims.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relevant_cases">Relevant cases</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualified_immunity&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Relevant cases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Harlow_v._Fitzgerald" title="Harlow v. Fitzgerald">Harlow v. Fitzgerald</a></i>, 457 U.S. 800 (1982)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Saucier_v._Katz" title="Saucier v. Katz">Saucier v. Katz</a></i>, 533 U.S. 194 (2001)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hope_v._Pelzer" title="Hope v. Pelzer">Hope v. Pelzer</a></i>, 536 U.S. 730 (2002)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brosseau_v._Haugen" class="mw-redirect" title="Brosseau v. Haugen">Brosseau v. Haugen</a></i>, 543 U.S. 194 (2004) (dealing with qualified immunity in highly fact-bound cases involving police use of force)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pearson_v._Callahan" title="Pearson v. Callahan">Pearson v. Callahan</a></i>, 555 U.S. 223 (2009)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Safford_Unified_School_District_v._Redding" title="Safford Unified School District v. Redding">Safford Unified School District v. Redding</a></i>, 557 U.S. 364 (2009) (dealing with qualified immunity in a case involving a search of a student by school officials)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Camreta_v._Greene" title="Camreta v. Greene">Camreta v. Greene</a></i>, 563 U.S. 692 (2011)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plumhoff_v._Rickard" title="Plumhoff v. Rickard">Plumhoff v. Rickard</a></i>, 572 U.S. 765 (2014) (dealing with qualified immunity in highly fact-bound cases involving police use of force)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hernandez_v._Mesa" title="Hernandez v. Mesa">Hernandez v. Mesa</a></i>, 589 U.S. ____ (2020)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Novak_v._City_of_Parma" title="Novak v. City of Parma">Novak v. City of Parma</a></i>, 21-3290 (2022)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualified_immunity&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/30px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/46px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/61px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_immunity" title="Absolute immunity">Absolute immunity</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ignorantia_juris_non_excusat" title="Ignorantia juris non excusat">Ignorantia juris non excusat</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereign_immunity" title="Sovereign immunity">Sovereign immunity</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualified_immunity&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harlow v. Fitzgerald, 457 U.S. 800, 818 (1982).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Ashcroft_v._al-Kidd" title="Ashcroft v. al-Kidd">Ashcroft v. al-Kidd</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_563" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 563">563</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/563/731/#743">731, 743</a> (2011).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Malley v. Briggs</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_475" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 475">475</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/475/335/#341">335, 341</a> (1986).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/qualified_immunity">"Qualified immunity"</a>. <i>Legal Information Institute</i>. Cornell Law School. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200603182259/https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/qualified_immunity">Archived</a> from the original on June 3, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 4,</span> 2020</span>. <q>Qualified immunity only applies to suits against government officials as individuals, not suits against the government for damages caused by the officials' actions.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Legal+Information+Institute&rft.atitle=Qualified+immunity&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fwex%2Fqualified_immunity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwartz2017" class="citation web cs1">Schwartz, Joanna C. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.yalelawjournal.org/pdf/Schwartz_1ki1sac4.pdf">"How Qualified Immunity Fails"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Yale_Law_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Yale Law Journal">Yale Law Journal</a></i>. Yale Law School. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200607232029/https://www.yalelawjournal.org/pdf/Schwartz_1ki1sac4.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on June 7, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 26,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Yale+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=How+Qualified+Immunity+Fails&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Schwartz&rft.aufirst=Joanna+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.yalelawjournal.org%2Fpdf%2FSchwartz_1ki1sac4.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cops_who_kill-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cops_who_kill_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cops_who_kill_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cops_who_kill_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cops_who_kill_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChungHurleyBottsJanuta2020" class="citation news cs1">Chung, Andrew; Hurley, Lawrence; Botts, Jackie; Januta, Andrea; Gomez, Guillermo (May 8, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/usa-police-immunity-scotus/">"For cops who kill, special Supreme Court protection"</a>. Reuters. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200601022624/https://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/usa-police-immunity-scotus/">Archived</a> from the original on June 1, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 5,</span> 2020</span>. <q>The increasing frequency of such cases has prompted a growing chorus of criticism from lawyers, legal scholars, civil rights groups, politicians and even judges that qualified immunity, as applied, is unjust. Spanning the political spectrum, this broad coalition says the doctrine has become a nearly failsafe tool to let police brutality go unpunished and deny victims their constitutional rights.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=For+cops+who+kill%2C+special+Supreme+Court+protection&rft.date=2020-05-08&rft.aulast=Chung&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft.au=Hurley%2C+Lawrence&rft.au=Botts%2C+Jackie&rft.au=Januta%2C+Andrea&rft.au=Gomez%2C+Guillermo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Finvestigates%2Fspecial-report%2Fusa-police-immunity-scotus%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChungHurleyBottsJanuta2020" class="citation news cs1">Chung, Andrew; Hurley, Lawrence; Botts, Jackie; Januta, Andrea; Gomez, Guillermo (May 30, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200612051417/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-police-immunity-scotus-specialrep-idUSKBN22K18C">"Special Report: For cops who kill, special Supreme Court protection"</a>. <i>Reuters</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-police-immunity-scotus-specialrep-idUSKBN22K18C">the original</a> on June 12, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 2,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Special+Report%3A+For+cops+who+kill%2C+special+Supreme+Court+protection&rft.date=2020-05-30&rft.aulast=Chung&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft.au=Hurley%2C+Lawrence&rft.au=Botts%2C+Jackie&rft.au=Januta%2C+Andrea&rft.au=Gomez%2C+Guillermo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-usa-police-immunity-scotus-specialrep-idUSKBN22K18C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AmJur314-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AmJur314_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"§ 314". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/63cAmJur2dPublicOfficersAndEmployees_201512/page/n539"><i>Public Officers and Employees</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Jurisprudence" title="American Jurisprudence">American Jurisprudence</a>. Vol. 63C (2d. ed.). p. 539.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%C2%A7+314&rft.btitle=Public+Officers+and+Employees&rft.series=American+Jurisprudence&rft.pages=539&rft.edition=2d.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F63cAmJur2dPublicOfficersAndEmployees_201512%2Fpage%2Fn539&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bivens-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bivens_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bivens_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Bivens_v._Six_Unknown_Named_Agents" title="Bivens v. Six Unknown Named Agents">Bivens v. Six Unknown Named Agents</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_403" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 403">403</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/403/388/">388</a> (1971).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Title_42_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 42 of the United States Code">42 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/42/1983">§ 1983</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Actions Against Federal Agencies and Officers, 14 Fed. Prac. & Proc. Juris. § 3655 (4th ed.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Davis v. Passman</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_442" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 442">442</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/442/228/#245">228, 245</a> (1979).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Carlson v. Green</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_446" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 446">446</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/446/14/#25">14, 25</a> (1980).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Harlow_v._Fitzgerald" title="Harlow v. Fitzgerald">Harlow v. Fitzgerald</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_457" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 457">457</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/457/800/">800</a> (1982).