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<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en"> <head> <title>CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Cherubim</title><script src="https://dtyry4ejybx0.cloudfront.net/js/cmp/cleanmediacmp.js?ver=0104" async="true"></script><script defer data-domain="newadvent.org" src="https://plausible.io/js/script.js"></script><link rel="canonical" href="https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03646c.htm"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"> <meta name="description" content="Angelic beings or symbolic representations thereof, mentioned frequently in the Old Testament and once in the New Testament"> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><link rel="alternate" type="application/rss+xml" title="RSS" href="http://feeds.newadvent.org/bestoftheweb?format=xml"><link rel="icon" href="../images/icon1.ico" type="image/x-icon"><link rel="shortcut icon" href="../images/icon1.ico" type="image/x-icon"><meta name="robots" content="noodp"><link type="text/css" rel="stylesheet" href="../utility/screen6.css" media="screen"></head> <body class="cathen" id="03646c.htm">  <br/> <div id="capitalcity"><table summary="Logo" cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0 width="100%"><tr valign="bottom"><td align="left"><a href="../"><img height=36 width=153 border="0" alt="New Advent" src="../images/logo.gif"></a></td><td align="right"> <form id="searchbox_000299817191393086628:ifmbhlr-8x0" action="../utility/search.htm">  <input type="hidden" name="safe" value="active"> <input type="hidden" name="cx" value="000299817191393086628:ifmbhlr-8x0"/> <input type="hidden" name="cof" value="FORID:9"/>  <label for="searchQuery" id="searchQueryLabel">Search:</label> <input id="searchQuery" name="q" type="text" size="25" aria-labelledby="searchQueryLabel"/>  <label for="submitButton" id="submitButtonLabel" class="visually-hidden">Submit Search</label> <input id="submitButton" type="submit" name="sa" value="Search" aria-labelledby="submitButtonLabel"/> </form> <table summary="Spacer" cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0><tr><td height="2"></td></tr></table> <table summary="Tabs" cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0><tr> <td bgcolor="#ffffff"></td> <td class="tab"><a class="tab_color_on_beige" href="../"> Home </a></td> <td class="tab"><a class="tab_white_on_color" href="../cathen/index.html"> Encyclopedia </a></td> <td class="tab"><a class="tab_color_on_beige" href="../summa/index.html"> Summa </a></td> <td class="tab"><a class="tab_color_on_beige" href="../fathers/index.html"> Fathers </a></td> <td class="tab"><a class="tab_color_on_beige" href="../bible/gen001.htm"> Bible </a></td> <td class="tab"><a class="tab_color_on_beige" href="../library/index.html"> Library </a></td> </tr></table> </td> </tr></table><table summary="Alphabetical index" width="100%" cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0><tr><td class="bar_white_on_color"> <a href="../cathen/a.htm"> A </a><a href="../cathen/b.htm"> B </a><a href="../cathen/c.htm"> C </a><a href="../cathen/d.htm"> D </a><a href="../cathen/e.htm"> E </a><a href="../cathen/f.htm"> F </a><a href="../cathen/g.htm"> G </a><a href="../cathen/h.htm"> H </a><a href="../cathen/i.htm"> I </a><a href="../cathen/j.htm"> J </a><a href="../cathen/k.htm"> K </a><a href="../cathen/l.htm"> L </a><a href="../cathen/m.htm"> M </a><a href="../cathen/n.htm"> N </a><a href="../cathen/o.htm"> O </a><a href="../cathen/p.htm"> P </a><a href="../cathen/q.htm"> Q </a><a href="../cathen/r.htm"> R </a><a href="../cathen/s.htm"> S </a><a href="../cathen/t.htm"> T </a><a href="../cathen/u.htm"> U </a><a href="../cathen/v.htm"> V </a><a href="../cathen/w.htm"> W </a><a href="../cathen/x.htm"> X </a><a href="../cathen/y.htm"> Y </a><a href="../cathen/z.htm"> Z </a> </td></tr></table></div> <div id="mobilecity" style="text-align: center; "><a href="../"><img height=24 width=102 border="0" alt="New Advent" src="../images/logo.gif"></a></div>  <div id="mi5"><span class="breadcrumbs"><a href="../">Home</a> > <a href="../cathen">Catholic Encyclopedia</a> > <a href="../cathen/c.htm">C</a> > Cherubim</span></div> <div id="springfield2"> <div class='catholicadnet-728x90' id='cathen-728x90-top' style='display: flex; height: 100px; align-items: center; justify-content: center; '></div> <h1>Cherubim</h1> <p><em><a href="https://gumroad.com/l/na2"><strong>Please help support the mission of New Advent</strong> and get the full contents of this website as an instant download. Includes the Catholic Encyclopedia, Church Fathers, Summa, Bible and more  all for only $19.99...