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</ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lion-headed_figure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lion-headed_figure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Lion-headed figure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lion-headed_figure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rituals_and_worship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rituals_and_worship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Rituals and worship </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Rituals_and_worship-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Rituals and worship subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Rituals_and_worship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mithraic_catechism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mithraic_catechism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Mithraic catechism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mithraic_catechism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Feasting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Feasting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Feasting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Feasting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Altars,_iconography,_and_suspected_doctrinal_diversity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Altars,_iconography,_and_suspected_doctrinal_diversity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Altars, iconography, and suspected doctrinal diversity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Altars,_iconography,_and_suspected_doctrinal_diversity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mithraeum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mithraeum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Mithraeum </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mithraeum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Degrees_of_initiation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Degrees_of_initiation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Degrees of initiation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Degrees_of_initiation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ritual_re-enactments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ritual_re-enactments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Ritual re-enactments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ritual_re-enactments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Membership" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Membership"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 Membership </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Membership-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8 Ethics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_and_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_and_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 History and development </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History_and_development-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History and development subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History_and_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mithras_before_the_Roman_Mysteries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mithras_before_the_Roman_Mysteries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Mithras before the Roman Mysteries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mithras_before_the_Roman_Mysteries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Beginnings_of_Roman_Mithraism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beginnings_of_Roman_Mithraism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Beginnings of Roman Mithraism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beginnings_of_Roman_Mithraism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Earliest_archaeology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Earliest_archaeology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.1 Earliest archaeology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Earliest_archaeology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Earliest_cult_locations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Earliest_cult_locations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.2 Earliest cult locations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Earliest_cult_locations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_literature_about_Mithras_and_the_Mysteries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_literature_about_Mithras_and_the_Mysteries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Classical literature about Mithras and the Mysteries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_literature_about_Mithras_and_the_Mysteries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Statius" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Statius"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.1 Statius </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Statius-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Justin_Martyr" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Justin_Martyr"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.2 Justin Martyr </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Justin_Martyr-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plutarch" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plutarch"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.3 Plutarch </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plutarch-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dio_Cassius" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dio_Cassius"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.4 Dio Cassius </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dio_Cassius-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Porphyry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Porphyry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.5 Porphyry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Porphyry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mithras_Liturgy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mithras_Liturgy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.6 Mithras Liturgy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mithras_Liturgy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_debate_on_origin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_debate_on_origin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Modern debate on origin </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_debate_on_origin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cumont's_hypothesis:_from_Persian_state_religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cumont's_hypothesis:_from_Persian_state_religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.1 Cumont's hypothesis: from Persian state religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cumont's_hypothesis:_from_Persian_state_religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticisms_and_reassessments_of_Cumont" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticisms_and_reassessments_of_Cumont"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.2 Criticisms and reassessments of Cumont </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticisms_and_reassessments_of_Cumont-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.3 Modern theories </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Later history </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Persecution_and_Christianization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persecution_and_Christianization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Persecution and Christianization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persecution_and_Christianization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interpretations_of_the_bull-slaying_scene" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interpretations_of_the_bull-slaying_scene"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Interpretations of the bull-slaying scene </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interpretations_of_the_bull-slaying_scene-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparable_belief_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparable_belief_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Comparable belief systems </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Comparable_belief_systems-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Comparable belief systems subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Comparable_belief_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Christianity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Footnotes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Mithraism</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 53 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-53" aria-hidden="true" > 53 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitra%C3%AFsme" title="Mitraïsme – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Mitraïsme" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AB%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="المثرائية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="المثرائية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitraizm" title="Mitraizm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Mitraizm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A5%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE" title="মিথ্রীয়ধর্ম – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মিথ্রীয়ধর্ম" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithraisme" title="Mithraisme – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Mithraisme" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Banjar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Митраизъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Митраизъм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitraizam" title="Mitraizam – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Mitraizam" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitraisme" title="Mitraisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Mitraisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Митраизм – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Митраизм" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithraismus" title="Mithraismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Mithraismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithras" title="Mithras – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Mithras" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithraskulten" title="Mithraskulten – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Mithraskulten" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithraismus" title="Mithraismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Mithraismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitraism" title="Mitraism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Mitraism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B9%CE%B8%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%8A%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Μιθραϊσμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μιθραϊσμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitra%C3%ADsmo" title="Mitraísmo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Mitraísmo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitraismo" title="Mitraismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Mitraismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitraismo" title="Mitraismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Mitraismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%87%D8%B1%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="مهرپرستی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مهرپرستی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culte_de_Mithra" title="Culte de Mithra – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Culte de Mithra" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AF%B8%ED%8A%B8%EB%9D%BC%EA%B5%90" title="미트라교 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="미트라교" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%B0%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Միհրականություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Միհրականություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithras" title="Mithras – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Mithras" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Launhelgar_M%C3%AD%C3%BErasar" title="Launhelgar Míþrasar – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Launhelgar