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Harvard-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Harvard_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvard_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvard_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdn.harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/DEVO_10.pdf">"State action and the public/private distinction"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Harvard Law Review</i>. <b>123</b> (5): 1248–1314. 2010. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40648486">40648486</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Law+Review&rft.atitle=State+action+and+the+public%2Fprivate+distinction&rft.volume=123&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1248-1314&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40648486%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcdn.harvardlawreview.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fpdfs%2FDEVO_10.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Harlow</i>, 457 U.S. at 814.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Harlow818-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Harlow818_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harlow818_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harlow818_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Harlow</i>, 457 U.S. at 818.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Saucier_v._Katz" title="Saucier v. Katz">Saucier v. Katz</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_533" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 533">533</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/533/194/">194</a> (2001).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Saucier v. Katz, 533 U.S. 194, 121 S. Ct. 2151. June 18, 2001</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Pearson, et al. v. Callahan, 555 U.S. 223 (2009).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See e.g. <i>Bletz v. Gribble</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.leagle.com/decision/infco20110527107">641 F.3d 743, 757</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180708133412/https://www.leagle.com/decision/infco20110527107">Archived</a> July 8, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (<a href="/wiki/6th_Cir." class="mw-redirect" title="6th Cir.">6th Cir.</a> 2011); <i>Kennedy v. Mathis</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.leagle.com/decision/ingaco20090316117">297 Ga. App. 295, 297, 676 S.E.2d 746, 748</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180708133502/https://www.leagle.com/decision/ingaco20090316117">Archived</a> July 8, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (2009); <i>Rodriguez v. State</i>, 218 Md. App. 573, 615 (2014); <i>Baptie v. Bruno</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.leagle.com/decision/invtco20131206f63">195 Vt. 308, 314, 88 A.3d 1212</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180708133316/https://www.leagle.com/decision/invtco20131206f63">Archived</a> July 8, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (2013).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AmJur318-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AmJur318_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AmJur318_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"§ 318". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/63cAmJur2dPublicOfficersAndEmployees_201512/page/n549"><i>Public Officers and Employees</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Jurisprudence" title="American Jurisprudence">American Jurisprudence</a>. Vol. 63C (2d. ed.). p. 549.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%C2%A7+318&rft.btitle=Public+Officers+and+Employees&rft.series=American+Jurisprudence&rft.pages=549&rft.edition=2d.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F63cAmJur2dPublicOfficersAndEmployees_201512%2Fpage%2Fn549&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AmJur319-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AmJur319_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"§ 319". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/63cAmJur2dPublicOfficersAndEmployees_201512/page/n553"><i>Public Officers and Employees</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Jurisprudence" title="American Jurisprudence">American Jurisprudence</a>. Vol. 63C (2d. ed.). p. 553.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%C2%A7+319&rft.btitle=Public+Officers+and+Employees&rft.series=American+Jurisprudence&rft.pages=553&rft.edition=2d.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F63cAmJur2dPublicOfficersAndEmployees_201512%2Fpage%2Fn553&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AmJur315-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AmJur315_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"§ 315". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/63cAmJur2dPublicOfficersAndEmployees_201512/page/n543"><i>Public Officers and Employees</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Jurisprudence" title="American Jurisprudence">American Jurisprudence</a>. Vol. 63C (2d. ed.). p. 543.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%C2%A7+315&rft.btitle=Public+Officers+and+Employees&rft.series=American+Jurisprudence&rft.pages=543&rft.edition=2d.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F63cAmJur2dPublicOfficersAndEmployees_201512%2Fpage%2Fn543&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AmJur316-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AmJur316_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"§ 316". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/63cAmJur2dPublicOfficersAndEmployees_201512/page/n545"><i>Public Officers and Employees</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Jurisprudence" title="American Jurisprudence">American Jurisprudence</a>. Vol. 63C (2d. ed.). p. 545.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%C2%A7+316&rft.btitle=Public+Officers+and+Employees&rft.series=American+Jurisprudence&rft.pages=545&rft.edition=2d.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F63cAmJur2dPublicOfficersAndEmployees_201512%2Fpage%2Fn545&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">§ 8:22. Post-Harlow qualified immunity test in the circuits and the states: applicable principles (Part I)—Whose decisions determine clearly settled law?, 2 Nahmod, Civil Rights & Civil Liberties Litigation: The Law of Section 1983 § 8:22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>City & Cty. of San Francisco v. Sheehan</i>, No. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/575/13-1412/">13-1412</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_575" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 575">575</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> ___ (2015).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190527152255/https://reason.com/2018/06/13/the-case-against-qualified-immunity-part-3/">"The Case Against Qualified Immunity, Part III"</a>. June 13, 2018. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://reason.com/2018/06/13/the-case-against-qualified-immunity-part-3/">the original</a> on May 27, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Case+Against+Qualified+Immunity%2C+Part+III&rft.date=2018-06-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freason.com%2F2018%2F06%2F13%2Fthe-case-against-qualified-immunity-part-3%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ucla_lr_sequence-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ucla_lr_sequence_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ucla_lr_sequence_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRolfs2011" class="citation journal cs1">Rolfs, Colin (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uclalawreview.org/qualified-immunity-after-pearson-v-callahan-2/">"Qualified Immunity After Pearson v. Callahan"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/UCLA_Law_Review" title="UCLA Law Review">UCLA Law Review</a></i>. <b>59</b>: 468–502.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=UCLA+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Qualified+Immunity+After+Pearson+v.+Callahan&rft.volume=59&rft.pages=468-502&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Rolfs&rft.aufirst=Colin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.uclalawreview.org%2Fqualified-immunity-after-pearson-v-callahan-2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Pearson_v._Callahan" title="Pearson v. Callahan">Pearson v. Callahan</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_555" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 555">555</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/555/223/#818">223, 818</a> (2009).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Pearson</i>, 555 U.S. at 821.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJaicomoBidwell2020" class="citation news cs1">Jaicomo, Patrick; Bidwell, Anya (May 20, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/2020/05/30/police-george-floyd-qualified-immunity-supreme-court-column/5283349002/">"Police act like laws don't apply to them because of 'qualified immunity.' They're right"</a>. USA Today. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200603233143/https://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/2020/05/30/police-george-floyd-qualified-immunity-supreme-court-column/5283349002/">Archived</a> from the original on June 3, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 4,</span> 2020</span>. <q>With that novel invention, the court granted all government officials immunity for violating constitutional and civil rights unless the victims of those violations can show that the rights were 'clearly established'. Although innocuous sounding, the clearly established test is a legal obstacle nearly impossible to overcome.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Police+act+like+laws+don%27t+apply+to+them+because+of+%27qualified+immunity.%27+They%27re+right.