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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nationhood"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Nationhood </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nationhood-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-European_contact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_contact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 European contact </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_contact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-16th–18th_centuries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#16th–18th_centuries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 16th–18th centuries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-16th–18th_centuries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Métis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Métis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.1 The Métis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Métis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colonial_wars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonial_wars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.2 Colonial wars </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonial_wars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.3 Slavery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1775–1815" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1775–1815"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.4 1775–1815 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1775–1815-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 19th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Colonization_and_assimilation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonization_and_assimilation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.1 Colonization and assimilation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonization_and_assimilation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 20th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_and_Second_World_Wars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_and_Second_World_Wars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 First and Second World Wars </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_and_Second_World_Wars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Late 20th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1969_White_Paper" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1969_White_Paper"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7.1 1969 White Paper </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1969_White_Paper-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_transfer_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_transfer_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7.2 Health transfer policy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health_transfer_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Elijah_Harper_and_the_Meech_Lake_Accord" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elijah_Harper_and_the_Meech_Lake_Accord"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7.3 Elijah Harper and the Meech Lake Accord </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Elijah_Harper_and_the_Meech_Lake_Accord-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women's_status_and_Bill_C-31" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women's_status_and_Bill_C-31"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7.4 Women's status and Bill C-31 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women's_status_and_Bill_C-31-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Erasmus–Dussault_commission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Erasmus–Dussault_commission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7.5 Erasmus–Dussault commission </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Erasmus–Dussault_commission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 Early 21st century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canadian_Crown_and_First_Nations_relations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canadian_Crown_and_First_Nations_relations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Canadian Crown and First Nations relations </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Canadian_Crown_and_First_Nations_relations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Canadian Crown and First Nations relations subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Canadian_Crown_and_First_Nations_relations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Taxation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taxation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Taxation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taxation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_organization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_organization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Political organization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_organization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Art </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Music </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demographics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Demographics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Contemporary issues </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Contemporary_issues-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Contemporary issues subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Residential_schools" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Residential_schools"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Residential schools </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Residential_schools-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Employment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Employment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Employment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Employment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Self_governance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Self_governance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Self governance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Self_governance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crime_and_incarceration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crime_and_incarceration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Crime and incarceration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crime_and_incarceration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Health </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Diabetes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diabetes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5.1 Diabetes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diabetes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Substance-use_disorders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Substance-use_disorders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5.2 Substance-use disorders </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Substance-use_disorders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Life_expectancy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Life_expectancy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5.3 Life expectancy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Life_expectancy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Suicide" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Suicide"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5.4 Suicide </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Suicide-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Drinking_water" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drinking_water"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5.5 Drinking water </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drinking_water-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Land_claims" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Land_claims"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Land claims </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Land_claims-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Missing_and_murdered_women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Missing_and_murdered_women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7 Missing and murdered women </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Missing_and_murdered_women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Missing_and_murdered_men" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Missing_and_murdered_men"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.8 Missing and murdered men </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Missing_and_murdered_men-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">First Nations in Canada</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 50 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-50" aria-hidden="true" > 50 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%88%D9%84%D9%89_(%D9%83%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7)" title="الأمم الأولى (كندا) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الأمم الأولى (كندا)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanada_hindular%C4%B1" title="Kanada hinduları – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Kanada hinduları" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A7_%D9%82%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%84%E2%80%8C%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%E2%80%8C%D9%84%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="کانادا قیزیل‌دری‌لی‌‌لری – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="کانادا قیزیل‌دری‌لی‌‌لری" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%8A%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Първи нации – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Първи нации" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easchte_Nationa" title="Easchte Nationa – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Easchte Nationa" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primeres_Nacions" title="Primeres Nacions – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Primeres Nacions" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prvn%C3%AD_n%C3%A1rody" title="První národy – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="První národy" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Nations" title="First Nations – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="First Nations" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Nations" title="First Nations – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="First Nations" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%81%CF%8E%CF%84%CE%B1_%CE%88%CE%B8%CE%BD%CE%B7" title="Πρώτα Έθνη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πρώτα Έθνη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naciones_Originarias_de_Canad%C3%A1" title="Naciones Originarias de Canadá – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Naciones Originarias de Canadá" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unuaj_nacioj" title="Unuaj nacioj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Unuaj nacioj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehen_Nazioak" title="Lehen Nazioak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Lehen Nazioak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%87_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A7" title="اقوام اولیه کانادا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اقوام اولیه کانادا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premi%C3%A8res_Nations" title="Premières Nations – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Premières Nations" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primeiras_Naci%C3%B3ns" title="Primeiras Nacións – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Primeiras Nacións" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8D%BC%EC%8A%A4%ED%8A%B8_%EB%84%A4%EC%9D%B4%EC%85%98" title="퍼스트 네이션 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="퍼스트 네이션" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8" title="फर्स्ट नेशन्स – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="फर्स्ट नेशन्स" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Nations" title="First Nations – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="First Nations" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_nazioni" title="Prime nazioni – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Prime nazioni" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%90%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%AA" title="האומות הראשונות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="האומות הראשונות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primae_Nationes" title="Primae Nationes – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Primae Nationes" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pirmosios_tautos" title="Pirmosios tautos – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Pirmosios tautos" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%84%D9%89" title="الامم الاولى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الامم الاولى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangsa-bangsa_Pertama" title="Bangsa-bangsa Pertama – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bangsa-bangsa Pertama" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Nations" title="First Nations – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="First Nations" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%95%E3%82%A1%E3%83%BC%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88%E3%83%BB%E3%83%8D%E3%83%BC%E3%82%B7%E3%83%A7%E3%83%B3" title="ファースト・ネーション – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ファースト・ネーション" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Nations" title="First Nations – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="First Nations" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Nations" title="First Nations – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="First Nations" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primi%C3%A8ras_Nacions" title="Primièras Nacions – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Primièras Nacions" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pwn mw-list-item"><a href="https://pwn.wikipedia.org/wiki/sangasangasan_a_natjemaza" title="sangasangasan a natjemaza – Paiwan" lang="pwn" hreflang="pwn" data-title="sangasangasan a natjemaza" data-language-autonym="Pinayuanan" data-language-local-name="Paiwan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Pinayuanan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indianie_kanadyjscy" title="Indianie kanadyjscy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Indianie kanadyjscy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primeiras_Na%C3%A7%C3%B5es" title="Primeiras Nações – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Primeiras Nações" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primele_Na%C8%9Biuni" title="Primele Națiuni – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Primele Națiuni" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%86%D1%8B_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Индейцы Канады – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Индейцы Канады" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/sayaway_a_binacadan" title="sayaway a binacadan – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="sayaway a binacadan" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sakizaya</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Nations_in_Canada" title="First Nations in Canada – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="First Nations in Canada" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prv%C3%A9_n%C3%A1rody" title="Prvé národy – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Prvé národy" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%95%D9%88%DB%95_%DB%8C%DB%95%DA%A9%DB%95%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86" title="نەتەوە یەکەمینەکان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="نەتەوە یەکەمینەکان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8" title="Први народи – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Први народи" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ensimm%C3%A4iset_kansat" title="Ensimmäiset kansat – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ensimmäiset kansat" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Nations" title="First Nations – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="First Nations" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Nations" title="First Nations – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="First Nations" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="கனடாவின் முதல் குடிமக்கள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கனடாவின் முதல் குடிமக்கள்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%8C%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%8C" title="เฟิสต์เนชันส์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เฟิสต์เนชันส์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanada_K%C4%B1z%C4%B1lderilileri" title="Kanada Kızılderilileri – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kanada Kızılderilileri" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%96_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8" title="Корінні народи Канади – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Корінні народи Канади" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%81%D9%84%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%85" title="پہلی اقوام – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="پہلی اقوام" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li 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print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Canadian Indian" redirects here. For Canadians with heritage from the Indian subcontinent, see <a href="/wiki/Indo-Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Canadians">Indo-Canadians</a>. For Indians of Canadian descent, see <a href="/wiki/Canadians_in_India" title="Canadians in India">Canadians in India</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/First_Nations_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="First Nations (disambiguation)">First Nations (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ethnic group</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">First Nations Premières Nations</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:First_Nations_Distribution_in_Canada,_2021_Census.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/First_Nations_Distribution_in_Canada%2C_2021_Census.jpg/220px-First_Nations_Distribution_in_Canada%2C_2021_Census.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/First_Nations_Distribution_in_Canada%2C_2021_Census.jpg/330px-First_Nations_Distribution_in_Canada%2C_2021_Census.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/First_Nations_Distribution_in_Canada%2C_2021_Census.jpg/440px-First_Nations_Distribution_in_Canada%2C_2021_Census.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1306" data-file-height="1442" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Population distribution of First Nations Canadians by census division, 2021 census</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Total population</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">1,048,400<a href="#cite_note-population2021-1">[1]</a> (<a href="/wiki/2021_Canadian_census" title="2021 Canadian census">2021</a>) 2.83% of the total Canadian population</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Languages</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Canada#Indigenous_languages" title="Languages of Canada">Aboriginal languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_English_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Aboriginal English in Canada">Aboriginal English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_French" title="Canadian French">Canadian French</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Religion</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Canada" title="Christianity in Canada">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American religion">Traditional beliefs</a></li> <li>Others (see <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Canada" title="Religion in Canada">Religion in Canada</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Related ethnic groups</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alaska_Natives" title="Alaska Natives">Alaska Natives</a>, <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Métis in Canada">Métis</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · 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.sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada" title="Indigenous peoples in Canada">Indigenous peoples in Canada</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Aboriginal_War_Veterans_monument_(close).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A life-sized bronze statue of an Aboriginal and eagle above him; there is a bear to his right and a wolf to his left, they are all looking upwards towards a blue and white sky" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Aboriginal_War_Veterans_monument_%28close%29.JPG/80px-Aboriginal_War_Veterans_monument_%28close%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="80" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Aboriginal_War_Veterans_monument_%28close%29.JPG/120px-Aboriginal_War_Veterans_monument_%28close%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Aboriginal_War_Veterans_monument_%28close%29.JPG/160px-Aboriginal_War_Veterans_monument_%28close%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3072" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">First Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Métis in Canada">Métis</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; text-align: center; padding-left:0.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_First_Nations_history" title="Timeline of First Nations history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_indigenous_peoples_of_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the indigenous peoples of Canada">Pre-colonization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas">Genetics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism_in_Canada" title="Settler colonialism in Canada">Settler colonialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_genocide_of_Indigenous_peoples" title="Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples">Genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Indian_residential_school_system" title="Canadian Indian residential school system">Residential schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_hospital" title="Indian hospital">Indian hospitals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth_and_Reconciliation_Commission_of_Canada" title="Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada">Reconciliation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; text-align: center; padding-left:0.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Politics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Indigenous_law" title="Canadian Indigenous law">Indigenous law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Columbia_Treaty_Process" title="British Columbia Treaty Process">British Columbia Treaty Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Canadian_Crown_and_Indigenous_peoples_of_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="The Canadian Crown and Indigenous peoples of Canada">Crown and Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Health_Transfer_Policy" title="Indian Health Transfer Policy">Health Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idle_No_More" title="Idle No More">Idle No More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Act" title="Indian Act">Indian Act</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_and_Northern_Affairs_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada">Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_Back" title="Land Back">Land Back</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_land_claims_in_Canada" title="Indigenous land claims in Canada">Land claims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_defender" title="Land defender">Land defender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_land_title_in_Canada" title="Aboriginal land title in Canada">Land title</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_and_Murdered_Indigenous_Women" title="Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women">Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numbered_Treaties" title="Numbered Treaties">Numbered Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Commission_on_Aboriginal_Peoples" title="Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples">Royal Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_self-government_in_Canada" title="Indigenous self-government in Canada">Self-government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_specific_land_claims_in_Canada" title="Indigenous specific land claims in Canada">Specific claims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_rights" title="Treaty rights">Treaty rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_genocide_of_Indigenous_peoples" title="Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples">Genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Canadian_Aboriginal_case_law" title="Category:Canadian Aboriginal case law">Case law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_organizations_in_Canada" title="Category:Indigenous organizations in Canada">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_politics_in_Canada" title="Category:Indigenous politics in Canada">Politics</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; text-align: center; padding-left:0.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Culture</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_art" title="Inuit art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_culture_in_Canada" title="Category:Indigenous culture in Canada">Indigenous cultures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Canadian_personalities" title="Indigenous Canadian personalities">Indigenous personalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Country_food" class="mw-redirect" title="Country food">Country food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_music_of_Canada" title="Indigenous music of Canada">Music</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; text-align: center; padding-left:0.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Demographics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reserve" title="Indian reserve">Indian reserves</a></li> <li>AB <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Alberta" title="First Nations in Alberta">FN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis_in_Alberta" title="Métis in Alberta">Métis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_peoples_in_Atlantic_Canada" title="Category:Indigenous peoples in Atlantic Canada">Atlantic CA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_peoples_in_British_Columbia" title="Category:Indigenous peoples in British Columbia">BC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Manitoba" title="First Nations in Manitoba">MB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_peoples_in_Ontario" title="Category:Indigenous peoples in Ontario">ON</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Quebec" title="Indigenous peoples in Quebec">QC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Saskatchewan" title="First Nations in Saskatchewan">SK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Northern_Canada" title="Indigenous peoples in Northern Canada">Territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Pacific_Northwest_Coast" title="Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast">Pacific Coast</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; text-align: center; padding-left:0.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Linguistics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Canada#Aboriginal_languages" title="Languages of Canada">Indigenous languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_languages" title="Inuit languages">Inuit languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinuk_Wawa" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinuk Wawa">Chinuk Wawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_English_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Aboriginal English in Canada">Indigenous English Dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americanist_phonetic_notation" title="Americanist phonetic notation">NAPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Aboriginal_syllabics" title="Canadian Aboriginal syllabics">Aboriginal syllabics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinook_Writing" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinook Writing">Chinuk pipa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_grammar" title="Inuit grammar">Inuit grammar</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; text-align: center; padding-left:0.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Religions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mythologies_of_the_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas">Traditional beliefs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_religion" title="Inuit religion">Inuit religion</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; text-align: center; padding-left:0.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Index</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_Indigenous_Canadians" title="Index of articles related to Indigenous Canadians">Index of articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada" title="Category:Indigenous peoples in Canada">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:First_Nations_in_Canada" title="Category:First Nations in Canada">First Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Inuit" title="Category:Inuit">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Canadian_M%C3%A9tis_people" title="Category:Canadian Métis people">Métis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_peoples_of_North_America_stubs" title="Category:Indigenous peoples of North America stubs">Stubs</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg/16px-MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg/24px-MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg/32px-MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="319" data-file-height="299" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous North Americas</a> <img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Maple_Leaf_%28from_roundel%29.svg/14px-Maple_Leaf_%28from_roundel%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Maple_Leaf_%28from_roundel%29.svg/21px-Maple_Leaf_%28from_roundel%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Maple_Leaf_%28from_roundel%29.svg/28px-Maple_Leaf_%28from_roundel%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="305" data-file-height="343" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Canada" title="Portal:Canada">Canada portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Indigenous_Peoples_of_Canada" title="Template:Indigenous Peoples of Canada"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Indigenous_Peoples_of_Canada" title="Template talk:Indigenous Peoples of Canada"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Indigenous_Peoples_of_Canada" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Indigenous Peoples of Canada"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> First Nations (<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: Premières Nations) is a term used to identify <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada" title="Indigenous peoples in Canada">Indigenous peoples in Canada</a> who are neither <a href="/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Inuit</a> nor <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis" title="Métis">Métis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Traditionally, First Nations in Canada were peoples who lived south of the <a href="/wiki/Tree_line" title="Tree line">tree line</a>, and mainly south of the <a href="/wiki/Arctic_Circle" title="Arctic Circle">Arctic Circle</a>. There are 634 recognized <a href="/wiki/List_of_First_Nations_band_governments" title="List of First Nations band governments">First Nations governments or bands</a> across Canada.