Míþrasar" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitraismo" title="Mitraismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Mitraismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultus_Mithrae" title="Cultus Mithrae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Cultus Mithrae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitraizmas" title="Mitraizmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Mitraizmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithra%C3%AFsme" title="Mithraïsme – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Mithraïsme" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitraisme" title="Mitraisme – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Mitraisme" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Митраизам – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Митраизам" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitraisma" title="Mitraisma – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Mitraisma" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%AB%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%87" title="الاسرار الميثرانيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الاسرار الميثرانيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%85" title="میترائیسم – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="میترائیسم" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithra%C3%AFsme" title="Mithraïsme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Mithraïsme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9F%E3%83%88%E3%83%A9%E6%95%99" title="ミトラ教 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ミトラ教" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithras-kulten" title="Mithras-kulten – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Mithras-kulten" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitraizm" title="Mitraizm – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Mitraizm" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="میترائیت – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="میترائیت" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitraizm" title="Mitraizm – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Mitraizm" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitra%C3%ADsmo" title="Mitraísmo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Mitraísmo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Митраизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Митраизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitraizem" title="Mitraizem – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Mitraizem" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%85" title="میتراییزم – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="میتراییزم" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Митраизам – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Митраизам" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitraizam" title="Mitraizam – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Mitraizam" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithralaisuus" title="Mithralaisuus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Mithralaisuus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Mithraism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mga_misteryong_Mitraiko" title="Mga misteryong Mitraiko – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Mga misteryong Mitraiko" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%82" title="మిత్రాయిజం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="మిత్రాయిజం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%96%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2" title="ศาสนามิถรา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ศาสนามิถรา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitraizm" title="Mitraizm – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Mitraizm" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%96%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Мітраїзм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Мітраїзм" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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searchaux" style="display:none">Mystery religion in the Roman Empire</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Mithras" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Mithras_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Mithras (disambiguation)">Mithras (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Mithridatism" title="Mithridatism">Mithridatism</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MithraReliefvert.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/MithraReliefvert.jpg/220px-MithraReliefvert.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="412" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/MithraReliefvert.jpg/330px-MithraReliefvert.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/MithraReliefvert.jpg/440px-MithraReliefvert.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1011" data-file-height="1893" /></a><figcaption>Double-faced Mithraic relief. <a href="/wiki/Fiano_Romano" title="Fiano Romano">Fiano Romano</a> (Rome), 2nd to 3rd century CE (<a href="/wiki/Louvre_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Louvre Museum">Louvre Museum</a>).</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mithra_sacrifiant_le_Taureau-005.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Mithra_sacrifiant_le_Taureau-005.JPG/220px-Mithra_sacrifiant_le_Taureau-005.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Mithra_sacrifiant_le_Taureau-005.JPG/330px-Mithra_sacrifiant_le_Taureau-005.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Mithra_sacrifiant_le_Taureau-005.JPG/440px-Mithra_sacrifiant_le_Taureau-005.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2134" data-file-height="2452" /></a><figcaption>Mithras killing the bull (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 150 CE; <a href="/wiki/Louvre-Lens" title="Louvre-Lens">Louvre-Lens</a>)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MithrasIMG_5339.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/MithrasIMG_5339.JPG/220px-MithrasIMG_5339.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/MithrasIMG_5339.JPG/330px-MithrasIMG_5339.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/MithrasIMG_5339.JPG/440px-MithrasIMG_5339.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Rock-born Mithras and Mithraic artifacts (<a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Diocletian" title="Baths of Diocletian">Baths of Diocletian</a>, Rome)</figcaption></figure> Mithraism, also known as the Mithraic mysteries or the Cult of Mithras, was a <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <a href="/wiki/Mystery_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Mystery religion">mystery religion</a> centered on the god Mithras. Although inspired by <a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> worship of the <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrian">Zoroastrian</a> <a href="/wiki/Divinity" title="Divinity">divinity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yazata" title="Yazata">yazata</a>) <a href="/wiki/Mithra" title="Mithra">Mithra</a>, the Roman Mithras was linked to a new and distinctive imagery, and the level of continuity between Persian and Greco-Roman practice remains debatable.<a href="#cite_note-2">[a]</a> The mysteries were popular among the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Roman_army" title="Imperial Roman army">Imperial Roman army</a> from the 1st to the 4th century AD.<a href="#cite_note-Geden-1925-2004-3">[2]</a> Worshippers of Mithras had a complex system of seven grades of <a href="/wiki/Initiation" title="Initiation">initiation</a> and communal ritual meals. Initiates called themselves syndexioi, those "united by the handshake".<a href="#cite_note-claussonhandshake-4">[b]</a> They met in dedicated <a href="/wiki/Mithraeum" title="Mithraeum">mithraea</a> (singular mithraeum), underground <a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">temples</a> that survive in large numbers. The <a href="/wiki/Cult_(religious_practice)" title="Cult (religious practice)">cult</a> appears to have had its center in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a>,<a href="#cite_note-hopfe-5-5">[3]</a> and was popular throughout the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">western half of the empire</a>, as far south as <a href="/wiki/Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Roman Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Numidia" title="Numidia">Numidia</a>, as far east as <a href="/wiki/Roman_Dacia" title="Roman Dacia">Roman Dacia</a>, as far north as <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Roman Britain</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-6">[4]</a>(pp 26–27) and to a lesser extent in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Roman Syria</a> in the east.<a href="#cite_note-hopfe-5-5">[3]</a> Mithraism is viewed as a rival of <a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">early Christianity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Richardson-Hopfe-1994-Archeol-7">[5]</a>(p <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/uncoveringancien0000unse/page/147">147</a>) In the 4th century, Mithraists faced <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_pagans_in_the_late_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire">persecution from Christians</a>, and the religion was subsequently suppressed and eliminated in the Roman Empire by the end of the century.<a href="#cite_note-collectedworks-8">[6]</a> Numerous archaeological finds, including meeting places, monuments, and artifacts, have contributed to modern knowledge about Mithraism throughout the Roman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-10">[c]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Iconography" title="Iconography">iconic scenes</a> of Mithras show him being born from a rock, slaughtering a bull, and sharing a banquet with the god <a href="/wiki/Sol_(Roman_mythology)" title="Sol (Roman mythology)">Sol</a> (the Sun). About 420 sites have yielded materials related to the cult. Among the items found are about 1000 inscriptions, 700 examples of the bull-killing scene (<a href="/wiki/Tauroctony" title="Tauroctony">tauroctony</a>), and about 400 other monuments.<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-6">[4]</a>(p xxi) It has been estimated that there would have been at least 680 <a href="/wiki/Mithraea" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithraea">mithraea</a> in the city of Rome.<a href="#cite_note-HaaseTemporini1984-11">[8]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] No written narratives or theology from the religion survive; limited information can be derived from the inscriptions and brief or passing references in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin literature</a>. Interpretation of the physical evidence remains problematic and contested.<a href="#cite_note-13">[d]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Name">Name</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Name">edit</a>]</div> The term "Mithraism" is a modern convention. Writers of the Roman era referred to it by phrases such as "Mithraic mysteries", "mysteries of Mithras" or "mysteries of the Persians".<a href="#cite_note-Beck-2002-07-20-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[e]</a> Modern sources sometimes refer to the Greco-Roman religion as Roman Mithraism or Western Mithraism to distinguish it from Persian worship of <a href="/wiki/Mithra" title="Mithra">Mithra</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Beck-2002-07-20-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[f]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mithras_(name)" title="Mithras (name)">Mithras (name)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mithra_Mus%C3%A9es_de_la_Cour_d%27Or_100109.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Mithra_Mus%C3%A9es_de_la_Cour_d%27Or_100109.jpg/220px-Mithra_Mus%C3%A9es_de_la_Cour_d%27Or_100109.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Mithra_Mus%C3%A9es_de_la_Cour_d%27Or_100109.jpg/330px-Mithra_Mus%C3%A9es_de_la_Cour_d%27Or_100109.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Mithra_Mus%C3%A9es_de_la_Cour_d%27Or_100109.jpg/440px-Mithra_Mus%C3%A9es_de_la_Cour_d%27Or_100109.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1404" data-file-height="1628" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bas-relief" class="mw-redirect" title="Bas-relief">Bas-relief</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Tauroctony" title="Tauroctony">tauroctony</a> of the mysteries, <a href="/wiki/Metz" title="Metz">Metz</a>, France.