&rft.date=2020-05-20&rft.aulast=Jaicomo&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft.au=Bidwell%2C+Anya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usatoday.com%2Fstory%2Fopinion%2F2020%2F05%2F30%2Fpolice-george-floyd-qualified-immunity-supreme-court-column%2F5283349002%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unlawfulshield.com/frequently-asked-questions-about-qualified-immunity/">"Frequently Asked Questions About Qualified Immunity"</a>. <i>Unlawful Shield</i>. The Cato Institute. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200604231400/https://www.unlawfulshield.com/frequently-asked-questions-about-qualified-immunity/">Archived</a> from the original on June 4, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 4,</span> 2020</span>. <q>To deny qualified immunity, courts generally require not just a clear legal rule, but a prior case with functionally identical facts.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Unlawful+Shield&rft.atitle=Frequently+Asked+Questions+About+Qualified+Immunity&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unlawfulshield.com%2Ffrequently-asked-questions-about-qualified-immunity%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ij.org/qi-learn-more/">"What Is Qualified Immunity?"</a>. Institute for Justice. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200605003150/https://ij.org/qi-learn-more/">Archived</a> from the original on June 5, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 4,</span> 2020</span>. <q>Qualified immunity means that government officials cannot be held accountable for violating the Constitution unless they violate a "clearly established' constitutional rule. In practice, that means that government officials can only be held liable if a federal court of appeals or the U.S. Supreme Court has already held that someone violated the Constitution by engaging in precisely the same conduct under precisely the same circumstances.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+Is+Qualified+Immunity%3F&rft.pub=Institute+for+Justice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fij.org%2Fqi-learn-more%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDwyer2020" class="citation news cs1">Dwyer, Devin (June 4, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/police-immunity-rule-fresh-supreme-court-george-floyd/story?id=71044230">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Qualified immunity' for police getting fresh look by Supreme Court after George Floyd death"</a>. ABC News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200604191739/https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/police-immunity-rule-fresh-supreme-court-george-floyd/story?id=71044230">Archived</a> from the original on June 4, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 5,</span> 2020</span>. <q><span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'In order for a plaintiff to defeat qualified immunity, they have to find a prior case that has held unconstitutional an incident with virtually identical facts to the one the plaintiff is bringing,' said UCLA law professor Joanna Schwartz.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=%27Qualified+immunity%27+for+police+getting+fresh+look+by+Supreme+Court+after+George+Floyd+death&rft.date=2020-06-04&rft.aulast=Dwyer&rft.aufirst=Devin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fabcnews.go.com%2FPolitics%2Fpolice-immunity-rule-fresh-supreme-court-george-floyd%2Fstory%3Fid%3D71044230&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJaicomoBidwell2020" class="citation news cs1">Jaicomo, Patrick; Bidwell, Anya (May 20, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/2020/05/30/police-george-floyd-qualified-immunity-supreme-court-column/5283349002/">"Police act like laws don't apply to them because of 'qualified immunity.' They're right"</a>. USA Today. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200603233143/https://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/2020/05/30/police-george-floyd-qualified-immunity-supreme-court-column/5283349002/">Archived</a> from the original on June 3, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 4,</span> 2020</span>. <q>Although innocuous sounding, the clearly established test is a legal obstacle nearly impossible to overcome. It requires a victim to identify an earlier decision by the Supreme Court, or a federal appeals court in the same jurisdiction holding that precisely the same conduct under the same circumstances is illegal or unconstitutional. If none exists, the official is immune. Whether the official's actions are unconstitutional, intentional or malicious is irrelevant to the test.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Police+act+like+laws+don%27t+apply+to+them+because+of+%27qualified+immunity.%27+They%27re+right.&rft.date=2020-05-20&rft.aulast=Jaicomo&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft.au=Bidwell%2C+Anya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usatoday.com%2Fstory%2Fopinion%2F2020%2F05%2F30%2Fpolice-george-floyd-qualified-immunity-supreme-court-column%2F5283349002%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-techdirt-qi-appellate-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-techdirt-qi-appellate_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-techdirt-qi-appellate_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCushing2018" class="citation web cs1">Cushing, Tim (September 5, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.techdirt.com/articles/20180901/17202640564/appeals-court-judge-qualified-immunity-is-rigged-game-government-almost-always-wins.shtml">"Appeals Court Judge: Qualified Immunity Is A Rigged Game The Government Almost Always Wins"</a>. <i>Techdirt</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190825001256/https://www.techdirt.com/articles/20180901/17202640564/appeals-court-judge-qualified-immunity-is-rigged-game-government-almost-always-wins.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on August 25, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 3,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Sotomayor+sees+%27disturbing+trend%27+of+unequal+treatment+regarding+police%2C+alleged+victims&rft.date=2017-04-24&rft.aulast=Barnes&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fpolitics%2Fcourts_law%2Fsotomayor-sees-disturbing-trend-of-unequal-treatment-regarding-police-alleged-victims%2F2017%2F04%2F24%2Fdfe8c368-2912-11e7-b605-33413c691853_story.html%3Fnoredirect%3Don&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cato_campaign-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cato_campaign_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cato_campaign_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cato_campaign_47-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchweikertNeily2020" class="citation news cs1">Schweikert, Jay; Neily, Clark (January 17, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cato.org/blog/supreme-court-considers-several-qualified-immunity-cases-new-ally-joins-fight">"As Supreme Court Considers Several Qualified Immunity Cases, A New Ally Joins The Fight"</a>. The Cato Institute. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200604234827/https://www.cato.org/blog/supreme-court-considers-several-qualified-immunity-cases-new-ally-joins-fight">Archived</a> from the original on June 4, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 4,</span> 2020</span>. <q>Cato launched its strategic campaign to challenge the doctrine of qualified immunity—an atextual, ahistorical doctrine invented by the Supreme Court in the 1960s—on March 1, 2018.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=As+Supreme+Court+Considers+Several+Qualified+Immunity+Cases%2C+A+New+Ally+Joins+The+Fight&rft.date=2020-01-17&rft.aulast=Schweikert&rft.aufirst=Jay&rft.au=Neily%2C+Clark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cato.org%2Fblog%2Fsupreme-court-considers-several-qualified-immunity-cases-new-ally-joins-fight&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-is-qi-unlawful-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-is-qi-unlawful_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-is-qi-unlawful_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaude2018" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Baude" title="William Baude">Baude, William</a> (February 18, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lawcat.berkeley.edu/record/1128553">"Is Qualified Immunity Unlawful?"</a>. <i>California Law Review</i>. <b>106</b> (1): 45. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15779%2FZ38MG7FV8G">10.15779/Z38MG7FV8G</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221024140256/https://lawcat.berkeley.edu/record/1128553">Archived</a> from the original on October 24, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 19,</span> 2023</span>. <q>Members of the Supreme Court have offered three different justifications for imposing such an unwritten defense on the text of Section 1983. One is that it derives from a common law 'good faith' defense; another is that it compensates for an earlier putative mistake in broadening the statute; the third is that it provides 'fair warning' to government officials, akin to the rule of lenity. But on closer examination, each of these justifications falls apart, for a mix of historical, conceptual, and doctrinal reasons. There was no such defense; there was no such mistake; lenity ought not apply. And even if these things were otherwise, the doctrine of qualified immunity would not be the best response. The unlawfulness of qualified immunity is of particular importance now. Despite the shoddy foundations, the Supreme Court has been reinforcing the doctrine of immunity in both formal and informal ways.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=California+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Is+Qualified+Immunity+Unlawful%3F&rft.volume=106&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=45&rft.date=2018-02-18&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.15779%2FZ38MG7FV8G&rft.aulast=Baude&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flawcat.berkeley.edu%2Frecord%2F1128553&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite><i>Crawford-El v. Britton</i></cite>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/pdf/96-827P.ZD1">523 U.S. 574</a>, 96-827 (<a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">United States Supreme Court</a> May 4, 1998) ("We find ourselves engaged, therefore, in the essentially legislative activity of crafting a sensible scheme of qualified immunities for the statute we have invented-rather than applying the common law embodied in the statute that Congress wrote. My preference is, in undiluted form, the approach suggested by Judge Silberman's concurring opinion in the Court of Appeals: extending the 'objective reasonableness' test of <i>Harlow v. Fitzgerald</i> [...] to qualified immunity insofar as it relates to intent-based constitutional torts.").