</a></em></p> <p><a href="../cathen/01476d.htm">Angelic beings</a> or symbolic representations thereof, mentioned frequently in the <a href="../cathen/14526a.htm">Old Testament</a> and once in the <a href="../cathen/14530a.htm">New Testament</a>.</p> <h2 id="section1">In philology</h2> <p>The word <em>cherub</em> (<em>cherubim</em> is the Hebrew masculine plural) is a word borrowed from the Assyrian <em>kirubu</em>, from <em>karâbu</em>, "to be near", hence it means near ones, familiars, personal servants, bodyguards, courtiers. It was commonly used of those heavenly spirits, who closely surrounded the Majesty of <a href="../cathen/06608a.htm">God</a> and paid Him intimate service. Hence it came to mean as much as "Angelic Spirit". (The change from <em>K</em> of <em>Karâbu</em>, to <em>K</em> of <em>Kirub</em> is nothing unusual in Assyrian. The word has been brought into connection with the <a href="../cathen/05329b.htm">Egyptian</a> <em>Xefer</em> by metathesis from <em>Xeref=K-r-bh.</em>) A similar metathesis and play upon sound undoubtedly exists between <em>Kerub</em> and <em>Rakab</em>, "to ride", and <em>Merkeba</em>, "chariot". The late Jewish explanation by analogy between <em>Kerub</em> and <em>Rekûb</em>, "a youth", seems worthless. The word ought to be pronounced in English <em>qerub</em> and <em>querubim</em>, and not with a soft <em>ch.</em></p> <div class="CMtag_300x250" style="display: flex; height: 300px; align-items: center; justify-content: center; "></div> <h2 id="section2">In art</h2> <p>Cherub and Cherubim are most frequently referred to in the <a href="../bible">Bible</a> to designate sculptured, engraved, and <a href="../cathen/05400a.htm">embroidered</a> figures used in the furniture and ornamentation of the Jewish Sanctuary.</p> <div class="bulletlist"><ul><li>According to <a href="../bible/exo025.htm#vrs18">Exodus 25:18-21</a> there were placed on the <em>kapporeth</em>, or lid of the Ark, (i.e. "the Mercy-Seat") the figures of two <em>cherubim</em> of wrought (=massive?) gold.</li><li>According to <a href="../bible/1ki006.htm#vrs23">1 Kings 6:23 sqq.</a>, and <a href="../bible/2ch003.htm#vrs11">2 Chronicles 3:11 sqq.</a>, Solomon placed in the Holy of Holies two huge Cherubim of olive-wood overlaid with gold. "They stood on their feet and their faces were towards the house", which probably means they faced the Holy Place or the Entrance.</li><li>According to Exod., xxvi, 31, cherubim were <a href="../cathen/05400a.htm">embroidered</a> on the Veil of the Tabernacle, separating the Holy Place from the Holy of Holies. "With blue and purple and scarlet and fine twined linen" they were made. How many such cherubim were <a href="../cathen/05400a.htm">embroidered</a> on the Paroket, or Veil, we do not <a href="../cathen/08673a.htm">know</a>. It is often supposed that as this veil screened the Holy Holies, two large-sized figures to represent guardian spirits or keepers were thereon depicted.</li><li>According to <a href="../bible/1ki006.htm">1 Kings 6</a> and <a href="../bible/1ki007.htm">7</a>, cherubim were engraved apparently as an artistic "motif" in wood and metal. The panelling of the Temple, both interior and exterior, was covered with them, as well as with palm-trees and open flowers. The brazen sea was adorned with figures of lions oxen, and cherubim.</li><li>According to Ezechiel, xli, 18 sqq., in his visionary description of the Temple, the wall-space of the Sanctuary was ornamented with cherubim and palm-trees, and each cherub had two faces, that of a man and that of a lion, the faces respectively turned to the palm tree to the right and left. But there is no ground whatever to suppose that the actual cherubim of the Solomonic Temple or pre-Solomonic Sanctuary were double-faced; the contrary seems certain, but from the Scripture text we cannot with <a href="../cathen/03539b.htm">certainty</a> conclude what sort of faces these Temple cherubim had, whether animal or human. It is sometimes concluded from <a href="../bible/eze010.htm#vrs14">Ezekiel 10:14</a>, "the first face was the face of a cherub and the second that of a man, the third the face of a lion and the fourth the face of an eagle", that a cherub's face cannot have been a human one, and the face of an ox has naturally been suggested, but the argument is not conclusive.