</figcaption></figure> The name Mithras (Latin, equivalent to Greek Μίθρας<a href="#cite_note-17">[11]</a>) is a form of <a href="/wiki/Mithra" title="Mithra">Mithra</a>, the name of an old, pre-Zoroastrian, and, later on, Zoroastrian, god<a href="#cite_note-18">[g]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[h]</a> – a relationship understood by Mithraic scholars since the days of <a href="/wiki/Franz_Cumont" title="Franz Cumont">Franz Cumont</a>.<a href="#cite_note-21">[i]</a> An early example of the Greek form of the name is in a 4th century BCE work by <a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Cyropaedia" title="Cyropaedia">Cyropaedia</a>, which is a biography of the Persian king <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a>.<a href="#cite_note-22">[13]</a> The exact form of a Latin or classical Greek word varies due to the grammatical process of <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflection</a>. There is archaeological evidence that in Latin worshippers wrote the <a href="/wiki/Nominative" class="mw-redirect" title="Nominative">nominative</a> form of the god's name as "Mithras". <a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyry</a>'s Greek text De Abstinentia (Περὶ ἀποχῆς ἐμψύχων), has a reference to the now-lost histories of the Mithraic mysteries by Euboulus and Pallas, the wording of which suggests that these authors treated the name "Mithra" as an indeclinable foreign word.<a href="#cite_note-24">[j]</a> Related deity-names in other languages include: <ul><li>Vedic Sanskrit <a href="/wiki/Mitra_(Hindu_god)" title="Mitra (Hindu god)">Mitra</a>, "friend, friendship," as the name of a god praised in the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a>.<a href="#cite_note-25">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Speidel-1980-26">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[k]</a><a href="#cite_note-RichardsonHopfe1994-4-28">[17]</a></li></ul> In Sanskrit, mitra is an unusual name of the sun god, mostly known as "Surya" or "Aditya", however.<a href="#cite_note-Turcan-1996-earliest-29">[18]</a> <ul><li>the form mi-it-ra-, found in an inscribed peace treaty between the <a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a> and the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a>, from about 1400 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-30">[l]</a> between the king of the Hittites, Subbiluliuma, and the king of Mitanni, Mativaza. ... It is the earliest evidence of Mithras in Asia Minor.<a href="#cite_note-Turcan-1996-earliest-29">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[19]</a></li></ul> Iranian Mithra and Sanskrit Mitra are believed to come from the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages" title="Indo-Iranian languages">Indo-Iranian</a> word mitrás, meaning "contract, agreement, covenant".<a href="#cite_note-32">[20]</a> Modern historians have different conceptions about whether these names refer to the same god or not. John R. Hinnells has written of Mitra / Mithra / Mithras as a single deity, worshipped in several different religions.<a href="#cite_note-33">[21]</a> On the other hand, David Ulansey considers the bull-slaying Mithras to be a new god who began to be worshipped in the 1st century BCE, and to whom an old name was applied.<a href="#cite_note-34">[m]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mary_Boyce" title="Mary Boyce">Mary Boyce</a>, an academic researcher on ancient Iranian religions, writes that even though Roman Mithraism seems to have had less Iranian content than ancient Romans or modern historians used to think, nonetheless "as the name Mithras alone shows, this content was of some importance".<a href="#cite_note-36">[n]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Iconography">Iconography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Iconography">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Neuenheimer_Mithraeum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Neuenheimer_Mithraeum.jpg/330px-Neuenheimer_Mithraeum.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Neuenheimer_Mithraeum.jpg/495px-Neuenheimer_Mithraeum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Neuenheimer_Mithraeum.jpg/660px-Neuenheimer_Mithraeum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1351" data-file-height="1063" /></a><figcaption>Relief of Mithras as bull-slayer from Neuenheim near <a href="/wiki/Heidelberg" title="Heidelberg">Heidelberg</a>, framed by scenes from Mithras' life.</figcaption></figure> Much about the cult of Mithras is only known from reliefs and sculptures. There have been many attempts to interpret this material. Mithras-worship in the Roman Empire was characterized by images of the god slaughtering a bull. Other images of Mithras are found in the Roman temples, for instance Mithras banqueting with Sol, and depictions of the birth of Mithras from a rock. But the image of bull-slaying (tauroctony) is always in the central niche.<a href="#cite_note-Ulansey-1991-Origins-12">[9]</a>(p 6) Textual sources for a reconstruction of the theology behind this iconography are very rare.<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-xxi-quote-37">[o]</a> (See section <a href="#Interpretations_of_the_bull-slaying_scene">Interpretations of the bull-slaying scene</a> below.) The practice of depicting the god slaying a bull seems to be specific to Roman Mithraism. According to David Ulansey, this is "perhaps the most important example" of evident difference between Iranian and Roman traditions: "... there is no evidence that the Iranian god <a href="/wiki/Mithra" title="Mithra">Mithra</a> ever had anything to do with killing a bull."<a href="#cite_note-Ulansey-1991-Origins-12">[9]</a>(p 8) <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bull-slaying_scene">Bull-slaying scene</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Bull-slaying scene">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Tauroctony" title="Tauroctony">Tauroctony</a></div> In every mithraeum the centerpiece was a representation of Mithras killing a sacred bull, an act called the tauroctony.<a href="#cite_note-38">[p]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[q]</a> The image may be a relief, or free-standing, and side details may be present or omitted. The centre-piece is Mithras clothed in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolian</a> costume and wearing a <a href="/wiki/Phrygian_cap" title="Phrygian cap">Phrygian cap</a>; who is kneeling on the exhausted bull, holding it by the nostrils<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-6">[4]</a>(p 77) with his left hand, and stabbing it with his right. As he does so, he looks over his shoulder towards the figure of Sol. A dog and a snake reach up towards the blood. A scorpion seizes the bull's genitals. A raven is flying around or is sitting on the bull. One or three ears of wheat are seen coming out from the bull's tail, sometimes from the wound. The bull was often white. The god is sitting on the bull in an unnatural way with his right leg constraining the bull's hoof and the left leg is bent and resting on the bull's back or flank.<a href="#cite_note-41">[r]</a> The two torch-bearers on either side are dressed like Mithras: Cautes with his torch pointing up, and Cautopates with his torch pointing down.<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-6">[4]</a>(p 98–99)<a href="#cite_note-42">[24]</a> Sometimes <a href="/wiki/Cautes_and_Cautopates" title="Cautes and Cautopates">Cautes and Cautopates</a> carry shepherds' crooks instead of torches.<a href="#cite_note-43">[25]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KunsthistorischesMuseumMithrabulSacrifice.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/KunsthistorischesMuseumMithrabulSacrifice.jpg/280px-KunsthistorischesMuseumMithrabulSacrifice.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/KunsthistorischesMuseumMithrabulSacrifice.jpg/420px-KunsthistorischesMuseumMithrabulSacrifice.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/KunsthistorischesMuseumMithrabulSacrifice.jpg/560px-KunsthistorischesMuseumMithrabulSacrifice.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>A Roman tauroctony <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">relief</a> from <a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 175 CE; <a href="/wiki/Kunsthistorisches_Museum" title="Kunsthistorisches Museum">Kunsthistorisches Museum</a>, Vienna)</figcaption></figure> The event takes place in a cavern, into which Mithras has carried the bull, after having hunted it, ridden it and overwhelmed its strength.<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-6">[4]</a>(p 74) Sometimes the cavern is surrounded by a circle, on which the twelve signs of the zodiac appear. Outside the cavern, top left, is <a href="/wiki/Sol_(Roman_mythology)" title="Sol (Roman mythology)">Sol</a> the sun, with his flaming crown, often driving a <a href="/wiki/Quadriga" title="Quadriga">quadriga</a>. A ray of light often reaches down to touch Mithras. At the top right is <a href="/wiki/Luna_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Luna (mythology)">Luna</a>, with her crescent moon, who may be depicted driving a <a href="/wiki/Biga_(chariot)" title="Biga (chariot)">biga</a>.<a href="#cite_note-griffithlecole-44">[26]</a> In some depictions, the central tauroctony is framed by a series of subsidiary scenes to the left, top and right, illustrating events in the Mithras narrative; Mithras being born from the rock, the water miracle, the hunting and riding of the bull, meeting Sol who kneels to him, shaking hands with <a href="/wiki/Sol_Invictus" title="Sol Invictus">Sol</a> and sharing a meal of bull-parts with him, and ascending to the heavens in a chariot.<a href="#cite_note-griffithlecole-44">[26]</a> In some instances, as is the case in the stucco icon at <a href="/wiki/Santa_Prisca_Church_(Rome)" class="mw-redirect" title="Santa Prisca Church (Rome)">Santa Prisca</a> Mithraeum in Rome, the god is shown <a href="/wiki/Heroic_nudity" title="Heroic nudity">heroically nude</a>.<a href="#cite_note-name="jonasicondescription"-46">[s]</a> Some of these reliefs were constructed so that they could be turned on an axis. On the back side was another, more elaborate feasting scene. This indicates that the bull killing scene was used in the first part of the celebration, then the relief was turned, and the second scene was used in the second part of the celebration.<a href="#cite_note-47">[28]</a> Besides the main cult icon, a number of mithraea had several secondary tauroctonies, and some small portable versions, probably meant for private devotion, have also been found.<a href="#cite_note-48">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Banquet">Banquet</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Banquet">edit</a>]</div> The second most important scene after the tauroctony in Mithraic art is the so-called banquet scene.<a href="#cite_note-Beck-2004-InPlcLion-49">[30]</a>(pp 286–287) The banquet scene features Mithras and Sol Invictus banqueting on the hide of the slaughtered bull.<a href="#cite_note-Beck-2004-InPlcLion-49">[30]</a>(pp 286–287) On the specific banquet scene on the Fiano Romano relief, one of the torchbearers points a <a href="/wiki/Caduceus" title="Caduceus">caduceus</a> towards the base of an altar, where flames appear to spring up. Robert Turcan has argued that since the caduceus is an attribute of <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(mythology)" title="Mercury (mythology)">Mercury</a>, and in mythology Mercury is depicted as a <a href="/wiki/Psychopomp" title="Psychopomp">psychopomp</a>, the eliciting of flames in this scene is referring to the dispatch of human souls and expressing the Mithraic doctrine on this matter.<a href="#cite_note-Beck_2006_27_28-50">[31]</a> Turcan also connects this event to the tauroctony: The blood of the slain bull has soaked the ground at the base of the altar, and from the blood the souls are elicited in flames by the caduceus.<a href="#cite_note-Beck_2006_27_28-50">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Birth_from_a_rock">Birth from a rock</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Birth from a rock">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:164px;max-width:164px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:243px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:MitraRisingfromtherockMNIR.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/MitraRisingfromtherockMNIR.JPG/162px-MitraRisingfromtherockMNIR.JPG" decoding="async" width="162" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/MitraRisingfromtherockMNIR.JPG/243px-MitraRisingfromtherockMNIR.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/MitraRisingfromtherockMNIR.JPG/324px-MitraRisingfromtherockMNIR.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="3888" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Mithras rising from the rock (<a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Romanian_History" class="mw-redirect" title="National Museum of Romanian History">National Museum of Romanian History</a>)</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:124px;max-width:124px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:243px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Mithras_petra_genetrix_Terme.