</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuinn2020" class="citation news cs1">Quinn, Melissa (June 5, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/supreme-court-qualified-immunity-police-announcement-could-come-soon/">"Supreme Court announcement on reexamining qualified immunity for police could come soon"</a>. <i>CBS News</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200606224040/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/supreme-court-qualified-immunity-police-announcement-could-come-soon/">Archived</a> from the original on June 6, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 7,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CBS+News&rft.atitle=Supreme+Court+announcement+on+reexamining+qualified+immunity+for+police+could+come+soon&rft.date=2020-06-05&rft.aulast=Quinn&rft.aufirst=Melissa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbsnews.com%2Fnews%2Fsupreme-court-qualified-immunity-police-announcement-could-come-soon%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Adelman-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Adelman_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Adelman_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdelman2017" class="citation news cs1">Adelman, Lynn (Fall 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dissentmagazine.org/article/supreme-court-assault-civil-rights-section-1983">"The Supreme Court's Quiet Assault on Civil Rights"</a>. Dissent. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200604234832/https://www.dissentmagazine.org/article/supreme-court-assault-civil-rights-section-1983">Archived</a> from the original on June 4, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 4,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Supreme+Court%27s+Quiet+Assault+on+Civil+Rights&rft.ssn=fall&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Adelman&rft.aufirst=Lynn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dissentmagazine.org%2Farticle%2Fsupreme-court-assault-civil-rights-section-1983&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/42/1983">"42 U.S. Code § 1983. Civil action for deprivation of rights"</a>. <i>Legal Information Institute</i>. Cornell Law School. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170629005332/https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/42/1983">Archived</a> from the original on June 29, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 4,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Legal+Information+Institute&rft.atitle=42+U.S.+Code+%C2%A7+1983.+Civil+action+for+deprivation+of+rights&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fuscode%2Ftext%2F42%2F1983&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRudovsky1989" class="citation journal cs1">Rudovsky, David (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2508&context=faculty_scholarship">"The Qualified Immunity Doctrine in the Supreme Court: Judicial Activism and the Restriction of Constitutional Rights Activism and the Restriction of Constitutional Rights"</a>. <i>Faculty Scholarship at Penn Law</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200604234850/https://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2508&context=faculty_scholarship">Archived</a> from the original on June 4, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 4,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Faculty+Scholarship+at+Penn+Law&rft.atitle=The+Qualified+Immunity+Doctrine+in+the+Supreme+Court%3A+Judicial+Activism+and+the+Restriction+of+Constitutional+Rights+Activism+and+the+Restriction+of+Constitutional+Rights&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Rudovsky&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarship.law.upenn.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D2508%26context%3Dfaculty_scholarship&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWasserman2018" class="citation journal cs1">Wasserman, Howard M. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 3,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jotwell&rft.atitle=The+Empirical+Truth+About+Qualified+Immunity&rft.date=2018-02-23&rft.aulast=Wasserman&rft.aufirst=Howard+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcourtslaw.jotwell.com%2Fempirical-truth-qualified-immunity%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-qi-flawed-foundation-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-qi-flawed-foundation_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReinert2023" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_A._Reinert" title="Alexander A. Reinert">Reinert, Alexander</a> (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.californialawreview.org/print/qualified-immunitys-flawed-foundation/">"Qualified Immunity's Flawed Foundation"</a>. <i>California Law Review</i>. <b>111</b> (1): 201. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15779%2FZ38BK16Q68">10.15779/Z38BK16Q68</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230823112434/https://www.californialawreview.org/print/qualified-immunitys-flawed-foundation">Archived</a> from the original on August 23, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 19,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=California+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Qualified+Immunity%27s+Flawed+Foundation&rft.volume=111&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=201&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.15779%2FZ38BK16Q68&rft.aulast=Reinert&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.californialawreview.org%2Fprint%2Fqualified-immunitys-flawed-foundation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/resource/llsalvol.llsal_017/?sp=55&st=text&r=-0.054,-0.005,0.988,0.884,0">"Image 55 of U.S. Statutes at Large, Volume 17 (1871-1873)"</a>. <i>Library of Congress</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Library+of+Congress&rft.atitle=Image+55+of+U.S.+Statutes+at+Large%2C+Volume+17+%281871-1873%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fresource%2Fllsalvol.llsal_017%2F%3Fsp%3D55%26st%3Dtext%26r%3D-0.054%2C-0.005%2C0.988%2C0.884%2C0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiptak2023" class="citation news cs1">Liptak, Adam (May 15, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/05/15/us/politics/qualified-immunity-supreme-court.html">"16 Crucial Words That Went Missing From a Landmark Civil Rights Law"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231014114842/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/05/15/us/politics/qualified-immunity-supreme-court.html">Archived</a> from the original on October 14, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 19,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=16+Crucial+Words+That+Went+Missing+From+a+Landmark+Civil+Rights+Law&rft.date=2023-05-15&rft.aulast=Liptak&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2023%2F05%2F15%2Fus%2Fpolitics%2Fqualified-immunity-supreme-court.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaude2023" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Baude" title="William Baude">Baude, William</a> (June 12, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://reason.com/volokh/2023/06/12/codifers-errors-and-42-u-s-c-1983/">"Codifiers' Errors and 42 U.S.C. 1983"</a>. The Volokh Conspiracy. <i>Reason Magazine</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230802124420/https://reason.com/volokh/2023/06/12/codifers-errors-and-42-u-s-c-1983/">Archived</a> from the original on August 2, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 18,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Supreme+Court+of+the+United+States&rft.atitle=Docket+for+23-385&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.supremecourt.gov%2Fdocket%2Fdocketfiles%2Fhtml%2Fpublic%2F23-385.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1176897979">.mw-parser-output .bluebook-title{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output .bluebook-title i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .bluebook-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .bluebook-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .bluebook-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .bluebook-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><cite id="CITEREFNote{{{year}}}">Note, <span class="bluebook-title bluebook-lock-none" title=""><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://harvardlawreview.org/2019/05/zadeh-v-robinson/">Recent Case: Fifth Circuit Holds Medical Board Investigators Are Protected by Qualified Immunity in Warrantless Search of Records</a></span>, 132 <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_Review" title="Harvard Law Review">Harvard Law Review</a> 2042 (May 10, 2019, {{{year}}}).</cite></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnes2020" class="citation news cs1">Barnes, Robert (June 4, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/courts_law/supreme-court-asked-to-reconsider-immunity-available-to-police-accused-of-brutality/2020/06/04/99266d2c-a5b0-11ea-b473-04905b1af82b_story.html">"Supreme Court asked to reconsider immunity available to police accused of brutality"</a>. <i>The Washington Post</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200605021102/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/courts_law/supreme-court-asked-to-reconsider-immunity-available-to-police-accused-of-brutality/2020/06/04/99266d2c-a5b0-11ea-b473-04905b1af82b_story.html">Archived</a> from the original on June 5, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 7,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Website+of+U.S.