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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Nuclear reaction equations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_reaction_equations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Energy_conservation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energy_conservation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Energy conservation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energy_conservation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Q-value_and_energy_balance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Q-value_and_energy_balance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Q-value and energy balance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Q-value_and_energy_balance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reaction_rates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reaction_rates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Reaction rates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reaction_rates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Charged_vs._uncharged_particles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Charged_vs._uncharged_particles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Charged vs. uncharged particles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Charged_vs._uncharged_particles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notable types</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Notable_types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Notable types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Notable_types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Direct_reactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Direct_reactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Direct reactions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Direct_reactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Inelastic_scattering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inelastic_scattering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.1</span> <span>Inelastic scattering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inelastic_scattering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Charge-exchange_reactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Charge-exchange_reactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.2</span> <span>Charge-exchange reactions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Charge-exchange_reactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nucleon_transfer_reactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nucleon_transfer_reactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.3</span> <span>Nucleon transfer reactions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nucleon_transfer_reactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reactions_with_neutrons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reactions_with_neutrons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.4</span> <span>Reactions with neutrons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reactions_with_neutrons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compound_nuclear_reactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compound_nuclear_reactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Compound nuclear reactions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compound_nuclear_reactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Nuclear reaction</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 67 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-67" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">67 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernreaksie" title="Kernreaksie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kernreaksie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%84_%D9%86%D9%88%D9%88%D9%8A" title="تفاعل نووي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تفاعل نووي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCv%C9%99_reaksiyas%C4%B1" title="Nüvə reaksiyası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Nüvə reaksiyası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE" title="পারমাণবিক বিক্রিয়া – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পারমাণবিক বিক্রিয়া" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Ядзерная рэакцыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Ядзерная рэакцыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Ядрена реакция – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ядрена реакция" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reacci%C3%B3_nuclear" title="Reacció nuclear – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Reacció nuclear" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Нуклонсарла реакци – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Нуклонсарла реакци" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jadern%C3%A1_reakce" title="Jaderná reakce – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Jaderná reakce" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernereaktion" title="Kernereaktion – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kernereaktion" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%84_%D9%86%D9%88%D9%88%D9%8A" title="تفاعل نووي – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="تفاعل نووي" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernreaktion" title="Kernreaktion – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kernreaktion" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuumareaktsioon" title="Tuumareaktsioon – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Tuumareaktsioon" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%85%CF%81%CE%B7%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%AF%CE%B4%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Πυρηνική αντίδραση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πυρηνική αντίδραση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procesos_nucleares" title="Procesos nucleares – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Procesos nucleares" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklea_reakcio" title="Nuklea reakcio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Nuklea reakcio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erreakzio_nuklear" title="Erreakzio nuklear – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Erreakzio nuklear" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%86%D8%B4_%D9%87%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C" title="واکنش هسته‌ای – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="واکنش هسته‌ای" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9action_nucl%C3%A9aire" title="Réaction nucléaire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Réaction nucléaire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reacci%C3%B3n_nuclear" title="Reacción nuclear – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Reacción nuclear" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%B5%EB%B0%98%EC%9D%91" title="핵반응 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="핵반응" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%BB%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%BC%D5%A5%D5%A1%D5%AF%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Միջուկային ռեակցիաներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Միջուկային ռեակցիաներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="नाभिकीय अभिक्रिया – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="नाभिकीय अभिक्रिया" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklearna_reakcija" title="Nuklearna reakcija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Nuklearna reakcija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaksi_nuklir" title="Reaksi nuklir – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Reaksi nuklir" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukusabela_kwenuzi" title="Ukusabela kwenuzi – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Ukusabela kwenuzi" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reazione_nucleare" title="Reazione nucleare – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Reazione nucleare" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9aksi_nuklir" title="Réaksi nuklir – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Réaksi nuklir" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%95%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ბირთვული რეაქცია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბირთვული რეაქცია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Ядролық реакция – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ядролық реакция" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reyaksyon_nikley%C3%A8" title="Reyaksyon nikleyè – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Reyaksyon nikleyè" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodolreakcija" title="Kodolreakcija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kodolreakcija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branduolin%C4%97_reakcija" title="Branduolinė reakcija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Branduolinė reakcija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magreakci%C3%B3" title="Magreakció – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Magreakció" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Јадрена реакција – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Јадрена реакција" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiota_nokleary" title="Fiota nokleary – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fiota nokleary" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%95%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ბირთვული რეაქცია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ბირთვული რეაქცია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C5%8Fk_hu%C4%81ng-%C3%A9ng" title="Hŏk huāng-éng – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Hŏk huāng-éng" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D3%A9%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Цөмийн урвал – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Цөмийн урвал" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernreactie" title="Kernreactie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kernreactie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="नाभिकीय