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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_modelling" title="Scientific modelling">Analytical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_repository" title="Information repository">Archival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_control#Controlled_experiments" title="Scientific control">Experimental</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding:0.3em 0.3em 0;color:black;;color: var(--color-base)">Specific topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convergence_of_accounting_standards" title="Convergence of accounting standards">Convergence of accounting standards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earnings_management" title="Earnings management">Earnings management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earnings_quality" title="Earnings quality">Earnings quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earnings_surprise" title="Earnings surprise">Earnings surprise</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Positive accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-earnings_announcement_drift" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-earnings announcement drift">Post-earnings announcement drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_disclosure" title="Voluntary disclosure">Voluntary disclosure</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding:0.3em 0.3em 0;color:black;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Accounting_journals" title="Category:Accounting journals">Accounting journals</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Accounting_Review" title="The Accounting Review">The Accounting Review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Accounting_Research" title="Contemporary Accounting Research">Contemporary Accounting Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Accounting_and_Economics" title="Journal of Accounting and Economics">Journal of Accounting and Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Accounting_Research" title="Journal of Accounting Research">Journal of Accounting Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Review_of_Accounting_Studies" title="Review of Accounting Studies">Review of Accounting Studies</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding:0.3em 0.3em 0;color:black;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academia" class="mw-redirect" title="Academia">Academia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_publishing" title="Academic publishing">Academic publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">Econometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> Part of a series on <br /> <a href="/wiki/Accounting" title="Accounting">Accounting</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Accounting_research" title="Template:Accounting research"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Accounting_research" title="Template talk:Accounting research"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Accounting_research" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Accounting research"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Positive accounting</b> is the branch of academic <a href="/wiki/Accounting_research" title="Accounting research">accounting research</a> that seeks to explain and predict actual <a href="/wiki/Accounting" title="Accounting">accounting</a> practices. This contrasts with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Normative_accounting&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Normative accounting (page does not exist)">normative accounting</a>, that seeks to derive and prescribe "optimal" accounting standards. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_accounting&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Positive accounting emerged with empirical studies that proliferated in accounting in the late 1960s. It was organized as an academic school of thought of discipline by the work of Ross Watts and Jerold Zimmerman (in 1978 and 1986) at the <a href="/wiki/William_E._Simon_Graduate_School_of_Business_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="William E. Simon Graduate School of Business Administration">William E. Simon School of Business Administration</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Rochester" title="University of Rochester">University of Rochester</a>, and by the founding of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.elsevier.com/locate/inca/505556/">Journal of Accounting and Economics</a> in 1979. When published, the pioneering articles were greeted with considerable criticism. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Views">Views</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_accounting&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Views"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Positive accounting can be associated with the contractual view of the firm.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The firm is viewed as “a <a href="/wiki/Nexus_of_contracts" title="Nexus of contracts">nexus of contracts</a>” and accounting one tool to facilitate the formation and performance of contracts. Under this view, accounting practices evolve to mitigate contracting costs by establishing <a href="/wiki/Ex-ante" title="Ex-ante">ex ante</a> agreement among varying parties. For example, positive accounting postulates that conservatism in accounting –in this sense defined conditionally as requiring lower (higher) standards of verifiability to recognize losses (gains)– has origins in contract markets, including managerial compensation contracts and lender debt contracts. As an example, absent conservatism, managerial compensation agreements may reward managers based on current reports that later evidence indicates were unwarranted. </p><p>The contractual view of positive accounting puts it in tension with value relevance studies in accounting: the latter contend that accounting’s primary role is to value the firm, and thus practices like conservatism are sub-optimal.<sup id="cite_ref-deegan_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-deegan-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The value relevance school emphasizes the usefulness of accounting information to equity investors in contrast to its usefulness in contracting exercises. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Efficiency_perspective">Efficiency perspective</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_accounting&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Efficiency perspective"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The efficiency perspective is <i>taken</i> into Positive Accounting theory as researchers explain how various managers choose accounting methods that show a true representation of the firm's performance. Within this perspective,<sup id="cite_ref-deegan_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-deegan-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it is stated by numerous authors that accounting practices adopted by firms are often explained on the basis showing the true image of financial performance of the firm. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Opportunistic_perspective">Opportunistic perspective</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_accounting&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Opportunistic perspective"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Positive_accounting" title="Special:EditPage/Positive accounting">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2010</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The opportunistic perspective holds the view that managers, who are agents to the principal, act to their self-interests. They only adopt accounting policies that allow them to gain, in the view that the firm also gains. Different types of hypotheses exist such as political cost, bonus plan and debt hypothesis that show what motives make the managers choose one accounting method over another. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Management_compensation_hypothesis_(Bonus_plan_hypothesis)"><span id="Management_compensation_hypothesis_.28Bonus_plan_hypothesis.29"></span>Management compensation hypothesis (Bonus plan hypothesis)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_accounting&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Management compensation hypothesis (Bonus plan hypothesis)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The management compensation hypothesis states that managers who have accounting incentives, or remuneration that is tied up with the firm's accounting performance, will tend to manipulate accounting method and figures to show the accounting performance better than it should be.<sup id="cite_ref-deegan_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-deegan-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, such managers may elect to use different depreciation method allowing lower profits at the start and higher profits towards the end. Older managers will tend to ignore any research and development costs because it will lower current year profits affecting their income. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Debt-equity_hypothesis">Debt-equity hypothesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_accounting&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Debt-equity hypothesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The debt/equity hypothesis states that managers will tend to show better profits (similar to the bonus plan/management compensation hypothesis) with the intention of having a better performance and liquidity position to pay the interest and principal of the debt they have accumulated in the business.<sup id="cite_ref-deegan_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-deegan-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The higher the debt/equity level the more likely it is that the managers will tend to use accounting methods and procedures in increasing accounting profit. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_cost_hypothesis">Political cost hypothesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_accounting&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Political cost hypothesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The political cost hypothesis asserts that firms will employ various accounting methods to show lower profits so as not to attract the attention of politicians, who have an eye on high-profit industries <sup id="cite_ref-deegan_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-deegan-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and will place higher regulation on high-earning firms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticisms">Criticisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_accounting&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Criticisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ol><li>It does not provide any prescription, it does not state what ought to happen, rather explains and predicts what would happen, which is the aim of positive accounting theory and this is insufficient</li> <li>It is not value-free because it only explains and <i>predicts</i> what people might do, ignoring altogether on what they <i>should</i> do.<sup id="cite_ref-deegan_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-deegan-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>It assumes that every manager's (agent) and owner's (principal) actions have a self-interest motive, with the primary goal of maximizing their own wealth without considering any adverse effects.</li> <li>It is impossible to avoid value judgments in the choice of research topics and the design of research studies.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_accounting&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accounting_research" title="Accounting research">Accounting research</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_accounting&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCoase1937" class="citation book cs1">Coase, R. (1937). <i>The Nature of the Firm</i>. Economica 4. pp. <span class="nowrap">386–</span>405.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+the+Firm&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E386-%3C%2Fspan%3E405&rft.pub=Economica+4&rft.date=1937&rft.aulast=Coase&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APositive+accounting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJensenW._Meckling1976" class="citation book cs1">Jensen, M.; W. Meckling (1976). <i>Theory of the Firm: Managerial Behavior, Agency Costs and Ownership Structure</i>. Journal of Financial Economics, 3(4). pp. <span class="nowrap">305–</span>360.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theory+of+the+Firm%3A+Managerial+Behavior%2C+Agency+Costs+and+Ownership+Structure&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E305-%3C%2Fspan%3E360&rft.pub=Journal+of+Financial+Economics%2C+3%284%29&rft.date=1976&rft.aulast=Jensen&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=W.+Meckling&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APositive+accounting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-deegan-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-deegan_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-deegan_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-deegan_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-deegan_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-deegan_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-deegan_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Deegan, 2009</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hein Schreuder (1984), Positively normative (accounting) theories, in: A.G. Hopwood and H.Schreuder, European Contributions to Accounting Research, VU Uitgeverij/ Free University Press, 1984, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-6256-133-0" title="Special:BookSources/90-6256-133-0">90-6256-133-0</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <ul><li>Deegan, C. M. (2009). In Financial accounting theory. North Ryde, N.S.W: McGraw-Hill.</li> <li>Christenson, C. (1983), “The Methodology of Positive Accounting” The Accounting Review (January), pp1–22.</li> <li>Watts, R. and J. Supreme (1986), Positive Accounting Theory, Edgewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.</li> <li>Tinker, T, B. Merino, and M. Neimark (1982), “The Normative Origins of Positive Theories: Ideology and Accounting Thought,” Accounting, Organizations and Society 2, pp167–200.</li> <li>Watts, R. and J. Zimmerman (1978), “Towards a Positive Theory of the Determination of Accounting Standards,” The Accounting Review 53 (January), pp112–134.</li> <li>Watts, R. and J. Zimmerman (1986), Positive Accounting Theory, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.</li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Positive_accounting&oldid=1218564468">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Positive_accounting&oldid=1218564468</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Accounting_research" title="Category:Accounting research">Accounting research</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Accounting_scholarship" title="Category:Accounting scholarship">Accounting scholarship</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_June_2010" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from June 2010">Articles needing additional references from June 2010</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_additional_references" title="Category:All articles needing additional references">All articles needing additional references</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 12 April 2024, at 13:33<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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