+Representative+Justin+Amash&rft.atitle=Amash%2C+Pressley+introduce+bipartisan+legislation+to+end+qualified+immunity&rft.date=2020-06-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Famash.house.gov%2Fmedia%2Fpress-releases%2Famash-pressley-introduce-bipartisan-legislation-end-qualified-immunity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-H.R.7085-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-H.R.7085_75-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-H.R.7085_75-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/7085">"H.R.7085 – To amend the Revised Statutes to remove the defense of qualified immunity in the case of any action under section 1979, and for other purposes"</a>. <i>Congress.gov</i>. Library of Congress. 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200605155745/https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/7085">Archived</a> from the original on June 5, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 12,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Congress.gov&rft.atitle=H.R.7085+%E2%80%93+To+amend+the+Revised+Statutes+to+remove+the+defense+of+qualified+immunity+in+the+case+of+any+action+under+section+1979%2C+and+for+other+purposes.&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.congress.gov%2Fbill%2F116th-congress%2Fhouse-bill%2F7085&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/7120/text">"Justice In Policing Act"</a>. July 20, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 27,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Justice+In+Policing+Act&rft.date=2020-07-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.congress.gov%2Fbill%2F116th-congress%2Fhouse-bill%2F7120%2Ftext&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Senate-Resolution-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Senate-Resolution_77-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Senate-Resolution_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.harris.senate.gov/news/press-releases/harris-markey-booker-introduce-senate-resolution-to-abolish-qualified-immunity-for-law-enforcement-hold-officers-accountable-for-police-brutality">"Harris, Markey, Booker Introduce Senate Resolution to Abolish Qualified Immunity for Law Enforcement, Hold Officers Accountable for Police Brutality"</a>. <i>Website of U.S. Senator for California Kamala Harris</i>. June 3, 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200607013256/https://www.harris.senate.gov/news/press-releases/harris-markey-booker-introduce-senate-resolution-to-abolish-qualified-immunity-for-law-enforcement-hold-officers-accountable-for-police-brutality">Archived</a> from the original on June 7, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 7,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Website+of+U.S.+Senator+for+California+Kamala+Harris&rft.atitle=Harris%2C+Markey%2C+Booker+Introduce+Senate+Resolution+to+Abolish+Qualified+Immunity+for+Law+Enforcement%2C+Hold+Officers+Accountable+for+Police+Brutality&rft.date=2020-06-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.harris.senate.gov%2Fnews%2Fpress-releases%2Fharris-markey-booker-introduce-senate-resolution-to-abolish-qualified-immunity-for-law-enforcement-hold-officers-accountable-for-police-brutality&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBudryk2020" class="citation web cs1">Budryk, Zach (June 3, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thehill.com/homenews/senate/500922-markey-harris-booker-to-introduce-resolution-calling-for-elimination-of">"Markey, Harris, Booker to introduce resolution calling for elimination of qualified immunity"</a>. <i>The Hill</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200607014143/https://thehill.com/homenews/senate/500922-markey-harris-booker-to-introduce-resolution-calling-for-elimination-of">Archived</a> from the original on June 7, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 7,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Hill&rft.atitle=Markey%2C+Harris%2C+Booker+to+introduce+resolution+calling+for+elimination+of+qualified+immunity&rft.date=2020-06-03&rft.aulast=Budryk&rft.aufirst=Zach&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthehill.com%2Fhomenews%2Fsenate%2F500922-markey-harris-booker-to-introduce-resolution-calling-for-elimination-of&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraun2020" class="citation web cs1">Braun, Mike (June 23, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/4036/text">"Text – S.4036 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): A bill to amend the Revised Statutes to reform the defense of qualified immunity in the case of any action under section 1979, and for other purposes"</a>. <i>www.congress.gov</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200629205932/https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/4036/text">Archived</a> from the original on June 29, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 29,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.congress.gov&rft.atitle=Text+%E2%80%93+S.4036+%E2%80%93+116th+Congress+%282019%E2%80%932020%29%3A+A+bill+to+amend+the+Revised+Statutes+to+reform+the+defense+of+qualified+immunity+in+the+case+of+any+action+under+section+1979%2C+and+for+other+purposes.&rft.date=2020-06-23&rft.aulast=Braun&rft.aufirst=Mike&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.congress.gov%2Fbill%2F116th-congress%2Fsenate-bill%2F4036%2Ftext&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.braun.senate.gov/node/755">"Senator Mike Braun introduces Reforming Qualified Immunity Act"</a>. <i>www.braun.senate.gov</i>. June 23, 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200625141258/https://www.braun.senate.gov/node/755">Archived</a> from the original on June 25, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 29,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.braun.senate.gov&rft.atitle=Senator+Mike+Braun+introduces+Reforming+Qualified+Immunity+Act&rft.date=2020-06-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.braun.senate.gov%2Fnode%2F755&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKalmbacher2020" class="citation news cs1">Kalmbacher, Colin (June 19, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lawandcrime.com/live-trials/live-trials-current/george-floyd-death/colorados-progressive-governor-and-legislature-just-ended-qualified-immunity-for-police-officers/">"Colorado's Progressive Governor and Legislature Just Ended Qualified Immunity for Police Officers"</a>. Law and Crime.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Colorado%27s+Progressive+Governor+and+Legislature+Just+Ended+Qualified+Immunity+for+Police+Officers&rft.date=2020-06-19&rft.aulast=Kalmbacher&rft.aufirst=Colin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flawandcrime.com%2Flive-trials%2Flive-trials-current%2Fgeorge-floyd-death%2Fcolorados-progressive-governor-and-legislature-just-ended-qualified-immunity-for-police-officers%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://leg.colorado.gov/bills/sb20-217">"Enhance Law Enforcement Integrity"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Enhance+Law+Enforcement+Integrity&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fleg.colorado.gov%2Fbills%2Fsb20-217&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLambe2021" class="citation news cs1">Lambe, Jerry (March 26, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lawandcrime.com/high-profile/new-york-becomes-first-city-to-eliminate-qualified-immunity-protections-for-police-officers/">"New York Becomes First City to Eliminate Qualified Immunity Protections for Police Officers"</a>. <i>Law and Crime</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Law+and+Crime&rft.atitle=New+York+Becomes+First+City+to+Eliminate+Qualified+Immunity+Protections+for+Police+Officers&rft.date=2021-03-26&rft.aulast=Lambe&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flawandcrime.com%2Fhigh-profile%2Fnew-york-becomes-first-city-to-eliminate-qualified-immunity-protections-for-police-officers%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQualified+immunity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qualified_immunity&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/usa-police-immunity-scotus/">For cops who kill, special Supreme Court protection</a> - Investigative report from <a href="/wiki/Reuters" title="Reuters">Reuters</a> with statistics and case studies</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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title="Equity (law)">Equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_(law)" title="Evidence (law)">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_obligations" title="Law of obligations">Law of obligations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">Private law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_law" title="Procedural law">Procedure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_procedure" title="Civil procedure">Civil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_procedure" title="Criminal procedure">Criminal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_law" title="Public law">Public law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punishment" title="Punishment">Punishment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corporal_punishment" title="Corporal punishment">Corporal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restitution_and_unjust_enrichment" title="Restitution 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title="Family law">Family law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_law" title="Financial law">Financial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_regulation" title="Financial regulation">Financial regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_law" title="Health law">Health law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_law" title="Immigration law">Immigration law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">International criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_human_rights_law" title="International human rights law">International human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_international_law" title="Slavery in international law">International slavery laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_trade_law" title="International trade law">International trade