</li></ul></div> <p>In <a href="../cathen/05329b.htm">Egyptian</a> art, figures with a human face and two outstretched wings attached to the arms are exceedingly common. In Assyrian art, also, winged human figures on either side of a palm tree are very often used in decoration. They are sometimes hawk-headed, but more usually possess men's faces. However, even the <a href="../cathen/08399a.htm">Jews</a> at the time of <a href="../cathen/08374c.htm">Christ</a> had completely forgotten the appearance of the Temple cherubim. <a href="../cathen/08522a.htm">Josephus</a> (Antiq., VIII, 3) says that no one knows or even can guess what form they had. The very fact, however, that the <a href="../bible">Bible</a> nowhere gives a word of explanation, but always presupposes them well-known, makes us believe that they were among the most common figures of contemporary art.</p> <h2 id="section3">In inspired vision</h2> <p>As <a href="../cathen/08329a.htm">Jehovah</a> was surrounded by figures of cherubim in His Sanctuary on earth, so He is, according to Scripture, surrounded in reality by cherubim in His Court above. The function ascribed to these heavenly servants of <a href="../cathen/06608a.htm">God's</a> Majesty is that of throne-bearers, or "carriers", of His Divine Majesty. In Psalm 17 the psalmist describes the sudden descent of <a href="../cathen/08329a.htm">Jehovah</a> to rescue a <a href="../cathen/14153a.htm">soul</a> in distress in the following words: "He bowed the heavens and came down, and darkness was under His feet. He rode upon a cherub and flew upon the wings of the wind." The <a href="../cathen/07630a.htm">idea</a> of cherubim as the chariot of <a href="../cathen/06608a.htm">God</a> seems indicated in <a href="../bible/1ch018.htm">1 Chronicles 18</a>, where <a href="../cathen/04642b.htm">David</a> gives gold for the Temple cherubim, who are described as "the Chariot", not, probably, because they had the outward shape of a vehicle, but because the Temple cherubim symbolized the swift-winged living thrones upon which the Almighty journeys through the heavens.</p> <p>The Prophet Ezechiel mentions the cherubim in a two-fold connection:</p> <div class="bulletlist"><ul><li>in his vision of the living chariot of <a href="../cathen/06608a.htm">God</a> (Ch. i and x);</li><li>in his prophecy on the Prince of <a href="../cathen/15109a.htm">Tyre</a> (Ch. xxviii, 14 sqq.).</li></ul></div> <div class="CMtag_300x250" style="display: flex; height: 300px; align-items: center; justify-content: center; "></div> <p>Ezechiel's vision of the Cherubim, which is practically the same in the tenth chapter as in the first, is one of the most difficult in Scripture, and has given rise to a multitude of explanations. The <a href="../cathen/12477a.htm">prophet</a> first saw a luminous cloud coming from the north; from a distance it seemed a heavy cloud fringed with light and some intense brilliancy in the centre thereof, bright as gold, yet in perpetual motion as the flames of a fire. Within that heavenly fire he began gradually to distinguish four living beings with bodies as men, yet with four faces each: a human face in front, but an eagles face behind; a lion's face to the left and an ox's face to the right. Though approaching, yet their knees did not bend in their march, straight and stiff they remained; and for feet they had the hoofs of oxen, shod as it were with shining brass. They had four arms, two to each shoulder, and attached along each arm a wing. Of these four winged arms two were outstretched above, and two were let down and covered their bodies. These four living beings stood together, facing in four opposite directions, and between them were four great wheels, each wheel being double, so that it could roll forward or sideways. Thus this <a href="../cathen/01476d.htm">angelic</a> chariot, in whatever of the four directions it moved, always presented the same aspect. And both <a href="../cathen/01476d.htm">angels</a> and wheels were all studded with eyes. And over the heads of the cherubim, so that they touched it with the points of their outstretched wings, was an expanse of crystal, and on this crystal a sapphire throne, and on the throne one resembling a man, the likeness of the glory of <a href="../cathen/08329a.htm">Jehovah</a>.