प्रतिक्रिया – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="नाभिकीय प्रतिक्रिया" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E6%A0%B8%E5%8F%8D%E5%BF%9C" title="原子核反応 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="原子核反応" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kjernereaksjon" title="Kjernereaksjon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kjernereaksjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yadro_reaksiyasi" title="Yadro reaksiyasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Yadro reaksiyasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%8A_%D8%BA%D8%A8%D8%B1%DA%AB%D9%88%D9%86" title="هستوي غبرګون – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="هستوي غبرګون" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reakcja_j%C4%85drowa" title="Reakcja jądrowa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Reakcja jądrowa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rea%C3%A7%C3%A3o_nuclear" title="Reação nuclear – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Reação nuclear" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reac%C8%9Bie_nuclear%C4%83" title="Reacție nucleară – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Reacție nucleară" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Ядерная реакция – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ядерная реакция" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A4%C3%A4denreaktsjoon" title="Käädenreaktsjoon – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Käädenreaktsjoon" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%82%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="න්‍යෂ්ටික ප්‍රතික්‍රියාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="න්‍යෂ්ටික ප්‍රතික්‍රියාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reaction" title="Nuclear reaction – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Nuclear reaction" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jadrov%C3%A1_reakcia" title="Jadrová reakcia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Jadrová reakcia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%95%D9%88%DB%95%DB%8C_%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%88%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="کاردانەوەی ناوکی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کاردانەوەی ناوکی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Нуклеарна реакција – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Нуклеарна реакција" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklearna_reakcija" title="Nuklearna reakcija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Nuklearna reakcija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ydinreaktio" title="Ydinreaktio – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ydinreaktio" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A4rnreaktion" title="Kärnreaktion – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kärnreaktion" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="அணுக்கருத் தாக்கம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அணுக்கருத் தாக்கம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%8F%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="ปฏิกิริยานิวเคลียร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ปฏิกิริยานิวเคลียร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCkleer_reaksiyon" title="Nükleer reaksiyon – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Nükleer reaksiyon" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Ядерна реакція – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ядерна реакція" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%88%DA%A9%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%84" title="نیوکلیائی تعامل – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="نیوکلیائی تعامل" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%E1%BA%A3n_%E1%BB%A9ng_h%E1%BA%A1t_nh%C3%A2n" title="Phản ứng hạt nhân – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Phản ứng hạt nhân" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E5%8F%8D%E5%BA%94" title="核反应 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="核反应" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E5%8F%8D%E6%87%89" title="核反應 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="核反應" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E5%8F%8D%E5%BA%94" title="核反应 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="核反应" data-language-autonym="中文" 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Transformation of a nuclide to another</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Li6-D_Reaction.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Li6-D_Reaction.svg/300px-Li6-D_Reaction.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="351" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Li6-D_Reaction.svg/450px-Li6-D_Reaction.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Li6-D_Reaction.svg/600px-Li6-D_Reaction.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1340" data-file-height="1568" /></a><figcaption>In this symbolic representing of a nuclear reaction, <a href="/wiki/Lithium-6" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-6">lithium-6</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">6</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span>Li<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span>) and <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">1</sub></span></span>H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span>) react to form the highly excited intermediate nucleus <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">8</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">4</sub></span></span>Be<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> which then decays immediately into two <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha particles</a> of <a href="/wiki/Helium-4" title="Helium-4">helium-4</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">4</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span>He<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span>). <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">Protons</a> are symbolically represented by red spheres, and <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a> by blue spheres.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:NuclearReaction.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/NuclearReaction.svg/200px-NuclearReaction.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/NuclearReaction.svg/300px-NuclearReaction.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/NuclearReaction.svg/400px-NuclearReaction.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="350" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">Nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">Nucleons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">p</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">n</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_matter" title="Nuclear matter">Nuclear matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_force" title="Nuclear force">Nuclear force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_structure" title="Nuclear structure">Nuclear structure</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nuclear reaction</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear model">Models of the nucleus</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semi-empirical_mass_formula" title="Semi-empirical mass formula">Liquid drop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_shell_model" title="Nuclear shell model">Nuclear shell model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interacting_boson_model" title="Interacting boson model">Interacting boson model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ab_initio_methods_(nuclear_physics)" title="Ab initio methods (nuclear physics)">Ab initio</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Nuclide" title="Nuclide">Nuclides</a>' classification</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">Isotopes</a> – equal <a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number"><i>Z</i></a><br /></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isobar_(nuclide)" title="Isobar (nuclide)">Isobars</a> – equal <a href="/wiki/Mass_number" title="Mass number"><i>A</i></a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isotone" title="Isotone">Isotones</a> – equal <a href="/wiki/Neutron_number" title="Neutron number"><i>N</i></a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isodiapher" class="mw-redirect" title="Isodiapher">Isodiaphers</a> – equal <a href="/wiki/Neutron_excess" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutron excess"><i>N</i> − <i>Z</i></a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_isomer" title="Nuclear isomer">Isomers</a> – equal all the above</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mirror_nuclei" title="Mirror nuclei">Mirror nuclei</a> – <i>Z</i> ↔ <i>N</i></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stable_isotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Stable isotope">Stable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_number_(physics)" title="Magic number (physics)">Magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Even_and_odd_atomic_nuclei" title="Even and odd atomic nuclei">Even/odd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halo_nucleus" title="Halo nucleus">Halo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borromean_nucleus" title="Borromean nucleus">Borromean</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Nuclear stability</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_binding_energy" title="Nuclear binding energy">Binding energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton%E2%80%93neutron_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Proton–neutron ratio">p–n ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_drip_line" title="Nuclear drip line">Drip line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island_of_stability" title="Island of stability">Island of stability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley_of_stability" title="Valley of stability">Valley of stability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stable_nuclide" title="Stable nuclide">Stable nuclide</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">Radioactive