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Roughly half are located in the provinces of <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-one-5">[5]</a> Under <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Charter_of_Rights_and_Freedoms" title="Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms">Charter</a> <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a>, First Nations are a "designated group," along with women, <a href="/wiki/Visible_minority" title="Visible minority">visible minorities</a>, and people with physical or mental disabilities.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> First Nations are not defined as a <a href="/wiki/Visible_minority" title="Visible minority">visible minority</a> by the criteria of <a href="/wiki/Statistics_Canada" title="Statistics Canada">Statistics Canada</a>.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> North American indigenous peoples have cultures spanning thousands of years. Some of their <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral traditions</a> accurately describe historical events, such as the <a href="/wiki/1700_Cascadia_earthquake" title="1700 Cascadia earthquake">Cascadia earthquake of 1700</a> and the 18th-century <a href="/wiki/Tseax_Cone" title="Tseax Cone">Tseax Cone</a> eruption. Written records began with the arrival of <a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_North_America" title="Exploration of North America">European explorers</a> and <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">colonists</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a> in the late 15th century.<a href="#cite_note-Woodcock-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-wolf-9">[9]</a> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Canada" title="History of Canada">European accounts</a> by <a href="/wiki/Animal_trapping" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal trapping">trappers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Merchant" title="Merchant">traders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Exploration" title="Exploration">explorers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">missionaries</a> give important evidence of early contact culture.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> In addition, <a href="/wiki/Archeological" class="mw-redirect" title="Archeological">archeological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anthropological" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropological">anthropological</a> research, as well as <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, have helped scholars piece together an understanding of ancient cultures and historic peoples. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Section_35_of_the_Constitution_Act,_1982" title="Section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982">Section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982</a></div> Collectively, First Nations (Indians),<a href="#cite_note-one-5">[5]</a> Inuit,<a href="#cite_note-ICCcharter-11">[11]</a> and Métis<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> peoples constitute <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada" title="Indigenous peoples in Canada">Indigenous peoples in Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a>, or "<a href="/wiki/First_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="First peoples">first peoples</a>".<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> First Nation as a term became officially used by the government beginning in 1980s to replace the term Indian band in referring to groups of Indians with common government and language.<a href="#cite_note-Institute2014-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-gibson5-15">[15]</a> The First Nations people had begun to identify by this term during 1970s activism, in order to avoid using the word Indian, which some considered offensive.<a href="#cite_note-Terminology_Guide-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> No legal definition of the term exists.<a href="#cite_note-Terminology_Guide-16">[16]</a> Some Indigenous peoples in Canada have also adopted the term First Nation to replace the word band in the formal name of their community.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> A band is a "body of Indians (a) for whose use and benefit in common lands ... have been set apart, (b) ... moneys are held ... or (c) declared ... to be a band for the purposes of", according to the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Act" title="Indian Act">Indian Act</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Crown" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian Crown">Canadian Crown</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> The term Indian is a misnomer, given to Indigenous peoples of North America by European explorers who erroneously thought they had landed in the <a href="/wiki/East_Indies" title="East Indies">East Indies</a>. The use of the term <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a>, which the government and others have adopted in the United States, is not common in Canada. It refers more specifically to the Indigenous peoples residing within the boundaries of the US.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> The parallel term Native Canadian is not commonly used, but Native (in English) and Autochtone (in <a href="/wiki/Canadian_French" title="Canadian French">Canadian French</a>; from the Greek auto, own, and chthon, land) are. Under the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Royal Proclamation of 1763</a>,<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> also known as the "Indian <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a>,"<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Crown" title="The Crown">the Crown</a> referred to <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a> in <a href="/wiki/British_North_America" title="British North America">British territory</a> as tribes or nations. The term First Nations is capitalized. Bands and <a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">nations</a> may have slightly different meanings. Within Canada, the term First Nations has come into general use for Indigenous peoples other than <a href="/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Inuit</a> and <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis" title="Métis">Métis</a>. Outside Canada, the term can refer to <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australians" title="Indigenous Australians">Indigenous Australians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tribe_(Native_American)" title="Tribe (Native American)">U.S. tribes</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Northwest" title="Pacific Northwest">Pacific Northwest</a>, as well as supporters of the <a href="/wiki/Cascadia_(independence_movement)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cascadia (independence movement)">Cascadian independence movement</a>. The singular, commonly used on culturally politicized <a href="/wiki/Indian_reserve" title="Indian reserve">reserves</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>], is the term First Nations person [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] (when gender-specific, First Nations man or First Nations woman). Since the late 20th century, members of various nations more frequently identify by their <a href="/wiki/Indian_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian tribe">tribal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nationality" title="Nationality">national</a> identity only, e.g., "I'm <a href="/wiki/Haida_people" title="Haida people">Haida</a>", or "We're <a href="/wiki/Kwantlen_First_Nation" title="Kwantlen First Nation">Kwantlens</a>", in recognition of the distinct First Nations.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For pre-history, see <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada#Paleo-Indian_period" title="Indigenous peoples in Canada">Indigenous peoples in Canada § Paleo-Indian period</a>.</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nationhood">Nationhood</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Nationhood">edit</a>]</div> <dl><dd>First Nations by linguistic-cultural area: <a href="/wiki/List_of_First_Nations_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="List of First Nations peoples">List of First Nations peoples</a></dd></dl> First Nations peoples had settled and established trade routes across what is now Canada by 500 BCE – 1,000 CE. Communities developed, each with its own culture, customs, and character.<a href="#cite_note-Joe-25">[25]</a> In the northwest were the <a href="/wiki/Athabaskan_languages" title="Athabaskan languages">Athapaskan-speaking</a> peoples, <a href="/wiki/Slavey_language" title="Slavey language">Slavey</a>, <a href="/wiki/T%C5%82%C4%B1%CC%A8ch%C7%AB" title="Tłı̨chǫ">Tłı̨chǫ</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tutchone_language" title="Tutchone language">Tutchone-speaking</a> peoples, and <a href="/wiki/Tlingit" title="Tlingit">Tlingit</a>. Along the Pacific coast were the Haida, <a href="/wiki/Tsimshian" title="Tsimshian">Tsimshian</a>, Salish, <a href="/wiki/Kwakiutl" class="mw-redirect" title="Kwakiutl">Kwakiutl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuu-chah-nulth" title="Nuu-chah-nulth">Nuu-chah-nulth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nisga%27a" title="Nisga'a">Nisga'a</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gitxsan" title="Gitxsan">Gitxsan</a>. In the plains were the Blackfoot, <a href="/wiki/Kainai_Nation" title="Kainai Nation">Kainai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tsuu_T%27ina_Nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsuu T'ina Nation">Sarcee</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northern_Peigan" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Peigan">Northern Peigan</a>. In the northern woodlands were the <a href="/wiki/Cree" title="Cree">Cree</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chipewyan" title="Chipewyan">Chipewyan</a>. Around the Great Lakes were the <a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe" title="Anishinaabe">Anishinaabe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algonquin_people" title="Algonquin people">Algonquin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iroquois" title="Iroquois">Iroquois</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wyandot_people" title="Wyandot people">Wyandot</a>. Along the Atlantic coast were the <a href="/wiki/Beothuk" title="Beothuk">Beothuk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maliseet" class="mw-redirect" title="Maliseet">Maliseet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Innu" title="Innu">Innu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abenaki" title="Abenaki">Abenaki</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mi%27kmaq" title="Mi'kmaq">Mi'kmaq</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_Confederacy" title="Blackfoot Confederacy">Blackfoot Confederacy</a> resides in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a> of <a href="/wiki/Montana" title="Montana">Montana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Provinces_and_territories_of_Canada" title="Provinces and territories of Canada">Canadian provinces</a> of <a href="/wiki/Alberta" title="Alberta">Alberta</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saskatchewan" title="Saskatchewan">Saskatchewan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-gibson5-15">[15]</a>: 5  The name Blackfoot came from the dye or paint on the bottoms of their leather <a href="/wiki/Moccasin" title="Moccasin">moccasins</a>. One account claimed that the Blackfoot Confederacies walked through the ashes of prairie fires, which in turn blackened the bottoms of their moccasins.<a href="#cite_note-gibson5-15">[15]</a>: 5  They had migrated onto the Great Plains (where they followed bison herds and cultivated berries and edible roots) from the area of now eastern Canada and the northeastern United States. Historically, they allowed only legitimate traders into their territory, making treaties only when the bison herds were exterminated in the 1870s.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mrs._Joe_Capilano.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/38/Mrs._Joe_Capilano.jpg/170px-Mrs._Joe_Capilano.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/38/Mrs._Joe_Capilano.jpg/255px-Mrs._Joe_Capilano.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/38/Mrs._Joe_Capilano.jpg/340px-Mrs._Joe_Capilano.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1253" data-file-height="1452" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Squamish_people" title="Squamish people">Squamish</a> woman</figcaption></figure> Pre-contact <a href="/wiki/Squamish_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Squamish history">Squamish history</a> is passed on through <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral tradition</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Squamish_people" title="Squamish people">Squamish</a> <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Pacific_Northwest_Coast" title="Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast">indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast</a>. Prior to colonization and the introduction of writing had only oral tradition as a way to transmit stories, law, and knowledge across generations.<a href="#cite_note-Khatsahlano_1966._p16-26">[26]</a> The writing system established in the 1970s uses the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a> as a base. Knowledgeable elders have the responsibility to pass historical knowledge to the next generation. People lived and prospered for thousands of years until the <a href="/wiki/Deluge_myth" class="mw-redirect" title="Deluge myth">Great Flood</a>. In another story, after the Flood, they repopulated from the villages of <a href="/wiki/Schenks_and_Chekwelp" title="Schenks and Chekwelp">Schenks and Chekwelp</a>,<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> located at <a href="/wiki/Gibsons,_British_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Gibsons, British Columbia">Gibsons</a>. When the water lines receded, the first Squamish came to be. The first man, named Tseḵánchten, built his <a href="/wiki/Longhouses_of_the_indigenous_peoples_of_North_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Longhouses of the indigenous peoples of North America">longhouse</a> in the village, and later on another man named Xelálten, appeared on his longhouse roof and sent by the Creator, or in the <a href="/wiki/Squamish_language" title="Squamish language">Squamish language</a> keke7nex siyam. He called this man his brother. It was from these two men that the population began to rise and the Squamish spread back through their territory.<a href="#cite_note-Khatsahlano_1966._p16-26">[26]</a>: 20  <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Theiroquoislonghouse.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Theiroquoislonghouse.png/170px-Theiroquoislonghouse.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Theiroquoislonghouse.png/255px-Theiroquoislonghouse.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Theiroquoislonghouse.png/340px-Theiroquoislonghouse.png 2x" data-file-width="478" data-file-height="294" /></a><figcaption>A traditional Iroquois <a href="/wiki/Longhouse" title="Longhouse">longhouse</a>.</figcaption></figure> The Iroquois influence extended from northern New York into what are now southern Ontario and the Montreal area of modern Quebec.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> The Iroquois Confederacy is, from oral tradition, formed circa 1142.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Adept at cultivating the <a href="/wiki/Three_Sisters_(agriculture)" title="Three Sisters (agriculture)">Three Sisters</a> (<a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a>/<a href="/wiki/Bean" title="Bean">beans</a>/<a href="/wiki/Squash_(plant)" class="mw-redirect" title="Squash (plant)">squash</a>), the Iroquois became powerful because of their confederacy. Gradually the Algonquians adopted agricultural practises enabling larger populations to be sustained. The <a href="/wiki/Assiniboine_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Assiniboine people">Assiniboine</a> were close allies and trading partners of the Cree, engaging in wars against the <a href="/wiki/Gros_Ventres" class="mw-redirect" title="Gros Ventres">Gros Ventres</a> alongside them, and later fighting the Blackfoot.<a href="#cite_note-Assini-30">[30]</a> A Plains people, they went no further north than the <a href="/wiki/North_Saskatchewan_River" title="North Saskatchewan River">North Saskatchewan River</a> and purchased a great deal of European trade goods through Cree middlemen from the <a href="/wiki/Hudson%27s_Bay_Company" title="Hudson's Bay Company">Hudson's Bay Company</a>. The lifestyle of this group was semi-nomadic, and they followed the herds of <a href="/wiki/Plains_bison" title="Plains bison">bison</a> during the warmer months. They traded with European traders, and worked with the <a href="/wiki/Mandan" title="Mandan">Mandan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hidatsa" title="Hidatsa">Hidatsa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arikara" title="Arikara">Arikara</a> tribes.<a href="#cite_note-Assini-30">[30]</a> In the earliest <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral history</a>, the Algonquins were from the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic</a> coast. Together with other Anicinàpek, they arrived at the "First Stopping Place" near Montreal.<a href="#cite_note-Algonquins-31">[31]</a> While the other Anicinàpe peoples continued their journey up the <a href="/wiki/St._Lawrence_River" title="St. Lawrence River">St. Lawrence River</a>, the Algonquins settled along the <a href="/wiki/Ottawa_River" title="Ottawa River">Ottawa River</a> (Kitcisìpi), an important highway for commerce, cultural exchange, and transportation. A distinct Algonquin identity, though, was not realized until after the dividing of the Anicinàpek at the "Third Stopping Place", estimated at 2,000 years ago near present-day <a href="/wiki/Detroit" title="Detroit">Detroit</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Algonquins-31">[31]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eastman_Johnson_-_Ojibwe_Wigwam_at_Grand_Portage_-_ebj_-_fig_22_pg_41.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Eastman_Johnson_-_Ojibwe_Wigwam_at_Grand_Portage_-_ebj_-_fig_22_pg_41.jpg/170px-Eastman_Johnson_-_Ojibwe_Wigwam_at_Grand_Portage_-_ebj_-_fig_22_pg_41.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Eastman_Johnson_-_Ojibwe_Wigwam_at_Grand_Portage_-_ebj_-_fig_22_pg_41.jpg/255px-Eastman_Johnson_-_Ojibwe_Wigwam_at_Grand_Portage_-_ebj_-_fig_22_pg_41.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Eastman_Johnson_-_Ojibwe_Wigwam_at_Grand_Portage_-_ebj_-_fig_22_pg_41.jpg/340px-Eastman_Johnson_-_Ojibwe_Wigwam_at_Grand_Portage_-_ebj_-_fig_22_pg_41.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1515" data-file-height="1056" /></a><figcaption>Detail of the painting Ojibwe Wigwam at Grand Portage by <a href="/wiki/Eastman_Johnson" title="Eastman Johnson">Eastman Johnson</a> </figcaption></figure> According to their tradition, and from recordings in <a href="/wiki/Birch_bark" title="Birch bark">birch bark</a> <a href="/wiki/Scroll" title="Scroll">scrolls</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wiigwaasabak" title="Wiigwaasabak">wiigwaasabak</a>), Ojibwe (an Algonquian-speaking people) came from the eastern areas of North America, or <a href="/wiki/Turtle_Island_(North_America)" class="mw-redirect" title="Turtle Island (North America)">Turtle Island</a>, and from along the east coast.<a href="#cite_note-Ojibwe-32">[32]</a> They traded widely across the continent for thousands of years and knew of the canoe routes west and a land route to the west coast. According to the oral history, seven great miigis (radiant/iridescent) beings appeared to the peoples in the Waabanakiing to teach the peoples of the <a href="/wiki/Midewiwin" title="Midewiwin">mide way</a> of life. One of the seven great miigis beings was too spiritually powerful and killed the peoples in the Waabanakiing when the people were in its presence. The six great miigis beings remained to teach while the one returned into the ocean. The six great miigis beings then established <a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe_clan_system" title="Anishinaabe clan system">doodem</a> (clans) for the peoples in the east. Of these doodem, the five original Anishinaabe doodem were the Wawaazisii (<a href="/wiki/Brown_bullhead" title="Brown bullhead">Bullhead</a>), Baswenaazhi (Echo-maker, i.e., <a href="/wiki/Crane_(bird)" title="Crane (bird)">Crane</a>), Aan'aawenh (<a href="/wiki/Northern_pintail" title="Northern pintail">Pintail Duck</a>), Nooke (Tender, i.e., <a href="/wiki/Bear" title="Bear">Bear</a>) and Moozoonsii (Little <a href="/wiki/Moose" title="Moose">Moose</a>), then these six miigis beings returned into the ocean as well. If the seventh miigis being stayed, it would have established the <a href="/wiki/Thunderbird_(mythology)" title="Thunderbird (mythology)">Thunderbird</a> doodem.<a href="#cite_note-Ojibwe-32">[32]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuu-chah-nulth_children_in_Friendly_Cove.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Nuu-chah-nulth_children_in_Friendly_Cove.jpg/220px-Nuu-chah-nulth_children_in_Friendly_Cove.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Nuu-chah-nulth_children_in_Friendly_Cove.jpg/330px-Nuu-chah-nulth_children_in_Friendly_Cove.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Nuu-chah-nulth_children_in_Friendly_Cove.jpg/440px-Nuu-chah-nulth_children_in_Friendly_Cove.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="441" /></a><figcaption>Three <a href="/wiki/Nuu-chah-nulth" title="Nuu-chah-nulth">Nuu-chah-nulth</a> (Nootka) children at Friendly Cove, British Columbia in the 1930s</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Nuu-chah-nulth" title="Nuu-chah-nulth">Nuu-chah-nulth</a> are one of the Indigenous peoples of the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Northwest" title="Pacific Northwest">Pacific Northwest Coast</a>. The term Nuu-chah-nulth is used to describe fifteen separate but related First Nations, such as the <a href="/wiki/Tla-o-qui-aht_First_Nations" title="Tla-o-qui-aht First Nations">Tla-o-qui-aht First Nations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ehattesaht_First_Nation" title="Ehattesaht First Nation">Ehattesaht First Nation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hesquiaht_First_Nation" title="Hesquiaht First Nation">Hesquiaht First Nation</a> whose traditional home is on the west coast of <a href="/wiki/Vancouver_Island" title="Vancouver Island">Vancouver Island</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> In pre-contact and early post-contact times, the number of nations was much greater, but <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> and other consequences of contact resulted in the disappearance of groups, and the absorption of others into neighbouring groups. The Nuu-chah-nulth are relations of the <a href="/wiki/Kwakwaka%27wakw" class="mw-redirect" title="Kwakwaka'wakw">Kwakwaka'wakw</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Haisla_people" title="Haisla people">Haisla</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Ditidaht_First_Nation" title="Ditidaht First Nation">Ditidaht</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Nuu-chah-nulth_language" title="Nuu-chah-nulth language">Nuu-chah-nulth language</a> is part of the <a href="/wiki/Wakashan_languages" title="Wakashan languages">Wakashan language</a> group.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> In 1999 the discovery of the body of <a href="/wiki/Kw%C3%A4day_D%C3%A4n_Ts%27%C3%ACnchi" title="Kwäday Dän Ts'ìnchi">Kwäday Dän Ts'ìnchi</a> provided archaeologists with significant information on indigenous tribal life prior to extensive European contact. Kwäday Dän Ts'ìnchi (meaning "Long Ago Person Found" in <a href="/wiki/Southern_Tutchone" title="Southern Tutchone">Southern Tutchone</a>), or "Canadian Ice Man", is a naturally <a href="/wiki/Mummy" title="Mummy">mummified</a> body that a group of hunters found in <a href="/wiki/Tatshenshini-Alsek_Provincial_Park" title="Tatshenshini-Alsek Provincial Park">Tatshenshini-Alsek Provincial Park</a> in British Columbia. <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">Radiocarbon dating</a> of artifacts found with the body placed the age of the find between 1450 AD and 1700 AD.<a href="#cite_note-background-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-relatives-36">[36]</a> <a href="/wiki/Genetic_testing" title="Genetic testing">Genetic testing</a> showed that he was a member of the <a href="/wiki/Champagne_and_Aishihik_First_Nations" title="Champagne and Aishihik First Nations">Champagne and Aishihik First Nations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-background-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-relatives-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-photos-37">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_contact">European contact</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: European contact">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Hudson%27s_Bay_Company" title="Hudson's Bay Company">Hudson's Bay Company</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_American_fur_trade" title="North American fur trade">North American fur trade</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Langs_N.Amer.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt=""Colour-coded map of North America showing the distribution of North American language families north of Mexico"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Langs_N.Amer.png/330px-Langs_N.Amer.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Langs_N.Amer.png/495px-Langs_N.Amer.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Langs_N.Amer.png/660px-Langs_N.Amer.png 2x" data-file-width="1290" data-file-height="1170" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Linguistic areas of North American Indigenous peoples</a> at the time of European contact.</figcaption></figure> Aboriginal people in Canada interacted with Europeans as far back as 1000 AD,<a href="#cite_note-Woodcock-8">[8]</a>: Part 1  but prolonged contact came only after Europeans established permanent settlements in the 17th and 18th centuries. European written accounts noted friendliness on the part of the First Nations,<a href="#cite_note-Woodcock-8">[8]</a>: Part 1  who profited in trade with Europeans. Such trade strengthened the more organized political entities such as the Iroquois Confederation.<a href="#cite_note-wolf-9">[9]</a>: Ch 6  The <a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas">Aboriginal population</a> is estimated to have been between 200,000<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> and two million in the late 15th century.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> The effect of European colonization was a 40 to 80 percent Aboriginal population decrease post-contact. This is attributed to various factors, including repeated outbreaks of European <a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease">infectious diseases</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza">influenza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">measles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> (to which they had not developed immunity), inter-nation conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with colonial authorities and settlers and loss of land and a subsequent loss of nation self-suffiency.<a href="#cite_note-dying-40">[40]</a> For example, during the late 1630s, smallpox killed more than half of the <a href="/wiki/Wyandot_people" title="Wyandot people">Huron</a>, who controlled most of the early <a href="/wiki/Fur_trade" title="Fur trade">fur trade</a> in what became Canada. Reduced to fewer than 10,000 people, the Huron Wendat were attacked by the Iroquois, their traditional enemies.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> In the Maritimes, the Beothuk disappeared entirely. There are reports of contact made before <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a> between the first peoples and those from other continents. Even in Columbus' time there was much speculation that other Europeans had made the trip in ancient or contemporary times; <a href="/wiki/Gonzalo_Fern%C3%A1ndez_de_Oviedo_y_Vald%C3%A9s" title="Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés">Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés</a> records accounts of these in his General y natural historia de las Indias of 1526, which includes biographical information on Columbus.<a href="#cite_note-Madrid-42">[42]</a> Aboriginal first contact period is not well defined. The earliest accounts of contact occurred in the late 10th century, between the Beothuk and <a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Norsemen</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Middleton-43">[43]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Sagas_of_Icelanders" title="Sagas of Icelanders">Sagas of Icelanders</a>, the first European to see what is now Canada was <a href="/wiki/Bjarni_Herj%C3%B3lfsson" title="Bjarni Herjólfsson">Bjarni Herjólfsson</a>, who was blown off course en route from <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a> to <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a> in the summer of 985 or 986 CE.<a href="#cite_note-Middleton-43">[43]</a> The first European explorers and settlers of what is now Canada relied on the First Nations peoples, for resources and trade to sustain a living. The first written accounts of interaction show a predominantly Old world bias, labelling the indigenous peoples as "savages", although the indigenous peoples were organized and self-sufficient. In the early days of contact, the First Nations and Inuit populations welcomed the Europeans, assisting them in living off the land and joining forces with the French and British in their various battles. It was not until the colonial and imperial forces of Britain and France established dominant settlements and, no longer needing the help of the First Nations people, began to break treaties and force them off the land that the antagonism between the two groups grew. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="16th–18th_centuries">16th–18th centuries</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 16th–18th centuries">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/List_of_Portuguese_monarchs" title="List of Portuguese monarchs">Portuguese Crown</a> claimed that it had territorial rights in the area visited by Cabot. In 1493 <a href="/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VI" title="Pope Alexander VI">Pope Alexander VI</a> – assuming international jurisdiction – had divided lands discovered in America between Spain and Portugal. The next year, in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas" title="Treaty of Tordesillas">Treaty of Tordesillas</a>, these two kingdoms decided to draw the dividing line running north–south, 370 <a href="/wiki/League_(unit)" title="League (unit)">leagues</a> (from 1,500 to 2,200 km (930 to 1,370 mi) approximately depending on the league used) west of the <a href="/wiki/Cape_Verde" title="Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a> Islands. Land to the west would be Spanish, to the east Portuguese. Given the uncertain geography of the day, this seemed to give the "new founde isle" to Portugal. On the 1502 <a href="/wiki/Cantino_planisphere" title="Cantino planisphere">Cantino map</a>, Newfoundland appears on the Portuguese side of the line (as does Brazil). An expedition captured about 60 Aboriginal people as slaves who were said to "resemble <a href="/wiki/Romani_people" title="Romani people">gypsies</a> in colour, features, stature and aspect; are clothed in the skins of various animals ...They are very shy and gentle, but well formed in arms and legs and shoulders beyond description ...." Some captives, sent by <a href="/wiki/Gaspar_Corte-Real" title="Gaspar Corte-Real">Gaspar Corte-Real</a>, reached Portugal. The others drowned, with Gaspar, on the return voyage. Gaspar's brother, <a href="/wiki/Miguel_Corte-Real" title="Miguel Corte-Real">Miguel Corte-Real</a>, went to look for him in 1502, but also failed to return. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Non-Native-American-Nations-Territorial-Claims-over-NAFTA-countries-1750-2008.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Non-Native-American-Nations-Territorial-Claims-over-NAFTA-countries-1750-2008.gif/170px-Non-Native-American-Nations-Territorial-Claims-over-NAFTA-countries-1750-2008.gif" decoding="async" width="170" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Non-Native-American-Nations-Territorial-Claims-over-NAFTA-countries-1750-2008.gif/255px-Non-Native-American-Nations-Territorial-Claims-over-NAFTA-countries-1750-2008.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Non-Native-American-Nations-Territorial-Claims-over-NAFTA-countries-1750-2008.gif/340px-Non-Native-American-Nations-Territorial-Claims-over-NAFTA-countries-1750-2008.gif 2x" data-file-width="670" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>Non-indigenous land claims in North America, 1750–2008.</figcaption></figure> In 1604 King <a href="/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France" title="Henry IV of France">Henry IV of France</a> granted <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Dugua,_Sieur_de_Mons" title="Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons">Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons</a> a fur-trade monopoly.<a href="#cite_note-Vaugeois-44">[44]</a> Dugua led his first colonization expedition to an island located near to the mouth of the <a href="/wiki/St._Croix_River_(Maine-New_Brunswick)" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Croix River (Maine-New Brunswick)">St. Croix River</a>. <a href="/wiki/Samuel_de_Champlain" title="Samuel de Champlain">Samuel de Champlain</a>, his geographer, promptly carried out a major exploration of the northeastern coastline of what is now the United States. Under Samuel de Champlain, the <a href="/wiki/Saint_Croix_Island,_Maine" title="Saint Croix Island, Maine">Saint Croix settlement</a> moved to <a href="/wiki/Port-Royal_(Acadia)" title="Port-Royal (Acadia)">Port Royal</a> (today's <a href="/wiki/Annapolis_Royal,_Nova_Scotia" class="mw-redirect" title="Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia">Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia</a>), a new site across the <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Fundy" title="Bay of Fundy">Bay of Fundy</a>, on the shore of the <a href="/wiki/Annapolis_Basin" title="Annapolis Basin">Annapolis Basin</a>, an inlet in western Nova Scotia. <a href="/wiki/Acadia" title="Acadia">Acadia</a> became France's most successful colony to that time.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> The cancellation of Dugua's fur monopoly in 1607 ended the Port Royal settlement. Champlain persuaded First Nations to allow him to settle along the St. Lawrence, where in 1608 he would found France's first permanent colony in Canada at Quebec City. The colony of <a href="/wiki/Acadia" title="Acadia">Acadia</a> grew slowly, reaching a population of about 5,000 by 1713. <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a> had <a href="/wiki/Cod" title="Cod">cod</a>-fishery coastal communities, and farm economies supported communities along the St. Lawrence River. French <a href="/wiki/Voyageurs" title="Voyageurs">voyageurs</a> travelled deep into the hinterlands (of what is today Quebec, Ontario, and Manitoba, as well as what is now the American Midwest and the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi Valley</a>), trading with First Nations as they went – guns, gunpowder, cloth, knives, and kettles for beaver furs.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> The fur trade kept the interest in France's overseas colonies alive, yet only encouraged a small colonial population, as minimal labour was required. The trade also discouraged the development of agriculture, the surest foundation of a colony in the New World.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/David_L._Preston" title="David L. Preston">David L. Preston</a>, after French colonisation with Champlain "the French were able to settle in the depopulated St. Lawrence Valley, not directly intruding on any Indian nation's lands. This geographic and demographic fact presents a striking contrast to the British colonies' histories: large numbers of immigrants coming to New England, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the Carolinas all stimulated destructive wars over land with their immediate Indian neighbors...Settlement patterns in New France also curtailed the kind of relentless and destructive expansion and land-grabbing that afflicted many British colonies."<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Métis">The Métis</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The Métis">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Métis in Canada">Métis in Canada</a></div> The Métis (from French métis – "mixed") are descendants of unions between <a href="/wiki/Cree" title="Cree">Cree</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ojibwe" title="Ojibwe">Ojibwe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algonquin_people" title="Algonquin people">Algonquin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saulteaux" title="Saulteaux">Saulteaux</a>, <a href="/wiki/Menominee" title="Menominee">Menominee</a> and other First Nations in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries and <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Europe" title="Ethnic groups in Europe">Europeans</a>,<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> mainly French.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> The Métis were historically the children of French fur traders and Nehiyaw women or, from unions of English or Scottish traders and Northern Dene women (<a href="/wiki/Anglo-M%C3%A9tis" title="Anglo-Métis">Anglo-Métis</a>). The Métis spoke or still speak either <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis_French" title="Métis French">Métis French</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Mixed_language" title="Mixed language">mixed language</a> called <a href="/wiki/Michif_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Michif language">Michif</a>. Michif, Mechif or Métchif is a <a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_spelling" class="mw-redirect" title="Pronunciation spelling">phonetic spelling</a> of the Métis pronunciation of Métif, a variant of Métis. The Métis as of 2013<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit">[update]</a> predominantly speak <a href="/wiki/Canadian_English" title="Canadian English">English</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Canadian_French" title="Canadian French">French</a> a strong second language, as well as numerous Aboriginal tongues. Métis French is best preserved in Canada, Michif in the United States, notably in the <a href="/wiki/Turtle_Mountain_Indian_Reservation" title="Turtle Mountain Indian Reservation">Turtle Mountain Indian Reservation</a> of <a href="/wiki/North_Dakota" title="North Dakota">North Dakota</a>, where Michif is the <a href="/wiki/Official_language" title="Official language">official language</a> of the Métis that reside on this <a href="/wiki/Turtle_Mountain_Band_of_Chippewa_Indians" title="Turtle Mountain Band of Chippewa Indians">Chippewa</a> reservation. The encouragement and use of Métis French and Michif is growing due to outreach within the five provincial Métis councils after at least a generation of steep decline. Canada's Indian and Northern Affairs define Métis to be those persons of mixed First Nation and European ancestry.<a href="#cite_note-well-51">[51]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Colonial_wars">Colonial wars</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Colonial wars">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_Wars" title="French and Indian Wars">French and Indian Wars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Father_Rale%27s_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Father Rale's War">Father Rale's War</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Father_Le_Loutre%27s_War" title="Father Le Loutre's War">Father Le Loutre's War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Conference_Between_the_French_and_Indian_Leaders_Around_a_Ceremonial_Fire_by_Vernier.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Conference_Between_the_French_and_Indian_Leaders_Around_a_Ceremonial_Fire_by_Vernier.jpg/220px-Conference_Between_the_French_and_Indian_Leaders_Around_a_Ceremonial_Fire_by_Vernier.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Conference_Between_the_French_and_Indian_Leaders_Around_a_Ceremonial_Fire_by_Vernier.jpg/330px-Conference_Between_the_French_and_Indian_Leaders_Around_a_Ceremonial_Fire_by_Vernier.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Conference_Between_the_French_and_Indian_Leaders_Around_a_Ceremonial_Fire_by_Vernier.jpg/440px-Conference_Between_the_French_and_Indian_Leaders_Around_a_Ceremonial_Fire_by_Vernier.jpg 2x" data-file-width="624" data-file-height="430" /></a><figcaption>Conference between the French and First Nations leaders by <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Louis_Vernier" title="Émile Louis Vernier">Émile Louis Vernier</a>.</figcaption></figure> Allied with the French, the first nations of the <a href="/wiki/Wabanaki_Confederacy" title="Wabanaki Confederacy">Wabanaki Confederacy</a> of <a href="/wiki/Acadia" title="Acadia">Acadia</a> fought six colonial wars against the British and their native allies (See the <a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_Wars" title="French and Indian Wars">French and Indian Wars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Father_Rale%27s_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Father Rale's War">Father Rale's War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Father_Le_Loutre%27s_War" title="Father Le Loutre's War">Father Le Loutre's War</a>).<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> In the second war, <a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War</a>, the British conquered <a href="/wiki/Acadia" title="Acadia">Acadia</a> (1710). The sixth and final <a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">colonial war</a> between the nations of <a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime in France">France</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Great Britain</a> (1754–1763), resulted in the French giving up their claims and the British claimed the lands of <a href="/wiki/Canada_(New_France)" title="Canada (New France)">Canada (New France)</a>. In this final war, the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Indian_alliance" title="Franco-Indian alliance">Franco-Indian alliance</a> brought together Americans, First Nations and the French, centred on the <a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Illinois_Country" title="Illinois Country">Illinois Country</a>.<a href="#cite_note-volo-53">[53]</a> The alliance involved French settlers on the one side, and on the other side were the Abenaki, Odawa, <a href="/wiki/Menominee" title="Menominee">Menominee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ho-Chunk" title="Ho-Chunk">Ho-Chunk</a> (Winnebago), <a href="/wiki/Mississaugas" title="Mississaugas">Mississaugas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Illinois_Confederation" title="Illinois Confederation">Illiniwek</a>, Huron-<a href="/wiki/Petun" title="Petun">Petun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Potawatomi" title="Potawatomi">Potawatomi</a> etc.<a href="#cite_note-volo-53">[53]</a> It allowed the French and the Indians to form a haven in the middle-<a href="/wiki/Ohio_River" title="Ohio River">Ohio valley</a> before the open conflict between the European powers erupted.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Royal Proclamation of 1763</a>, the British recognized the treaty rights of the indigenous populations and resolved to only settle those areas purchased lawfully from the indigenous peoples. Treaties and land purchases were made in several cases by the British, but the lands of several indigenous nations remain unceded and/or unresolved. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Slavery">Slavery</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Slavery">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Canada" title="Slavery in Canada">Slavery in Canada</a></div> First Nations routinely captured slaves from neighbouring tribes. Sources report that the conditions under which First Nations slaves lived could be brutal, with the <a href="/wiki/Makah" title="Makah">Makah</a> tribe practising death by <a href="/wiki/Starvation" title="Starvation">starvation</a> as punishment and Pacific coast tribes routinely performing ritualized killings of slaves as part of social ceremonies into the mid-1800s.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> Slave-owning tribes of the fishing societies, such as the <a href="/wiki/Yurok_(tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Yurok (tribe)">Yurok</a> and <a href="/wiki/Haida_people" title="Haida people">Haida</a> lived along the coast from what is now <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a> to <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Fierce warrior indigenous <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">slave-traders</a> of the Pacific Northwest Coast raided as far south as California. Slavery was hereditary, the slaves and their descendants being considered <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">prisoners of war</a>. Some tribes in British Columbia continued to segregate and ostracize the descendants of slaves as late as the 1970s.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Among Pacific Northwest tribes about a quarter of the population were slaves.<a href="#cite_note-afua-58">[58]</a> The citizens of New France received slaves as gifts from their allies among First Nations peoples. Slaves were prisoners taken in raids against the villages of the <a href="/wiki/Fox_(tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fox (tribe)">Fox nation</a>, a tribe that was an ancient rival of the <a href="/wiki/Miami_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Miami tribe">Miami people</a> and their <a href="/wiki/Algonquian_peoples" title="Algonquian peoples">Algonquian</a> allies.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Native (or "pani", a corruption of <a href="/wiki/Pawnee_people" title="Pawnee people">Pawnee</a>) slaves were much easier to obtain and thus more numerous than African slaves in New France, but were less valued. The average native slave died at 18, and the average African slave died at 25<a href="#cite_note-afua-58">[58]</a> (the average European could expect to live until the age of 35<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a>). By 1790 the <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Abolitionism in the United Kingdom">abolition movement</a> was gaining ground in Canada and the ill intent of slavery was evidenced by an incident involving a slave woman being violently abused by her slave owner on her way to being sold in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-afua-58">[58]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Act_Against_Slavery" title="Act Against Slavery">Act Against Slavery</a> of 1793 legislated the gradual abolition of slavery: no slaves could be imported; slaves already in the province would remain enslaved until death, no new slaves could be brought into <a href="/wiki/Upper_Canada" title="Upper Canada">Upper Canada</a>, and children born to female slaves would be slaves but must be freed at age 25.<a href="#cite_note-afua-58">[58]</a> The act <a href="/wiki/Coming_into_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Coming into force">remained in force</a> until 1833 when the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">British Parliament's</a> <a href="/wiki/Slavery_Abolition_Act_1833" title="Slavery Abolition Act 1833">Slavery Abolition Act</a> finally abolished slavery in all parts of the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SectionLXIV-61">[61]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Trudel" title="Marcel Trudel">Marcel Trudel</a> has documented 4,092 recorded slaves throughout Canadian history, of which 2,692 were Aboriginal people, owned by the French, and 1,400 blacks owned by the British, together owned by approximately 1,400 masters.<a href="#cite_note-afua-58">[58]</a> Trudel also noted 31 marriages took place between French colonists and Aboriginal slaves.<a href="#cite_note-afua-58">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1775–1815">1775–1815</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: 1775–1815">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Weasel plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Weasel" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section contains <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">weasel words</a>: vague phrasing that often accompanies <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view">biased</a> or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">unverifiable</a> information. Such statements should be <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">clarified or removed</a>. (August 2024)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fur_traders_in_canada_1777.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Fur_traders_in_canada_1777.jpg/220px-Fur_traders_in_canada_1777.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Fur_traders_in_canada_1777.jpg/330px-Fur_traders_in_canada_1777.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Fur_traders_in_canada_1777.jpg/440px-Fur_traders_in_canada_1777.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1181" data-file-height="823" /></a><figcaption>Fur traders in Canada, trading with First Nations, 1777</figcaption></figure> British agents worked to make the First Nations into military allies of the British, providing supplies, weapons, and encouragement. During the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a> (1775–1783) most of the tribes supported the British. In 1779, the Americans <a href="/wiki/Sullivan_Expedition" title="Sullivan Expedition">launched a campaign</a> to burn the villages of the Iroquois in New York State.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> The refugees fled to Fort Niagara and other British posts, with some remaining permanently in Canada. Although the British ceded the Old Northwest to the United States in the Treaty of Paris in 1783, it kept fortifications and trading posts in the region until 1795. The British then evacuated American territory, but operated trading posts in British territory, providing weapons and encouragement to tribes that were resisting American expansion into such areas as Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Illinois and Wisconsin.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> Officially, the British agents discouraged any warlike activities or raids on American settlements, but the Americans became increasingly angered, and this became one of the <a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_War_of_1812" title="Origins of the War of 1812">causes of the War of 1812</a>.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> In the war, the great majority of First Nations supported the British, and many fought under the aegis of <a href="/wiki/Tecumseh" title="Tecumseh">Tecumseh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> But Tecumseh died in battle in 1813 and the Indian coalition collapsed. The British had long wished to create a neutral Indian state in the American Old Northwest,<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> and made this demand as late as 1814 at the peace negotiations at Ghent. The Americans rejected the idea, the British dropped it, and Britain's Indian allies lost British support. In addition, the Indians were no longer able to gather furs in American territory. Abandoned by their powerful sponsor, Great Lakes-area natives ultimately assimilated into American society, migrated to the west or to Canada, or were relocated onto reservations in Michigan and Wisconsin.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Historians have unanimously agreed that the Indians were the major losers in the War of 1812.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th_century">19th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: 19th century">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/North-West_Rebellion" title="North-West Rebellion">North-West Rebellion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Red_River_Rebellion" title="Red River Rebellion">Red River Rebellion</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kane_Assiniboine_hunting_buffalo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Kane_Assiniboine_hunting_buffalo.jpg/220px-Kane_Assiniboine_hunting_buffalo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Kane_Assiniboine_hunting_buffalo.jpg/330px-Kane_Assiniboine_hunting_buffalo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Kane_Assiniboine_hunting_buffalo.jpg/440px-Kane_Assiniboine_hunting_buffalo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="383" /></a><figcaption> Painting representing <a href="/wiki/Assiniboine_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Assiniboine people">Assiniboine</a> hunting buffalo, c. 1851</figcaption></figure> Living conditions for Indigenous people in the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Prairies" title="Canadian Prairies">prairie</a> regions deteriorated quickly. Between 1875 and 1885, settlers and hunters of European descent contributed to hunting the North American bison almost to extinction; the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Pacific_Railway" title="Canadian Pacific Railway">Canadian Pacific Railway</a> brought large numbers of European settlers west who encroached on Indigenous territory. European Canadians established governments, police forces, and <a href="/wiki/Court" title="Court">courts of law</a> with different foundations from indigenous practices. Various epidemics continued to devastate Indigenous communities. All of these factors had a profound effect on Indigenous people, particularly those from the plains who had relied heavily on bison for food and clothing. Most of those nations that agreed to treaties had negotiated for a guarantee of food and help to begin farming.<a href="#cite_note-finkelconrad-69">[69]</a> Just as the bison disappeared (the last Canadian hunt was in 1879), <a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_Governor_(Canada)" title="Lieutenant Governor (Canada)">Lieutenant-Governor</a> <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Dewdney" title="Edgar Dewdney">Edgar Dewdney</a> cut rations to indigenous people in an attempt to reduce government costs. Between 1880 and 1885, approximately 3,000 Indigenous people starved to death in the <a href="/wiki/North-West_Territories" class="mw-redirect" title="North-West Territories">North-West Territories</a>.<a href="#cite_note-finkelconrad-69">[69]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Poundmaker.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Poundmaker.png/170px-Poundmaker.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Poundmaker.png/255px-Poundmaker.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Poundmaker.png/340px-Poundmaker.png 2x" data-file-width="393" data-file-height="582" /></a><figcaption>Chief <a href="/wiki/Poundmaker" title="Poundmaker">Poundmaker</a> </figcaption></figure> Offended by the concepts of the treaties, Cree chiefs resisted them. <a href="/wiki/Big_Bear" title="Big Bear">Big Bear</a> refused to sign <a href="/wiki/Treaty_6" title="Treaty 6">Treaty 6</a> until starvation among his people forced his hand in 1882.<a href="#cite_note-finkelconrad-69">[69]</a> His attempts to unite Indigenous nations made progress. In 1884 the Métis (including the Anglo-Métis) asked <a href="/wiki/Louis_Riel" title="Louis Riel">Louis Riel</a> to return from the United States, where he had fled after the <a href="/wiki/Red_River_Rebellion" title="Red River Rebellion">Red River Rebellion</a>, to appeal to the government on their behalf. The government gave a vague response. In March 1885, Riel, <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Dumont_(M%C3%A9tis_leader)" title="Gabriel Dumont (Métis leader)">Gabriel Dumont</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_Jackson" title="Honoré Jackson">Honoré Jackson</a> (a.k.a. Will Jackson) set up the <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_Saskatchewan" title="Provisional Government of Saskatchewan">Provisional Government of Saskatchewan</a>, believing that they could influence the federal government in the same way as they had in 1869.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> The <a href="/wiki/North-West_Rebellion" title="North-West Rebellion">North-West Rebellion</a> of 1885 was a brief and unsuccessful uprising by the <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis_people_(Canada)" class="mw-redirect" title="Métis people (Canada)">Métis</a> people of the <a href="/wiki/District_of_Saskatchewan" title="District of Saskatchewan">District of Saskatchewan</a> under Riel against the Dominion of Canada, which they believed had failed to address their concerns for the survival of their people.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> In 1884, 2,000 Cree from reserves met near <a href="/wiki/Battleford" title="Battleford">Battleford</a> to organize into a large, cohesive resistance. Discouraged by the lack of government response but encouraged by the efforts of the Métis at armed rebellion, <a href="/wiki/Wandering_Spirit_(Cree_leader)" title="Wandering Spirit (Cree leader)">Wandering Spirit</a> and other young militant Cree attacked the small town of <a href="/wiki/Frog_Lake_Massacre" title="Frog Lake Massacre">Frog Lake</a>, killing Thomas Quinn, an <a href="/wiki/Indian_Agent_(Canada)" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Agent (Canada)">Indian agent</a>, and eight others.<a href="#cite_note-finkelconrad-69">[69]</a> Although Big Bear actively opposed the attacks, he was charged and tried for treason and sentenced to three years in prison. After the Red River Rebellion of 1869–1870, Métis moved from <a href="/wiki/Manitoba" title="Manitoba">Manitoba</a> to the District of Saskatchewan, where they founded a settlement at <a href="/wiki/Batoche,_Saskatchewan" title="Batoche, Saskatchewan">Batoche</a> on the <a href="/wiki/South_Saskatchewan_River" title="South Saskatchewan River">South Saskatchewan River</a>.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mik%27maq_at_Province_House,_Halifax,NS_1879.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Mik%27maq_at_Province_House%2C_Halifax%2CNS_1879.png/220px-Mik%27maq_at_Province_House%2C_Halifax%2CNS_1879.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Mik%27maq_at_Province_House%2C_Halifax%2CNS_1879.png/330px-Mik%27maq_at_Province_House%2C_Halifax%2CNS_1879.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Mik%27maq_at_Province_House%2C_Halifax%2CNS_1879.png/440px-Mik%27maq_at_Province_House%2C_Halifax%2CNS_1879.png 2x" data-file-width="692" data-file-height="485" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mi%27kmaq" title="Mi'kmaq">Mi'kmaq</a> Grand Chief <a href="/wiki/Jacques-Pierre_Peminuit_Paul" title="Jacques-Pierre Peminuit Paul">Jacques-Pierre Peminuit Paul</a> (3rd from left with beard) meets Governor General of Canada, <a href="/wiki/John_Campbell,_9th_Duke_of_Argyll" title="John Campbell, 9th Duke of Argyll">Marquess of Lorne</a>, Red Chamber, <a href="/wiki/Province_House_(Nova_Scotia)" title="Province House (Nova Scotia)">Province House</a>, Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1879</figcaption></figure> In Manitoba settlers from <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a> began to arrive. They pushed for land to be allotted in the square concession system of <a href="/wiki/English_Canada" title="English Canada">English Canada</a>, rather than the <a href="/wiki/Seigneurial_system_of_New_France" title="Seigneurial system of New France">seigneurial system</a> of strips reaching back from a river which the Métis were familiar with in their <a href="/wiki/French-Canadian" class="mw-redirect" title="French-Canadian">French-Canadian</a> culture. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Colonization_and_assimilation">Colonization and assimilation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Colonization and assimilation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Indian_residential_school_system" title="Canadian Indian residential school system">Canadian Indian residential school system</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indian_Residential_Schools_Truth_and_Reconciliation_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Residential Schools Truth and Reconciliation Commission">Indian Residential Schools Truth and Reconciliation Commission</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stpauls-middlechurch-man.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Stpauls-middlechurch-man.jpg/170px-Stpauls-middlechurch-man.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Stpauls-middlechurch-man.jpg/255px-Stpauls-middlechurch-man.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Stpauls-middlechurch-man.jpg/340px-Stpauls-middlechurch-man.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="499" /></a><figcaption>St. Paul's Indian Industrial School, Manitoba, 1901</figcaption></figure> The history of colonization is complex, varied according to the time and place. France and Britain were the main colonial powers involved, though the United States also began to extend its territory at the expense of indigenous people as well. From the late 18th century, European Canadians encouraged First Nations to <a href="/wiki/Cultural_imperialism" title="Cultural imperialism">assimilate</a> into the European-based culture, referred to as "<a href="/wiki/Canadian_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian culture">Canadian culture</a>". The assumption was that this was the "correct" culture because the Canadians of European descent saw themselves as dominant, and technologically, politically and culturally superior.