</p> <p>The mystical meaning of each detail of this vision will probably remain a matter of speculation, but the meaning of the four faces seems not difficult to grasp: man is the king of creation, the lion the king of beasts of the forest, the ox the king of the kine in the field, the eagle the king of the birds of the air. On this account the cherubim have of recent years been explained as mere symbols of the fulness of earthly life, which, like the earth itself, is the footstool of <a href="../cathen/06608a.htm">God</a>. But these faces are more naturally understood to signify that these <a href="../cathen/01476d.htm">angelic beings</a> possessed the intelligent wisdom of man, the lithe strength of the lion, the ponderous weight of the ox, the soaring sublimity of the eagle. Early <a href="../cathen/03712a.htm">Christianity</a> transferred this <a href="../cathen/14526a.htm">Old Testament</a> vision to a <a href="../cathen/14530a.htm">New Testament</a> sphere and gradually used these cherubic figures to designate the four Evangelists — a thought of rare grandeur and singular <a href="../cathen/07131b.htm">felicity</a>, yet only a <em>sensus accommodatus.</em></p> <p>Ezechiel's Prophecy against the Prince of <a href="../cathen/15109a.htm">Tyre</a> contains a description of the almost more than earthly glory of that ancient city. <a href="../cathen/15109a.htm">Tyre</a> is spoken of as an <a href="../cathen/01476d.htm">angel</a> fallen from glory. Of the King of <a href="../cathen/15109a.htm">Tyre</a> it is said:</p> <blockquote><p>Thou, full of wisdom and perfect in beauty. In <a href="../cathen/14519a.htm">Eden</a>, the garden of <a href="../cathen/06608a.htm">God</a> wert thou, all precious stones were thy covering. Thou wert a cherub with wings outstretched in protection, thou wert on the holy mountain of <a href="../cathen/06608a.htm">God</a>, thou didst walk amongst fiery stones. Thou wert innocent in thy ways form the day on which thou wert created until iniquity was found in thee...thou didst <a href="../cathen/14004b.htm">sin</a>, therefore I will cast thee out from the mountain of <a href="../cathen/06608a.htm">God</a> and destroy thee, O protecting cherub away from the fiery stones. </p></blockquote> <p>Indirectly we can gather from this passage that Cherubim were conceived to be in a state of perfection, wisdom, sinlessness, nearness to <a href="../cathen/06608a.htm">God</a> on His Holy Mountain and of preternatural glory and <a href="../cathen/07131b.htm">happiness</a>. Unfortunately, the words paraphrased as "with wings outstretched in protection" are difficult to translate: the Hebrew term may mean "cherub of anointing, who covers", therefore a royal, anointed being, overshadowing others with its wings to shelter them. If this be so, we must add royalty and beneficence to the characteristics of cherubim.</p> <h2 id="section4">In theology</h2> <p>Notwithstanding the present common opinion of advanced <a href="../cathen/12495a.htm">Protestant</a> scholars, that cherubim are only symbolic representations of abstract <a href="../cathen/07630a.htm">ideas</a>, the <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholic</a> <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a> undoubtedly holds that there are actually existing spiritual beings corresponding to the name. That <a href="../cathen/14526a.htm">Old Testament</a> writers used the word <em>cherubim</em> to designate <a href="../cathen/01476d.htm">angels</a>, not merely to express <a href="../cathen/07630a.htm">ideas</a>, can be best gathered from <a href="../bible/gen003.htm#vrs24">Genesis 3:24</a>, where <a href="../cathen/06608a.htm">God</a> sets cherubim at the entrance of <a