law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurimetrics" title="Jurimetrics">Jurimetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_law" title="Labour law">Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landlord%E2%80%93tenant_law" title="Landlord–tenant law">Landlord–tenant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_war" title="Law of war">Law of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_archaeology" title="Legal archaeology">Legal archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_fiction" title="Legal fiction">Legal fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_law" title="Admiralty law">Maritime law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_law" title="Marriage law">Marriage law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_justice" title="Military justice">Military law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality_law" title="Nationality law">Nationality law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probate" title="Probate">Probate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">Estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_and_testament" title="Will and testament">Will and testament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_liability" title="Product liability">Product liability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">Public international law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugee_law" title="Refugee law">Refugee law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reparation_(legal)" title="Reparation (legal)">Reparations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_law" title="Space law">Space law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_law_in_the_United_States" title="Sports law in the United States">Sports law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_emergency" title="State of emergency">State of emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_law" title="Tax law">Tax law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_law" title="Transport law">Transport law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(law)" title="Trust (law)">Trust law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unenforced_law" title="Unenforced law">Unenforced law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sources_of_law" title="Sources of law">Sources of law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charter" title="Charter">Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_law" title="Code of law">Legal code</a> / <a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Custom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divine_law" title="Divine law">Divine law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letters_patent" title="Letters patent">Letters patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural and legal rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_law" title="Case law">Case law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Precedent" title="Precedent">Precedent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_report" title="Law report">Law reports</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_treatise" title="Legal treatise">Legal treatise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lawmaking" title="Lawmaking">Law making</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Referendum" title="Referendum">Ballot measure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">Codification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decree" title="Decree">Decree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edict" title="Edict">Edict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_order_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Executive order (disambiguation)">Executive order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation" title="Proclamation">Proclamation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislation" title="Legislation">Legislation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_and_secondary_legislation" title="Primary and secondary legislation">Delegated legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rulemaking" title="Rulemaking">Rulemaking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promulgation" title="Promulgation">Promulgation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratification" title="Ratification">Ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repeal" title="Repeal">Repeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">Treaty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concordat" title="Concordat">Concordat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">Statute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_parliament" title="Act of parliament">Act of parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress" title="Act of Congress">Act of Congress</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_structure_doctrine" title="Basic structure doctrine">Basic structure doctrine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">Legal systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">Civil law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_law" title="Chinese law">Chinese law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_pluralism" title="Legal pluralism">Legal pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_law" title="Religious law">Religious law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">Canon law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Canon law of the Catholic Church">Catholic canon law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_law" title="Hindu law">Hindu law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_law" title="Jain law">Jain law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Jewish law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parsi_law" title="Parsi law">Parsi law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_law" title="Byzantine law">Byzantine law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_law" title="Socialist law">Socialist law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xeer" title="Xeer">Xeer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yassa" title="Yassa">Yassa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Legal theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_law" title="Anarchist law">Anarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_theory" title="Contract theory">Contract theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_law" title="Comparative law">Comparative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressive_function_of_law" title="Expressive function of law">Expressive function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_legal_theory" title="Feminist legal theory">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law and economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_formalism" title="Legal formalism">Legal formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_theories_of_law" title="Libertarian theories of law">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_legal_theories" title="International legal theories">International legal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legality" title="Legality">Principle of legality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_typicality" title="Principle of typicality">Principle of typicality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudolaw" title="Pseudolaw">Pseudolaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_man" title="Rule of man">Rule of man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adjudication" title="Adjudication">Adjudication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administration_of_justice" title="Administration of justice">Administration of justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">Criminal justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court-martial" title="Court-martial">Court-martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispute_resolution" title="Dispute resolution">Dispute resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawsuit" title="Lawsuit">Lawsuit/Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_opinion" title="Legal opinion">Legal opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_remedy" title="Legal remedy">Legal remedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judge" title="Judge">Judge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace" title="Justice of the peace">Justice of the peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magistrate" title="Magistrate">Magistrate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judgment_(law)" title="Judgment (law)">Judgment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">Judicial review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">Jurisdiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jury" title="Jury">Jury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practice_of_law" title="Practice of law">Practice of law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attorney_at_law" title="Attorney at law">Attorney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrister" title="Barrister">Barrister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counsel" title="Counsel">Counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer">Lawyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_(legal)" title="Defense (legal)">Legal 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class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Protests_of_the_murder_of_George_Floyd" style="wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#eeeeee;;background-color:#CEE0F2;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:George_Floyd_protests" title="Template:George Floyd protests"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:George_Floyd_protests" title="Template talk:George Floyd protests"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:George_Floyd_protests" title="Special:EditPage/Template:George Floyd protests"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Protests_of_the_murder_of_George_Floyd" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">Protests</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Murder_of_George_Floyd" title="Murder