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Mithras_petra_genetrix_Terme.jpg/122px-Mithras_petra_genetrix_Terme.jpg" decoding="async" width="122" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Mithras_petra_genetrix_Terme.jpg/183px-Mithras_petra_genetrix_Terme.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Mithras_petra_genetrix_Terme.jpg/244px-Mithras_petra_genetrix_Terme.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="2700" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Mithras born from the rock (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 186 CE; <a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Diocletian" title="Baths of Diocletian">Baths of Diocletian</a>)</div></div></div></div></div> Mithras is depicted as being born from a rock. He is shown as emerging from a rock, already in his youth, with a dagger in one hand and a torch in the other. He is nude, standing with his legs together, and is wearing a Phrygian cap.<a href="#cite_note-Vermaseren-1951-birth-51">[32]</a> In some variations, he is shown coming out of the rock as a child, and in one holds a globe in one hand; sometimes a thunderbolt is seen. There are also depictions in which flames are shooting from the rock and also from Mithras' cap. One statue had its base perforated so that it could serve as a fountain, and the base of another has the mask of a water god. Sometimes Mithras also has other weapons such as bows and arrows, and there are also animals such as dogs, serpents, <a href="/wiki/Dolphin" title="Dolphin">dolphins</a>, eagles, other birds, lions, crocodiles, <a href="/wiki/Lobster" title="Lobster">lobsters</a> and snails around. On some reliefs, there is a bearded figure identified as the water god <a href="/wiki/Oceanus" title="Oceanus">Oceanus</a>, and on some there are the gods of the four winds. In these reliefs, the four elements could be invoked together. Sometimes Victoria, <a href="/wiki/Selene" title="Selene">Luna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sol_Invictus" title="Sol Invictus">Sol</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Saturn_(mythology)" title="Saturn (mythology)">Saturn</a> also seem to play a role. Saturn in particular is often seen handing over the dagger or short sword to Mithras, used later in the tauroctony.<a href="#cite_note-Vermaseren-1951-birth-51">[32]</a> In some depictions, Cautes and Cautopates are also present; sometimes they are depicted as shepherds.<a href="#cite_note-52">[33]</a> On some occasions, an <a href="/wiki/Amphora" title="Amphora">amphora</a> is seen, and a few instances show variations like an egg birth or a tree birth. Some interpretations show that the birth of Mithras was celebrated by lighting torches or candles.<a href="#cite_note-Vermaseren-1951-birth-51">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lion-headed_figure">Lion-headed figure</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Lion-headed figure">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Arimanius" title="Arimanius">Arimanius</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leontocephaline_at_Ostia_Antica_by_Franz_Cumont.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Leontocephaline_at_Ostia_Antica_by_Franz_Cumont.jpg/170px-Leontocephaline_at_Ostia_Antica_by_Franz_Cumont.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="429" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Leontocephaline_at_Ostia_Antica_by_Franz_Cumont.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="198" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Drawing of the leontocephaline found at a mithraeum in <a href="/wiki/Ostia_Antica" title="Ostia Antica">Ostia Antica</a>, Italy (190 CE; <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_et_Monumentorum_Religionis_Mithriacae" title="Corpus Inscriptionum et Monumentorum Religionis Mithriacae">CIMRM</a><a href="#cite_note-CIMRM-1960-54">[35]</a> 312)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Siria,_sculture_del_mitreo_di_sidon,_389_dc,_krono_mitriaco_con_testa_leonina_e_spire_del_tempo_(serpente).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Siria%2C_sculture_del_mitreo_di_sidon%2C_389_dc%2C_krono_mitriaco_con_testa_leonina_e_spire_del_tempo_%28serpente%29.JPG/170px-Siria%2C_sculture_del_mitreo_di_sidon%2C_389_dc%2C_krono_mitriaco_con_testa_leonina_e_spire_del_tempo_%28serpente%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="530" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Siria%2C_sculture_del_mitreo_di_sidon%2C_389_dc%2C_krono_mitriaco_con_testa_leonina_e_spire_del_tempo_%28serpente%29.JPG/255px-Siria%2C_sculture_del_mitreo_di_sidon%2C_389_dc%2C_krono_mitriaco_con_testa_leonina_e_spire_del_tempo_%28serpente%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Siria%2C_sculture_del_mitreo_di_sidon%2C_389_dc%2C_krono_mitriaco_con_testa_leonina_e_spire_del_tempo_%28serpente%29.JPG/340px-Siria%2C_sculture_del_mitreo_di_sidon%2C_389_dc%2C_krono_mitriaco_con_testa_leonina_e_spire_del_tempo_%28serpente%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1004" data-file-height="3128" /></a><figcaption>Lion-headed figure from the <a href="/wiki/Sidon_Mithraeum" title="Sidon Mithraeum">Sidon Mithraeum</a> (500 CE; <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_et_Monumentorum_Religionis_Mithriacae" title="Corpus Inscriptionum et Monumentorum Religionis Mithriacae">CIMRM</a><a href="#cite_note-CIMRM-1960-54">[35]</a> 78 & 79; <a href="/wiki/Louvre" title="Louvre">Louvre</a>)</figcaption></figure> One of the most characteristic and poorly-understood features of the Mysteries is the naked lion-headed figure often found in Mithraic temples, named by the modern scholars with descriptive terms such as leontocephaline (lion-headed) or leontocephalus (lion-head). His body is a naked man's, entwined by a serpent (or two serpents, like a <a href="/wiki/Caduceus" title="Caduceus">caduceus</a>), with the snake's head often resting on the lion's head. The lion's mouth is often open. He is usually represented as having four wings, two keys (sometimes a single key), and a sceptre in his hand. Sometimes the figure is standing on a globe inscribed with a diagonal cross. On the figure from the Ostia Antica Mithraeum (left, <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_et_Monumentorum_Religionis_Mithriacae" title="Corpus Inscriptionum et Monumentorum Religionis Mithriacae">CIMRM</a><a href="#cite_note-CIMRM-1960-54">[35]</a> 312), the four wings carry the symbols of the four seasons, and a thunderbolt is engraved on his chest. At the base of the statue are the hammer and tongs of <a href="/wiki/Vulcan_(mythology)" title="Vulcan (mythology)">Vulcan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(mythology)" title="Mercury (mythology)">Mercury's</a> <a href="/wiki/Rooster" class="mw-redirect" title="Rooster">cock</a> and wand (<a href="/wiki/Caduceus" title="Caduceus">caduceus</a>). A rare variation of the same figure is also found with a human head and a lion's head emerging from its chest.<a href="#cite_note-von_Gall-55">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[37]</a> Although animal-headed figures are prevalent in contemporary Egyptian and Gnostic mythological representations, no exact parallel to the Mithraic leontocephaline figure has been found.<a href="#cite_note-von_Gall-55">[36]</a> Based on dedicatory inscriptions for altars, the name of the figure is conjectured to be <a href="/wiki/Arimanius" title="Arimanius">Arimanius</a>, a Latinized form of the name <a href="/wiki/Ahriman" title="Ahriman">Ahriman</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[t]</a> – perplexingly, a demonic figure in the Zoroastrian pantheon. Arimanius is known from inscriptions to have been a god in the Mithraic cult as seen, for example, in images from the <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_et_Monumentorum_Religionis_Mithriacae" title="Corpus Inscriptionum et Monumentorum Religionis Mithriacae">Corpus Inscriptionum et Monumentorum Religionis Mithriacae</a> (CIMRM<a href="#cite_note-CIMRM-1960-54">[35]</a>) such as CIMRM<a href="#cite_note-CIMRM-1960-54">[35]</a> 222 from <a href="/wiki/Ostia_Antica" title="Ostia Antica">Ostia</a>, CIMRM 369 from Rome, and CIMRM<a href="#cite_note-CIMRM-1960-54">[35]</a> 1773 and 1775 from <a href="/wiki/Pannonia" title="Pannonia">Pannonia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Jackson-58">[38]</a> Some scholars identify the lion-man as <a href="/wiki/Aion_(deity)" title="Aion (deity)">Aion</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Zurvan" class="mw-redirect" title="Zurvan">Zurvan</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Cronus" title="Cronus">Cronus</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Chronos" title="Chronos">Chronos</a>, while others assert that it is a version of the Zoroastrian <a href="/wiki/Ahriman" title="Ahriman">Ahriman</a> or the more benign Vedic <a href="/wiki/Aryaman" title="Aryaman">Aryaman</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Barnett-1975-lion-man-note-60">[u]</a> Although the exact identity of the lion-headed figure is debated by scholars, it is largely agreed that the god is associated with time and seasonal change.<a href="#cite_note-Beck-2004-Zoroastrianism-61">[40]</a>(p 94) <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rituals_and_worship">Rituals and worship</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Rituals and worship">edit</a>]</div> According to M.J. Vermaseren and C.C. van Essen, the Mithraic New Year and the birthday of Mithras was on 25 December.<a href="#cite_note-63">[v]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[w]</a> Beck disagreed strongly.<a href="#cite_note-Beck-1987-66">[43]</a>(p 299, note 12) Clauss states: <dl><dd>"The Mithraic Mysteries had no public ceremonies of its own. The festival of <a href="/wiki/Sol_Invictus#Festival_of_Dies_Natalis_Solis_Invicti" title="Sol Invictus">Natalis Invicti</a>, held on 25 December, was a general festival of <a href="/wiki/Sol_Invictus" title="Sol Invictus">the Sun</a>, and by no means specific to the Mysteries of Mithras."<a href="#cite_note-67">[44]</a></dd></dl> Mithraic initiates were required to swear an oath of secrecy and dedication.<a href="#cite_note-NovaRoma-2009-03-11-68">[45]</a> Mithras was thought to be a "warrior hero" similar to Greek <a href="/wiki/Hero" title="Hero">heroes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-69">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mithraic_catechism">Mithraic catechism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Mithraic catechism">edit</a>]</div> Apparently, some grade rituals involved the recital of a <a href="/wiki/Catechism" title="Catechism">catechism</a>, wherein the initiate was asked a series of questions pertaining to the initiation symbolism and had to reply with specific answers. An example of such a catechism, apparently pertaining to the Leo grade, was discovered in a fragmentary Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a> (Papyrus Berolinensis 21196),<a href="#cite_note-NovaRoma-2009-03-11-68">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[47]</a> and reads: <dl><dd><table> <tbody><tr> <td> <dl><dd>Verso</dd> <dd>[...] He will say: 'Where [...]?'</dd> <dd>'[...] is he at a loss there?' Say: '[...]'</dd> <dd>[...] Say: 'Night'. He will say: 'Where [...]?'</dd> <dd>[...] Say: 'All things [...]'</dd> <dd>'[...] are you called?' Say: 'Because of the summery [...]'</dd> <dd>[...] having become [...] he/it has the fiery ones</dd> <dd>'[...] did you receive?' Say: 'In a pit'. He will say: 'Where is your [...]?'</dd> <dd>'[...] [in the] Leonteion.' He will say: 'Will you gird [...]?'</dd> <dd>'[...] death'. He will say: 'Why, having girded yourself, [...]?'</dd> <dd>[...] this [has?] four tassels.</dd></dl> </td> <td> <dl><dd>Recto</dd> <dd>Very sharp and [...]</dd> <dd>[...] much. He will say: '[...]?'</dd> <dd>'[...] of the hot and cold'. He will say: '[...]?'</dd> <dd>'[...] red [...] linen'. He will say: 'Why?' Say:</dd> <dd>[...] red border; the linen, however, [...]</dd> <dd>'[...] has been wrapped?' Say: 'The savior's [...]'</dd> <dd>He will say: 'Who is the father?' Say: 'The one who [begets] everything [...]'</dd> <dd>[He will say: 'How] did you become a Leo?' Say: 'By the [...] of the father [...]'</dd> <dd>Say: 'Drink and food'. He will say: '[...]?'</dd> <dd>[...] in the seven-[...]</dd></dl> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Strasbourg-Koenigshoffen,_Second-Century_Mithraic_Relief,_Reconstruction_ca._140_CE%E2%80%93ca._160_CE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Strasbourg-Koenigshoffen%2C_Second-Century_Mithraic_Relief%2C_Reconstruction_ca._140_CE%E2%80%93ca._160_CE.jpg/220px-Strasbourg-Koenigshoffen%2C_Second-Century_Mithraic_Relief%2C_Reconstruction_ca._140_CE%E2%80%93ca._160_CE.