href="../cathen/14519a.htm">Paradise</a>. This sentence would bear no sense at all if cherubim did not stand for ministerial beings, differing from man, carrying out the behest of <a href="../cathen/06608a.htm">God</a>. Likewise, it is difficult to read Ezechiel and to persuade oneself that the Prophet does not presuppose the actual existence of real personal beings under the name of Cherubim; in chaps. i and x he speaks again and again of "living beings", and he says the spirit of life was within them, and repeatedly points out that the bodily forms he sees are but appearances of the living beings thus mentioned. The living beings (<em>zoa</em>) so often mentioned in <a href="../cathen/01594b.htm">St. John's</a> Apocalypse can only be taken as parallel to those in Ezechiel, and their personal existence in St. John's mind cannot be <a href="../cathen/05141a.htm">doubted</a>. The frequent sentence also: "who sittest upon the Cherubim" (<a href="../bible/1sa004.htm#vrs4">1 Samuel 4:4</a>; <a href="../bible/2sa006.htm#vrs2">2 Samuel 6:2</a>; <a href="../bible/2ki019.htm">2 Kings 19</a>; <a href="../bible/isa037.htm#vrs37">Isaiah 37:37, 16</a>; <a href="../bible/psa079.htm#vrs2">Psalms 79:2</a> and <a href="../bible/psa098.htm#vrs1">98:1</a>), though no <a href="../cathen/05141a.htm">doubt</a> referring to <a href="../cathen/08329a.htm">Jehovah's</a> actual dwelling in the Holy of Holies, yet is better understood as referring to the heavenly throne-bearers of <a href="../cathen/06608a.htm">God</a>. There can be no <a href="../cathen/05141a.htm">doubt</a> that the later <a href="../cathen/08399a.htm">Jews</a>  that is, from 200 B.C. onwards  looked upon the cherubim as real <a href="../cathen/01476d.htm">angelic beings</a>; the <a href="../cathen/01476d.htm">angelology</a> of the Book of Enoch and the <a href="../cathen/01601a.htm">apocryphal</a> Books of Esdras give us an undeniable testimony on this point.</p> <p>So the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Christian Church</a> from the first accepted the <a href="../cathen/11727b.htm">personality</a> of the cherubim and early adopted Philo's interpretation of the name. Clem. Alex.: "The name Cherubim intends to show much understanding (<em>aisthesin pollen</em>)." (Stromata, V, 240.) Though counted amongst the <a href="../cathen/01476d.htm">angels</a> during the first centuries of <a href="../cathen/03712a.htm">Christianity</a>, the cherubim and <a href="../cathen/13725b.htm">seraphim</a> were not mentioned in the lists of the <a href="../cathen/01476d.htm">angelic</a> <a href="../cathen/07322c.htm">hierarchy</a>. At first but seven choirs of <a href="../cathen/01476d.htm">angels</a> were reckoned, i.e. those enumerated (<a href="../bible/eph001.htm#vrs21">Ephesians 1:21</a> and <a href="../bible/col001.htm#vrs16">Colossians 1:16</a>), with the addition of <em>angeli et archangeli.</em> Thus <a href="../cathen/08130b.htm">St. Irenæus</a>, Haer. II, xxx, and <a href="../cathen/11306b.htm">Origen</a>, <em>Peri archon</em>, I, v. But soon it was realized that the Apostle's list was not intended to be a complete one, and the <a href="../cathen/14526a.htm">Old Testament</a> <a href="../cathen/01476d.htm">angelic beings</a> mentioned by Ezechiel and Isaias, the cherubim and <a href="../cathen/13725b.htm">seraphim</a>, and others were added, so that we have eight, nine, or ten, or even eleven ranks in the <a href="../cathen/07322c.htm">hierarchy</a>. The cherubim and <a href="../cathen/13725b.htm">seraphim</a> were sometimes thought to be but other names for thrones and virtues (<a href="../cathen/07016a.htm">Gregory of Nyssa</a>, <a href="../fathers/290101.htm"><em>Against Eunomius</em> I</a>; <a href="../cathen/02084a.htm">Augustine</a> in Ps., xcviii, 3). Since <a href="../cathen/05013a.htm">Pseudo-Dionysius</a>, De Caelesti Hier. (written about A.D. 500), the ninefold division of the <a href="../cathen/01476d.htm">angelic</a> order has been practically universal; and the cherubim and <a href="../cathen/13725b.htm">seraphim</a> take the highest place in the <a href="../cathen/07322c.htm">hierarchy</a>, a rank which was ascribed to them already by <a href="../cathen/04595b.htm">St. Cyril of Jerusalem</a> (370) and by <a href="../cathen/08452b.htm">St. Chrysostom</a> (about 