of George Floyd">murder of George Floyd</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#eeeeee;"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd" title="George Floyd">George Floyd</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memorials_to_George_Floyd" title="Memorials to George Floyd">memorials</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Derek_Chauvin" title="Derek Chauvin">Derek Chauvin</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Derek_Chauvin" title="Trial of Derek Chauvin">trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protests_in_Minneapolis_regarding_the_trial_of_Derek_Chauvin" title="Protests in Minneapolis regarding the trial of Derek Chauvin">trial protests</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#eeeeee;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_George_Floyd_protests" title="Lists of George Floyd protests">Locations</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Template:George_Floyd_protests_map" title="Template:George Floyd protests map">(map)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee"><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Minneapolis%E2%80%93Saint_Paul" title="George Floyd protests in Minneapolis–Saint Paul">Minneapolis–<br />Saint Paul</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_George_Floyd_protests_in_Minneapolis%E2%80%93Saint_Paul" title="Aftermath of the George Floyd protests in Minneapolis–Saint Paul">Aftermath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arson_damage_during_the_George_Floyd_protests_in_Minneapolis%E2%80%93Saint_Paul" title="Arson damage during the George Floyd protests in Minneapolis–Saint Paul">Arson damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_Square_occupied_protest" title="George Floyd Square occupied protest">George Floyd Square occupied protest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Minneapolis_Question_2" title="2021 Minneapolis Question 2">2021 Minneapolis Question 2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932023_Minneapolis%E2%80%93Saint_Paul_racial_unrest" title="2020–2023 Minneapolis–Saint Paul racial unrest">2020–2023 local racial unrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Save_the_Boards" title="Save the Boards">Save the Boards</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee"><a href="/wiki/List_of_George_Floyd_protests_in_the_United_States" title="List of George Floyd protests in the United States">Elsewhere in<br />the U.S.</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Alabama" title="George Floyd protests in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Alaska" title="George Floyd protests in Alaska">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Arizona" title="George Floyd protests in Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Arkansas" title="George Floyd protests in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_California" title="George Floyd protests in California">California</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Los_Angeles_County,_California" title="George Floyd protests in Los Angeles County, California">Los Angeles County</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_San_Diego_County,_California" title="George Floyd protests in San Diego County, California">San Diego County</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_the_San_Francisco_Bay_Area" title="George Floyd protests in the San Francisco Bay Area">San Francisco Bay Area</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Colorado" title="George Floyd protests in Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Connecticut" title="George Floyd protests in Connecticut">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Delaware" title="George Floyd protests in Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Washington,_D.C." title="George Floyd protests in Washington, D.C.">District of Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Florida" title="George Floyd protests in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Georgia" title="George Floyd protests in Georgia">Georgia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Atlanta" title="George Floyd protests in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Hawaii" title="George Floyd protests in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Idaho" title="George Floyd protests in Idaho">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Illinois" title="George Floyd protests in Illinois">Illinois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Chicago" title="George Floyd protests in Chicago">Chicago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Indiana" title="George Floyd protests in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Iowa" title="George Floyd protests in Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Kansas" title="George Floyd protests in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Kentucky" title="George Floyd protests in Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Louisiana" title="George Floyd protests in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Maine" title="George Floyd protests in Maine">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Maryland" title="George Floyd protests in Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Massachusetts" title="George Floyd protests in Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Michigan" title="George Floyd protests in Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Minnesota" title="George Floyd protests in Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Mississippi" title="George Floyd protests in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Missouri" title="George Floyd protests in Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Montana" title="George Floyd protests in Montana">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Nebraska" title="George Floyd protests in Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Nevada" title="George Floyd protests in Nevada">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_New_Hampshire" title="George Floyd protests in New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_New_Jersey" title="George Floyd protests in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_New_Mexico" title="George Floyd protests in New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_New_York_(state)" title="George Floyd protests in New York (state)">New York</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_New_York_City" title="George Floyd protests in New York City">New York City</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_North_Carolina" title="George Floyd protests in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_North_Dakota" title="George Floyd protests in North Dakota">North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Ohio" title="George Floyd protests in Ohio">Ohio</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Columbus,_Ohio" title="George Floyd protests in Columbus, Ohio">Columbus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Oklahoma" title="George Floyd protests in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Oregon" title="George Floyd protests in Oregon">Oregon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Portland,_Oregon" title="George Floyd protests in Portland, Oregon">Portland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Pennsylvania" title="George Floyd protests in Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Philadelphia" title="George Floyd protests in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Puerto_Rico" title="George Floyd protests in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Rhode_Island" title="George Floyd protests in Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_South_Carolina" title="George Floyd protests in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_South_Dakota" title="George Floyd protests in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Tennessee" title="George Floyd protests in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Texas" title="George Floyd protests in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Utah" title="George Floyd protests in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Vermont" title="George Floyd protests in Vermont">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Virginia" title="George Floyd protests in Virginia">Virginia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Richmond,_Virginia" title="George Floyd protests in Richmond, Virginia">Richmond</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Washington_(state)" title="George Floyd protests in Washington (state)">Washington</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Seattle" title="George Floyd protests in Seattle">Seattle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_West_Virginia" title="George Floyd protests in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Wisconsin" title="George Floyd protests in Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Wyoming" title="George Floyd protests in Wyoming">Wyoming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee"><a href="/wiki/List_of_George_Floyd_protests_outside_the_United_States" title="List of George Floyd protests outside the United States">Outside the U.S.