decay</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">Alpha α</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">Beta β</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Double_beta_decay" title="Double beta decay">2β</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutrinoless_double_beta_decay" title="Neutrinoless double beta decay">0v</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positron_emission" title="Positron emission">β<sup>+</sup></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_capture" title="Electron capture">K/L capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isomeric_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Isomeric transition">Isomeric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">Gamma γ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_conversion" title="Internal conversion">Internal conversion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_fission" title="Spontaneous fission">Spontaneous fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_decay" title="Cluster decay">Cluster decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_emission" title="Neutron emission">Neutron emission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_emission" title="Proton emission">Proton emission</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decay_energy" title="Decay energy">Decay energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decay_chain" title="Decay chain">Decay chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decay_product" title="Decay product">Decay product</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiogenic_nuclide" title="Radiogenic nuclide">Radiogenic nuclide</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Nuclear fission</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_fission" title="Spontaneous fission">Spontaneous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">Products</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nucleon_pair_breaking_in_fission" title="Nucleon pair breaking in fission">pair breaking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photofission" title="Photofission">Photofission</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Capturing processes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron_capture" title="Electron capture">electron</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Double_electron_capture" title="Double electron capture">2×</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">neutron</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/S-process" title="S-process">s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-process" title="R-process">r</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_capture" title="Proton capture">proton</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/P-process" title="P-process">p</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rp-process" title="Rp-process">rp</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">High-energy processes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spallation" title="Spallation">Spallation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray_spallation" title="Cosmic ray spallation">by cosmic ray</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photodisintegration" title="Photodisintegration">Photodisintegration</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Nucleosynthesis" title="Nucleosynthesis">Nucleosynthesis</a> and<br /> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_astrophysics" title="Nuclear astrophysics">nuclear astrophysics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">Nuclear fusion</a></li></ul> <ul><li><small>Processes:</small> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis" title="Stellar nucleosynthesis">Stellar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis" title="Big Bang nucleosynthesis">Big Bang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernova_nucleosynthesis" title="Supernova nucleosynthesis">Supernova</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>Nuclides: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primordial_nuclide" title="Primordial nuclide">Primordial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmogenic_nuclide" title="Cosmogenic nuclide">Cosmogenic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_element" title="Synthetic element">Artificial</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/High-energy_nuclear_physics" title="High-energy nuclear physics">High-energy nuclear physics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quark%E2%80%93gluon_plasma" title="Quark–gluon plasma">Quark–gluon plasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativistic_Heavy_Ion_Collider" title="Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider">RHIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">LHC</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Nuclear_physicists" title="Category:Nuclear physicists">Scientists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Alvarez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Becquerel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Bethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aage_Bohr" title="Aage Bohr">A. Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">N. Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">Chadwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">Cockcroft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ir%C3%A8ne_Joliot-Curie" title="Irène Joliot-Curie">Ir. Curie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Joliot-Curie" title="Frédéric Joliot-Curie">Fr. Curie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Curie" title="Pierre Curie">Pi. Curie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Skłodowska-Curie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinton_Davisson" title="Clinton Davisson">Davisson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Fermi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Hahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Hans_D._Jensen" title="J. Hans D. Jensen">Jensen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert-Mayer" class="mw-redirect" title="Maria Goeppert-Mayer">Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lise_Meitner" title="Lise Meitner">Meitner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Oliphant" title="Mark Oliphant">Oliphant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">Oppenheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandru_Proca" title="Alexandru Proca">Proca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Mills_Purcell" title="Edward Mills Purcell">Purcell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Rabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Rutherford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Soddy" title="Frederick Soddy">Soddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Strassmann" title="Fritz Strassmann">Strassmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_%C5%9Awi%C4%85tecki_(physicist)" title="Władysław Świątecki (physicist)">Świątecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" class="mw-redirect" title="Leó Szilárd">Szilárd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Teller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">Thomson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Walton" title="Ernest Walton">Walton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Wigner</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="background-color: transparent; border-color: #A2B8BF"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/14px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/21px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/28px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Physics" title="Portal:Physics">Physics portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Nuclear_physics" title="Category:Nuclear physics">Category</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nuclear_physics" title="Template:Nuclear physics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nuclear_physics" title="Template talk:Nuclear physics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear_physics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear physics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">nuclear physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry" title="Nuclear chemistry">nuclear chemistry</a>, a <b>nuclear reaction</b> is a process in which two <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">nuclei</a>, or a nucleus and an external <a href="/wiki/Subatomic_particle" title="Subatomic particle">subatomic particle</a>, collide to produce one or more new <a href="/wiki/Nuclide" title="Nuclide">nuclides</a>. Thus, a nuclear reaction must cause a transformation of at least one nuclide to another. If a nucleus interacts with another nucleus or particle, they then separate without changing the nature of any nuclide, the process is simply referred to as a type of nuclear <a href="/wiki/Scattering" title="Scattering">scattering</a>, rather than a nuclear reaction. </p><p>In principle, a reaction can involve more than two <a href="/wiki/Particle" title="Particle">particles</a> <a href="/wiki/Collision" title="Collision">colliding</a>, but because the probability of three or more nuclei to meet at the same time at the same place is much less than for two nuclei, such an event is exceptionally rare (see <a href="/wiki/Triple_alpha_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Triple alpha process">triple alpha process</a> for an example very close to a three-body nuclear reaction). The term "nuclear reaction" may refer either to a change in a nuclide <b>induced</b> by collision with another particle or to a <b>spontaneous</b> change of a nuclide without collision. </p><p>Natural nuclear reactions occur in the interaction between <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">cosmic rays</a> and matter, and nuclear reactions can be employed artificially to obtain nuclear energy, at an adjustable rate, on-demand. <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chain_reaction" title="Nuclear chain reaction">Nuclear chain reactions</a> in <a href="/wiki/Fissionable" class="mw-redirect" title="Fissionable">fissionable</a> materials produce induced <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a>. Various <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a> reactions of light elements power the energy production of the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> and stars. Most nuclear reactions (fusion and fission) results in transmutation of nuclei (called also <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">nuclear transmutation</a>). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reaction&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1919, <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> was able to accomplish transmutation of nitrogen into oxygen at the University of Manchester, using alpha particles directed at nitrogen <sup>14</sup>N + α → <sup>17</sup>O + p.  This was the first observation of an induced nuclear reaction, that is, a reaction in which particles from one decay are used to transform another atomic nucleus. Eventually, in 1932 at Cambridge University, a fully artificial nuclear reaction and nuclear transmutation was achieved by Rutherford's colleagues <a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">John Cockcroft</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Walton" title="Ernest Walton">Ernest Walton</a>, who used artificially accelerated protons against lithium-7, to split the nucleus into two alpha particles. The feat was popularly known as "splitting the <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a>", although it was not the modern <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a> reaction later (in 1938) discovered in heavy elements by the German scientists <a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lise_Meitner" title="Lise Meitner">Lise Meitner</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Strassmann" title="Fritz Strassmann">Fritz Strassmann</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nuclear_reaction_equations">Nuclear reaction equations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reaction&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Nuclear reaction equations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nuclear reactions may be shown in a form similar to chemical equations, for which <a href="/wiki/Invariant_mass" title="Invariant mass">invariant mass</a> must balance for each side of the equation, and in which transformations of particles must follow certain conservation laws, such as conservation of charge and baryon number (total atomic <a href="/wiki/Mass_number" title="Mass number">mass number</a>). An example of this notation follows: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r996643573">.mw-parser-output .block-indent{padding-left:3em;padding-right:0;overflow:hidden}</style><div class="block-indent"><a href="/wiki/Lithium-6" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-6"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">6</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span>Li<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span></a> + <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen-2" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen-2"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">1</sub></span></span>H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span></a> → <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">4</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span>He<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span></a> + ?.</div> <p>To balance the equation above for mass, charge and mass number, the second nucleus to the right must have atomic number 2 and mass number 4; it is therefore also helium-4. The complete equation therefore reads: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996643573" /><div class="block-indent"><a href="/wiki/Lithium-6" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-6"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">6</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span>Li<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span></a> + <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen-2" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen-2"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">1</sub></span></span>H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span></a> → <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">4</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span>He<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span></a> + <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">4</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span>He<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span></a>.</div> <p>or more simply: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996643573" /><div class="block-indent"><a href="/wiki/Lithium-6" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-6"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">6</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span>Li<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span></a> + <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen-2" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen-2"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">1</sub></span></span>H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span></a> → 2 <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">4</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span>He<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span></a>.</div> <p>Instead of using the full equations in the style above, in many situations a compact notation is used to describe nuclear reactions. This style of the form A(b,c)D is equivalent to A + b producing c + D. Common light particles are often abbreviated in this shorthand, typically p for proton, n for neutron, d for <a href="/wiki/Deuteron" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuteron">deuteron</a>, α representing an <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha particle</a> or <a href="/wiki/Helium-4" title="Helium-4">helium-4</a>, β for <a href="/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle">beta particle</a> or electron, γ for <a href="/wiki/Gamma_photon" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma photon">gamma photon</a>, etc. The reaction above would be written as <sup>6</sup>Li(d,α)α.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Energy_conservation">Energy conservation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reaction&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Energy conservation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">Kinetic energy</a> may be released during the course of a reaction (<a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction#Exothermic_reactions" title="Chemical reaction">exothermic reaction</a>) or kinetic energy may have to be supplied for the reaction to take place (<a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction#Endothermic_reactions" title="Chemical reaction">endothermic reaction</a>). This can be calculated by reference to a table of very accurate particle rest masses,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as follows: according to the reference tables, the <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">6</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span>Li<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> nucleus has a <a href="/wiki/Standard_atomic_weight" title="Standard atomic weight">standard atomic weight</a> of 6.015 <a href="/wiki/Atomic_mass_unit" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic mass unit">atomic mass units</a> (abbreviated <a href="/wiki/U" title="U">u</a>), the deuterium has 2.014 u, and the helium-4 nucleus has 4.0026 u. Thus: </p> <ul><li>the sum of the rest mass of the individual nuclei = 6.015 + 2.014 = 8.029 u;</li> <li>the total rest mass on the two helium-nuclei = 2 × 4.0026 = 8.0052 u;</li> <li>missing rest mass = 8.029 – 8.0052 = 0.0238 atomic mass units.</li></ul> <p>In a nuclear reaction, the total <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_energy" title="Conservation of energy">(relativistic) energy is conserved</a>. The "missing" rest mass must therefore reappear as kinetic energy released in the reaction; its source is the nuclear <a href="/wiki/Binding_energy" title="Binding energy">binding energy</a>. Using Einstein's <a href="/wiki/Mass-energy_equivalence" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass-energy equivalence">mass-energy equivalence</a> formula <i>E</i> = <i>mc</i><sup>2</sup>, the amount of energy released can be determined. We first need the energy equivalent of one <a href="/wiki/Atomic_mass_unit" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic mass unit">atomic mass unit</a>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996643573" /><div class="block-indent">1 u <i>c</i><sup>2</sup> = (1.66054 × 10<sup>−27</sup> kg) × (2.99792 × 10<sup>8</sup> m/s)<sup>2</sup> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996643573" /><div class="block-indent">= 1.49242 × 10<sup>−10</sup> kg (m/s)<sup>2</sup></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996643573" /><div class="block-indent">= 1.49242 × 10<sup>−10</sup> <a href="/wiki/Joule" title="Joule">J</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996643573" /><div class="block-indent">= 931.49 MeV (1 MeV = 1.602176634×10<sup>−13</sup> J),</div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996643573" /><div class="block-indent">so 1 u <i>c</i><sup>2</sup> = 931.49 MeV.</div> <p>Hence, the energy released is 0.0238 × 931 MeV = 22.2 <a href="/wiki/MeV" class="mw-redirect" title="MeV">MeV</a>. </p><p>Expressed differently: the mass is reduced by 0.3%, corresponding to 0.3% of 90 PJ/kg is 270 TJ/kg. </p><p>This is a large amount of energy for a nuclear reaction; the amount is so high because the binding energy per <a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">nucleon</a> of the helium-4 nucleus is unusually high because the He-4 nucleus is "<a href="/wiki/Magic_number_(physics)" title="Magic number (physics)">doubly magic</a>". (The He-4 nucleus is unusually stable and tightly bound for the same reason that the helium atom is inert: each pair of protons and neutrons in He-4 occupies a filled <b>1s</b> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_orbital" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear orbital">nuclear orbital</a> in the same way that the pair of electrons in the helium atom occupy a filled <b>1s</b> <a href="/wiki/Atomic_orbital" title="Atomic orbital">electron orbital</a>). Consequently, alpha particles appear frequently on the right-hand side of nuclear reactions. </p><p>The energy released in a nuclear reaction can appear mainly in one of three ways: </p> <ul><li>kinetic energy of the product particles (fraction of the kinetic energy of the charged nuclear reaction products can be directly converted into electrostatic energy);<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>emission of very high energy <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a>, called <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma rays</a>;</li> <li>some energy may remain in the nucleus, as a <a href="/wiki/Metastable" class="mw-redirect" title="Metastable">metastable</a> <a href="/wiki/Energy_level" title="Energy level">energy level</a>.