400), and which <a href="../cathen/06780a.htm">Pope Gregory the Great</a>, once <em>aprocrisarius</em> or <em>nuncio</em> at Constantinople, made familiar to the West. <a href="../cathen/06780a.htm">Pope Gregory</a> divided the nine <a href="../cathen/01476d.htm">angelic</a> orders into three choirs, the highest choir being: thrones, cherubim, and <a href="../cathen/13725b.htm">seraphim</a>. Of the cherubim he says (Hom. in Ev., xxxiv, 10), that <em>cherubim</em> means "the fulness of <a href="../cathen/08673a.htm">knowledge</a>, and these most sublime hosts are thus called, because they are filled with a <a href="../cathen/08673a.htm">knowledge</a> which is the more perfect as they are allowed to behold the glory of <a href="../cathen/06608a.htm">God</a> more closely". This explanation of <a href="../cathen/06780a.htm">St. Gregory</a> is ultimately derived from Philo's similar statement, and was already combined with the <a href="../cathen/14526a.htm">Old Testament</a> function of the cherubim by <a href="../cathen/02084a.htm">St. Augustine</a> in his sublime comment on Ps., lxxix, 2, "Who sitteth upon the Cherubim":</p> <blockquote><p>Cherubim means the Seat of the Glory of <a href="../cathen/06608a.htm">God</a> and is interpreted: Fullness of Knowledge. Though we realize that cherubim are exalted heavenly powers and virtues; yet if thou wilt, thou too shalt be one of the cherubim. For if cherubim means, Seat of <a href="../cathen/06608a.htm">God</a>, remember what the Scripture says: The <a href="../cathen/14153a.htm">soul</a> of the just is the Seat of Wisdom. </p></blockquote> <div class='catholicadnet-728x90' id='cathen-728x90-bottom' style='display: flex; height: 100px; align-items: center; justify-content: center; '></div> <div class="cenotes"><h2>Sources</h2><p class="cenotes">KEIL, Commentary on Ezechiel, I, 20-46, in Clark's Foreign Lib. (Edinburgh, 1876), IV; KNABENBAUER, Commentarius in Ezechielem (Paris, 1890), 21-41; ZSCHOKKE, Theologie der Propheten (Freiburg im Br., 1877), 250 sqq.; BAREILLE in Dict. de theol. cath., s.v. Anges, 1206-11; WULFF, Cherubim, Throne und Seraphim (Altenburg, 1894); PERROT and CHIPIEZ, Le temple de Jerusalem (Paris, 1889); VIGOUROUX, La Bible et les decouvertes modernes, IV, 358-409; RYLE in HASTINGS, Bible Dict., s.v.</p></div> <div class="pub"><h2>About this page</h2><p id="apa"><strong>APA citation.</strong> <span id="apaauthor">Arendzen, J.</span> <span id="apayear">(1908).</span> <span id="apaarticle">Cherubim.</span> In <span id="apawork">The Catholic Encyclopedia.</span> <span id="apapublisher">New York: Robert Appleton Company.</span> <span id="apaurl">http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03646c.htm</span></p><p id="mla"><strong>MLA citation.</strong> <span id="mlaauthor">Arendzen, John.</span> <span id="mlaarticle">"Cherubim."</span> <span id="mlawork">The Catholic Encyclopedia.</span> <span id="mlavolume">Vol. 3.</span> <span id="mlapublisher">New York: Robert Appleton Company,</span> <span id="mlayear">1908.</span> <span id="mlaurl"><http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03646c.htm>.</span></p><p id="transcription"><strong>Transcription.</strong> <span id="transcriber">This article was transcribed for New Advent by Michael T. Barrett.</span> <span id="dedication">Dedicated to all the angels of God.</span></p><p id="approbation"><strong>Ecclesiastical approbation.</strong> <span id="nihil"><em>Nihil Obstat.</em> November 1, 1908. Remy Lafort, S.T.D., Censor.</span> <span id="imprimatur"><em>Imprimatur.</em> +John Cardinal Farley, Archbishop of New York.</span></p><p id="contactus"><strong>Contact information.</strong> The editor of New Advent is Kevin Knight. My email address is webmaster <em>at</em> newadvent.org. Regrettably, I can't reply to every letter, but I greatly appreciate your feedback — especially notifications about typographical errors and inappropriate ads.</p></div> </div> <div id="ogdenville"><table summary="Bottom bar" width="100%" cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0><tr><td class="bar_white_on_color"><center><strong>Copyright © 2023 by <a href="../utility/contactus.htm">New Advent LLC</a>. 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