</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Australia" title="George Floyd protests in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Belgium" title="George Floyd protests in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Canada" title="George Floyd protests in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Germany" title="George Floyd protests in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Italy" title="George Floyd protests in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_the_Netherlands" title="George Floyd protests in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_New_Zealand" title="George Floyd protests in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="George Floyd protests in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#eeeeee;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Violence_and_controversies_during_the_George_Floyd_protests" title="Violence and controversies during the George Floyd protests">Violence and<br />controversies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee">Incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_police_violence_incidents_during_George_Floyd_protests" title="List of police violence incidents during George Floyd protests">Police violence incidents</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buffalo_police_shoving_incident" title="Buffalo police shoving incident">Buffalo police shoving incident</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_vehicle-ramming_incidents_during_George_Floyd_protests" title="List of vehicle-ramming incidents during George Floyd protests">Vehicle-ramming incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump_photo_op_at_St._John%27s_Church" title="Donald Trump photo op at St. John's Church">Donald Trump photo op at St. John's Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Louis_gun-toting_incident" title="St. Louis gun-toting incident">St. Louis gun-toting incident</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee">Deaths</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_James_Scurlock" title="Killing of James Scurlock">James Scurlock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_David_McAtee" title="Killing of David McAtee">David McAtee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_David_Dorn" title="Murder of David Dorn">David Dorn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shooting_of_Sean_Monterrosa" title="Shooting of Sean Monterrosa">Sean Monterrosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Garrett_Foster" title="Murder of Garrett Foster">Garrett Foster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killings_of_Aaron_Danielson_and_Michael_Reinoehl" title="Killings of Aaron Danielson and Michael Reinoehl">Aaron Danielson and Michael Reinoehl</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee">Arrests</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Omar_Jimenez" title="Omar Jimenez">Omar Jimenez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#eeeeee;;width:1%">Slogans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/8_minutes_46_seconds" title="8 minutes 46 seconds">8:46</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/I_can%27t_breathe" title="I can't breathe">I can't breathe</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/When_the_looting_starts,_the_shooting_starts" title="When the looting starts, the shooting starts">When the looting starts, the shooting starts</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Defund_the_police" title="Defund the police">Defund the police</a>"</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#eeeeee;;width:1%">Reactions<br />(<a href="/wiki/Reactions_to_the_murder_of_George_Floyd" title="Reactions to the murder of George Floyd">to the murder</a> · <br /><a href="/wiki/Reactions_to_the_George_Floyd_protests" title="Reactions to the George Floyd protests">to the protests</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee">Law enforcement</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2020_deployment_of_federal_forces_in_the_United_States" title="2020 deployment of federal forces in the United States">2020 deployment of federal forces in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Legend" title="Operation Legend">Operation Legend</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_police_reforms_related_to_the_George_Floyd_protests" title="List of police reforms related to the George Floyd protests">Police reforms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee">Social and cultural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/8_to_Abolition" title="8 to Abolition">8 to Abolition</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/8:46_(special)" title="8:46 (special)">8:46</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actions_against_memorials_in_Great_Britain_during_the_George_Floyd_protests" class="mw-redirect" title="Actions against memorials in Great Britain during the George Floyd protests">Actions against memorials in Great Britain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commission_for_Diversity_in_the_Public_Realm" title="Commission for Diversity in the Public Realm">Commission for Diversity in the Public Realm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_Square" title="George Floyd Square">George Floyd Square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter_Plaza" title="Black Lives Matter Plaza">Black Lives Matter Plaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Black_Lives_Matter_street_murals" title="List of Black Lives Matter street murals">Black Lives Matter street murals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackout_Tuesday" title="Blackout Tuesday">Blackout Tuesday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitol_Hill_Occupied_Protest" title="Capitol Hill Occupied Protest">Capitol Hill Occupied Protest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_changes_made_due_to_the_George_Floyd_protests" title="List of changes made due to the George Floyd protests">Changes made</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monuments_and_memorials_removed_during_the_George_Floyd_protests" title="List of monuments and memorials removed during the George Floyd protests">Monuments and memorials removed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_name_changes_due_to_the_George_Floyd_protests" title="List of name changes due to the George Floyd protests">Name changes</a></li></ul></li> <li>Labor action <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strike_for_Black_Lives_(coalition_protest)" title="Strike for Black Lives (coalition protest)">Strike for Black Lives (general)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_American_athlete_strikes" title="2020 American athlete strikes">Sports strikes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strike_for_Black_Lives_(academic_protest)" title="Strike for Black Lives (academic protest)">Strike for Black Lives (academic)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#eeeeee;;width:1%">Proposed<br />legislation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BREATHE_Act" title="BREATHE Act">BREATHE Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ending_Qualified_Immunity_Act" title="Ending Qualified Immunity Act">Ending Qualified Immunity Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_Law_Enforcement_Trust_and_Integrity_Act" title="George Floyd Law Enforcement Trust and Integrity Act">George Floyd Law Enforcement Trust and Integrity Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_Justice_in_Policing_Act" title="George Floyd Justice in Policing Act">George Floyd Justice in Policing Act</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#eeeeee;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932023_United_States_racial_unrest" class="mw-redirect" title="2020–2023 United States racial unrest">2020–2023 United States racial unrest</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Ahmaud_Arbery" title="Murder of Ahmaud Arbery">Murder of Ahmaud Arbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Breonna_Taylor" title="Killing of Breonna Taylor">Killing of Breonna Taylor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breonna_Taylor_protests" title="Breonna Taylor protests">Breonna Taylor protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breonna_Taylor" title="Breonna Taylor">Breonna Taylor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Nina_Pop" title="Killing of Nina Pop">Killing of Nina Pop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Rayshard_Brooks" title="Killing of Rayshard Brooks">Killing of Rayshard Brooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shooting_of_Jacob_Blake" title="Shooting of Jacob Blake">Shooting of Jacob Blake</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kenosha_unrest" title="Kenosha unrest">Kenosha unrest</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kenosha_unrest_shooting" title="Kenosha unrest shooting">shooting</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Dijon_Kizzee" title="Killing of Dijon Kizzee">Killing of Dijon Kizzee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Daniel_Prude" title="Killing of Daniel Prude">Killing of Daniel Prude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Alvin_Cole" title="Killing of Alvin Cole">Killing of Alvin Cole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Marcellis_Stinnette" title="Killing of Marcellis Stinnette">Killing of Marcellis Stinnette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Walter_Wallace" title="Killing of Walter Wallace">Killing of Walter Wallace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Andre_Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="Killing of Andre Hill">Killing of Andre Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Winston_Boogie_Smith" title="Killing of Winston Boogie Smith">Killing of Winston Boogie Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_and_protests_of_the_United_States_racial_unrest_(2020%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="List of incidents and protests of the United States racial unrest (2020–present)">List of other incidents</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anonymous_(hacker_group)" title="Anonymous (hacker group)">Anonymous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_Zero" title="Campaign Zero">Campaign Zero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darnella_Frazier" title="Darnella Frazier">Darnella Frazier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minneapolis_Police_Department" title="Minneapolis Police Department">Minneapolis Police Department</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wall_of_Moms" title="Wall of Moms">Wall of Moms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monument_and_memorial_controversies_in_the_United_States" title="List of monument and memorial controversies in the United States">Monument and memorial controversies in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monuments_and_memorials_in_Canada_removed_in_2020%E2%80%932022" title="Monuments and memorials in Canada removed in 2020–2022">Monuments and memorials in Canada removed in 2020–2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_abolition_movement" title="Police abolition 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