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Strasbourg-Koenigshoffen%2C_Second-Century_Mithraic_Relief%2C_Reconstruction_ca._140_CE%E2%80%93ca._160_CE.jpg/330px-Strasbourg-Koenigshoffen%2C_Second-Century_Mithraic_Relief%2C_Reconstruction_ca._140_CE%E2%80%93ca._160_CE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Strasbourg-Koenigshoffen%2C_Second-Century_Mithraic_Relief%2C_Reconstruction_ca._140_CE%E2%80%93ca._160_CE.jpg/440px-Strasbourg-Koenigshoffen%2C_Second-Century_Mithraic_Relief%2C_Reconstruction_ca._140_CE%E2%80%93ca._160_CE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1186" data-file-height="1562" /></a><figcaption>Mithraic relief with original colors (reconstitution), <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 140 CE–160 CE; from <a href="/wiki/Argentoratum" title="Argentoratum">Argentoratum</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_arch%C3%A9ologique_(Strasbourg)" title="Musée archéologique (Strasbourg)">Strasbourg Archaeological Museum</a>.</figcaption></figure> Almost no Mithraic scripture or first-hand account of its highly secret rituals survives;<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-xxi-quote-37">[o]</a> with the exception of the aforementioned oath and catechism, and the document known as the <a href="/wiki/Mithras_Liturgy" title="Mithras Liturgy">Mithras Liturgy</a>, from 4th century Egypt, whose status as a Mithraist text has been questioned by scholars including <a href="/wiki/Franz_Cumont" title="Franz Cumont">Franz Cumont</a>.<a href="#cite_note-71">[x]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[48]</a> The walls of mithraea were commonly whitewashed, and where this survives, it tends to carry extensive repositories of <a href="/wiki/Graffiti" title="Graffiti">graffiti</a>; and these, together with inscriptions on Mithraic monuments, form the main source for Mithraic texts.<a href="#cite_note-73">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Feasting">Feasting</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Feasting">edit</a>]</div> It is clear from the archaeology of numerous mithraea that most rituals were associated with feasting – as eating utensils and food residues are almost invariably found. These tend to include both animal bones and also very large quantities of fruit residues.<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-6">[4]</a>(p 115) The presence of large amounts of cherry-stones in particular would tend to confirm mid-summer (late June, early July) as a season especially associated with Mithraic festivities. The <a href="/wiki/Virunum" title="Virunum">Virunum</a> album, in the form of an inscribed bronze plaque, records a Mithraic festival of commemoration as taking place on 26 June 184. Beck argues that religious celebrations on this date are indicative of special significance being given to the summer <a href="/wiki/Solstice" title="Solstice">solstice</a>; but this time of the year coincides with ancient recognition of the solar maximum at midsummer, when iconographically identical holidays such as <a href="/wiki/Litha" class="mw-redirect" title="Litha">Litha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saint_John%27s_Eve" title="Saint John's Eve">Saint John's Eve</a>, and <a href="/wiki/J%C4%81%C5%86i" title="Jāņi">Jāņi</a> are also observed. For their feasts, Mithraic initiates reclined on stone benches arranged along the longer sides of the mithraeum – typically there might be room for 15 to 30 diners, but very rarely many more than 40 men.<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-6">[4]</a>(p 43) Counterpart dining rooms, or <a href="/wiki/Triclinium" title="Triclinium">triclinia</a>, were to be found above ground in the precincts of almost any temple or religious sanctuary in the Roman empire, and such rooms were commonly used for their regular feasts by Roman 'clubs', or <a href="/wiki/Collegia" class="mw-redirect" title="Collegia">collegia</a>. Mithraic feasts probably performed a very similar function for Mithraists as the collegia did for those entitled to join them; indeed, since qualification for Roman collegia tended to be restricted to particular families, localities or traditional trades, Mithraism may have functioned in part as providing clubs for the unclubbed.<a href="#cite_note-74">[50]</a> The size of the mithraeum is not necessarily an indication of the size of the congregation.<a href="#cite_note-Bjørnebye-2007-45">[27]</a>(pp 12, 36) <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Altars,_iconography,_and_suspected_doctrinal_diversity">Altars, iconography, and suspected doctrinal diversity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Altars, iconography, and suspected doctrinal diversity">edit</a>]</div> Each mithraeum had several <a href="/wiki/Altar" title="Altar">altars</a> at the further end, underneath the representation of the tauroctony, and also commonly contained considerable numbers of subsidiary altars, both in the main mithraeum chamber and in the ante-chamber or <a href="/wiki/Narthex" title="Narthex">narthex</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-6">[4]</a>(p 49) These altars, which are of the standard Roman pattern, each carry a named dedicatory inscription from a particular initiate, who dedicated the altar to Mithras "in fulfillment of his vow", in gratitude for favours received. Burned residues of animal entrails are commonly found on the main altars, indicating regular sacrificial use, though mithraea do not commonly appear to have been provided with facilities for ritual slaughter of sacrificial animals (a highly specialised function in Roman religion), and it may be presumed that a mithraeum would have made arrangements for this service to be provided for them in co-operation with the professional <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion#victimarius" title="Glossary of ancient Roman religion">victimarius</a><a href="#cite_note-Price-Kearns-ODCMR-75">[51]</a>(p 568) of the civic cult. Prayers were addressed to the Sun three times a day, and Sunday was especially sacred.<a href="#cite_note-76">[52]</a> It is doubtful whether Mithraism had a monolithic and internally consistent doctrine.<a href="#cite_note-78">[y]</a> It may have varied from location to location.<a href="#cite_note-Beck-2004-InPlcLion-49">[30]</a>(p 16) The iconography is relatively coherent.<a href="#cite_note-griffithlecole-44">[26]</a> It had no predominant sanctuary or cultic centre; and, although each mithraeum had its own officers and functionaries, there was no central supervisory authority. In some mithraea, such as that at <a href="/wiki/Dura_Europos" class="mw-redirect" title="Dura Europos">Dura Europos</a>, wall paintings depict prophets carrying scrolls,<a href="#cite_note-79">[54]</a> but no named Mithraic sages are known, nor does any reference give the title of any Mithraic scripture or teaching. It is known that initiates could transfer with their grades from one Mithraeum to another.<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-6">[4]</a>(p 139) <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mithraeum">Mithraeum</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Mithraeum">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mithraeum" title="Mithraeum">Mithraeum</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ostia_Antica_Mithraeum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Ostia_Antica_Mithraeum.jpg/280px-Ostia_Antica_Mithraeum.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Ostia_Antica_Mithraeum.jpg/420px-Ostia_Antica_Mithraeum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Ostia_Antica_Mithraeum.jpg/560px-Ostia_Antica_Mithraeum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Mithraeum" title="Mithraeum">mithraeum</a> found in the ruins of <a href="/wiki/Ostia_Antica" title="Ostia Antica">Ostia Antica</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>.</figcaption></figure> Temples of Mithras are sunk below ground, windowless, and very distinctive. In cities, the basement of an apartment block might be converted; elsewhere they might be excavated and vaulted over, or converted from a natural cave. Mithraic temples are common in the empire; although unevenly distributed, with considerable numbers found in <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ostia_Antica" title="Ostia Antica">Ostia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Numidia" title="Numidia">Numidia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia_(Roman_province)" title="Dalmatia (Roman province)">Dalmatia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Britain</a> and along the Rhine/Danube frontier, while being somewhat less common in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Greece">Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Egypt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Syria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-6">[4]</a>(pp 26–27) According to Walter Burkert, the secret character of Mithraic rituals meant that Mithraism could only be practiced within a Mithraeum.<a href="#cite_note-80">[55]</a> Some new finds at <a href="/wiki/Tienen" title="Tienen">Tienen</a> show evidence of large-scale feasting and suggest that the mystery religion may not have been as secretive as was generally believed.<a href="#cite_note-jonas-secretive-81">[z]</a> For the most part, mithraea tend to be small, externally undistinguished, and cheaply constructed; the cult generally preferring to create a new centre rather than expand an existing one. The mithraeum represented the cave to which Mithras carried and then killed the bull; and where stone vaulting could not be afforded, the effect would be imitated with lath and plaster. They are commonly located close to springs or streams; fresh water appears to have been required for some Mithraic rituals, and a basin is often incorporated into the structure.<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-6">[4]</a>(p 73) There is usually a <a href="/wiki/Narthex" title="Narthex">narthex</a> or ante-chamber at the entrance, and often other ancillary rooms for storage and the preparation of food. The extant mithraea present us with actual physical remains of the architectural structures of the sacred spaces of the Mithraic cult. Mithraeum is a modern coinage and mithraists referred to their sacred structures as speleum or antrum (cave), crypta (underground hallway or corridor), fanum (sacred or holy place), or even templum (a temple or a sacred space).<a href="#cite_note-82">[aa]</a> In their basic form, mithraea were entirely different from the temples and shrines of other cults. In the standard pattern of Roman religious precincts, the temple building functioned as a house for the god, who was intended to be able to view, through the opened doors and columnar portico, sacrificial worship being offered on an altar set in an open courtyard – potentially accessible not only to initiates of the cult, but also to colitores or non-initiated worshippers.<a href="#cite_note-Price-Kearns-ODCMR-75">[51]</a>(p 493) Mithraea were the antithesis of this.<a href="#cite_note-Price-Kearns-ODCMR-75">[51]</a>(p 355) <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Degrees_of_initiation">Degrees of initiation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Degrees of initiation">edit</a>]</div> In the <a href="/wiki/Suda" title="Suda">Suda</a> under the entry Mithras, it states that "No one was permitted to be initiated into them (the mysteries of Mithras), until he should show himself holy and steadfast by undergoing several graduated tests."<a href="#cite_note-83">[56]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Nazianzen" class="mw-redirect" title="Gregory Nazianzen">Gregory Nazianzen</a> refers to the "tests in the mysteries of Mithras".<a href="#cite_note-84">[57]</a> There were seven grades of initiation into Mithraism, which are listed by St. Jerome.<a href="#cite_note-85">[58]</a> Manfred Clauss states that the number of grades, seven, must be connected to the planets. A mosaic in the Mithraeum of Felicissimus, <a href="/wiki/Ostia_Antica" title="Ostia Antica">Ostia Antica</a> depicts these grades, with symbolic emblems that are connected either to the grades or are symbols of the planets. The grades also have an inscription beside them commending each grade into the protection of the different planetary gods.