</li></ul> <p>When the product nucleus is metastable, this is indicated by placing an <a href="/wiki/Asterisk" title="Asterisk">asterisk</a> ("*") next to its atomic number. This energy is eventually released through <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_decay" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear decay">nuclear decay</a>. </p><p>A small amount of energy may also emerge in the form of <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a>. Generally, the product nucleus has a different atomic number, and thus the configuration of its <a href="/wiki/Electron_shell" title="Electron shell">electron shells</a> is wrong. As the electrons rearrange themselves and drop to lower energy levels, internal transition X-rays (X-rays with precisely defined <a href="/wiki/Emission_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Emission line">emission lines</a>) may be emitted. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Q-value_and_energy_balance">Q-value and energy balance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reaction&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Q-value and energy balance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In writing down the reaction equation, in a way analogous to a <a href="/wiki/Chemical_equation" title="Chemical equation">chemical equation</a>, one may, in addition, give the reaction energy on the right side: </p> <dl><dd></dd></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996643573" /><div class="block-indent">Target nucleus + projectile → Final nucleus + ejectile + <i>Q</i>.</div> <p>For the particular case discussed above, the reaction energy has already been calculated as <i>Q</i> = 22.2 MeV. Hence: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996643573" /><div class="block-indent"><a href="/wiki/Lithium-6" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-6"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">6</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span>Li<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span></a> + <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen-2" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen-2"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">1</sub></span></span>H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span></a> → 2 <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">4</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span>He<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span></a> + 22.2 <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">MeV</a>.</div> <p>The reaction energy (the "Q-value") is positive for exothermal reactions and negative for endothermal reactions, opposite to the <a href="/wiki/Standard_enthalpy_of_reaction" title="Standard enthalpy of reaction">similar expression</a> in <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>. On the one hand, it is the difference between the sums of kinetic energies on the final side and on the initial side. But on the other hand, it is also the difference between the nuclear rest masses on the initial side and on the final side (in this way, we have calculated the <a href="/wiki/Q_value_(nuclear_science)" title="Q value (nuclear science)">Q-value</a> above). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reaction_rates">Reaction rates</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reaction&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Reaction rates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>If the reaction equation is balanced, that does not mean that the reaction really occurs. The rate at which reactions occur depends on the energy and the <a href="/wiki/Flux" title="Flux">flux</a> of the incident particles, and the reaction <a href="/wiki/Cross_section_(physics)" title="Cross section (physics)">cross section</a>. An example of a large repository of reaction rates is the REACLIB database, as maintained by the <a href="/wiki/Joint_Institute_for_Nuclear_Astrophysics" title="Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics">Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Charged_vs._uncharged_particles">Charged vs. uncharged particles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reaction&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Charged vs. uncharged particles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the initial collision which begins the reaction, the particles must approach closely enough so that the short-range <a href="/wiki/Strong_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Strong force">strong force</a> can affect them. As most common nuclear particles are positively charged, this means they must overcome considerable <a href="/wiki/Electrostatics" title="Electrostatics">electrostatic repulsion</a> before the reaction can begin. Even if the target nucleus is part of a neutral <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a>, the other particle must penetrate well beyond the <a href="/wiki/Electron_cloud" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron cloud">electron cloud</a> and closely approach the nucleus, which is positively charged. Thus, such particles must be first accelerated to high energy, for example by: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">particle accelerators</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_decay" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear decay">nuclear decay</a> (alpha particles are the main type of interest here since beta and gamma rays are rarely involved in nuclear reactions);</li> <li>very high temperatures, on the order of millions of degrees, producing <a href="/wiki/Thermonuclear" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermonuclear">thermonuclear</a> reactions;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">cosmic rays</a>.</li></ul> <p>Also, since the force of repulsion is proportional to the product of the two charges, reactions between heavy nuclei are rarer, and require higher initiating energy, than those between a heavy and light nucleus; while reactions between two light nuclei are the most common ones. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">Neutrons</a>, on the other hand, have no electric charge to cause repulsion, and are able to initiate a nuclear reaction at very low energies. In fact, at extremely low particle energies (corresponding, say, to <a href="/wiki/Thermal_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal neutron">thermal equilibrium at room temperature</a>), the neutron's <a href="/wiki/De_Broglie_wavelength" class="mw-redirect" title="De Broglie wavelength">de Broglie wavelength</a> is greatly increased, possibly greatly increasing its capture cross-section, at energies close to <a href="/wiki/Resonance" title="Resonance">resonances</a> of the nuclei involved. Thus low-energy neutrons <i>may</i> be even more reactive than high-energy neutrons. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_types">Notable types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reaction&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Notable types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While the number of possible nuclear reactions is immense, there are several types that are more common, or otherwise notable. Some examples include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">Fusion</a> reactions – two light nuclei join to form a heavier one, with additional particles (usually protons or neutrons) emitted subsequently.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spallation#Nuclear_spallation" title="Spallation">Spallation</a> – a nucleus is hit by a particle with sufficient energy and momentum to knock out several small fragments or smash it into many fragments.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Induced_gamma_emission" title="Induced gamma emission">Induced gamma emission</a> belongs to a class in which only photons were involved in creating and destroying states of nuclear excitation.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Fission</a> reactions – a very heavy nucleus, after absorbing additional light particles (usually neutrons), splits into two or sometimes three pieces. This is an induced nuclear reaction. <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_fission" title="Spontaneous fission">Spontaneous fission</a>, which occurs without assistance of a neutron, is usually not considered a nuclear reaction. At most, it is not an <i>induced</i> nuclear reaction.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Direct_reactions">Direct reactions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reaction&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Direct reactions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An intermediate energy projectile transfers energy or picks up or loses nucleons to the nucleus in a single quick (10<sup>−21</sup> second) event. Energy and momentum transfer are relatively small. These are particularly useful in experimental nuclear physics, because the reaction mechanisms are often simple enough to calculate with sufficient accuracy to probe the structure of the target nucleus. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Inelastic_scattering">Inelastic scattering</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reaction&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Inelastic scattering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Inelastic_scattering" title="Inelastic scattering">Inelastic scattering</a></div> <p>Only energy and momentum are transferred. </p> <ul><li>(p,p') tests differences between nuclear states.