<a href="#cite_note-RoyalCom-sg3-73">[73]</a> There was resistance against this assimilation and many businesses denied European practices. The Tecumseh Wigwam of Toronto, for example, did not adhere to the widely practiced Lord's Day observance, making it a popular spot, especially on Sundays.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Moreover, Canadian policies were at times contradictory, such as through the late 19th century-<a href="/wiki/Peasant_Farm_Policy" title="Peasant Farm Policy">Peasant Farm Policy</a> that severely restricted farming on reserves, despite this practice being seen as important to assimilation efforts.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> These kinds of attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Founded in the 19th century, the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Indian_residential_school_system" title="Canadian Indian residential school system">Canadian Indian residential school system</a> was intended to force the assimilation of Aboriginal and First Nations people into European-Canadian society.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> The purpose of the schools, which separated children from their families, has been described by commentators as "killing the Indian in the child."<a href="#cite_note-chronology-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Buying_provisions_for_Xmas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Buying_provisions_for_Xmas.jpg/170px-Buying_provisions_for_Xmas.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Buying_provisions_for_Xmas.jpg/255px-Buying_provisions_for_Xmas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Buying_provisions_for_Xmas.jpg/340px-Buying_provisions_for_Xmas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="714" data-file-height="511" /></a><figcaption>Representation of buying provisions, <a href="/wiki/Hudson%27s_Bay_Company" title="Hudson's Bay Company">Hudson's Bay</a> territory, 1870s</figcaption></figure> Funded under the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Act" title="Indian Act">Indian Act</a> by Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, a branch of the federal government, the schools were run by churches of various denominations – about 60% by Roman Catholics, and 30% by the <a href="/wiki/Anglican_Church_of_Canada" title="Anglican Church of Canada">Anglican Church of Canada</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_Church_of_Canada" title="United Church of Canada">United Church of Canada</a>, along with its pre-1925 predecessors, <a href="/wiki/Presbyterian_Church_in_Canada" title="Presbyterian Church in Canada">Presbyterian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregationalist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist</a> churches. The attempt to <a href="/wiki/Forced_assimilation" title="Forced assimilation">force assimilation</a> involved punishing children for speaking their own languages or practising their own faiths, leading to allegations in the 20th century of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">cultural genocide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">ethnocide</a>. There was widespread physical and <a href="/wiki/Sexual_abuse" title="Sexual abuse">sexual abuse</a>. Overcrowding, poor sanitation, and a lack of medical care led to high rates of <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>, and death rates of up to 69%.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> Details of the mistreatment of students had been published numerous times throughout the 20th century, but following the closure of the schools in the 1960s, the work of indigenous activists and historians led to a change in the public perception of the residential school system, as well as official government apologies, and a (controversial) legal settlement.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Colonization had a significant impact on First Nations diet and health. According to the historian Mary-Ellen Kelm, "inadequate reserve allocations, restrictions on the food fishery, overhunting, and over-trapping" alienated First Nations from their traditional way of life, which undermined their physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual health.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th_century">20th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: 20th century">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Frances_Densmore_recording_Mountain_Chief2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Frances_Densmore_recording_Mountain_Chief2.jpg/170px-Frances_Densmore_recording_Mountain_Chief2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Frances_Densmore_recording_Mountain_Chief2.jpg/255px-Frances_Densmore_recording_Mountain_Chief2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Frances_Densmore_recording_Mountain_Chief2.jpg/340px-Frances_Densmore_recording_Mountain_Chief2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2986" data-file-height="3724" /></a><figcaption>Ethnomusicologist <a href="/wiki/Frances_Densmore" title="Frances Densmore">Frances Densmore</a> plays a recording for <a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_Confederacy" title="Blackfoot Confederacy">Blackfoot</a> chief <a href="/wiki/Mountain_Chief" title="Mountain Chief">Mountain Chief</a> (1916)</figcaption></figure> As Canadian ideas of <a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">progress</a> evolved around the start of the 20th century, the federal Indian policy was directed at removing Indigenous people from their communal lands and encouraging assimilation.<a href="#cite_note-finkelconrad-69">[69]</a> Amendments to the Indian Act in 1905 and 1911 made it easier for the government to expropriate reserve lands from First Nations.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> The government sold nearly half of the Blackfoot reserve in Alberta to settlers.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] When the Kainai (Blood) Nation refused to accept the sale of their lands in 1916 and 1917, the Department of Indian Affairs held back funding necessary for farming until they relented.<a href="#cite_note-finkelconrad-69">[69]</a> In British Columbia, the <a href="/wiki/McKenna%E2%80%93McBride_Royal_Commission" title="McKenna–McBride Royal Commission">McKenna–McBride Royal Commission</a> was created in 1912 to settle disputes over reserve lands in the province. The claims of Indigenous people were ignored, and the commission allocated new, less valuable lands (reserves) for First Nations.<a href="#cite_note-finkelconrad-69">[69]</a> Those nations who managed to maintain their ownership of good lands often farmed successfully. Indigenous people living near the <a href="/wiki/Cowichan_River" title="Cowichan River">Cowichan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fraser_River" title="Fraser River">Fraser</a> rivers, and those from Saskatchewan managed to produce good harvests.<a href="#cite_note-finkelconrad-69">[69]</a> Since 1881, those First Nations people living in the prairie provinces required permits from Indian Agents to sell any of their produce. Later the government created a pass system in the old Northwest Territories that required indigenous people to seek written permission from an Indian Agent before leaving their reserves for any length of time.<a href="#cite_note-finkelconrad-69">[69]</a> Indigenous people regularly defied those laws, as well as bans on <a href="/wiki/Sun_Dance" title="Sun Dance">Sun Dances</a> and potlatches, in an attempt to practice their culture.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> The <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_Act,_1930_(annotated)" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Constitution Act, 1930 (annotated)">1930 Constitution Act</a> or <a href="/wiki/Natural_Resources_Acts" title="Natural Resources Acts">Natural Resources Acts</a> was part of a shift acknowledging <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_rights" title="Indigenous rights">indigenous rights</a>. It enabled provincial control of <a href="/wiki/Crown_land" title="Crown land">Crown land</a> and allowed Provincial laws regulating game to apply to Indians, but it also ensured that "Indians shall have the right ... of hunting, trapping and fishing game and fish for food at all seasons of the year on all unoccupied Crown lands and on any other lands to which the said Indians may have a right of access."<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_and_Second_World_Wars">First and Second World Wars</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: First and Second World Wars">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aboriginal_War_Veterans_monument.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Aboriginal_War_Veterans_monument.JPG/170px-Aboriginal_War_Veterans_monument.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="340" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Aboriginal_War_Veterans_monument.JPG/255px-Aboriginal_War_Veterans_monument.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Aboriginal_War_Veterans_monument.JPG/340px-Aboriginal_War_Veterans_monument.JPG 2x" data-file-width="998" data-file-height="1997" /></a><figcaption>Aboriginal War Veterans monument</figcaption></figure> More than 6,000 First Nations, Inuit and Métis served with <a href="/wiki/British_Armed_Forces" title="British Armed Forces">British forces</a> during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">First World War</a> and <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">Second World War</a>. A generation of young native men fought on the battlefields of Europe during the Great War and approximately 300 of them died there.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] When Canada declared war on <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany</a> on September 10, 1939, the native community quickly responded to volunteer. Four years later, in May 1943, the government declared that, as <a href="/wiki/British_subject" title="British subject">British subjects</a>, all able Indian men of military age could be called up for training and service in Canada or overseas. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_20th_century">Late 20th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Late 20th century">edit</a>]</div> Following the end of the Second World War, laws concerning First Nations in Canada began to change, albeit slowly. The federal prohibition of potlatch and Sun Dance ceremonies ended in 1951. Provincial governments began to accept the right of Indigenous people to vote. In June 1956, section 9 of the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Citizenship_Act_1946" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian Citizenship Act 1946">Citizenship Act</a> was amended to grant formal citizenship to Status Indians and Inuit, retroactively as of January 1947. In 1960, First Nations people received the right to vote in federal elections without forfeiting their Indian status. By comparison, Native Americans in the United States had been allowed to vote since the 1920s.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1969_White_Paper">1969 White Paper</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: 1969 White Paper">edit</a>]</div> In his <a href="/wiki/1969_White_Paper" title="1969 White Paper">1969 White Paper</a>, then-<a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Indian_Affairs_and_Northern_Development_(Canada)" class="mw-redirect" title="Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development (Canada)">Minister of Indian Affairs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Chr%C3%A9tien" title="Jean Chrétien">Jean Chrétien</a>, proposed the abolition of the Indian Act of Canada, the rejection of <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_land_claim" class="mw-redirect" title="Aboriginal land claim">Aboriginal land claims</a>, and the assimilation of First Nations people into the Canadian population with the status of "other ethnic minorities" rather than as a distinct group.<a href="#cite_note-two-87">[87]</a> <a href="/wiki/Harold_Cardinal" title="Harold Cardinal">Harold Cardinal</a> and the Indian Chiefs of Alberta responded with a document entitled "Citizens Plus" but commonly known as the "Red Paper". In it, they explained Status Indians' widespread opposition to Chrétien's proposal. <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Canada" title="Prime Minister of Canada">Prime Minister</a> <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Trudeau" title="Pierre Trudeau">Pierre Trudeau</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Canada" title="Liberal Party of Canada">Liberals</a> began to back away from the 1969 White Paper, particularly after the <a href="/wiki/Calder_v._British_Columbia_(Attorney_General)" class="mw-redirect" title="Calder v. British Columbia (Attorney General)">Calder case</a> decision in 1973.<a href="#cite_note-ndp-ear-88">[88]</a> After the Canadian Supreme Court recognized that indigenous rights and treaty rights were not extinguished, a process was begun to resolve land claims and treaty rights and is ongoing today. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Health_transfer_policy">Health transfer policy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Health transfer policy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indian_Health_Transfer_Policy_(Canada)" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Health Transfer Policy (Canada)">Indian Health Transfer Policy (Canada)</a></div> In 1970, severe <a href="/wiki/Mercury_poisoning" title="Mercury poisoning">mercury poisoning</a>, called <a href="/wiki/Ontario_Minamata_disease" title="Ontario Minamata disease">Ontario Minamata disease</a>, was discovered among <a href="/wiki/Asubpeeschoseewagong_First_Nation" title="Asubpeeschoseewagong First Nation">Asubpeeschoseewagong First Nation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wabaseemoong_Independent_Nations" title="Wabaseemoong Independent Nations">Wabaseemoong Independent Nations</a> people, who lived near <a href="/wiki/Dryden,_Ontario" title="Dryden, Ontario">Dryden, Ontario</a>. There was extensive mercury pollution caused by Dryden Chemicals Company's waste water effluent in the <a href="/wiki/Wabigoon_River" title="Wabigoon River">Wabigoon</a>-<a href="/wiki/English_River_(Ontario)" title="English River (Ontario)">English River</a> system.<a href="#cite_note-itri-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-mcdonald-90">[90]</a> Because local fish were no longer safe to eat, the Ontario provincial government closed the commercial fisheries run by the First Nation people and ordered them to stop eating local fish. Previously it had made up the majority of their diet.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> In addition to the acute mercury poisoning in <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_Ontario" title="Northwestern Ontario">northwestern Ontario</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aamjiwnaang_First_Nation" title="Aamjiwnaang First Nation">Aamjiwnaang First Nation</a> people near <a href="/wiki/Sarnia" title="Sarnia">Sarnia</a>, Ontario, experienced a wide range of chemical effects, including severe mercury poisoning. They suffered low birth rates, skewed birth-gender ratio, and health effects among the population.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> This led to legislation and eventually the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Health_Transfer_Policy_(Canada)" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Health Transfer Policy (Canada)">Indian Health Transfer Policy</a> that provided a framework for the assumption of control of health services by First Nations people, and set forth a developmental approach to transfer centred on the concept of <a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">self-determination</a> in health.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> Through this process, the decision to enter into transfer discussions with <a href="/wiki/Health_Canada" title="Health Canada">Health Canada</a> rests with each community. Once involved in transfer, communities are able to take control of health programme responsibilities at a pace determined by their individual circumstances and health management capabilities.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> The capacity, experience and relationships developed by First Nations as a result of health transfer was a factor that assisted the creation of the <a href="/wiki/First_Nations_Health_Authority" title="First Nations Health Authority">First Nations Health Authority</a> in British Columbia. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Elijah_Harper_and_the_Meech_Lake_Accord">Elijah Harper and the Meech Lake Accord</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Elijah Harper and the Meech Lake Accord">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Meech_Lake_Accord" title="Meech Lake Accord">Meech Lake Accord</a></div> In 1981, <a href="/wiki/Elijah_Harper" title="Elijah Harper">Elijah Harper</a>, a Cree from <a href="/wiki/Red_Sucker_Lake_First_Nation" title="Red Sucker Lake First Nation">Red Sucker Lake</a>, Manitoba, became the first "Treaty Indian" in Manitoba to be elected as a <a href="/wiki/Member_of_the_Legislative_Assembly" title="Member of the Legislative Assembly">member</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Legislative_Assembly_of_Manitoba" title="Legislative Assembly of Manitoba">Legislative Assembly of Manitoba</a>. In 1990, Harper achieved national fame by holding an eagle feather as he refused to accept the <a href="/wiki/Meech_Lake_Accord" title="Meech Lake Accord">Meech Lake Accord</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_amendment" title="Constitutional amendment">constitutional amendment</a> package negotiated to gain Quebec's acceptance of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_Act,_1982" title="Constitution Act, 1982">Constitution Act, 1982</a>, but also one that did not address any First Nations grievances. The accord was negotiated in 1987 without the input of Canada's <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">Aboriginal peoples</a>.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> The third, final constitutional conference on Aboriginal peoples was also unsuccessful. The Manitoba assembly was required to unanimously consent to a motion allowing it to hold a vote on the accord, because of a procedural rule. Twelve days before the ratification deadline for the Accord, Harper began a <a href="/wiki/Filibuster" title="Filibuster">filibuster</a> that prevented the assembly from ratifying the accord. Because Meech Lake failed in Manitoba, the proposed constitutional amendment failed.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> Harper also opposed the <a href="/wiki/Charlottetown_Accord" title="Charlottetown Accord">Charlottetown Accord</a> in 1992, even though <a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_First_Nations" title="Assembly of First Nations">Assembly of First Nations</a> Chief <a href="/wiki/Ovide_Mercredi" title="Ovide Mercredi">Ovide Mercredi</a> supported it.<a href="#cite_note-two-87">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Women's_status_and_Bill_C-31">Women's status and Bill C-31</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Women's status and Bill C-31">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indian_Act" title="Indian Act">Indian Act</a></div> According to the Indian Act, <a href="/wiki/Status_Indian" class="mw-redirect" title="Status Indian">status Indian</a> women who married men who were not status Indians lost their <a href="/wiki/Indian_Register" title="Indian Register">treaty status</a>, and their children would not get status. However, in the reverse situation, if a status Indian man married a woman who was not a status Indian, the man would keep his status and his children would also receive treaty status. In the 1970s, the Indian Rights for Indian Women and <a href="/wiki/Native_Women%27s_Association_of_Canada" title="Native Women's Association of Canada">Native Women's Association of Canada</a> groups campaigned against this policy because it discriminated against women and failed to fulfill treaty promises.<a href="#cite_note-finkelconrad-69">[69]</a> They successfully convinced the federal government to change the section of the act with the adoption of Bill C-31 on June 28, 1985. Women who had lost their status and children who had been excluded were then able to register and gain official Indian status. Despite these changes, status Indian women who married men who were not status Indians could pass their status on only one generation: their children would gain status, but (without a marriage to a full-status Indian) their grandchildren would not. A status Indian man who married a woman who was not a status Indian retained status as did his children, but his wife did not gain status, nor did his grandchildren. Bill C-31 also gave elected bands the power to regulate who was allowed to reside on their reserves and to control development on their reserves. It abolished the concept of "<a href="/wiki/Gradual_Civilization_Act" title="Gradual Civilization Act">enfranchisement</a>" by which First Nations people could gain certain rights by renouncing their Indian status.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Erasmus–Dussault_commission">Erasmus–Dussault commission</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Erasmus–Dussault commission">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Royal_Commission_on_Aboriginal_Peoples" title="Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples">Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples</a></div> In 1991, Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Brian_Mulroney" title="Brian Mulroney">Brian Mulroney</a> created the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Commission_on_Aboriginal_Peoples" title="Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples">Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples</a> chaired by René Dussault and <a href="/wiki/Georges_Erasmus" title="Georges Erasmus">Georges Erasmus</a>. Their 1996 report proposed the creation of a government for (and by) the First Nations that would be responsible within its own jurisdiction, and with which the federal government would speak on a "Nation-to-Nation" basis.<a href="#cite_note-Royal-102">[102]</a> This proposal offered a far different way of doing politics than the traditional policy of assigning First Nations matters under the jurisdiction of the Indian and Northern Affairs, managed by one minister of the federal cabinet. The report also recommended providing the governments of the First Nations with up to <a href="/wiki/Canadian_dollar" title="Canadian dollar">$</a>2 billion every year until 2010, in order to reduce the economic gap between the First Nations and the rest of the Canadian citizenry.<a href="#cite_note-Royal-102">[102]</a> The money would represent an increase of at least 50% to the budget of Indian and Northern Affairs.<a href="#cite_note-Royal-102">[102]</a> The report engaged First Nations leaders to think of ways to cope with the challenging issues their people were facing, so the First Nations could take their destiny into their own hands.<a href="#cite_note-Royal-102">[102]</a> The federal government, then headed by Jean Chrétien, responded to the report a year later by officially presenting its apologies for the forced acculturation the federal government had imposed on the First Nations, and by offering an "initial" provision of $350 million.<a href="#cite_note-Royal-102">[102]</a> In the spirit of the Eramus–Dussault commission, tripartite (federal, provincial, and First Nations) accords have been signed since the report was issued. Several political crises between different provincial governments and different bands of the First Nations also occurred in the late 20th century, notably the <a href="/wiki/Oka_Crisis" title="Oka Crisis">Oka Crisis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ipperwash_Crisis" title="Ipperwash Crisis">Ipperwash Crisis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Burnt_Church_Crisis" title="Burnt Church Crisis">Burnt Church Crisis</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Gustafsen_Lake_standoff" title="Gustafsen Lake standoff">Gustafsen Lake standoff</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Royal-102">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_21st_century">Early 21st century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Early 21st century">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Grand_River_land_dispute" title="Grand River land dispute">Grand River land dispute</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kelowna_Accord" title="Kelowna Accord">Kelowna Accord</a></div> In 2001, the <a href="/wiki/Quebec_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Quebec government">Quebec government</a>, the federal government, and the Cree Nation signed "<a href="/wiki/Agreement_Respecting_a_New_Relationship_Between_the_Cree_Nation_and_the_Government_of_Quebec" class="mw-redirect" title="Agreement Respecting a New Relationship Between the Cree Nation and the Government of Quebec">La Paix des Braves</a>" (The Peace of the Braves, a reference to the 1701 peace treaty between the French and the Iroquois League). The agreement allowed <a href="/wiki/Hydro-Qu%C3%A9bec" title="Hydro-Québec">Hydro-Québec</a> to exploit the province's <a href="/wiki/Hydroelectric" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroelectric">hydroelectric</a> resources in exchange for an allocation of $3.5 billion to be given to the government of the Cree Nation. Later, the Inuit of <a href="/wiki/Nord-du-Qu%C3%A9bec" title="Nord-du-Québec">northern Quebec</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nunavik" title="Nunavik">Nunavik</a>) joined in the agreement. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Defense_of_Cree_Rights.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/70/The_Defense_of_Cree_Rights.jpg/170px-The_Defense_of_Cree_Rights.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/70/The_Defense_of_Cree_Rights.jpg/255px-The_Defense_of_Cree_Rights.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/70/The_Defense_of_Cree_Rights.jpg/340px-The_Defense_of_Cree_Rights.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>Defence of Cree rights</figcaption></figure> In 2005, the leaders of the First Nations, various provincial governments, and the federal government produced an agreement called the <a href="/wiki/Kelowna_Accord" title="Kelowna Accord">Kelowna Accord</a>, which would have yielded $5 billion over 10 years, but the new federal government of <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Harper" title="Stephen Harper">Stephen Harper</a> (2006) did not follow through on the working paper. First Nations, along with the Métis and the Inuit, have claimed to receive inadequate funding for education, and allege their rights have been overlooked. <a href="/wiki/James_Bartleman" title="James Bartleman">James Bartleman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_Governor_of_Ontario" title="Lieutenant Governor of Ontario">Lieutenant Governor of Ontario</a> from 2002 to 2007, listed the encouragement of indigenous young people as one of his key priorities. During his term, he launched initiatives to promote literacy and bridge-building. Bartleman was the first Aboriginal person to be lieutenant governor in Ontario. In 2006, 76 First Nations communities had <a href="/wiki/Boil-water_advisory" title="Boil-water advisory">boil-water advisory</a> conditions.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> In late 2005, the <a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">drinking water crisis</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Kashechewan_First_Nation" title="Kashechewan First Nation">Kashechewan First Nation</a> received national <a href="/wiki/Media_of_Canada" title="Media of Canada">media</a> attention when <a href="/wiki/E._coli" class="mw-redirect" title="E. coli">E. coli</a> was discovered in their <a href="/wiki/Water_supply_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Water supply system">water supply system</a>, following two years of living under a boil-water advisory. The <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">drinking water</a> was supplied by a new <a href="/wiki/Water_treatment" title="Water treatment">treatment plant</a> built in March 1998. The cause of the tainted water was a plugged chlorine injector that was not discovered by local operators, who were not qualified to be running the treatment plant. When officials arrived and fixed the problem, <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a> levels were around 1.7 mg/L, which was blamed for <a href="/wiki/Skin_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Skin disease">skin disorders</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Impetigo" title="Impetigo">impetigo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scabies" title="Scabies">scabies</a>. An investigation led by <a href="/wiki/Health_Canada" title="Health Canada">Health Canada</a> revealed that skin disorders were likely due to living in squalor. The evacuation of Kashechewan was largely viewed by Canadians as a cry for help for other underlying social and economic issues that Aboriginal people in Canada face. On June 29, 2007, Canadian Aboriginal groups held countrywide protests aimed at ending First Nations poverty, dubbed the <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Day_of_Action" title="Aboriginal Day of Action">Aboriginal Day of Action</a>. The demonstrations were largely peaceful, although groups disrupted transportation with blockades or bonfires; a stretch of the <a href="/wiki/Highway_401_(Ontario)" class="mw-redirect" title="Highway 401 (Ontario)">Highway 401</a> was shut down, as was the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_National_Railway" title="Canadian National Railway">Canadian National Railway</a>'s line between <a href="/wiki/Toronto" title="Toronto">Toronto</a> and Montreal.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Idle_No_More" title="Idle No More">Idle No More</a> <a href="/wiki/Social_movement" title="Social movement">protest movement</a> originated among the Aboriginals in Canada and their non-Aboriginal supporters in Canada, and to a lesser extent, internationally. It consisted of a number of political actions worldwide, inspired in part by the <a href="/wiki/Hunger_strike" title="Hunger strike">hunger strike</a> of <a href="/wiki/Attawapiskat_First_Nation" title="Attawapiskat First Nation">Attawapiskat First Nation</a> Chief <a href="/wiki/Theresa_Spence" title="Theresa Spence">Theresa Spence</a><a href="#cite_note-Raveena-105">[105]</a> and further coordinated via <a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a>. A reaction to alleged abuses of indigenous <a href="/wiki/Treaty_rights" title="Treaty rights">treaty rights</a> by the federal government, the movement took particular issue with the <a href="/wiki/Omnibus_bill" title="Omnibus bill">omnibus bill</a> Bill C-45.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Canadian_Crown_and_First_Nations_relations">Canadian Crown and First Nations relations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Canadian Crown and First Nations relations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/The_Canadian_Crown_and_Indigenous_peoples_of_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="The Canadian Crown and Indigenous peoples of Canada">The Canadian Crown and Indigenous peoples of Canada</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:David_Laird_explaining_Treaty_8_Fort_Vermilion_1899_-_NA-949-34.