<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-6">[4]</a>: 132–133  In ascending order of importance, the initiatory grades were:<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-6">[4]</a>(p 133–138) <dl><dd><table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align:bottom;"> <th>Grade </th> <th>Name </th> <th>Symbols </th> <th>Planet or tutelary deity </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Ostia_Antica" title="Ostia Antica">Ostia Antica</a> Felicissimus' mithraeum symbol mosaic </th></tr> <tr> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"> 1st </div> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Common_raven" title="Common raven">Corax</a>, Corux, or Corvex (raven or crow) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Common_raven" title="Common raven">Raven</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beaker_(archaeology)" title="Beaker (archaeology)">beaker</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caduceus" title="Caduceus">caduceus</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mercury_(mythology)" title="Mercury (mythology)">Mercury</a> </td> <td><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:36.11-1_Mosaic_1st_degree.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/36.11-1_Mosaic_1st_degree.tif/lossless-page1-150px-36.11-1_Mosaic_1st_degree.tif.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/36.11-1_Mosaic_1st_degree.tif/lossless-page1-225px-36.11-1_Mosaic_1st_degree.tif.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/36.11-1_Mosaic_1st_degree.tif/lossless-page1-300px-36.11-1_Mosaic_1st_degree.tif.png 2x" data-file-width="1077" data-file-height="1028" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"> 2nd </div> </td> <td>Nymphus, Nymphobus (<a href="/wiki/Bridegroom" title="Bridegroom">bridegroom</a>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Oil_lamp" title="Oil lamp">Lamp</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hand_bell" class="mw-redirect" title="Hand bell">hand bell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Veil" title="Veil">veil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Circlet" title="Circlet">circlet</a> or <a href="/wiki/Diadem_(personal_wear)" class="mw-redirect" title="Diadem (personal wear)">diadem</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Venus_(mythology)" title="Venus (mythology)">Venus</a> </td> <td><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:36.11-2_Mosaic_2nd_degree.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/36.11-2_Mosaic_2nd_degree.tif/lossless-page1-150px-36.11-2_Mosaic_2nd_degree.tif.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/36.11-2_Mosaic_2nd_degree.tif/lossless-page1-225px-36.11-2_Mosaic_2nd_degree.tif.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/36.11-2_Mosaic_2nd_degree.tif/lossless-page1-300px-36.11-2_Mosaic_2nd_degree.tif.png 2x" data-file-width="1297" data-file-height="1029" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"> 3rd </div> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment#Overview_of_infantry" title="Roman military personal equipment">Miles</a> (soldier) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Loculus_(satchel)" title="Loculus (satchel)">Pouch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coolus_helmet" title="Coolus helmet">helmet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pilum" title="Pilum">lance</a>, drum, belt, <a href="/wiki/Breastplate" title="Breastplate">breastplate</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mars_(mythology)" title="Mars (mythology)">Mars</a> </td> <td><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:36.11-3_Mosaic_3rd_degree.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/36.11-3_Mosaic_3rd_degree.tif/lossless-page1-150px-36.11-3_Mosaic_3rd_degree.tif.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/36.11-3_Mosaic_3rd_degree.tif/lossless-page1-225px-36.11-3_Mosaic_3rd_degree.tif.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/36.11-3_Mosaic_3rd_degree.tif/lossless-page1-300px-36.11-3_Mosaic_3rd_degree.tif.png 2x" data-file-width="1316" data-file-height="1021" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"> 4th </div> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lion" title="Lion">Leo</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lion" title="Lion">lion</a>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Batillum" title="Batillum">Batillum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sistrum" title="Sistrum">sistrum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laurel_wreath" title="Laurel wreath">laurel wreath</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thunderbolt" title="Thunderbolt">thunderbolt</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Jupiter_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jupiter (mythology)">Jupiter</a> </td> <td><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:4th_panel_Mitreo_di_Felicissimus_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/4th_panel_Mitreo_di_Felicissimus_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg/150px-4th_panel_Mitreo_di_Felicissimus_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/4th_panel_Mitreo_di_Felicissimus_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg/225px-4th_panel_Mitreo_di_Felicissimus_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/4th_panel_Mitreo_di_Felicissimus_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg/300px-4th_panel_Mitreo_di_Felicissimus_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2050" data-file-height="1540" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"> 5th </div> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Perses_(son_of_Perseus)" title="Perses (son of Perseus)">Perses</a> (<a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persian</a>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Harpe" title="Harpe">Hooked sword</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phrygian_cap" title="Phrygian cap">Phrygian cap</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sickle" title="Sickle">sickle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lunar_phase" title="Lunar phase">lunar crescent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sling_(weapon)" title="Sling (weapon)">sling</a>, pouch </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Luna_(goddess)" title="Luna (goddess)">Luna</a> </td> <td><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:5th_panel_Mitreo_di_Felicissimus_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/5th_panel_Mitreo_di_Felicissimus_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg/150px-5th_panel_Mitreo_di_Felicissimus_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/5th_panel_Mitreo_di_Felicissimus_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg/225px-5th_panel_Mitreo_di_Felicissimus_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/5th_panel_Mitreo_di_Felicissimus_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg/300px-5th_panel_Mitreo_di_Felicissimus_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2300" data-file-height="1533" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"> 6th </div> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Phaethon" title="Phaethon">Heliodromus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Missing_sun_motif" class="mw-redirect" title="Missing sun motif">sun-runner</a>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Torch" title="Torch">Torch</a>, images of <a href="/wiki/Helios" title="Helios">Helios</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radiate_crown" title="Radiate crown">radiate crown</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scourge" title="Scourge">whip</a>, <a href="/wiki/Toga" title="Toga">robes</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sol_(Roman_mythology)" title="Sol (Roman mythology)">Sol</a> </td> <td><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:6th_panel_Mitreo_di_Felicissimus_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/6th_panel_Mitreo_di_Felicissimus_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg/150px-6th_panel_Mitreo_di_Felicissimus_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/6th_panel_Mitreo_di_Felicissimus_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg/225px-6th_panel_Mitreo_di_Felicissimus_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/6th_panel_Mitreo_di_Felicissimus_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg/300px-6th_panel_Mitreo_di_Felicissimus_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"> 7th </div> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Patriarch" title="Patriarch">Pater</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hierophant" title="Hierophant">father</a>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Patera" title="Patera">Patera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mitre" title="Mitre">mitre</a>, shepherd's staff, garnet or ruby ring, <a href="/wiki/Chasuble" title="Chasuble">chasuble</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cape" title="Cape">cape</a>, elaborate jewel-encrusted robes with metallic threads </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Saturn_(mythology)" title="Saturn (mythology)">Saturn</a> </td> <td><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:7th_panel_Mitreo_di_Felicissimus_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/7th_panel_Mitreo_di_Felicissimus_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg/150px-7th_panel_Mitreo_di_Felicissimus_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/7th_panel_Mitreo_di_Felicissimus_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg/225px-7th_panel_Mitreo_di_Felicissimus_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/7th_panel_Mitreo_di_Felicissimus_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg/300px-7th_panel_Mitreo_di_Felicissimus_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2650" data-file-height="1766" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> Elsewhere, as at <a href="/wiki/Dura-Europos" title="Dura-Europos">Dura-Europos</a>, Mithraic graffiti survive giving membership lists, in which initiates of a mithraeum are named with their Mithraic grades. At Virunum, the membership list or album sacratorum was maintained as an inscribed plaque, updated year by year as new members were initiated. By cross-referencing these lists it is possible to track some initiates from one mithraeum to another; and also speculatively to identify Mithraic initiates with persons on other contemporary lists such as military service rolls and lists of devotees of non-Mithraic religious sanctuaries. Names of initiates are also found in the dedication inscriptions of altars and other cult objects. Clauss noted in 1990 that overall, only about 14% of Mithraic names inscribed before 250 CE identify the initiate's grade – and hence questioned the traditional view that all initiates belonged to one of the seven grades.<a href="#cite_note-86">[59]</a> Clauss argues that the grades represented a distinct class of priests, sacerdotes. Gordon maintains the former theory of Merkelbach and others, especially noting such examples as Dura where all names are associated with a Mithraic grade. Some scholars maintain that practice may have differed over time, or from one Mithraeum to another. The highest grade, pater, is by far the most common one found on dedications and inscriptions – and it would appear not to have been unusual for a mithraeum to have several men with this grade. The form pater patrum (father of fathers) is often found, which appears to indicate the pater with primary status. There are several examples of persons, commonly those of higher social status, joining a mithraeum with the status pater – especially in Rome during the <a href="/wiki/Julian_the_Apostate#Restoration_of_state_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Julian the Apostate">'pagan revival'</a> of the 4th century. It has been suggested that some mithraea may have awarded honorary pater status to sympathetic dignitaries.<a href="#cite_note-87">[60]</a> The initiate into each grade appears to have been required to undertake a specific ordeal or test,<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-6">[4]</a>(p 103) involving exposure to heat, cold or threatened peril. An 'ordeal pit', dating to the early 3rd century, has been identified in the mithraeum at <a href="/wiki/Carrawburgh" title="Carrawburgh">Carrawburgh</a>. Accounts of the cruelty of the emperor <a href="/wiki/Commodus" title="Commodus">Commodus</a> describes his amusing himself by enacting Mithraic initiation ordeals in homicidal form. By the later 3rd century, the enacted trials appear to have been abated in rigor, as 'ordeal pits' were floored over. Admission into the community was completed with a handshake with the pater, just as Mithras and Sol shook hands. The initiates were thus referred to as syndexioi (those united by the handshake). The term is used in an inscription by Proficentius<a href="#cite_note-claussonhandshake-4">[b]</a> and derided by <a href="/wiki/Firmicus_Maternus" class="mw-redirect" title="Firmicus Maternus">Firmicus Maternus</a> in De errore profanarum religionum,<a href="#cite_note-88">[61]</a> a 4th century Christian work attacking paganism.<a href="#cite_note-89">[62]</a> In ancient Iran, taking the right hand was the traditional way of concluding a treaty or signifying some solemn understanding between two parties.