</li> <li>(α,α') measures nuclear surface shapes and sizes. Since α particles that hit the nucleus react more violently, <a href="/wiki/Elastic_scattering" title="Elastic scattering">elastic</a> and shallow inelastic α scattering are sensitive to the shapes and sizes of the targets, like <a href="/wiki/Light_scattering" class="mw-redirect" title="Light scattering">light scattered</a> from a small black object.</li> <li>(e,e') is useful for probing the interior structure. Since electrons interact less strongly than do protons and neutrons, they reach to the centers of the targets and their <a href="/wiki/Wave_function" title="Wave function">wave functions</a> are less distorted by passing through the nucleus.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Charge-exchange_reactions">Charge-exchange reactions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reaction&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Charge-exchange reactions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Energy and charge are transferred between projectile and target. Some examples of this kind of reactions are: </p> <ul><li>(p,n)</li> <li>(<sup>3</sup>He,t)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nucleon_transfer_reactions"><span class="anchor" id="Transfer_reactions"></span>Nucleon transfer reactions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reaction&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Nucleon transfer reactions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Usually at moderately low energy, one or more nucleons are transferred between the projectile and target. These are useful in studying outer <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_shell_model" title="Nuclear shell model">shell</a> structure of nuclei. Transfer reactions can occur: </p> <ul><li>from the projectile to the target - <a href="/wiki/Stripping_reaction_(physics)" title="Stripping reaction (physics)">stripping reactions</a></li> <li>from the target to the projectile - pick-up reactions</li></ul> <p>Examples: </p> <ul><li>(α,n) and (α,p) reactions. Some of the earliest nuclear reactions studied involved an alpha particle produced by <a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">alpha decay</a>, knocking a nucleon from a target nucleus.</li> <li>(d,n) and (d,p) reactions. A <a href="/wiki/Deuteron" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuteron">deuteron</a> <a href="/wiki/Ion_beam" title="Ion beam">beam</a> impinges on a target; the target nuclei absorb either the neutron or proton from the deuteron. The deuteron is so loosely bound that this is almost the same as proton or neutron capture. A compound nucleus may be formed, leading to additional neutrons being emitted more slowly. (d,n) reactions are used to generate energetic neutrons.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Strangeness" title="Strangeness">strangeness</a> exchange reaction (<a href="/wiki/Kaon" title="Kaon">K</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pion" title="Pion">π</a>) has been used to study <a href="/wiki/Hypernucleus" title="Hypernucleus">hypernuclei</a>.</li> <li>The reaction <sup>14</sup>N(α,p)<sup>17</sup>O performed by Rutherford in 1917 (reported 1919), is generally regarded as the first <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">nuclear transmutation</a> experiment.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reactions_with_neutrons">Reactions with neutrons</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reaction&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Reactions with neutrons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="float:right;"> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th>→ <a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">T</a></th> <th>→ <a href="/wiki/Lithium-7" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-7"><sup>7</sup>Li</a></th> <th>→ <a href="/wiki/Carbon-14" title="Carbon-14"><sup>14</sup>C</a></th> <th></th> <th> </th></tr> <tr> <td><b>(n,<i>α</i>)</b></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lithium-6" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-6"><sup>6</sup>Li</a> + n → T + <i>α</i></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Boron-10" class="mw-redirect" title="Boron-10"><sup>10</sup>B</a> + n → <sup>7</sup>Li + <i>α</i></td> <td><sup>17</sup>O + n → <sup>14</sup>C + <i>α</i></td> <td><sup>21</sup>Ne + n → <sup>18</sup>O + α</td> <td><sup>37</sup>Ar + n → <sup>34</sup>S + <i>α</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Np_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Np reaction">(n,p)</a></b></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3"><sup>3</sup>He</a> + n → T + p</td> <td><sup>7</sup>Be + n → <sup>7</sup>Li + p</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen-14" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogen-14"><sup>14</sup>N</a> + n → <sup>14</sup>C + p</td> <td><sup>22</sup>Na + n → <sup>22</sup>Ne + p</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">(n,<i>γ</i>)</a></b></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium"><sup>2</sup>H</a> + n → T + <i>γ</i></td> <td bgcolor="lightgrey"></td> <td><sup>13</sup>C + n → <sup>14</sup>C + <i>γ</i></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Reactions with <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a> are important in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a>. While the best-known neutron reactions are <a href="/wiki/Neutron_scattering" title="Neutron scattering">neutron scattering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">neutron capture</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a>, for some light nuclei (especially <a href="/wiki/Odd-odd_nuclei" class="mw-redirect" title="Odd-odd nuclei">odd-odd nuclei</a>) the most probable reaction with a <a href="/wiki/Thermal_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal neutron">thermal neutron</a> is a transfer reaction: </p><p>Some reactions are only possible with <a href="/wiki/Fast_neutrons" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast neutrons">fast neutrons</a>: </p> <ul><li>(n,2n) reactions produce small amounts of <a href="/wiki/Protactinium-231" class="mw-redirect" title="Protactinium-231">protactinium-231</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uranium-232" title="Uranium-232">uranium-232</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Thorium_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Thorium cycle">thorium cycle</a> which is otherwise relatively free of highly radioactive <a href="/wiki/Actinide" title="Actinide">actinide</a> products.</li> <li><sup>9</sup>Be + n → 2<i>α</i> + 2n can contribute some additional neutrons in the <a href="/wiki/Beryllium" title="Beryllium">beryllium</a> <a href="/wiki/Neutron_reflector" title="Neutron reflector">neutron reflector</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapon</a>.</li> <li><sup>7</sup>Li + n → <a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">T</a> + <i>α</i> + n unexpectedly contributed additional yield in the <a href="/wiki/Castle_Bravo" title="Castle Bravo">Bravo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Castle_Romeo" title="Castle Romeo">Romeo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Castle_Yankee" title="Castle Yankee">Yankee</a> shots of <a href="/wiki/Operation_Castle" title="Operation Castle">Operation Castle</a>, the three highest-yield <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear test">nuclear tests</a> conducted by the U.S.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Compound_nuclear_reactions"><span class="anchor" id="compound_nucleus"></span> Compound nuclear reactions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reaction&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Compound nuclear reactions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Either a low-energy projectile is absorbed or a higher energy particle transfers energy to the nucleus, leaving it with too much energy to be fully bound together. On a time scale of about 10<sup>−19</sup> seconds, particles, usually neutrons, are "boiled" off. That is, it remains together until enough energy happens to be concentrated in one neutron to escape the mutual attraction. The excited quasi-bound nucleus is called a <b>compound nucleus</b>. </p> <ul><li>Low energy (e, e' xn), (γ, xn) (the xn indicating one or more neutrons), where the gamma or virtual gamma energy is near the <a href="/wiki/Giant_dipole_resonance" class="mw-redirect" title="Giant dipole resonance">giant dipole resonance</a>. These increase the need for <a href="/wiki/Radiation_shielding" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation shielding">radiation shielding</a> around <a href="/wiki/Electron_accelerator" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron accelerator">electron accelerators</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reaction&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nuclear_reaction" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:nuclear reaction">nuclear reaction</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoplanarity" title="Acoplanarity">Acoplanarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_mass" title="Atomic mass">Atomic mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">Atomic nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">Atomic number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CNO_cycle" title="CNO cycle">CNO cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chain_reaction" title="Nuclear chain reaction">Nuclear chain reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer%E2%80%93Phillips_process" title="Oppenheimer–Phillips process">Oppenheimer–Phillips process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Power" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear Power">Nuclear Power</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reaction&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-outreach.phy.cam.ac.uk/camphy/cockcroftwalton/cockcroftwalton9_1.htm">Cockcroft and Walton split lithium with high energy protons April 1932.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120902195556/http://www-outreach.phy.cam.ac.uk/camphy/cockcroftwalton/cockcroftwalton9_1.htm">Archived</a> 2012-09-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.astrophysicsspectator.com/topics/stars/FusionHydrogenRate.html">The Astrophysics Spectator: Hydrogen Fusion Rates in Stars</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFTilley2004" class="citation book cs1">Tilley, R. J. D. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZVgOLCXNoMoC&pg=PA495"><i>Understanding Solids: The Science of Materials</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_and_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley and Sons">John Wiley and Sons</a>. p. 495. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-470-85275-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-470-85275-5"><bdi>0-470-85275-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Solids%3A+The+Science+of+Materials&rft.pages=495&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-470-85275-5&rft.aulast=Tilley&rft.aufirst=R.+J.+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZVgOLCXNoMoC%26pg%3DPA495&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+reaction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSuplee2009" class="citation web cs1">Suplee, Curt (23 August 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-weights-and-isotopic-compositions-relative-atomic-masses">"Atomic Weights and Isotopic Compositions with Relative Atomic Masses"</a>. <i>NIST</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NIST&rft.atitle=Atomic+Weights+and+Isotopic+Compositions+with+Relative+Atomic+Masses&rft.date=2009-08-23&rft.aulast=Suplee&rft.aufirst=Curt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nist.gov%2Fpml%2Fatomic-weights-and-isotopic-compositions-relative-atomic-masses&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+reaction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFShinnEt.2013" class="citation journal cs1">Shinn, E.; Et., al. (2013). "Nuclear energy conversion with stacks of graphene nanocapacitors". <i>Complexity</i>. <b>18</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">24–</span>27. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013Cmplx..18c..24S">2013Cmplx..18c..24S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fcplx.21427">10.1002/cplx.21427</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Complexity&rft.atitle=Nuclear+energy+conversion+with+stacks+of+graphene+nanocapacitors&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E24-%3C%2Fspan%3E27&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fcplx.21427&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013Cmplx..18c..24S&rft.aulast=Shinn&rft.aufirst=E.&rft.au=Et.%2C+al.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+reaction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reaction&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchmitz1973" class="citation book cs1">Schmitz, Taylor (1973). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nuclearphysics0000bowl"><i>Nuclear Physics</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Pergamon_Press" title="Pergamon Press">Pergamon Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-08-016983-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-08-016983-X"><bdi>0-08-016983-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nuclear+Physics&rft.pub=Pergamon+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=0-08-016983-X&rft.aulast=Schmitz&rft.aufirst=Taylor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnuclearphysics0000bowl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+reaction" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBertulani2007" class="citation book cs1">Bertulani, Carlos (2007). <i>Nuclear Physics in a Nutshell</i>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12505-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12505-3"><bdi>978-0-691-12505-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nuclear+Physics+in+a+Nutshell&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-691-12505-3&rft.aulast=Bertulani&rft.aufirst=Carlos&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+reaction" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output 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.mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nuclear_processes146" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nuclear_processes" title="Template:Nuclear processes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nuclear_processes" title="Template talk:Nuclear processes"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear_processes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear processes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nuclear_processes146" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nuclear processes</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">Radioactive decay</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">Alpha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">Beta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Double_beta_decay" title="Double beta decay">Double</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">Gamma radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_decay" title="Cluster decay">Cluster decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_capture" title="Electron capture">Electron capture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Double_electron_capture" title="Double electron capture">Double</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_conversion" title="Internal conversion">Internal conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isomeric_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Isomeric transition">Isomeric transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_emission" title="Neutron emission">Neutron emission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positron_emission" title="Positron emission">Positron emission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_emission" title="Proton emission">Proton emission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_fission" title="Spontaneous fission">Spontaneous fission</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis" title="Stellar nucleosynthesis">Stellar nucleosynthesis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deuterium_fusion" title="Deuterium fusion">Deuterium fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_burning" title="Lithium burning">Li burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton%E2%80%93proton_chain" title="Proton–proton chain">Proton–proton chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CNO_cycle" title="CNO cycle">CNO cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_process" title="Alpha process">α process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple-alpha_process" title="Triple-alpha process">Triple-α</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon-burning_process" title="Carbon-burning process">C burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neon-burning_process" title="Neon-burning process">Ne burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen-burning_process" title="Oxygen-burning process">O burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon-burning_process" title="Silicon-burning process">Si burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-process" title="R-process"><i>r</i>-process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-process" title="S-process"><i>s</i>-process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P-process" title="P-process">p-process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rp-process" title="Rp-process">rp-process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other<br />processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photodisintegration" title="Photodisintegration">Photodisintegration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photofission" title="Photofission">Photofission</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Capture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">Neutron capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_capture" title="Proton capture">Proton capture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Exchange</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/(n-p)_reaction" title="(n-p) reaction">(n-p) reaction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Energy707" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Energy_footer" title="Template:Energy footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Energy_footer" title="Template talk:Energy footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Energy_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Energy footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Energy707" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_energy" title="History of energy">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_energy_articles" title="Index of energy articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_energy" title="Outline of energy">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fundamental <br />concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_energy" title="Conservation of energy">Conservation of energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">Energetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Units_of_energy" title="Units of energy">Units</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_condition" title="Energy condition">Energy condition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_level" title="Energy level">Energy level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_system" title="Energy system">Energy system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_transformation" title="Energy transformation">Energy transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">Energy transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">Mass</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negative_mass" title="Negative mass">Negative mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence" title="Mass–energy equivalence">Mass–energy equivalence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(physics)" title="Power (physics)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enthalpy" title="Enthalpy">Enthalpy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entropic_force" title="Entropic force">Entropic force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">Entropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exergy" title="Exergy">Exergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_entropy" title="Free