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/David_Laird_explaining_Treaty_8_Fort_Vermilion_1899_-_NA-949-34.jpg/170px-David_Laird_explaining_Treaty_8_Fort_Vermilion_1899_-_NA-949-34.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/David_Laird_explaining_Treaty_8_Fort_Vermilion_1899_-_NA-949-34.jpg/255px-David_Laird_explaining_Treaty_8_Fort_Vermilion_1899_-_NA-949-34.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/David_Laird_explaining_Treaty_8_Fort_Vermilion_1899_-_NA-949-34.jpg/340px-David_Laird_explaining_Treaty_8_Fort_Vermilion_1899_-_NA-949-34.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="355" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/David_Laird" title="David Laird">David Laird</a> explaining terms of Treaty 8, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Vermilion" title="Fort Vermilion">Fort Vermilion</a>, 1899</figcaption></figure> The relationship between the Canadian Crown and the First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples stretches back to the <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_colonization_of_North_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of colonization of North America">first interactions</a> between European colonialists and North American indigenous people. Over centuries of interaction, <a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">treaties</a> were established, and First Nations have, like the <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people" title="Māori people">Māori</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Waitangi" title="Treaty of Waitangi">Treaty of Waitangi</a> in New Zealand, come to generally view these agreements as being between them and the Crown of Canada, and not the ever-changing governments.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> The associations exist between the Aboriginal peoples and the reigning <a href="/wiki/Title_and_style_of_the_Canadian_monarch" class="mw-redirect" title="Title and style of the Canadian monarch">monarch of Canada</a>; as was stated in the proposed First Nations – Federal Crown Political Accord: "cooperation will be a cornerstone for partnership between Canada and First Nations, wherein Canada is the short-form reference to Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada".<a href="#cite_note-FN-109">[109]</a> These relations are governed by the established treaties; the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Canada" title="Supreme Court of Canada">Supreme Court</a> stated that treaties "served to reconcile pre-existing Aboriginal sovereignty with assumed Crown sovereignty, and to define Aboriginal rights",<a href="#cite_note-FN-109">[109]</a> and the First Nations saw these agreements as meant to last "as long as the sun shines, grass grows and rivers flow". <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taxation">Taxation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Taxation">edit</a>]</div> Although taxes are not specifically addressed in the written terms of any treaties, assurances regarding taxation were clearly offered when at least some treaties were negotiated.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> The various statutory exemptions from taxation are established under the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Act" title="Indian Act">Indian Act</a>, which reads: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>87(1). Notwithstanding any other Act of Parliament or any Act of the legislature of a province ... the following property is exempt from taxation<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li style="margin-left:4em">(a) the interest of an Indian or a band in reserve lands or surrendered lands; and</li><li style="margin-left:4em">(b) the personal property of an Indian or a band situated on a reserve.</li></ul></div></li><li>87(2). No Indian or band is subject to taxation in respect of the ownership, occupation, possession or use of any property mentioned in paragraph (1)(a) or (b) or is otherwise subject to taxation in respect of any such property.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></li></ul></div></blockquote> Many scholars <a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> believe these exemptions serve to oppress Aboriginal peoples by allowing conservative-minded courts to impart their own (sometimes discriminatory) views into the Aboriginal taxation jurisprudence. As one professor wrote: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">[Because] income-generating activity in the "commercial mainstream" contrasts with income-generating activity that is "intimately connected to" the reserve ... [the] Tax Court of Canada implie[s] that the "traditional way of life" of Aboriginal peoples d[oes] not embrace "economic aspects" ... beyond a subsistence economy. [footnotes omitted]<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_organization">Political organization</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Political organization">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/First_Nations_government_(Canada)" class="mw-redirect" title="First Nations government (Canada)">First Nations government (Canada)</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_First_Nations_governments" class="mw-redirect" title="List of First Nations governments">List of First Nations governments</a></div> Self-government has given chiefs and their councils powers which combine those of a province, school board, health board and municipality. Councils are also largely self-regulating regarding utilities, environmental protection, natural resources, building codes, etc. There is concern that this wide-ranging authority, <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">concentrated in a single council</a>, might be a cause of the dysfunctional governments experienced by many First Nations.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ovide_Mercredi.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt=""Ovide Mercredi speaking to the media"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Ovide_Mercredi.JPG/170px-Ovide_Mercredi.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Ovide_Mercredi.JPG/255px-Ovide_Mercredi.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Ovide_Mercredi.JPG/340px-Ovide_Mercredi.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1309" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ovide_Mercredi" title="Ovide Mercredi">Ovide Mercredi</a>, former national chief of the <a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_First_Nations" title="Assembly of First Nations">Assembly of First Nations</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_First_Nations" title="Assembly of First Nations">Assembly of First Nations</a> (AFN) is a body of First Nations leaders in Canada. The aims of the organization are to protect the rights, treaty obligations, ceremonies, and claims of citizens of the First Nations in Canada. After the failures of the League of Indians in Canada in the <a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">interwar period</a> and the North American Indian Brotherhood in two decades following the Second World War, the Aboriginal peoples of Canada organised themselves once again in the early 1960s. The National Indian Council was created in 1961 to represent Indigenous people, including treaty/status Indians, non-status people, the Métis people, though not the Inuit.<a href="#cite_note-afnstory-116">[116]</a> This organization collapsed in 1968 as the three groups failed to act as one, so the non-status and Métis groups formed the Native Council of Canada and treaty/status groups formed the National Indian Brotherhood (NIB), an <a href="/wiki/Umbrella_organization" title="Umbrella organization">umbrella group</a> for provincial and territorial First Nations organizations. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Culture">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mythologies_of_the_indigenous_peoples_of_North_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythologies of the indigenous peoples of North America">Mythologies of the indigenous peoples of North America</a> and <a href="/wiki/Classification_of_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas">Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></div> <a href="/wiki/National_Indigenous_Peoples_Day" title="National Indigenous Peoples Day">National Indigenous Peoples Day</a>, formerly National Aboriginal Day, June 21, recognizes the cultures and contributions of Aboriginal peoples of Canada.<a href="#cite_note-history-117">[117]</a> There are currently over 600 recognized <a href="/wiki/List_of_First_Nations_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="List of First Nations peoples">First Nations governments or bands</a> encompassing 1,172,790 2006 people spread across Canada with distinctive Aboriginal cultures, languages, art, and music.<a href="#cite_note-one-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Aboriginal_Identity_2006_Census-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-three-119">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Languages">Languages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Languages">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spoken_languages_of_Canada#Aboriginal_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Spoken languages of Canada">Spoken languages of Canada § Aboriginal languages</a></div> Today, there are over thirty different languages spoken by indigenous people, most of which are spoken only in Canada. Many are in decline. Those with the most speakers include <a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Anishinaabe language">Anishinaabe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cree_language" title="Cree language">Cree</a> (together totalling up to 150,000 speakers); <a href="/wiki/Inuktitut" title="Inuktitut">Inuktitut</a> with about 29,000 speakers in the <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Territories" title="Northwest Territories">Northwest Territories</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nunavut" title="Nunavut">Nunavut</a>, Nunavik (Northern Quebec), and <a href="/wiki/Nunatsiavut" title="Nunatsiavut">Nunatsiavut</a> (Northern Labrador); and <a href="/wiki/Mi%27kmaq_language" title="Mi'kmaq language">Mi'kmaq</a>, with around 8,500 speakers, mostly in Eastern Canada. Many Aboriginal peoples have lost their native languages and often all but surviving elders speak English or French as their first language.<a href="#cite_note-online-120">[120]</a> Two of Canada's territories give official status to native languages. In Nunavut, Inuktitut and <a href="/wiki/Inuinnaqtun" title="Inuinnaqtun">Inuinnaqtun</a> are official languages alongside English and French, and Inuktitut is a common vehicular language in government. In the Northwest Territories, the Official Languages Act<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> declares that there are eleven different languages: <a href="/wiki/Dene_Suline_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Dene Suline language">Chipewyan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cree_language" title="Cree language">Cree</a>, English, <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gwich%27in_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gwich'in language">Gwich'in</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inuinnaqtun" title="Inuinnaqtun">Inuinnaqtun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inuktitut" title="Inuktitut">Inuktitut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inuvialuktun" title="Inuvialuktun">Inuvialuktun</a>, North <a href="/wiki/Slavey_language" title="Slavey language">Slavey</a>, South Slavey and <a href="/wiki/Dogrib_language" title="Dogrib language">Tłįchǫ</a>. Besides English and French, these languages are not vehicular in government; official status entitles citizens to receive services in them on request and to deal with the government in them.<a href="#cite_note-online-120">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art">Art</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Art">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Visual_arts_by_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual arts by indigenous peoples of the Americas">Visual arts by indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Totem_haida.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Totem_haida.jpg/220px-Totem_haida.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Totem_haida.jpg/330px-Totem_haida.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Totem_haida.jpg/440px-Totem_haida.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1704" data-file-height="2272" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Haida_people" title="Haida people">Haida</a> totem pole, Thunderbird Park, Victoria, British Columbia</figcaption></figure> First Nations were producing art for thousands of years before the arrival of European <a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">settler colonists</a> and the eventual establishment of Canada as a <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation state</a>. Like the peoples who produced them, indigenous art traditions spanned territories across North America. Indigenous art traditions are organized by art historians according to cultural, linguistic or regional groups: Northwest Coast, <a href="/wiki/Plateau_First_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Plateau First Nations">Plateau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plains_Indians" title="Plains Indians">Plains</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Woodlands_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Woodlands tribes">Eastern Woodlands</a>, Subarctic, and Arctic.<a href="#cite_note-art-122">[122]</a> Art traditions vary enormously amongst and within these diverse groups. Indigenous art with a focus on portability and the body is distinguished from European traditions and its focus on architecture. Indigenous visual art may be used in conjunction with other arts. <a href="/wiki/Shamanism_among_Eskimo_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Shamanism among Eskimo peoples">Shamans</a>' <a href="/wiki/Masks_among_Eskimo_peoples" title="Masks among Eskimo peoples">masks</a> and rattles are used ceremoniously in dance, storytelling and music.<a href="#cite_note-art-122">[122]</a> Artworks preserved in museum collections date from the period after European contact and show evidence of the creative adoption and adaptation of European trade goods such as metal and glass beads.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hempstead2010-124">[124]</a> During the 19th and the first half of the 20th century the Canadian government pursued an active policy of <a href="/wiki/Forced_assimilation" title="Forced assimilation">forced</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">cultural assimilation</a> toward indigenous peoples. The Indian Act banned manifestations of the <a href="/wiki/Sun_Dance" title="Sun Dance">Sun Dance</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Potlatch" title="Potlatch">Potlatch</a>, and works of art depicting them.<a href="#cite_note-IA1880-125">[125]</a> It was not until the 1950s and 1960s that indigenous artists such as <a href="/wiki/Mungo_Martin" title="Mungo Martin">Mungo Martin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bill_Reid" title="Bill Reid">Bill Reid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Norval_Morrisseau" title="Norval Morrisseau">Norval Morrisseau</a> began to publicly renew and re-invent indigenous art traditions. Currently there are indigenous artists practising in all media in Canada and two indigenous artists, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Poitras" title="Edward Poitras">Edward Poitras</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rebecca_Belmore" title="Rebecca Belmore">Rebecca Belmore</a>, have represented Canada at the <a href="/wiki/Venice_Biennale" title="Venice Biennale">Venice Biennale</a> in 1995 and 2005 respectively.<a href="#cite_note-art-122">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Music">Music</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Music">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2000_Eel_Ground_Pow-wow_Dancer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/2000_Eel_Ground_Pow-wow_Dancer.jpg/170px-2000_Eel_Ground_Pow-wow_Dancer.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/2000_Eel_Ground_Pow-wow_Dancer.jpg/255px-2000_Eel_Ground_Pow-wow_Dancer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/2000_Eel_Ground_Pow-wow_Dancer.jpg/340px-2000_Eel_Ground_Pow-wow_Dancer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2222" data-file-height="3201" /></a><figcaption>Pow-wow at Eel Ground First Nation</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_music_of_Canada" title="Indigenous music of Canada">Indigenous music of Canada</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackfoot music">Blackfoot music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iroquois_music" title="Iroquois music">Iroquois music</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kwakwaka%27wakw_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Kwakwaka'wakw music">Kwakwaka'wakw music</a></div> The First Nations peoples of Canada comprise diverse ethnic groups, each with their own musical traditions. There are general similarities in the music, but is usually social (public) or ceremonial (private). Public, social music may be <a href="/wiki/Dance_music" title="Dance music">dance music</a> accompanied by <a href="/wiki/Rattle_(percussion_instrument)" title="Rattle (percussion instrument)">rattles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Drum" title="Drum">drums</a>. Private, ceremonial music includes vocal songs with accompaniment on <a href="/wiki/Percussion_instrument" title="Percussion instrument">percussion</a>, used to mark occasions like Midewiwin ceremonies and Sun Dances. Traditionally, Aboriginal peoples used the materials at hand to make their instruments for centuries before Europeans immigrated to Canada.<a href="#cite_note-second-126">[126]</a> First Nations people made <a href="/wiki/Gourd" title="Gourd">gourds</a> and animal <a href="/wiki/Horn_(anatomy)" title="Horn (anatomy)">horns</a> into rattles, which were elaborately carved and beautifully painted.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> In woodland areas, they made horns of <a href="/wiki/Birch_bark" title="Birch bark">birch bark</a> and <a href="/wiki/Percussion_mallet" title="Percussion mallet">drumsticks</a> of carved <a href="/wiki/Antler" title="Antler">antlers</a> and wood. Traditional <a href="/wiki/Percussion_instruments" class="mw-redirect" title="Percussion instruments">percussion instruments</a> such as drums were generally made of carved wood and animal <a href="/wiki/Hide_(skin)" title="Hide (skin)">hides</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Firsts-128">[128]</a> These <a href="/wiki/Musical_instrument" title="Musical instrument">musical instruments</a> provide the background for songs, and songs are the background for dances. Traditional First Nations people consider song and dance to be sacred. For years after Europeans came to Canada, First Nations people were forbidden to practice their ceremonies.<a href="#cite_note-IA1880-125">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-second-126">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demographics">Demographics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Demographics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_First_Nations_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="List of First Nations peoples">List of First Nations peoples</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_reserves_in_Canada" title="List of Indian reserves in Canada">List of Indian reserves in Canada</a></div> In year 1822 the Indigenous population in Canada, excluding the Métis, was estimated as 283,500 individuals<a href="#cite_note-Hassel-129">[129]</a> and in year 1885 it was estimated as 131,952 people.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> In the 20th century, the First Nations population of Canada increased tenfold.<a href="#cite_note-statcan_aboriginal_demographics-131">[131]</a> Between 1900 and 1950 the population grew only by 29% but after the 1960s the <a href="/wiki/Infant_mortality" title="Infant mortality">infant mortality</a> level on reserves dropped and the population grew by 161%. Since the 1980s, the number of First Nations babies more than doubled and currently almost half of the First Nations population is under the age of 25. As a result, the First Nations population of Canada is expected to increase in the coming decades.<a href="#cite_note-statcan_aboriginal_demographics-131">[131]</a> In 2021, there were 1,807,250 Aboriginal people in Canada, accounting for 5.0% of the total population. This was up from 4.9% in 2016.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:280px"><div style="position: relative; width:280px;"> <div style="position: absolute; font-size: 88%; left: 7.9%; top: 59.4%; padding: 0;"><a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_British_Columbia" title="First Nations in British Columbia">BC</a></div> <div style="position: absolute; font-size: 88%; left: 18.4%; top: 62.2%; padding: 0;"><a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Alberta" title="First Nations in Alberta">AB</a></div> <div style="position: absolute; font-size: 88%; left: 27.8%; top: 67%; padding: 0;"><a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Saskatchewan" title="First Nations in Saskatchewan">SK</a></div> <div style="position: absolute; font-size: 88%; left: 37.6%; top: 68%; padding: 0;"><a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Manitoba" title="First Nations in Manitoba">MB</a></div> <div style="position: absolute; font-size: 88%; left: 50%; top: 71.9%; padding: 0;"><a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Ontario" title="First Nations in Ontario">ON</a></div> <div style="position: absolute; font-size: 88%; left: 68.6%; top: 68%; padding: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_peoples_in_Quebec" class="mw-redirect" title="Aboriginal peoples in Quebec">QC</a></div> <div style="position: absolute; font-size: 88%; left: 79.6%; top: 76%; padding: 0;"><a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_New_Brunswick" title="First Nations in New Brunswick">NB</a></div> <div style="position: absolute; font-size: 88%; left: 83.9%; top: 70.8%; padding: 0;"><a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Prince_Edward_Island" title="First Nations in Prince Edward Island">PE</a></div> <div style="position: absolute; font-size: 88%; left: 86.8%; top: 77%; padding: 0;">NS</div> <div style="position: absolute; font-size: 88%; left: 90.4%; top: 62.7%; padding: 0;">NL</div> <div style="position: absolute; font-size: 88%; left: 8%; top: 32.5%; padding: 0;"><a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Yukon" class="mw-redirect" title="First Nations in Yukon">YT</a></div> <div style="position: absolute; font-size: 88%; left: 21.4%; top: 40.2%; padding: 0;">NT</div> <div style="position: absolute; font-size: 88%; left: 39.3%; top: 42.9%; padding: 0;">NU</div> <img alt="Canadian Provinces and Territories" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Canada_location_map_2_-_lite.svg/280px-Canada_location_map_2_-_lite.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Canada_location_map_2_-_lite.svg/420px-Canada_location_map_2_-_lite.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Canada_location_map_2_-_lite.svg/560px-Canada_location_map_2_-_lite.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1114" data-file-height="942" /></div><div class="thumbcaption">First Nations by Province or Territory</div></div> </div> There are distinct First Nations in Canada, originating across the country. <a href="/wiki/Indian_reserve" title="Indian reserve">Indian reserves</a>, established in <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Canada" title="Law of Canada">Canadian law</a> by treaties such as <a href="/wiki/Treaty_7" title="Treaty 7">Treaty 7</a>, are the very limited contemporary lands of First Nations recognized by the non-indigenous governments. A few reserves exist <a href="/wiki/Urban_Indian_reserve" title="Urban Indian reserve">within cities</a>, such as the Opawikoscikan Reserve in <a href="/wiki/Prince_Albert,_Saskatchewan" title="Prince Albert, Saskatchewan">Prince Albert</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wendake,_Quebec" class="mw-redirect" title="Wendake, Quebec">Wendake</a> in Quebec City or <a href="/wiki/Enoch_Cree_Nation_135" title="Enoch Cree Nation 135">Enoch Cree Nation 135</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Edmonton_Metropolitan_Region" title="Edmonton Metropolitan Region">Edmonton Metropolitan Region</a>. There are more <a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_reserves_in_Canada" title="List of Indian reserves in Canada">reserves in Canada</a> than there are First Nations, as First Nations were ceded multiple reserves by treaty. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Canada_ethnic_origin_map_2021.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Canada_ethnic_origin_map_2021.png/170px-Canada_ethnic_origin_map_2021.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Canada_ethnic_origin_map_2021.png/255px-Canada_ethnic_origin_map_2021.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Canada_ethnic_origin_map_2021.png/340px-Canada_ethnic_origin_map_2021.png 2x" data-file-width="2230" data-file-height="1735" /></a><figcaption>People who self-identify as having North American Indian ancestors are the <a href="/wiki/Plurality_(voting)" title="Plurality (voting)">plurality</a> in large areas of Canada (areas coloured in brown and tan).</figcaption></figure> First Nations can be <a href="/wiki/Classification_of_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas">grouped into cultural areas</a> based on their ancestors' primary <a href="/wiki/Types_of_societies" class="mw-redirect" title="Types of societies">lifeway</a>, or occupation, at the time of European contact. These culture areas correspond closely with <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Canada" title="Geography of Canada">physical and ecological</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_Canada" title="List of regions of Canada">regions of Canada</a>.<a href="#cite_note-three-119">[119]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnographers</a> commonly classify indigenous peoples of the Americas in the United States and Canada into ten geographical regions with shared cultural traits (called <a href="/wiki/Cultural_area" title="Cultural area">cultural areas</a>).<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> The Canadian (in whole or in part) regions are <a href="/wiki/Arctic" title="Arctic">Arctic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Subarctic" title="Indigenous peoples of the Subarctic">Subarctic</a>, Northeast <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Northeastern_Woodlands" title="Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands">Woodlands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plains_Indians" title="Plains Indians">Plains</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Northwest_Plateau" title="Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Plateau">Plateau</a>. See the individual article on each <a href="/wiki/Tribe" title="Tribe">tribe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Band_society" title="Band society">band society</a> or <a href="/wiki/First_Nations_government_(Canada)" class="mw-redirect" title="First Nations government (Canada)">First Nation</a>. The Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast communities centred around ocean and river fishing; in the <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia_Interior" title="British Columbia Interior">interior of British Columbia</a>, hunting and gathering and river fishing. In both of these areas, salmon was of chief importance. For the people of the plains, <a href="/wiki/Bison" title="Bison">bison</a> hunting was the primary activity. In the <a href="/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga">subarctic forest</a>, other species such as the moose were more important. For peoples near the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River, <a href="/wiki/Shifting_agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Shifting agriculture">shifting agriculture</a> was practised, including the raising of maize, beans, and squash.<a href="#cite_note-three-119">[119]</a> Today, Aboriginal people work in a variety of occupations and live outside their ancestral homes. The traditional cultures of their ancestors, shaped by nature, still exert a strong influence on their culture, from spirituality to political attitudes.<a href="#cite_note-three-119">[119]</a> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <caption>First Nations (North American Indian) population in Canada by region in selected censuses </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Province/Territory </th> <th>1921 </th> <th>1931 </th> <th>1941 </th> <th>1951 </th> <th>1961 </th> <th>1971 </th> <th>1981 </th> <th>1996 </th> <th>2011 </th> <th>2016 </th> <th>2021 </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_and_Labrador" title="Newfoundland and Labrador">Newfoundland</a> <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_and_Labrador" title="Newfoundland and Labrador">and Labrador</a> </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>358 </td> <td>596 </td> <td>1225 </td> <td>3230 </td> <td>5430 </td> <td>19315 </td> <td>28375 </td> <td>28435 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Prince_Edward_Island" title="Prince Edward Island">Prince Edward Island</a> </td> <td>235 </td> <td>233 </td> <td>258 </td> <td>257 </td> <td>236 </td> <td>315 </td> <td>440 </td> <td>825 </td> <td>1520 </td> <td>1875 </td> <td>2165 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a> </td> <td>2048 </td> <td>2191 </td> <td>2063 </td> <td>2717 </td> <td>3267 </td> <td>4475 </td> <td>6305 </td> <td>11340 </td> <td>21895 </td> <td>25830 </td> <td>28050 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/New_Brunswick" title="New Brunswick">New Brunswick</a> </td> <td>1331 </td> <td>1685 </td> <td>1939 </td> <td>2255 </td> <td>2921 </td> <td>3915 </td> <td>4610 </td> <td>9180 </td> <td>16120 </td> <td>17575 </td> <td>20955 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a> </td> <td>11566 </td> <td>12312 </td> <td>11863 </td> <td>14631 </td> <td>18876 </td> <td>32835 </td> <td>46855 </td> <td>47600 </td> <td>82420 </td> <td>92655 </td> <td>116555 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a> </td> <td>26654 </td> <td>30368 </td> <td>30336 </td> <td>37370 </td> <td>47862 </td> <td>62415 </td> <td>83860 </td> <td>118830 </td> <td>201105 </td> <td>236685 </td> <td>251030 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Manitoba" title="Manitoba">Manitoba</a> </td> <td>13869 </td> <td>15417 </td> <td>15473 </td> <td>21024 </td> <td>29219 </td> <td>43035 </td> <td>59920 </td> <td>82990 </td> <td>114225 </td> <td>130510 </td> <td>134890 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Saskatchewan" title="Saskatchewan">Saskatchewan</a> </td> <td>12914 </td> <td>15268 </td> <td>13384 </td> <td>22250 </td> <td>30628 </td> <td>40475 </td> <td>54720 </td> <td>75205 </td> <td>103205 </td> <td>114570 </td> <td>121175 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Alberta" title="Alberta">Alberta</a> </td> <td>14557 </td> <td>15258 </td> <td>12565 </td> <td>21163 </td> <td>28469 </td> <td>44545 </td> <td>60005 </td> <td>72645 </td> <td>116670 </td> <td>136590 </td> <td>145640 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a> </td> <td>22377 </td> <td>24599 </td> <td>24875 </td> <td>28478 </td> <td>38789 </td> <td>52220 </td> <td>64695 </td> <td>113315 </td> <td>155020 </td> <td>172520 </td> <td>180085 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Yukon" title="Yukon">Yukon</a> </td> <td>1390 </td> <td>1543 </td> <td>1508 </td> <td>1533 </td> <td>2167 </td> <td>2580 </td> <td>3415 </td> <td>5530 </td> <td>6590 </td> <td>6690 </td> <td>6935 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Territories" title="Northwest Territories">Northwest Territories</a> </td> <td>3873 </td> <td>4046 </td> <td>4052 </td> <td>3838 </td> <td>5256 </td> <td>7180 </td> <td>7635 </td> <td>11400 </td> <td>13345 </td> <td>13180 </td> <td>12315 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nunavut" title="Nunavut">Nunavut</a> </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>130 </td> <td>190 </td> <td>180 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Canada total </th> <th>110,814 </th> <th>122,920 </th> <th>118,316 </th> <th>155,874 </th> <th>208,286 </th> <th>295,215 </th> <th>395,690 </th> <th>554,290 </th> <th>851,560 </th> <th>977,230 </th> <th>1,048,400 </th></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contemporary_issues">Contemporary issues</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Contemporary issues">edit</a>]</div> First Nations peoples face a number of problems to a greater degree than Canadians overall, some with living conditions comparable to <a href="/wiki/Developing_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing countries">developing countries</a> like <a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a>.