<a href="#cite_note-90">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ritual_re-enactments">Ritual re-enactments</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Ritual re-enactments">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bible_museum_-_Mithrasheiligtum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Bible_museum_-_Mithrasheiligtum.jpg/220px-Bible_museum_-_Mithrasheiligtum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Bible_museum_-_Mithrasheiligtum.jpg/330px-Bible_museum_-_Mithrasheiligtum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Bible_museum_-_Mithrasheiligtum.jpg/440px-Bible_museum_-_Mithrasheiligtum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Reconstruction of a mithraeum with a mosaic depicting the grades of initiation</figcaption></figure> Activities of the most prominent deities in Mithraic scenes, Sol and Mithras, were imitated in rituals by the two most senior officers in the cult's hierarchy, the Pater and the Heliodromus.<a href="#cite_note-Beck-2004-InPlcLion-49">[30]</a>(p 288–289) The initiates held a sacramental banquet, replicating the feast of Mithras and Sol.<a href="#cite_note-Beck-2004-InPlcLion-49">[30]</a>(p 288–289) Reliefs on a cup found in <a href="/wiki/Mainz" title="Mainz">Mainz</a><a href="#cite_note-Beck-2000-91">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[65]</a> appear to depict a Mithraic initiation. On the cup, the initiate is depicted as being led into a location where a Pater would be seated in the guise of Mithras with a drawn bow. Accompanying the initiate is a <a href="/wiki/Mystagogue" title="Mystagogue">mystagogue</a>, who explains the symbolism and theology to the initiate. The Rite is thought to re-enact what has come to be called the 'Water Miracle', in which Mithras fires a bolt into a rock, and from the rock now spouts water. Roger Beck has hypothesized a third processional Mithraic ritual, based on the Mainz cup and Porphyrys. This scene, called 'Procession of the Sun-Runner', shows the Heliodromus escorted by two figures representing Cautes and Cautopates (see below) and preceded by an initiate of the grade Miles leading a ritual enactment of the solar journey around the mithraeum, which was intended to represent the cosmos.<a href="#cite_note-93">[66]</a> Consequently, it has been argued that most Mithraic rituals involved a re-enactment by the initiates of episodes in the Mithras narrative,<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-6">[4]</a>(pp 62–101) a narrative whose main elements were: birth from the rock, striking water from stone with an arrow shot, the killing of the bull, Sol's submission to Mithras, Mithras and Sol feasting on the bull, the ascent of Mithras to heaven in a chariot. A noticeable feature of this narrative (and of its regular depiction in surviving sets of relief carvings) is the absence of female personages (the sole exception being <a href="/wiki/Luna_(goddess)" title="Luna (goddess)">Luna</a> watching the tauroctony in the upper corner opposite <a href="/wiki/Helios" title="Helios">Helios</a>, and the presumable presence of <a href="/wiki/Venus_(mythology)" title="Venus (mythology)">Venus</a> as patroness of the nymphus grade).<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-6">[4]</a>(p 33) <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Membership">Membership</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Membership">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mithraic_Low_Relief_-_Setif,_Algeria.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Mithraic_Low_Relief_-_Setif%2C_Algeria.png/220px-Mithraic_Low_Relief_-_Setif%2C_Algeria.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Mithraic_Low_Relief_-_Setif%2C_Algeria.png/330px-Mithraic_Low_Relief_-_Setif%2C_Algeria.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Mithraic_Low_Relief_-_Setif%2C_Algeria.png/440px-Mithraic_Low_Relief_-_Setif%2C_Algeria.png 2x" data-file-width="1072" data-file-height="1228" /></a><figcaption>Another dedication to Mithras by legionaries of <a href="/wiki/Legio_II_Herculia" title="Legio II Herculia">Legio II Herculia</a> has been excavated at Sitifis (modern <a href="/wiki/Setif" class="mw-redirect" title="Setif">Setif</a> in <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>), so the unit or a subunit must have been transferred at least once.</figcaption></figure> Only male names appear in surviving inscribed membership lists. Historians including Cumont and Richard Gordon have concluded that the cult was for men only.<a href="#cite_note-95">[ab]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[ac]</a> The ancient scholar <a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyry</a> refers to female initiates in Mithraic rites.<a href="#cite_note-98">[ad]</a> The early 20th-century historian A.S. Geden wrote that this may be due to a misunderstanding.<a href="#cite_note-Geden-1925-2004-3">[2]</a> According to Geden, while the participation of women in the ritual was not unknown in the Eastern cults, the predominant military influence in Mithraism makes it unlikely in this instance.<a href="#cite_note-Geden-1925-2004-3">[2]</a> It has recently been suggested by David Jonathan that "Women were involved with Mithraic groups in at least some locations of the empire."<a href="#cite_note-David_2000-99">[69]</a>(p 121) Soldiers were strongly represented amongst Mithraists, and also merchants, customs officials and minor bureaucrats. Few, if any, initiates came from leading aristocratic or senatorial families until the 'pagan revival' of the mid-4th century; but there were always considerable numbers of freedmen and slaves.<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-6">[4]</a>(p 39) <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethics">Ethics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Ethics">edit</a>]</div> Clauss suggests that a statement by Porphyry, that people initiated into the Lion grade must keep their hands pure from everything that brings pain and harm and is impure, means that moral demands were made upon members of congregations.<a href="#cite_note-100">[ae]</a> A passage in the Caesares of <a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian the Apostate</a> refers to "commandments of Mithras".<a href="#cite_note-101">[af]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a>, in his treatise "On the Military Crown" records that Mithraists in the army were officially excused from wearing celebratory coronets on the basis of the Mithraic initiation ritual that included refusing a proffered crown, because "their only crown was Mithras".<a href="#cite_note-102">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_and_development">History and development</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: History and development">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mithras_before_the_Roman_Mysteries">Mithras before the Roman Mysteries</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Mithras before the Roman Mysteries">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mithra%26Antiochus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Mithra%26Antiochus.jpg/220px-Mithra%26Antiochus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="325" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Mithra%26Antiochus.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="443" /></a><figcaption>Mithras-Helios, with solar rays and in Iranian dress,<a href="#cite_note-Grenet-2016-EncIranica-103">[71]</a> with Antiochus I of <a href="/wiki/Commagene" title="Commagene">Commagene</a>. (<a href="/wiki/Mount_Nemrut" title="Mount Nemrut">Mt. Nemrut</a>, 1st century BCE)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taq-e_Bostan_-_High-relief_of_Ardeshir_II_investiture.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Taq-e_Bostan_-_High-relief_of_Ardeshir_II_investiture.jpg/220px-Taq-e_Bostan_-_High-relief_of_Ardeshir_II_investiture.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Taq-e_Bostan_-_High-relief_of_Ardeshir_II_investiture.jpg/330px-Taq-e_Bostan_-_High-relief_of_Ardeshir_II_investiture.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Taq-e_Bostan_-_High-relief_of_Ardeshir_II_investiture.jpg/440px-Taq-e_Bostan_-_High-relief_of_Ardeshir_II_investiture.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="920" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Coronation_of_Ardashir_II" title="Coronation of Ardashir II">4th-century relief of the investiture</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a> king <a href="/wiki/Ardashir_II" title="Ardashir II">Ardashir II</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mithra" title="Mithra">Mithra</a> stands on a <a href="/wiki/Lotus_Flower" class="mw-redirect" title="Lotus Flower">Lotus Flower</a> on the left holding a <a href="/wiki/Barsom" title="Barsom">Barsom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Grenet-2016-EncIranica-103">[71]</a></figcaption></figure> According to the archaeologist Maarten Vermaseren, evidence from <a href="/wiki/Commagene" title="Commagene">Commagene</a> from the 1st century BCE demonstrates the "reverence paid to Mithras" but does not refer to "the mysteries".<a href="#cite_note-105">[ag]</a> In the colossal statuary erected by King <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_I_of_Commagene" title="Antiochus I of Commagene">Antiochus I</a> (69–34 BCE) at <a href="/wiki/Mount_Nemrut" title="Mount Nemrut">Mount Nemrut</a>, Mithras is shown beardless, wearing a <a href="/wiki/Phrygian_cap" title="Phrygian cap">Phrygian cap</a><a href="#cite_note-hopfe-5-5">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-CIMRM_29-106">[73]</a> (or the similar headdress – a Persian <a href="/wiki/Tiara" title="Tiara">tiara</a>), in <a href="/wiki/Iranian_clothing" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian clothing">Iranian</a> (Parthian) clothing,<a href="#cite_note-Grenet-2016-EncIranica-103">[71]</a> and was originally seated on a throne alongside other deities and the king himself.<a href="#cite_note-107">[74]</a> On the back of the thrones there is an inscription in Greek, which includes the compound name Apollo-Mithras-Helios in the genitive case (Ἀπόλλωνος Μίθρου Ἡλίου).<a href="#cite_note-108">[75]</a> Vermaseren also reports about a Mithras cult in Fayum in the 3rd century BCE <a href="#cite_note-Barnett-1975-59">[39]</a>(p 467) R.D. Barnett has argued that the royal seal of King Saussatar of the <a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a> from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1450 BCE depicts a tauroctonous Mithras.<a href="#cite_note-109">[ah]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beginnings_of_Roman_Mithraism">Beginnings of Roman Mithraism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Beginnings of Roman Mithraism">edit</a>]</div> The origins and spread of the Mysteries have been intensely debated among scholars and there are radically differing views on these issues.<a href="#cite_note-110">[76]</a> According to Clauss, mysteries of Mithras were not practiced until the 1st century CE.<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-6">[4]</a> According to Ulansey, the earliest evidence for the Mithraic mysteries places their appearance in the middle of the 1st century BCE: The historian Plutarch says that in 67 BCE the <a href="/wiki/Cilician_pirates" title="Cilician pirates">pirates of Cilicia</a> (a province on the southeastern coast of Asia Minor, that provided sea access to adjacent Commagene) were practicing "secret rites" of Mithras.<a href="#cite_note-112">[ai]</a> According to C.M. Daniels,<a href="#cite_note-Daniels-1975-113">[78]</a> whether any of this relates to the origins of the mysteries is unclear.<a href="#cite_note-114">[aj]</a> The unique underground temples or mithraea appear suddenly in the archaeology in the last quarter of the 1st century CE.<a href="#cite_note-115">[79]</a>(p 118) <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Earliest_archaeology">Earliest archaeology</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Earliest archaeology">edit</a>]</div> Inscriptions and monuments related to the Mithraic Mysteries are catalogued in a two volume work by Maarten J. Vermaseren, the <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_et_Monumentorum_Religionis_Mithriacae" title="Corpus Inscriptionum et Monumentorum Religionis Mithriacae">Corpus Inscriptionum et Monumentorum Religionis Mithriacae</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_et_Monumentorum_Religionis_Mithriacae" title="Corpus Inscriptionum et Monumentorum Religionis Mithriacae">CIMRM</a>).