entropy">Free entropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_capacity" title="Heat capacity">Heat capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_transfer" title="Heat transfer">Heat transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreversible_process" title="Irreversible process">Irreversible process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isolated_system" title="Isolated system">Isolated system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laws_of_thermodynamics" title="Laws of thermodynamics">Laws of thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negentropy" title="Negentropy">Negentropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_thermodynamics" title="Quantum thermodynamics">Quantum thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_equilibrium" title="Thermal equilibrium">Thermal equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_reservoir" title="Thermal reservoir">Thermal reservoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_equilibrium" title="Thermodynamic equilibrium">Thermodynamic equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_free_energy" title="Thermodynamic free energy">Thermodynamic free energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_potential" title="Thermodynamic potential">Thermodynamic potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_state" title="Thermodynamic state">Thermodynamic state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_system" title="Thermodynamic system">Thermodynamic system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_temperature" title="Thermodynamic temperature">Thermodynamic temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volume_(thermodynamics)" title="Volume (thermodynamics)">Volume (thermodynamics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_(physics)" title="Work (physics)">Work</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Binding_energy" title="Binding energy">Binding</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_binding_energy" title="Nuclear binding energy">Nuclear</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_energy" title="Chemical energy">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">Dark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elastic_energy" title="Elastic energy">Elastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_potential_energy" title="Electric potential energy">Electric potential energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_energy" title="Electrical energy">Electrical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_energy" title="Gravitational energy">Gravitational</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_binding_energy" title="Gravitational binding energy">Binding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interatomic_potential" title="Interatomic potential">Interatomic potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_energy" title="Internal energy">Internal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionization_energy" title="Ionization energy">Ionization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">Kinetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_energy" title="Magnetic energy">Magnetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_energy" title="Mechanical energy">Mechanical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_energy" title="Negative energy">Negative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phantom_energy" title="Phantom energy">Phantom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potential_energy" title="Potential energy">Potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics_binding_energy" title="Quantum chromodynamics binding energy">Quantum chromodynamics binding energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_fluctuation" title="Quantum fluctuation">Quantum fluctuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_potential" title="Quantum potential">Quantum potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintessence_(physics)" title="Quintessence (physics)">Quintessence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiant_energy" title="Radiant energy">Radiant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rest_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Rest energy">Rest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_energy" title="Sound energy">Sound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_energy" title="Surface energy">Surface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy" title="Thermal energy">Thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_energy" title="Vacuum energy">Vacuum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero-point_energy" title="Zero-point energy">Zero-point</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Energy_carrier" title="Energy carrier">Energy carriers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_battery" title="Electric battery">Battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capacitor" title="Capacitor">Capacitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">Electricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enthalpy" title="Enthalpy">Enthalpy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel" title="Fuel">Fuel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_oil" title="Fuel oil">Oil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">Heat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latent_heat" title="Latent heat">Latent heat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">Hydrogen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_fuel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen fuel">Hydrogen fuel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_wave" title="Mechanical wave">Mechanical wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound wave">Sound wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_(physics)" title="Work (physics)">Work</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Primary_energy" title="Primary energy">Primary energy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioenergy" title="Bioenergy">Bioenergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">Natural gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">Petroleum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">Geothermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_energy" title="Gravitational energy">Gravitational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">Hydropower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">Nuclear fuel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_uranium" title="Natural uranium">Natural uranium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiant_energy" title="Radiant energy">Radiant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Energy_system" title="Energy system">Energy system</a><br />components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power" title="Electric power">Electric power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electricity_delivery" title="Electricity delivery">Electricity delivery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_engineering" title="Energy engineering">Energy engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_power_station" title="Fossil fuel power station">Fossil fuel power station</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cogeneration" title="Cogeneration">Cogeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_gasification_combined_cycle" title="Integrated gasification combined cycle">Integrated gasification combined cycle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power" title="Geothermal power">Geothermal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">Hydropower</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">Hydroelectricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_farm" class="mw-redirect" title="Wave farm">Wave farm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">Nuclear power plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Radioisotope thermoelectric generator">Radioisotope thermoelectric generator</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery">Oil refinery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">Solar power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concentrated_solar_power" title="Concentrated solar power">Concentrated solar power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_system" title="Photovoltaic system">Photovoltaic system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_thermal_energy" title="Solar thermal energy">Solar thermal energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_furnace" title="Solar furnace">Solar furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_tower" title="Solar power tower">Solar power tower</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_wind_energy" title="Airborne wind energy">Airborne wind energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_farm" title="Wind farm">Wind farm</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Use and<br /><a href="/wiki/Energy_supply" title="Energy supply">supply</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">Efficient energy use</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_efficiency_in_agriculture" title="Energy efficiency in agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_usage_effectiveness" title="Power usage effectiveness">Computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_efficiency_in_transport" title="Energy efficiency in transport">Transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_conservation" title="Energy conservation">Energy conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_consumption" title="Energy consumption">Energy consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy" title="Energy policy">Energy policy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_development" title="Energy development">Energy development</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_security" title="Energy security">Energy security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_storage" title="Energy storage">Energy storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_energy_supply_and_consumption" 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