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> Indigenous peoples have higher rates of unemployment,<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> rates of incarceration,<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> <a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">substance abuse</a>,<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> health problems, homelessness, <a href="/wiki/Fetal_alcohol_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fetal alcohol syndrome">fetal alcohol syndrome</a>,<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> lower levels of education and higher levels of <a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Canada" title="Poverty in Canada">poverty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Residential_schools">Residential schools</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Residential schools">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Indian_residential_school_system" title="Canadian Indian residential school system">Canadian Indian residential school system</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_residential_schools_in_Canada" title="List of Indian residential schools in Canada">List of Indian residential schools in Canada</a></div> Canada's federal residential school system began in the mid-1870s, building upon a patchwork of boarding schools established and operated by various Christian denominations. Member of Parliament for Assiniboia West, Nicholas Flood Davin, produced a report, known generally as the Davin Report, that recommended the establishment of a school system similar to that being created in the United States. One of its chief goals was to remove Aboriginal children from "the influence of the wigwam", which he claimed was stronger than that of existing day schools, and keep them instead "constantly within the circle of civilized conditions". While the history of the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Indian_residential_school_system" title="Canadian Indian residential school system">Indian Residential School system</a> (IRS) is a checkered one, much criticism has been levelled at both the system and those who established and supported it. Neglect and poor nutrition were often what Aboriginal children experienced, particularly in the early decades of the system's operation. The stripping away of traditional native culture – sometimes referred to as "cultural genocide" – is another charge levelled at the residential schools. In many schools, students were not allowed to speak their Indigenous languages or practice any of their own customs, and thus lost their sense of identity, inevitably driving a cultural wedge between children and their family.<a href="#cite_note-:1-143">[143]</a> By 1920, attendance at some sort of school was mandatory for Aboriginal children in Canada. The Indian Act made education compulsory, and where there were no federal days schools – or, in later decades, a provincial public school – a residential school was the only choice. Enrolment statistics indicate that between 20% and 30% of Aboriginal children during the history of the IRS system attended a residential school for at least a year, and many were enrolled for ten years or more. In some cases, children could return home on weekends and holidays, but for those in schools established far away from remote communities, this was not possible. The removal of children from their families and communities brought short and long term harm to many native communities. While many schools had infirmaries and provided medical care in later decades, abuse of various kinds and crowded conditions in the first decades of the IRS history led to poor health and even death for a percentage of those enrolled. It has been argued that the psychological and emotional trauma resulting from both the abuse and the removal of the children from their families and culture has resulted in substance abuse, greater domestic violence, unemployability, and increased rates of suicide.<a href="#cite_note-:3-144">[144]</a> In many cases, children leaving residential schools found themselves at an intersection of cultures, where they were no longer comfortable within their own cultures, yet not accepted into mainstream Canadian culture. Former students are now routinely referred to as "survivors". The last Canadian residential school to close was <a href="/wiki/Gordon_Indian_Residential_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Gordon Indian Residential School">Gordon Indian Residential School</a> in Saskatchewan, founded in 1889, and closed in 1996.<a href="#cite_note-:3-144">[144]</a> The Christian denominations that operated the schools on behalf of the federal government have expressed regret and issued apologies for their part in a system that harmed many indigenous children. In 2008, the government issued an official apology to the students who were forced to attend the residential schools and their families.<a href="#cite_note-:3-144">[144]</a> In June 2015, the federally-established Truth and Reconciliation Commission, charged with investigating and reporting on the residential school system, issued its summary report, and in December of the same year, its final report. Chief Commissioner, Judge Murray Sinclair, has publicly declared the residential school system a deliberate act of cultural genocide against First Nations peoples. In its report, the commission submitted 94 recommendations to the Canadian government, recommendations which, if implemented, would substantially improve indigenous race relations, increase quality of life for survivors and extended families, and help undo the damage caused by residential schools. While the Liberal government, under Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, has committed itself to improving the lives of Canada's indigenous people, and specifically to implementing the TRC recommendations, some of those recommendations may be beyond the power of the Canadian government. The countless research documents assembled by the TRC will be archived in a special repository at the University of Manitoba. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Employment">Employment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Employment">edit</a>]</div> The income of women with status living off-reserve was on average $13,870 a year, according to a 1996 Canadian census. This is about $5500 less than non-Indigenous women, such as Inuit and Métis women, which recorded slightly higher average annual incomes; regardless of the small discrepancy, all of which are substantially less than Statistics Canada's estimated amount of which an individual living in a large Canadian city would require to meet their needs. It is not unlikely for Aboriginal women living in poverty to not only tend to their own needs, but often tend to the needs of their elderly parents, care for loved ones in ill-health, as well as raising children; all of which is often supported only on a single income. It is believed that homelessness and inadequate shelter are widespread problems facing Aboriginal families, in all settings.<a href="#cite_note-:1-143">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Self_governance">Self governance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Self governance">edit</a>]</div> A paramount conclusion by the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples is that the repeated assaults on the culture and collective identity of the Aboriginal people has resulted in a weakened foundation of Aboriginal society and has contributed to the alienation that inevitably drives some to self-destructive and antisocial behaviour. The social problems among Aboriginal people are, in large measure, a legacy of history.<a href="#cite_note-:1-143">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crime_and_incarceration">Crime and incarceration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Crime and incarceration">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Gladue_report#Over-representation_of_Aboriginal_People_in_Criminal_Justice_System" title="Gladue report">Gladue report § Over-representation of Aboriginal People in Criminal Justice System</a></div> Aboriginals are also more likely to be the victims of crime. This is particularly true in the younger population (aged 15–34), where acts of violence are two and a half times more likely to occur than in the older population. Domestic violence and sexual abuse against children is more prevalent in the Aboriginal population with sexual abuse affecting 25–50% of Aboriginal female children versus 20–25% of female children in the general population.<a href="#cite_note-:2-145">[145]</a> Children who come from homes with a history of violence are at a greater risk of becoming the perpetrators of violence later in life. This is especially true of males.<a href="#cite_note-:2-145">[145]</a> As of 2007, 17% of incarcerated individuals in Canada were of Aboriginal descent, despite representing only 2.7% of the general population.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> This is a sixfold increase in rates of incarceration within the Aboriginal population as opposed to the general Canadian population.<a href="#cite_note-:2-145">[145]</a> There are many reasons for the over-representation of Aboriginals within the Canadian justice system. Lack of education, poverty, unemployment and abuse all lead to higher crime rates. Also, statistically, Aboriginals have a greater chance of conviction and subsequently, incarceration once convicted. They are also much less likely to receive parole during their sentence.<a href="#cite_note-:2-145">[145]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health">Health</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Health">edit</a>]</div> The Canadian federal government is responsible for health and social services on the reserve and in Inuit communities, while the provincial and territorial governments provide services elsewhere. The divide between each level of government has led to a gap in services for Aboriginal people living off-reserve and in Canadian towns and cities. Although Aboriginal people living off-reserve have access to the programs and services designed for the general population, these programs and services do not address the specific needs of Aboriginal people, nor is it delivered in a <a href="/wiki/Culturally_appropriate" class="mw-redirect" title="Culturally appropriate">culturally appropriate</a> way. It has not been until recently that the Canadian federal government had to increase recognition to the needs for programs and services for Aboriginal people in predominantly non-Aboriginal communities. It is however funding that lags the growth of urban Aboriginal populations and the uncoordinated delivery of services through various government departments would also pose as a barrier. The federal Interlocutor for Métis and Non-Status Indians pointed out that in 2003 almost 90 percent of the funding for programs designed for Aboriginal peoples is spent on reserves, while off-reserve programs for Aboriginal people are delivered through just 22 federal departments, as well as other provincial and territorial agencies. The federal subcommittee on Indigenous child welfare described a "jurisdictional web" in which there is little to no coordination with or between municipal, provincial and federal levels of government.<a href="#cite_note-:1-143">[143]</a> The health care services available to Aboriginal people is rarely delivered in a <a href="/wiki/Culturally_sensitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Culturally sensitive">culturally sensitive</a> approach. It is the constant cast of "the other" by the settler Canadian population that contaminates the delivery of such necessary services to Aboriginal peoples. It was argued by Ontario finance minister Jim Flaherty in 1992 that the Canadian government could boost health-care funding for "real people in real towns" by cutting the bureaucracy that serves only Aboriginal peoples. These types of statements, especially made by people often heard by a greater audience, are said to have detrimental and influential effects on the overall attitudes of settler population folks, as well as Aboriginal peoples.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Diabetes">Diabetes</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Diabetes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/First_Nations_and_diabetes" title="First Nations and diabetes">First Nations and diabetes</a></div> There are marked differences between the epidemiology of diabetes in First Nation population compared to the general population. Reasons for the different rate of <a href="/wiki/Type_2_diabetes" title="Type 2 diabetes">Type 2 Diabetes</a> between First Nation and the general population include a complex combination of environmental (lifestyle, diet, poverty) and genetic and biological factors (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Thrifty_gene_hypothesis" title="Thrifty gene hypothesis">thrifty genotype hypothesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thrifty_phenotype" title="Thrifty phenotype">thrifty phenotype</a>) <a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> – though to what extent each factor plays a role is still not clear.<a href="#cite_note-10.1503/cmaj.090846-149">[149]</a> The Aboriginal population in Canada (First Nations, Inuit and Métis) have a significantly higher prevalence rate of diabetes than the non-Aboriginal population. Age-standardized rates show that the prevalence of diabetes among First Nations individuals living on-reserve is 17.2%; First Nations individuals living off-reserve is 10.3%; Métis individuals 7.3%; and non-Aboriginal peoples at 5.0%. Aboriginal individuals are generally diagnosed at a younger age than non-Aboriginal individuals, and Aboriginal females experience higher rates of gestational diabetes than non-Aboriginal females. The complications and prevalence of diabetes are seen among the Aboriginal population more often than non-Aboriginal population. These may be attributed to the socio-cultural, biological, environmental and lifestyle changes seen in the First Nations, Inuit, and Métis populations, which have been most especially prevalent in the last half century, all of which contributing significantly to the increased rates of diabetes and the complications associated among the Aboriginal population.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Substance-use_disorders">Substance-use disorders</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Substance-use disorders">edit</a>]</div> First Nations in Canada engage in a disproportionate amount of substance abuse. In Vancouver, Indigenous people were faced with almost 18 per cent of drug charges, but are just 2.2 per cent of the city's population. A much higher proportion of First Nations people engage in heavy drinking weekly (16%) as opposed to the general population (8%).<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> 19% of First Nations also reported cocaine and opiates use, higher than 13% of the general Canadian population that reported using opioids.<a href="#cite_note-:5-152">[152]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Life_expectancy">Life expectancy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Life expectancy">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Life_expectancy" title="Life expectancy">Life expectancy</a> at birth is significantly lower for First Nations babies than for babies in the Canadian population as a whole. As of 2001<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit">[update]</a>, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada estimates First Nations life expectancy to be 8.1 years shorter for males and 5.5 years shorter for females.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> Where females in the general population had a life expectancy at birth of 82 years, First Nations females had a life expectancy of 76 years. In males the life expectancy for First Nations individuals was 69 years as opposed to 77 in the general population.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> The reasons behind the lower life expectancy for First Nations individuals are varied and complex; however, <a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">social determinants of health</a> are thought to play a large part. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Suicide">Suicide</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Suicide">edit</a>]</div> Overall, First Nations individuals have some of the highest rates of suicide globally. Suicide rates are more than twice the sex-specific rate and also three times the age-specific rates of non-Aboriginal Canadians.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> Residential Aboriginals between ages 10 and 29 show an elevated suicide risk as compared to non-residential Aboriginals by 5–6 times.<a href="#cite_note-:0-156">[156]</a> One theory for the increased incidences of suicide within Aboriginal populations as compared to the general Canadian population is called acculturation stress which results from the intersection of multiple cultures within one's life. This leads to differing expectations and cultural clashes within the community, the family and the individual. At the community level, a general economic disadvantage is seen, exacerbated by unemployment and low education levels, leading to poverty, political disempowerment and community disorganization. The family suffers through a loss of tradition as they attempt to assimilate into mainstream Canadian culture. These lead to low self-esteem in the individual as First Nations culture and tradition are marginalized affecting one's sense of self-identity. These factors combine to create a world where First Nations individuals feel they cannot identify completely as Aboriginal, nor can they fully identify as mainstream Canadians. When that balance cannot be found, many (particularly youths) turn to suicide as a way out.<a href="#cite_note-:0-156">[156]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Drinking_water">Drinking water</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Drinking water">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Long-term_drinking_water_advisories" title="Long-term drinking water advisories">Long-term drinking water advisories</a></div> 400 First Nations communities in Canada had some kind of water problem between 2004 and 2014. The residents of <a href="/wiki/Neskantaga_First_Nation" title="Neskantaga First Nation">Neskantaga First Nation</a> in Ontario have had a boil-water advisory since 1995.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> In 2015, newly elected Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Justin_Trudeau" title="Justin Trudeau">Justin Trudeau</a> promised to solve the drinking water problem within five years, by investing $1.8 billion.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> As of October 2021, long-term boil water advisories are still present in 32 First Nations drinking water systems.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Land_claims">Land claims</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Land claims">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_land_claims_in_Canada" title="Indigenous land claims in Canada">Indigenous land claims in Canada</a></div> Across Canada, many First Nations have not signed treaties with the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Crown" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian Crown">Canadian Crown</a>. Many First Nations are in the process of negotiating a modern treaty, which would grant them <a href="/wiki/Treaty_rights" title="Treaty rights">treaty rights</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:4-162">[162]</a> Some First Nation bands are also trying to resolve their <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_specific_land_claims_in_Canada" title="Indigenous specific land claims in Canada">historical grievances</a> with the Canadian government. These grievances often originate from a breach of treaty obligations or of the Indian Act by the government of Canada. They can also involve mismanagement of indigenous land or assets by the Crown.<a href="#cite_note-:4-162">[162]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Missing_and_murdered_women">Missing and murdered women</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Missing and murdered women">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Missing_and_murdered_Indigenous_women" class="mw-redirect" title="Missing and murdered Indigenous women">Missing and murdered Indigenous women</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/AmINext" title="AmINext">AmINext</a></div> Across Canada, there has been a large number of missing and murdered Aboriginal women since 1980. 16% of female murder victims and 12% of missing women have been Aboriginal, while demographically they constitute only 4% of the overall female population. This amounts to almost 1,200 Aboriginal females either missing or murdered in just over 30 years.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> In 2014 the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) released Missing and Murdered Aboriginal Women: A National Operational Review. This publication documents the official findings of this demographic as well as advises for future change. It finds that there are 164 Aboriginal women still missing and 1,017 murdered, making for a total of 1,181.<a href="#cite_note-Royal_Canadian_Mounted_Police-164">[164]</a> "There are 225 unsolved cases of either missing or murdered Aboriginal females: 105 missing for more than 30 days as of November 4, 2013<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit">[update]</a>, whose cause of disappearance was categorized as 'unknown' or 'foul play suspected' and 120 unsolved homicides between 1980 and 2012."<a href="#cite_note-Royal_Canadian_Mounted_Police-164">[164]</a> Indigenous women in Canada are overrepresented among the missing and murdered females in Canada. Additionally, there are shared characteristics among these cases: most of the murders were committed by men and were someone the victim knew, either a partner or an acquaintance.<a href="#cite_note-Royal_Canadian_Mounted_Police-164">[164]</a> "Aboriginal women between the ages of 25 and 44 are 5 times more likely than other women of the same age to die as a result of violence."<a href="#cite_note-KuokkanenGRSV-165">[165]</a> These statistics portray the severity and prevalence of violence against indigenous women in Canada. Self-governance and preservation of indigenous territories become increasingly difficult as natural resources continue to be exploited by foreign companies. Projects such as "mining, logging, hydroelectric construction, large-scale export oriented agribusiness or oil exploration"[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Attribution_needed" title="Wikipedia:Attribution needed">attribution needed</a>] are usually coupled with environmental degradation and occasionally violence and militarization."[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Attribution_needed" title="Wikipedia:Attribution needed">attribution needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-KuokkanenGRSV-165">[165]</a> Many scholars go so far as to link the proliferation of global neoliberalism with a rise in violence.<a href="#cite_note-KuokkanenGRSV-165">[165]</a> Women's concerns are nearly always pushed aside, to be addressed later; their safety is therefore often compromised and not deemed priority. Privatization of public services and reduction in the universality of health care produces negative repercussions for those of lower socioeconomic status in rural locations; these downsides are magnified for female Aboriginals.<a href="#cite_note-KuokkanenGRSV-165">[165]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Missing_and_murdered_men">Missing and murdered men</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Missing and murdered men">edit</a>]</div> Approximately 2,500 aboriginal people were murdered in Canada between 1982 and 2011, out of 15,000 murders in Canada overall. Of the 2,500 murdered aboriginal Canadians, fully 71 per cent – 1,750 – were male.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> According to summaries of seven consultation sessions posted to a government website, the desire to dedicate some attention to violence against indigenous men and boys has come up at four of the meetings.<a href="#cite_note-MMAMglobeandmail02012016-167">[167]</a> These calls to extend the scope of the inquiry to include missing and murdered aboriginal people of all genders have met with resistance and been criticized as detracting from the current focus on the issue of missing and murdered aboriginal women. Barbara Bailey, who was on the UN team that visited Canada in 2013 to investigate the violence, has said, "I think to detract now would really be a tragedy. Let's fix that problem first and then we can begin to see what else is out there." Speaking on the matter, <a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Crown-Indigenous_Relations_and_Northern_Affairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Minister of Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs">Minister of Indigenous Affairs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carolyn_Bennett" title="Carolyn Bennett">Carolyn Bennett</a> has said, "Our mandate now is to get to the bottom of the tragedy of missing and murdered indigenous women and girls in Canada", citing sexism as being of specific concern. Dawn Lavell-Harvard, the president of the <a href="/wiki/Native_Women%27s_Association_of_Canada" title="Native Women's Association of Canada">Native Women's Association of Canada</a>, has also weighed in on the issue by saying, "Absolutely [men] deserve the same amount of attention, just not necessarily in the same forum", neither that forum nor an equal level of attention have yet to materialize.<a href="#cite_note-MMAMglobeandmail02012016-167">[167]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Maple_Leaf_%28from_roundel%29.svg/25px-Maple_Leaf_%28from_roundel%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Maple_Leaf_%28from_roundel%29.svg/37px-Maple_Leaf_%28from_roundel%29.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_Indigenous_Canadians" title="Index of articles related to Indigenous Canadians">Index of articles related to Indigenous Canadians</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-population2021-1"><a href="#cite_ref-population2021_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px 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NY: Spiegel and Grau. </li> <li id="cite_note-well-51"><a href="#cite_ref-well_51-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBardwellDorionHourie2006" class="citation book cs1">Bardwell, Lawrence J.; Dorion, Leah; Hourie, Audreen (2006). Métis legacy Michif culture, heritage, and folkways. Métis legacy series. Vol. 2. <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Dumont_Institute" title="Gabriel Dumont Institute">Gabriel Dumont Institute</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-920915-80-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-920915-80-9"><bdi>0-920915-80-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=M%C3%A9tis+legacy+Michif+culture%2C+heritage%2C+and+folkways&rft.series=M%C3%A9tis+legacy+series&rft.pub=Gabriel+Dumont+Institute&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-920915-80-9&rft.aulast=Bardwell&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+J.&rft.au=Dorion%2C+Leah&rft.au=Hourie%2C+Audreen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> In <a href="/wiki/British_America" title="British America">British America</a> nomenclature, the sitting British monarch became the war's namesake, such as <a href="/wiki/King_William%27s_War" title="King William's War">King William's War</a> or <a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War</a>. Because there had already been a <a href="/wiki/King_George%27s_War" title="King George's War">King George's War</a> in the 1740s, British colonists named the second war in <a href="/wiki/George_II_of_Great_Britain" title="George II of Great Britain">King George II's</a> reign after their opponents, so it became the French and Indian War. </li> <li id="cite_note-volo-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-volo_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-volo_53-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVoloVolo2007" class="citation book cs1">Volo, James M.; Volo, Dorothy Denneen (30 September 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-9Nfy4ztuPwC&pg=PA316">Family Life in Native America</a>. <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Greenwood Publishing Group</a>. p. 316. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33795-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33795-6"><bdi>978-0-313-33795-6</bdi></a>. Retrieved 31 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Family+Life+in+Native+America&rft.pages=316&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2007-09-30&rft.isbn=978-0-313-33795-6&rft.aulast=Volo&rft.aufirst=James+M.&rft.au=Volo%2C+Dorothy+Denneen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-9Nfy4ztuPwC%26pg%3DPA316&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalloway1995" class="citation book cs1">Calloway, Colin G. (28 April 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5YWahCbKiUoC&pg=PA6">The American Revolution in Indian Country: Crisis and Diversity in Native American Communities (Studies in North American Indian History)</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47569-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47569-3"><bdi>978-0-521-47569-3</bdi></a>. Retrieved 31 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+Revolution+in+Indian+Country%3A+Crisis+and+Diversity+in+Native+American+Communities+%28Studies+in+North+American+Indian+History%29&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995-04-28&rft.isbn=978-0-521-47569-3&rft.aulast=Calloway&rft.aufirst=Colin+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5YWahCbKiUoC%26pg%3DPA6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> Donald, Leland (1997). Aboriginal Slavery on the Northwest Coast of North America, University of California Press, p. 237 </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24156">"Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History"</a>. Slavery in the New World. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Welcome+to+Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%27s+Guide+to+Black+History&rft.btitle=Slavery+in+the+New+World&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fblackhistory%2Farticle-24156&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> Donald, 1997, pp. 249–251 </li> <li id="cite_note-afua-58">^ <a href="#cite_ref-afua_58-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-afua_58-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-afua_58-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-afua_58-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-afua_58-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-afua_58-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooper2006" class="citation book cs1">Cooper, Afua (February 2006). The Hanging of Angelique: Canada, Slavery and the Burning of Montreal. <a href="/wiki/HarperCollins" title="HarperCollins">HarperCollins Canada</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-200553-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-00-200553-1"><bdi>978-0-00-200553-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hanging+of+Angelique%3A+Canada%2C+Slavery+and+the+Burning+of+Montreal&rft.pub=HarperCollins+Canada&rft.date=2006-02&rft.isbn=978-0-00-200553-1&rft.aulast=Cooper&rft.aufirst=Afua&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRushforth2006" class="citation book cs1">Rushforth, Brett (January 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://historycooperative.org/journal/slavery-the-fox-wars-and-the-limits-of-alliance-2/">Slavery, the Fox Wars, and the Limits of Alliance</a> (digitised online by History cooperative). Vol. 63. William and Mary Quarterly.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery%2C+the+Fox+Wars%2C+and+the+Limits+of+Alliance&rft.pub=William+and+Mary+Quarterly&rft.date=2006-01&rft.aulast=Rushforth&rft.aufirst=Brett&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistorycooperative.org%2Fjournal%2Fslavery-the-fox-wars-and-the-limits-of-alliance-2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"> Rushforth confuses the two Vincennes explorers. François-Marie was 12 years old during the First Fox War. </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120721183644/http://sasked.gov.sk.ca/docs/history10/activity/unit2/u2act1sis.html">"Standard of Living in 18th century Canada :section 2"</a>. Saskatchewan Education. (1992). History 10: Social Organizations A Teacher's Activity Guide. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sasked.gov.sk.ca/docs/history10/activity/unit2/u2act1sis.html">the original</a> on 21 July 2012. Retrieved 9 October 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Saskatchewan+Education.+%281992%29.+History+10%3A+Social+Organizations+A+Teacher%27s+Activity+Guide&rft.atitle=Standard+of+Living+in+18th+century+Canada+%3Asection+2&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsasked.gov.sk.ca%2Fdocs%2Fhistory10%2Factivity%2Funit2%2Fu2act1sis.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SectionLXIV-61"><a href="#cite_ref-SectionLXIV_61-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pdavis.nl/Legis_07.htm">"Slavery Abolition Act 1833; Section LXIV"</a>. 28 August 1833. Retrieved 3 June 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Slavery+Abolition+Act+1833%3B+Section+LXIV&rft.date=1833-08-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pdavis.nl%2FLegis_07.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> Max M. Mintz, Seeds of Empire: The American Revolutionary Conquest of the Iroquois (New York University Press, 1999). </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> Robert S. Allen, His Majesty's Indian allies: British Indian policy in the defence of Canada, 1774–1815 (Toronto: Dundurn Press, 1992) </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> David S. Heidler, and Jeanne T., Heidler, eds., Encyclopedia of the War of 1812 (1997) pp=253, 392 </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> Herbert C. W. Goltz, "Tecumseh". in John English, ed., Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online: V (1801–1820) (2000) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.php?BioId=36806&query=tecumseh">online</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1989" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, Dwight L. (1989). "A North American Neutral Indian Zone: Persistence of a British Idea". Northwest Ohio Quarterly. 61 (2–4): 46–63.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Northwest+Ohio+Quarterly&rft.atitle=A+North+American+Neutral+Indian+Zone%3A+Persistence+of+a+British+Idea&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=2%E2%80%934&rft.pages=46-63&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Dwight+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> Colin G. Calloway, "The End of an Era: British-Indian Relations in the Great Lakes Region after the War of 1812," Michigan Historical Review 1986 12(2): 1–20. 0890–1686 </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> Wesley B. Turner, The War of 1812: The War That Both Sides Won (2000) </li> <li id="cite_note-finkelconrad-69">^ <a href="#cite_ref-finkelconrad_69-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-finkelconrad_69-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-finkelconrad_69-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-finkelconrad_69-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-finkelconrad_69-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-finkelconrad_69-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-finkelconrad_69-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-finkelconrad_69-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-finkelconrad_69-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-finkelconrad_69-9">j</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinkelConrad2005" class="citation book cs1">Finkel, Alvin; Conrad, Margaret Conrad (25 August 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofcanadia0004conr">History of the Canadian Peoples, 1867–present</a>. Vol. 2 (4 ed.). Pearson Education Canada. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-321-27009-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-321-27009-2"><bdi>978-0-321-27009-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Canadian+Peoples%2C+1867%E2%80%93present&rft.edition=4&rft.pub=Pearson+Education+Canada&rft.date=2005-08-25&rft.isbn=978-0-321-27009-2&rft.aulast=Finkel&rft.aufirst=Alvin&rft.au=Conrad%2C+Margaret+Conrad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofcanadia0004conr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoulton,_Charles_A.1886" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Arkoll_Boulton" title="Charles Arkoll Boulton">Boulton, Charles A.</a> (1886). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091123015618/http://wsb.datapro.net/rebellions/index.html">"Reminiscences of the North-West Rebellions"</a>. Toronto. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wsb.datapro.net/rebellions/index.html">the original</a> on 23 November 2009. Retrieved 9 October 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Reminiscences+of+the+North-West+Rebellions&rft.place=Toronto.&rft.date=1886&rft.au=Boulton%2C+Charles+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwsb.datapro.net%2Frebellions%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060112173624/http://www.canadiana.org/citm/specifique/rielreb_e.html">"The Riel Rebellions"</a>. Canada in the Making. 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Riel: a life of revolution. <a href="/wiki/HarperCollins" title="HarperCollins">HarperCollins</a>, Toronto. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-00-215792-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-00-215792-6"><bdi>0-00-215792-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Riel%3A+a+life+of+revolution&rft.pub=HarperCollins%2C+Toronto&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-00-215792-6&rft.au=Siggins%2C+Maggie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RoyalCom-sg3-73"><a href="#cite_ref-RoyalCom-sg3_73-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20080315013149/http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca:80/ch/rcap/sg/sgm6_e.html">"Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples Stage Three: Displacement and Assimilation"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Indian_and_Northern_Affairs_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian and Northern Affairs Canada">Indian and Northern Affairs Canada</a>. 1 part 1 chapter 6. 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Retrieved 11 September 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=EPA-452%2FR-97-007&rft.atitle=Mercury+Study+Report+to+Congress+Volume+V%3A+Health+Effects+of+Mercury+and+Mercury+Compounds&rft.date=1997-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fttncaaa1%2Ft3%2Freports%2Fvolume5.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20130111060520/http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fniah-spnia/alt_formats/fnihb-dgspni/pdf/pubs/agree-accord/1999_finance_integr-eng.pdf">"Financing a First Nations and Inuit Integrated Health System"</a> (PDF). Health Canada. Government of Canada. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fniah-spnia/alt_formats/fnihb-dgspni/pdf/pubs/agree-accord/1999_finance_integr-eng.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 11 January 2013. Retrieved 9 October 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Health+Canada&rft.atitle=Financing+a+First+Nations+and+Inuit+Integrated+Health+System&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hc-sc.gc.ca%2Ffniah-spnia%2Falt_formats%2Ffnihb-dgspni%2Fpdf%2Fpubs%2Fagree-accord%2F1999_finance_integr-eng.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fniah-spnia/pubs/finance/index-eng.php#agree-accord">"Funding – Reports and Publications"</a>. 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Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.johnco.com/nativel/bill_c31.html">the original</a> on 30 July 2009. Retrieved 9 October 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Indian+and+Northern+Affairs+Canada&rft.atitle=First+Nations%2C+Bill+C-31%2C+Indian+Act&rft.date=1995-09&rft.aulast=Laurin&rft.aufirst=I&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.johnco.com%2Fnativel%2Fbill_c31.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Royal-102">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Royal_102-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Royal_102-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Royal_102-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Royal_102-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Royal_102-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Royal_102-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDussaultErasmus1994" class="citation web cs1">Dussault, René; Erasmus, George (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091001232453/http://www.fedpubs.com/subject/aborig/arctic_reloc.htm">"The High Arctic Relocation: A Report on the 1953–55 Relocation"</a>. 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Retrieved 9 October 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Royal+Commission+on+Aboriginal+Peoples&rft.atitle=The+High+Arctic+Relocation%3A+A+Report+on+the+1953%E2%80%9355+Relocation&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Dussault&rft.aufirst=Ren%C3%A9&rft.au=Erasmus%2C+George&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fedpubs.com%2Fsubject%2Faborig%2Farctic_reloc.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/water-still-a-problem-on-76-reserves-1.605364">"Water still a problem on 76 reserves"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="Canadian Broadcasting Corporation">Canadian Broadcasting Corporation</a>. 20 February 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070813005820/http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2006/02/20/aboriginal-water060220.html">Archived</a> from the original on 13 August 2007. Retrieved 1 July 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Water+still+a+problem+on+76+reserves&rft.date=2006-02-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbc.ca%2Fnews%2Fcanada%2Fwater-still-a-problem-on-76-reserves-1.605364&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSibonney2007" class="citation news cs1">Sibonney, Claire (29 June 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071016172727/http://canada.com/topics/news/national/story.html?id=bd61f2dd-0a80-4fc9-af3f-01698fb6e099&k=90824">"Poverty the focus of Canada-wide native protests"</a>. Reuters. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.canada.com/topics/news/national/story.html?id=bd61f2dd-0a80-4fc9-af3f-01698fb6e099&k=90824">the original</a> on 16 October 2007. Retrieved 1 July 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Poverty+the+focus+of+Canada-wide+native+protests&rft.date=2007-06-29&rft.aulast=Sibonney&rft.aufirst=Claire&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.canada.com%2Ftopics%2Fnews%2Fnational%2Fstory.html%3Fid%3Dbd61f2dd-0a80-4fc9-af3f-01698fb6e099%26k%3D90824&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Raveena-105"><a href="#cite_ref-Raveena_105-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAulakh2012" class="citation news cs1">Aulakh, Raveena (25 December 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/politics/article/1306869--chief-theresa-spence-s-hunger-strike-has-full-backing-of-attawapiskat-residents">"Chief Theresa Spence's hunger strike has full backing of Attawapiskat residents"</a>. theStar.com. Toronto. Retrieved 27 December 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=theStar.com&rft.atitle=Chief+Theresa+Spence%27s+hunger+strike+has+full+backing+of+Attawapiskat+residents&rft.date=2012-12-25&rft.aulast=Aulakh&rft.aufirst=Raveena&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thestar.com%2Fnews%2Fcanada%2Fpolitics%2Farticle%2F1306869--chief-theresa-spence-s-hunger-strike-has-full-backing-of-attawapiskat-residents&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.parl.gc.ca/HousePublications/Publication.aspx?Language=E&Mode=1&DocId=5942521&File=4">Bill C-45</a> was part of the <a href="/wiki/41st_Canadian_Parliament#Omnibus_bills" title="41st Canadian Parliament">41st Canadian Parliament Omnibus bills</a> and was a "second Act to implement certain provisions of the budget tabled in Parliament on March 29, 2012, and other measures." Bill C-45 was assented to on December 14, 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130113101803/http://idlenomore1.blogspot.ca/p/background-on-idle-no-more.html">"History of Idle No More"</a>. 23 December 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://idlenomore1.blogspot.ca/p/background-on-idle-no-more.html">the original</a> on 13 January 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+Idle+No+More&rft.date=2012-12-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fidlenomore1.blogspot.ca%2Fp%2Fbackground-on-idle-no-more.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMainville2007" class="citation news cs1">Mainville, Sara (1 June 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thestar.com/comment/article/220171">"Lawsuits, treaty rights and the sacred balance"</a>. Toronto Star. Retrieved 9 October 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Toronto+Star&rft.atitle=Lawsuits%2C+treaty+rights+and+the+sacred+balance&rft.date=2007-06-01&rft.aulast=Mainville&rft.aufirst=Sara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thestar.com%2Fcomment%2Farticle%2F220171&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FN-109">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FN_109-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FN_109-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100816041503/http://www.afn.ca/cmslib/general/PolAcc.pdf">"A First Nations – Federal Crown Political Accord on the Recognition and Implementation of First Nation Governments"</a> (PDF). Assembly of First Nations and Government of Canada. 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Retrieved 9 September 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Indigenous+Land+Claims&rft.btitle=The+Canadian+Encyclopedia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca%2Fen%2Farticle%2Fland-claims&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRhoad2014" class="citation news cs1">Rhoad, Meghan (13 May 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/globe-debate/its-time-for-canada-to-act-on-missing-and-murdered-aboriginal-women/article18638089/">"It's time for Canada to act on missing and murdered aboriginal women"</a>. Globe and Mail. Retrieved 21 November 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Globe+and+Mail&rft.atitle=It%27s+time+for+Canada+to+act+on+missing+and+murdered+aboriginal+women&rft.date=2014-05-13&rft.aulast=Rhoad&rft.aufirst=Meghan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theglobeandmail.com%2Fglobe-debate%2Fits-time-for-canada-to-act-on-missing-and-murdered-aboriginal-women%2Farticle18638089%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Royal_Canadian_Mounted_Police-164">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Royal_Canadian_Mounted_Police_164-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Royal_Canadian_Mounted_Police_164-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Royal_Canadian_Mounted_Police_164-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://site.ebrary.com/lib/uvic/reader.action?docID=10885975">"Missing and Murdered Aboriginal Women: A National Operational overview"</a>. Royal Canadian Mounted Police. 2014. Retrieved 8 April 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Missing+and+Murdered+Aboriginal+Women%3A+A+National+Operational+overview&rft.pub=Royal+Canadian+Mounted+Police&rft.date=2014&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsite.ebrary.com%2Flib%2Fuvic%2Freader.action%3FdocID%3D10885975&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-KuokkanenGRSV-165">^ <a href="#cite_ref-KuokkanenGRSV_165-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-KuokkanenGRSV_165-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-KuokkanenGRSV_165-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-KuokkanenGRSV_165-3">d</a> Rauna Kuokkanen. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://rauna.files.wordpress.com/2008/05/793277480_content.pdf">[1]</a>" 2008. </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.nationalpost.com/full-comment/adam-jones-aboriginal-men-are-murdered-and-missing-far-more-than-aboriginal-women-a-proper-inquiry-would-explore-both">"Adam Jones: Aboriginal men are murdered and missing far more than aboriginal women. A proper inquiry would explore both"</a>. National Post. 27 April 2015. Retrieved 18 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Post&rft.atitle=Adam+Jones%3A+Aboriginal+men+are+murdered+and+missing+far+more+than+aboriginal+women.+A+proper+inquiry+would+explore+both&rft.date=2015-04-27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.nationalpost.com%2Ffull-comment%2Fadam-jones-aboriginal-men-are-murdered-and-missing-far-more-than-aboriginal-women-a-proper-inquiry-would-explore-both&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MMAMglobeandmail02012016-167">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MMAMglobeandmail02012016_167-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MMAMglobeandmail02012016_167-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaum2016" class="citation news cs1">Baum, Kathryn Blake (1 February 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/national-inquiry-should-not-study-violence-against-aboriginal-men-experts/article28498467/">"National inquiry should not study violence against aboriginal men: experts"</a>. The Globe and Mail. Retrieved 18 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Globe+and+Mail&rft.atitle=National+inquiry+should+not+study+violence+against+aboriginal+men%3A+experts&rft.date=2016-02-01&rft.aulast=Baum&rft.aufirst=Kathryn+Blake&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theglobeandmail.com%2Fnews%2Fnational%2Fnational-inquiry-should-not-study-violence-against-aboriginal-men-experts%2Farticle28498467%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Canadian_Aboriginals" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibliography of Canadian Aboriginals">Bibliography of Canadian Aboriginals</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBellPaternson2009" class="citation book cs1">Bell, Catherine; Paternson, Robert K. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dri7rAWiVYsC&q=First%20Nations&pg=PP1">Protection of First Nations Cultural Heritage: Laws, Policy, and Reform</a>. UBC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-1463-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-1463-8"><bdi>978-0-7748-1463-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Protection+of+First+Nations+Cultural+Heritage%3A+Laws%2C+Policy%2C+and+Reform&rft.pub=UBC+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7748-1463-8&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rft.au=Paternson%2C+Robert+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ddri7rAWiVYsC%26q%3DFirst%2520Nations%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBellNapoleon2008" class="citation book cs1">Bell, Catherine; Napoleon, Val Napoleon (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=avKUsA40Q0QC&q=First%20Nations&pg=PP1">First Nations Cultural Heritage and Law: Case Studies, Voices, and Perspectives</a>. UBC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-1461-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-1461-4"><bdi>978-0-7748-1461-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=First+Nations+Cultural+Heritage+and+Law%3A+Case+Studies%2C+Voices%2C+and+Perspectives&rft.pub=UBC+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7748-1461-4&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rft.au=Napoleon%2C+Val+Napoleon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DavKUsA40Q0QC%26q%3DFirst%2520Nations%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCavell2009" class="citation book cs1">Cavell, Edward (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=i-c-b_g6N7oC&q=First%20nations%20of%20canada&pg=PP1">Classic Images of Canada's First Nations: 1850–1920</a>. Heritage House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-894974-64-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-894974-64-6"><bdi>978-1-894974-64-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classic+Images+of+Canada%27s+First+Nations%3A+1850%E2%80%931920&rft.pub=Heritage+House&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-894974-64-6&rft.aulast=Cavell&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Di-c-b_g6N7oC%26q%3DFirst%2520nations%2520of%2520canada%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFComeauSantin1995" class="citation book cs1">Comeau, Pauline; Santin, Aldo (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uesEO4uWlj0C&q=Court%20system%20of%20Canada&pg=PP1">The first Canadians: a profile of Canada's native people today</a>. J. Lorimer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55028-479-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-55028-479-7"><bdi>1-55028-479-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+first+Canadians%3A+a+profile+of+Canada%27s+native+people+today&rft.pub=J.+Lorimer&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=1-55028-479-7&rft.aulast=Comeau&rft.aufirst=Pauline&rft.au=Santin%2C+Aldo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuesEO4uWlj0C%26q%3DCourt%2520system%2520of%2520Canada%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDickason1992" class="citation book cs1">Dickason, Olive Patricia (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M5KhH8l1ldMC&q=First%20nations%20of%20canada&pg=PP1">Canada's first nations: a history of founding peoples from earliest times</a>. University of Oklahoma Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8061-2438-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8061-2438-5"><bdi>0-8061-2438-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Canada%27s+first+nations%3A+a+history+of+founding+peoples+from+earliest+times&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-8061-2438-5&rft.aulast=Dickason&rft.aufirst=Olive+Patricia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DM5KhH8l1ldMC%26q%3DFirst%2520nations%2520of%2520canada%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlanagan,_Thomas2008" class="citation book cs1">Flanagan, Thomas (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dbmfPwAACAAJ&q=editions:uC1aeCIJGacC">First Nations?: Second Thoughts</a> (2 ed.). Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7735-3443-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7735-3443-8"><bdi>978-0-7735-3443-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=First+Nations%3F%3A+Second+Thoughts&rft.place=Montreal&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=McGill-Queen%27s+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7735-3443-8&rft.au=Flanagan%2C+Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdbmfPwAACAAJ%26q%3Deditions%3AuC1aeCIJGacC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlanaganLe_DressayAlcantara2010" class="citation book cs1">Flanagan, Thomas; Le Dressay, André Le Dressay; Alcantara, Christopher (2010). Beyond the Indian Act: restoring Aboriginal property rights. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7735-3686-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7735-3686-9"><bdi>978-0-7735-3686-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+the+Indian+Act%3A+restoring+Aboriginal+property+rights&rft.place=Montreal&rft.pub=McGill-Queen%27s+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-7735-3686-9&rft.aulast=Flanagan&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.au=Le+Dressay%2C+Andr%C3%A9+Le+Dressay&rft.au=Alcantara%2C+Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlanaganJackson2017" class="citation cs2">Flanagan, Thomas; Jackson, Taylor (21 November 2017), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fraserinstitute.org/studies/bending-the-curve-recent-developments-in-government-spending-on-first-nations">Bending the Curve: Recent Developments in Government Spending on First Nations</a>, Fraser Institute, retrieved 21 November 2017</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bending+the+Curve%3A+Recent+Developments+in+Government+Spending+on+First+Nations&rft.pub=Fraser+Institute&rft.date=2017-11-21&rft.aulast=Flanagan&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.au=Jackson%2C+Taylor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fraserinstitute.org%2Fstudies%2Fbending-the-curve-recent-developments-in-government-spending-on-first-nations&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibson2009" class="citation book cs1">Gibson, Gordon (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oWkWXRcqCM4C&q=A%20New%20Look%20at%20Canadian%20Indian%20Policy%3A%20Respect%20the%20Collective%20-%20Promote%20the%20Individual&pg=PP1">A New Look at Canadian Indian Policy: Respect the Collective – Promote the Individual</a>. Vancouver: Fraser Institute. p. 268. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88975-243-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88975-243-6"><bdi>978-0-88975-243-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+New+Look+at+Canadian+Indian+Policy%3A+Respect+the+Collective+%E2%80%93+Promote+the+Individual&rft.place=Vancouver&rft.pages=268&rft.pub=Fraser+Institute&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-88975-243-6&rft.aulast=Gibson&rft.aufirst=Gordon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoWkWXRcqCM4C%26q%3DA%2520New%2520Look%2520at%2520Canadian%2520Indian%2520Policy%253A%2520Respect%2520the%2520Collective%2520-%2520Promote%2520the%2520Individual%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibson2000" class="citation book cs1">Gibson, Karen Bush (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HsEJ1nFpwPEC&q=The%20Blackfeet%3A%20People%20of%20the%20Dark%20Moccasins.&pg=PP1">The Blackfeet: People of the Dark Moccasins</a>. Mankato, Minnesota: Capstone Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7368-4824-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7368-4824-4"><bdi>978-0-7368-4824-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blackfeet%3A+People+of+the+Dark+Moccasins&rft.place=Mankato%2C+Minnesota&rft.pub=Capstone+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7368-4824-4&rft.aulast=Gibson&rft.aufirst=Karen+Bush&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHsEJ1nFpwPEC%26q%3DThe%2520Blackfeet%253A%2520People%2520of%2520the%2520Dark%2520Moccasins.%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomMcMichael_Canadian_Art_Collection2009" class="citation book cs1">Thom, Ian M; McMichael Canadian Art Collection (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tKupaO3mzS0C&q=First%20Nations&pg=PP1">Challenging traditions: contemporary First Nations art of the Northwest Coast</a>. University of Washington Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-295-98919-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-295-98919-8"><bdi>978-0-295-98919-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Challenging+traditions%3A+contemporary+First+Nations+art+of+the+Northwest+Coast&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-295-98919-8&rft.aulast=Thom&rft.aufirst=Ian+M&rft.au=McMichael+Canadian+Art+Collection&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtKupaO3mzS0C%26q%3DFirst%2520Nations%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVoyageur2008" class="citation book cs1">Voyageur, Cora Jane (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zfqtC-m3OkMC&q=First%20Nations&pg=PP1">Firekeepers of the twenty-first century: First Nations women chiefs</a>. McGill-Queen's University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7735-3216-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7735-3216-8"><bdi>978-0-7735-3216-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Firekeepers+of+the+twenty-first+century%3A+First+Nations+women+chiefs&rft.pub=McGill-Queen%27s+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7735-3216-8&rft.aulast=Voyageur&rft.aufirst=Cora+Jane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzfqtC-m3OkMC%26q%3DFirst%2520Nations%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Nations+in+Canada" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:First_Nations_of_Canada" class="extiw" title="c:Category:First Nations of Canada">First Nations of Canada</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://indigenouspeoplesatlasofcanada.ca/">"Indigenous Peoples Atlas of Canada"</a>. 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Canadians">Sudanese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Southern Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Canadians" title="South African Canadians">South African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zimbabwean_Canadians" title="Zimbabwean Canadians">Zimbabwean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">West Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghanaian_Canadians" title="Ghanaian Canadians">Ghanaian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Canadians" title="Nigerian Canadians">Nigerian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Canadians" title="Igbo Canadians">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_Canadians" title="Yoruba Canadians">Yoruba</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">North America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Canadians" title="American Canadians">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Canadians" title="Mexican Canadians">Mexican</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Caribbean</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbadian_Canadians" title="Barbadian Canadians">Barbadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuban Canadians">Cuban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Dominican Canadians">Dominican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyanese_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Guyanese Canadians">Guyanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Canadians" title="Haitian Canadians">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_Canadians" title="Jamaican Canadians">Jamaican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rican_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Puerto Rican Canadians">Puerto Rican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinidadian_and_Tobagonian_Canadians" title="Trinidadian and Tobagonian Canadians">Trinidadian and Tobagonian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Central and South America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Argentine Canadians">Argentine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Brazilian Canadians">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilean_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Chilean Canadians">Chilean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombian_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Colombian Canadians">Colombian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Guatemalan Canadians">Guatemalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peruvian_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Peruvian Canadians">Peruvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvadoran_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Salvadoran Canadians">Salvadoran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruguayan_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Uruguayan Canadians">Uruguayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Venezuelan Canadians">Venezuelan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Asian_Canadians" title="Asian Canadians">Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/West_Asian_Canadians" title="West Asian Canadians">Central Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Canadians" title="Afghan Canadians">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Canadians" title="Kazakh Canadians">Kazakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajik_Canadians" title="Tajik Canadians">Tajik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatar_Canadians" title="Tatar Canadians">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_Canadians" title="Uzbek Canadians">Uzbek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Canadians" title="East Asian Canadians">East Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Canadians" title="Chinese Canadians">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Canadians" title="Hong Kong Canadians">Hong Kong</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Canadians" title="Japanese Canadians">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Canadians" title="Korean Canadians">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Canadians" title="Mongolian Canadians">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Canadians" title="Taiwanese Canadians">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Canadians" title="Tibetan Canadians">Tibetan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Canadians" title="South Asian Canadians">South Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bangladeshi_Canadians" title="Bangladeshi Canadians">Bangladeshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Canadians">Indian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Indian_Canadians" title="Anglo-Indian Canadians">Anglo-Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Canadians" title="Tamil Canadians">Tamil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_Canadians" title="Nepalese Canadians">Nepali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_Canadians" title="Pakistani Canadians">Pakistani</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_Canadians" title="Punjabi Canadians">Punjabi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_people_in_Canada" title="Romani people in Canada">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_Canadians" title="Sri Lankan Canadians">Sri Lankan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asian_Canadians" title="Southeast Asian Canadians">Southeast Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_Canadians" title="Cambodian Canadians">Cambodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filipino_Canadians" title="Filipino Canadians">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_Canadians" title="Indonesian Canadians">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laotian_Canadians" title="Laotian Canadians">Laotian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Canadians" title="Malaysian Canadians">Malaysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singaporean_Canadians" title="Singaporean Canadians">Singaporean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_Canadians" title="Thai Canadians">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_Canadians" title="Vietnamese Canadians">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/West_Asian_Canadians" title="West Asian Canadians">West Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Canadians" title="Arab Canadians">Arab</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Canadians" title="Iraqi Canadians">Iraqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Canadians" title="Jordanian Canadians">Jordanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Canadians" title="Lebanese Canadians">Lebanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Canadians" title="Palestinian Canadians">Palestinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Canadians" title="Saudi Canadians">Saudi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Canadians" title="Syrian Canadians">Syrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_Canadians" title="Yemeni Canadians">Yemeni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Canadians" title="Armenian Canadians">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Canadians" title="Assyrian Canadians">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_Canadians" title="Azerbaijani Canadians">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Canadians" title="Iranian Canadians">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Canada" title="History of the Jews in Canada">Jewish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Canadians" title="Israeli Canadians">Israeli</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_Canadians" title="Kurdish Canadians">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Canadians" title="Turkish Canadians">Turkish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/European_Canadians" title="European Canadians">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Central Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Canadians" title="Austrian Canadians">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_Canadians" title="Czech Canadians">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Canadians" title="German Canadians">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Canadians" title="Hungarian Canadians">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Canadians" title="Polish Canadians">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_Canadians" title="Slovak Canadians">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_Canadians" title="Slovene Canadians">Slovenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Canadians" title="Swiss Canadians">Swiss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Eastern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_Canadians" title="Belarusian Canadians">Belarusian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Canadians" title="Russian Canadians">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Canadians" title="Ukrainian Canadians">Ukrainian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Northern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_and_Scandinavian_Canadians" title="Nordic and Scandinavian Canadians">Nordic and Scandinavian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danish_Canadians" title="Danish Canadians">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_Canadians" title="Finnish Canadians">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_Canadians" title="Icelandic Canadians">Icelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Canadians" title="Norwegian Canadians">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Canadians" title="Swedish Canadians">Swedish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_Canadians" title="Estonian Canadians">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_Canadians" title="Latvian Canadians">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Canadians" title="Lithuanian Canadians">Lithuanian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Southeast Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Albanian Canadians">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Canadians" title="Bosnian Canadians">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Canadians" title="Bulgarian Canadians">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_Canadians" title="Croatian Canadians">Croatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Canadians" title="Greek Canadians">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Canadians" title="Macedonian Canadians">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montenegrin_Canadians" title="Montenegrin Canadians">Montenegrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_Canadians" title="Romanian Canadians">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Canadians" title="Serbian Canadians">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Canadians" title="Yugoslav Canadians">Yugoslav</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Southern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Canadians" title="Italian Canadians">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_Canadians" title="Maltese Canadians">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Canadians" title="Portuguese Canadians">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Canadians" title="Spanish Canadians">Spanish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basque_Canadians" title="Basque Canadians">Basque</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Western Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Canadians" title="Belgian Canadians">Belgian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flemish_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Flemish Canadians">Flemish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Canadians" title="British Canadians">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_Canadians" title="Cornish Canadians">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Canadians" title="English Canadians">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotch-Irish_Canadians" title="Scotch-Irish Canadians">Scotch-Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Canadians" title="Scottish Canadians">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Canadians" title="Welsh Canadians">Welsh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Canadians" title="Dutch Canadians">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Canadians" title="French Canadians">French</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acadians" title="Acadians">Acadians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breton_Canadians" title="Breton Canadians">Breton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qu%C3%A9b%C3%A9cois_people" title="Québécois people">Québécois</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Canadian" class="mw-redirect" title="Irish Canadian">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish_Canadians" title="Luxembourgish Canadians">Luxembourger</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Oceanian_Canadians" title="Oceanian Canadians">Oceania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Canadians" title="Australian Canadians">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanaka_(Pacific_Island_worker)" title="Kanaka (Pacific Island worker)">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Canadians" title="New Zealand Canadians">New Zealander</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Canada" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Canada_topics" title="Template:Canada topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Canada_topics" title="Template talk:Canada topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Canada_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Canada topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Canada" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Canada" title="History of Canada">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;font-weight: normal"><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_Canada" title="List of years in Canada">Year list</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Canadian_history" title="Timeline of Canadian history">timeline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_indigenous_peoples_of_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the indigenous peoples of Canada">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France (1534–1763)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Canada_(1763%E2%80%931867)" title="History of Canada (1763–1867)">British Canada (1763–1867)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Confederation_Canada_(1867%E2%80%931914)" title="Post-Confederation Canada (1867–1914)">Post-Confederation (1867–1914)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canada_in_the_world_wars_and_interwar_period" title="Canada in the world wars and interwar period">World wars and interwar period (1914–1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Canada_(1945%E2%80%931960)" title="History of Canada (1945–1960)">1945–1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Canada_(1960%E2%80%931981)" title="History of Canada (1960–1981)">1960–1981</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Canada_(1982%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Canada (1982–present)">since 1982</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;font-weight: normal"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Canada#History_of_Canada" title="Outline of Canada">Topics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_history_of_Canada" title="Constitutional history of Canada">Constitutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Canada_and_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_Canada" title="Monarchy of Canada and the Indigenous peoples of Canada">Crown and Indigenous people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Canada" title="Economic history of Canada">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Name_of_Canada" title="Name of Canada">Etymology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">First Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Former_colonies_and_territories_in_Canada" title="Former colonies and territories in Canada">Former colonies and territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_immigration_to_Canada" title="History of immigration to Canada">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Canadian_foreign_policy" title="History of Canadian foreign policy">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Canada" title="Military history of Canada">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_monarchy_in_Canada" title="History of monarchy in Canada">Monarchical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Historic_Sites_of_Canada" title="National Historic Sites of Canada">National Historic Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persons_of_National_Historic_Significance" title="Persons of National Historic Significance">Persons of significance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Canada" title="Racism in Canada">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_Canada" title="Territorial evolution of Canada">Territorial evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_Canada" title="History of women in Canada">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Provinces_and_territories_of_Canada" title="Provinces and territories of Canada">Provinces and territories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;font-weight: normal">Provinces</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alberta" title="Alberta">Alberta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manitoba" title="Manitoba">Manitoba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Brunswick" title="New Brunswick">New Brunswick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_and_Labrador" title="Newfoundland and Labrador">Newfoundland and Labrador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Edward_Island" title="Prince Edward Island">Prince Edward Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saskatchewan" title="Saskatchewan">Saskatchewan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;font-weight: normal">Territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Territories" title="Northwest Territories">Northwest Territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nunavut" title="Nunavut">Nunavut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukon" title="Yukon">Yukon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Canada" title="Geography of Canada">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;font-weight: normal"><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_Canada" title="List of regions of Canada">Regions</a> (west to east)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Canada" title="Western Canada">Western Canada</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Northwest" title="Pacific Northwest">Pacific Northwest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Prairies" title="Canadian Prairies">Canadian Prairies</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Canada" title="Northern Canada">Northern Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Shield" title="Canadian Shield">Canadian Shield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Canada" title="Central Canada">Central Canada</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_region" title="Great Lakes region">Great Lakes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Canada" title="Eastern Canada">Eastern Canada</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Canada" title="Atlantic Canada">Atlantic Canada</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Maritimes" title="The Maritimes">The Maritimes</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;font-weight: normal"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Canada#Geography_of_Canada" title="Outline of Canada">Topics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Canada" title="List of cities in Canada">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Canada" title="List of earthquakes in Canada">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Canada" title="List of islands of Canada">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_peaks_of_Canada" title="Mountain peaks of Canada">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_parks_of_Canada" title="National parks of Canada">National Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Canada" title="List of rivers of Canada">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Canada" title="Wildlife of Canada">Wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanism_of_Canada" title="Volcanism of Canada">Volcanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Canada" title="Government of Canada">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Canada" title="Law of Canada">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Canada" title="Constitution of Canada">Constitution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Canada" title="Monarchy of Canada">Monarch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governor_General_of_Canada" title="Governor General of Canada">Governor General</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Canada" title="Parliament of Canada">Parliament</a> (<a href="/wiki/Senate_of_Canada" title="Senate of Canada">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_Canada" title="House of Commons of Canada">House of Commons</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Canada" title="Prime Minister of Canada">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Canada" title="List of prime ministers of Canada">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court_system_of_Canada" title="Court system of Canada">Courts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Canada" title="Supreme Court of Canada">Supreme Court</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Armed_Forces" title="Canadian Armed Forces">Military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_peacekeeping" title="Canadian peacekeeping">Peacekeeping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_government_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Municipal government in Canada">Local government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Canada" title="Foreign relations of Canada">Foreign relations</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Politics" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;font-weight: normal"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Canada" title="Politics of Canada">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Canada" title="Elections in Canada">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Canada" title="Human rights in Canada">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Canada" title="Feminism in Canada">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_genocide_of_Indigenous_peoples" title="Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples">Genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_rights_in_Canada" title="LGBTQ rights in Canada">LGBTQ</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism_in_Canada" title="Multiculturalism in Canada">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Canada" title="Cannabis in Canada">Cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firearms_regulation_in_Canada" title="Firearms regulation in Canada">Firearms regulation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Canada" title="Economy of Canada">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Canada" title="Agriculture in Canada">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dairy_farming_in_Canada" title="Dairy farming in Canada">Dairy farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floriculture_in_Canada" title="Floriculture in Canada">Floriculture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Canada" title="Banking in Canada">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_dollar" title="Canadian dollar">Dollar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Canada" title="Telecommunications in Canada">Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Canada" title="List of companies of Canada">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_Canada" title="Energy policy of Canada">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_Canada" title="Fishing industry in Canada">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_reserves_in_Canada" title="Oil reserves in Canada">Oil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Canada" title="Petroleum industry in Canada">Petroleum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toronto_Stock_Exchange" title="Toronto Stock Exchange">Stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Canada" title="Taxation in Canada">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Canada" title="Tourism in Canada">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_in_Canada" title="Transportation in Canada">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Canada" title="Science and technology in Canada">Science and tech</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Canada" title="Demographics of Canada">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;font-weight: normal">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadians" title="Canadians">Canadians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_origins_of_people_in_Canada" title="Ethnic origins of people in Canada">Ethnicity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_Canada" title="Immigration to Canada">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Canada" title="Languages of Canada">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Canada" title="Religion in Canada">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Canadian_census" title="2021 Canadian census">2021 Census</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_of_Canada" title="Population of Canada">Population</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;font-weight: normal">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_census_metropolitan_areas_and_agglomerations_in_Canada" title="List of census metropolitan areas and agglomerations in Canada">Metropolitan areas and agglomerations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_largest_population_centres_in_Canada" title="List of the largest population centres in Canada">Population centres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_largest_municipalities_in_Canada_by_population" title="List of the largest municipalities in Canada by population">Municipalities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Canada" title="Education in Canada">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Higher_education_in_Canada" title="Higher education in Canada">Higher education</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Canada" title="Healthcare in Canada">Healthcare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Canada" title="Abortion in Canada">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthanasia_in_Canada" title="Euthanasia in Canada">Euthanasia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Canada" title="Law enforcement in Canada">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Canada" title="Crime in Canada">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Canada" title="Corruption in Canada">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_Canada" title="Terrorism in Canada">Terrorism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Canada" title="Poverty in Canada">Poverty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_Canada" title="Homelessness in Canada">Homelessness</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_programs_in_Canada" title="Social programs in Canada">Social programs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_values" title="Canadian values">Values</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Canada" title="Culture of Canada">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Canada" title="Architecture of Canada">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_art" title="Canadian art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Canada" title="Cinema of Canada">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_cuisine" title="Canadian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_folklore" title="Canadian folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Canada" title="Public holidays in Canada">Holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_identity" title="Canadian identity">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Canadian_inventions,_innovations,_and_discoveries" title="List of Canadian inventions, innovations, and discoveries">Inventions and discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_literature" title="Canadian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Canada" title="Music of Canada">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_media" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian media">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Canadians" title="Lists of Canadians">Individuals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_cultural_protectionism" title="Canadian cultural protectionism">Protectionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_in_Canada" title="Sports in Canada">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Canada" title="Theatre of Canada">Theatre</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Symbols" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;font-weight: normal"><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Canada" title="National symbols of Canada">Symbols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/O_Canada" title="O Canada">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Canada" title="Coat of arms of Canada">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Canada" title="Flag of Canada">Flag</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Canadian_flags" title="List of Canadian flags">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Canadian_provincial_and_territorial_symbols" title="List of Canadian provincial and territorial symbols">Provincial and territorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_royal_symbols" title="Canadian royal symbols">Royal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_heraldry" title="Canadian heraldry">Heraldic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_tartans_of_Canada" title="Regional tartans of Canada">Tartans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Canada-related_articles" title="Index of Canada-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Canada" title="Outline of Canada">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Canada-related_topics_by_provinces_and_territories" title="List of Canada-related topics by provinces and territories">Topics by provinces and territories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Canada" title="Bibliography of Canada">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Canada" title="Historiography of Canada">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Canadian_historians" title="List of Canadian historians">Historians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_studies" title="Canadian studies">Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_rankings_of_Canada" title="International rankings of Canada">Indices</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Maple_Leaf_%28from_roundel%29.svg/25px-Maple_Leaf_%28from_roundel%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Maple_Leaf_%28from_roundel%29.svg/37px-Maple_Leaf_%28from_roundel%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Maple_Leaf_%28from_roundel%29.svg/50px-Maple_Leaf_%28from_roundel%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="305" data-file-height="343" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Canada" title="Portal:Canada">Canada portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Canada" title="Category:Canada">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&oldid=1253814207">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=First_Nations_in_Canada&oldid=1253814207</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" 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