<a href="#cite_note-CIMRM-1960-54">[35]</a> The earliest monument showing Mithras slaying the bull is thought to be <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_et_Monumentorum_Religionis_Mithriacae" title="Corpus Inscriptionum et Monumentorum Religionis Mithriacae">CIMRM</a> 593, found in Rome. There is no date, but the inscription tells us that it was dedicated by a certain Alcimus, steward of T. Claudius Livianus. Vermaseren and Gordon believe that this Livianus is a certain Livianus who was commander of the Praetorian guard in 101 CE, which would give an earliest date of 98–99 CE.<a href="#cite_note-116">[80]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stela_funerara_MItra_MNIR.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Stela_funerara_MItra_MNIR.JPG/220px-Stela_funerara_MItra_MNIR.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Stela_funerara_MItra_MNIR.JPG/330px-Stela_funerara_MItra_MNIR.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Stela_funerara_MItra_MNIR.JPG/440px-Stela_funerara_MItra_MNIR.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="3888" /></a><figcaption>Votive altar from <a href="/wiki/Alba_Iulia" title="Alba Iulia">Alba Iulia</a> in present-day Romania, dedicated to Invicto Mythrae in fulfillment of a vow (<a href="/wiki/Votum" title="Votum">votum</a>)</figcaption></figure>Five small terracotta plaques of a figure holding a knife over a bull have been excavated near <a href="/wiki/Kerch" title="Kerch">Kerch</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a>, dated by Beskow and Clauss to the second half of the 1st century BCE,<a href="#cite_note-119">[ak]</a> and by Beck to 50 BCE – 50 CE. These may be the earliest tauroctonies, if they are accepted to be a depiction of Mithras.<a href="#cite_note-121">[al]</a> The bull-slaying figure wears a Phrygian cap, but is described by Beck and Beskow as otherwise unlike standard depictions of the tauroctony. Another reason for not connecting these artifacts with the Mithraic Mysteries is that the first of these plaques was found in a woman's tomb.<a href="#cite_note-122">[am]</a> An altar or block from near SS. Pietro e Marcellino on the Esquiline in Rome was inscribed with a bilingual inscription by an Imperial freedman named T. Flavius Hyginus, probably between 80 and 100 CE. It is dedicated to Sol Invictus Mithras.<a href="#cite_note-123">[an]</a> <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_et_Monumentorum_Religionis_Mithriacae" title="Corpus Inscriptionum et Monumentorum Religionis Mithriacae">CIMRM</a><a href="#cite_note-CIMRM-1960-54">[35]</a> 2268 is a broken base or altar from Novae/Steklen in Moesia Inferior, dated 100 CE, showing Cautes and Cautopates. Other early archaeology includes the Greek inscription from Venosia by Sagaris actor probably from 100–150 CE; the Sidon cippus dedicated by Theodotus priest of Mithras to Asclepius, 140–141 CE; and the earliest military inscription, by C. Sacidius Barbarus, centurion of XV Apollinaris, from the bank of the Danube at <a href="/wiki/Carnuntum" title="Carnuntum">Carnuntum</a>, probably before 114 CE.<a href="#cite_note-Gordon-1978-23">[14]</a>(p 150) According to C.M. Daniels,<a href="#cite_note-Daniels-1975-113">[78]</a> the Carnuntum inscription is the earliest Mithraic dedication from the Danube region, which along with Italy is one of the two regions where Mithraism first struck root.<a href="#cite_note-124">[ao]</a> The earliest dateable mithraeum outside Rome dates from 148 CE.<a href="#cite_note-125">[ap]</a> The Mithraeum at Caesarea Maritima is the only one in Palestine and the date is inferred.<a href="#cite_note-127">[aq]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Earliest_cult_locations">Earliest cult locations</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Earliest cult locations">edit</a>]</div> According to Roger Beck, the attested locations of the Roman cult in the earliest phase (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 80–120 CE) are as follows:<a href="#cite_note-Beck-2004-InPlcLion-49">[30]</a>(pp <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SIYTfTYrs1UC&dq=%22The+attested+locations+of+the+cult+in+the+earliest+phase+%28c.+80-120%29+are+as+follows%22&pg=PA34">34–35</a>) Mithraea datable from pottery <ul><li>Nida/Heddernheim III (<a href="/wiki/Germania" title="Germania">Germania</a> Sup.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mogontiacum" class="mw-redirect" title="Mogontiacum">Mogontiacum</a> (Germania Sup.)</li> <li>Pons Aeni (<a href="/wiki/Noricum" title="Noricum">Noricum</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesarea_Maritima" title="Caesarea Maritima">Caesarea Maritima</a> (<a href="/wiki/Judaea" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaea">Judaea</a>)</li></ul> Datable dedications <ul><li>Nida/Heddernheim I (Germania Sup.) (<a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_et_Monumentorum_Religionis_Mithriacae" title="Corpus Inscriptionum et Monumentorum Religionis Mithriacae">CIMRM</a><a href="#cite_note-CIMRM-1960-54">[35]</a> 1091, 1092, & 1098)</li> <li>Carnuntum III (<a href="/wiki/Pannonia" title="Pannonia">Pannonia</a> Sup.) (<a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_et_Monumentorum_Religionis_Mithriacae" title="Corpus Inscriptionum et Monumentorum Religionis Mithriacae">CIMRM</a><a href="#cite_note-CIMRM-1960-54">[35]</a> 1718)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novae_(fortress)" title="Novae (fortress)">Novae</a> (<a href="/wiki/Moesia" title="Moesia">Moesia</a> Inf.) (<a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_et_Monumentorum_Religionis_Mithriacae" title="Corpus Inscriptionum et Monumentorum Religionis Mithriacae">CIMRM</a><a href="#cite_note-CIMRM-1960-54">[35]</a> 2268 & 2269)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oescus" title="Oescus">Oescus</a> (Moesia Inf.) (<a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_et_Monumentorum_Religionis_Mithriacae" title="Corpus Inscriptionum et Monumentorum Religionis Mithriacae">CIMRM</a> 2250)</li> <li>Rome (<a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_et_Monumentorum_Religionis_Mithriacae" title="Corpus Inscriptionum et Monumentorum Religionis Mithriacae">CIMRM</a><a href="#cite_note-CIMRM-1960-54">[35]</a> 362, 593, & 594)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_literature_about_Mithras_and_the_Mysteries">Classical literature about Mithras and the Mysteries</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Classical literature about Mithras and the Mysteries">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fresque_Mithraeum_Marino.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Fresque_Mithraeum_Marino.jpg/280px-Fresque_Mithraeum_Marino.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Fresque_Mithraeum_Marino.jpg/420px-Fresque_Mithraeum_Marino.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Fresque_Mithraeum_Marino.jpg/560px-Fresque_Mithraeum_Marino.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3224" data-file-height="2160" /></a><figcaption>Mithras and the Bull: This fresco from the <a href="/wiki/Mithraeum" title="Mithraeum">mithraeum</a> at Marino, Italy (third century) shows the tauroctony and the celestial lining of Mithras' cape.</figcaption></figure> According to <a href="/wiki/Mary_Boyce" title="Mary Boyce">Boyce</a>, the earliest literary references to the mysteries are by the Latin poet Statius, about 80 CE, and Plutarch (c. 100 CE).<a href="#cite_note-Boyce-Grenet-1975-35">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[ar]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Statius">Statius</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Statius">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Thebaid_(Latin_poem)" title="Thebaid (Latin poem)">Thebaid</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 80 CE<a href="#cite_note-Ulansey-1991-Origins-12">[9]</a>(p 29)) an epic poem by <a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a>, pictures Mithras in a cave, wrestling with something that has horns.<a href="#cite_note-129">[85]</a> The context is a prayer to the god <a href="/wiki/Phoebus" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoebus">Phoebus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-130">[86]</a> The cave is described as persei, which in this context is usually translated Persian. According to the translator J.H. Mozley it literally means Persean, referring to <a href="/wiki/Perses_(son_of_Andromeda_and_Perseus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Perses (son of Andromeda and Perseus)">Perses</a>, the son of <a href="/wiki/Perseus" title="Perseus">Perseus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Andromeda_(mythology)" title="Andromeda (mythology)">Andromeda</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Ulansey-1991-Origins-12">[9]</a>(p 29) this Perses being the ancestor of the Persians according to Greek legend.<a href="#cite_note-Ulansey-1991-Origins-12">[9]</a>(pp 27–29) <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Justin_Martyr">Justin Martyr</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Justin Martyr">edit</a>]</div> Writing in approximately 145 CE, the early <a href="/wiki/Christian_apologetics" title="Christian apologetics">Christian apologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a> charges the cult of Mithras with imitating the <a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Christian communion</a>, <dl><dd>Which the wicked devils have imitated in the mysteries of Mithras, commanding the same things to be done. For, that bread and a cup of water are placed, with certain incantations, in the mystic rites of one who is being initiated, you either know or can learn.<a href="#cite_note-131">[87]</a></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Plutarch">Plutarch</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Plutarch">edit</a>]</div> The Greek biographer <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> (46–127 CE) says that "secret mysteries ... of Mithras" were practiced by the pirates of <a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a>, the coastal province in the southeast of <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, who were active in the 1st century BCE: "They likewise offered strange sacrifices; those of Olympus I mean; and they celebrated certain secret mysteries, among which those of Mithras continue to this day, being originally instituted by them."<a href="#cite_note-Life_of_Pompey_24-132">[88]</a> He mentions that the pirates were especially active during the <a href="/wiki/Mithridatic_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithridatic wars">Mithridatic wars</a> (between the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> and King <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_VI_of_Pontus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithridates VI of Pontus">Mithridates VI of Pontus</a>) in which they supported the king.<a href="#cite_note-Life_of_Pompey_24-132">[88]</a> The association between Mithridates and the pirates is also mentioned by the ancient historian <a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-133">[89]</a> The 4th century commentary on <a href="/wiki/Vergil" class="mw-redirect" title="Vergil">Vergil</a> by <a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a> says that <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a> settled some of these pirates in <a href="/wiki/Calabria" title="Calabria">Calabria</a> in southern Italy.<a href="#cite_note-134">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dio_Cassius">Dio Cassius</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Dio Cassius">edit</a>]</div> The historian <a href="/wiki/Dio_Cassius" class="mw-redirect" title="Dio Cassius">Dio Cassius</a> (2nd to 3rd century CE) tells how the name of Mithras was spoken during the state visit to Rome of <a href="/wiki/Tiridates_I_of_Armenia" title="Tiridates I of Armenia">Tiridates I of Armenia</a>, during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a>. (Tiridates was the son of <a href="/wiki/Vonones_II_of_Parthia" class="mw-redirect" title="Vonones II of Parthia">Vonones II of Parthia</a>, and his coronation by Nero in 66 CE confirmed the end of a war between <a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthia</a> and Rome.) Dio Cassius writes that Tiridates, as he was about to receive his crown, told the Roman emperor that he revered him "as Mithras".<a href="#cite_note-135">[91]</a> Roger Beck thinks it possible that this episode contributed to the emergence of Mithraism as a popular religion in Rome.<a href="#cite_note-137">[as]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Porphyry">Porphyry</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Porphyry">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_-_Fragment_of_a_Mosaic_with_Mithras_-_Walters_437.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Roman_-_Fragment_of_a_Mosaic_with_Mithras_-_Walters_437.jpg/220px-Roman_-_Fragment_of_a_Mosaic_with_Mithras_-_Walters_437.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Roman_-_Fragment_of_a_Mosaic_with_Mithras_-_Walters_437.jpg/330px-Roman_-_Fragment_of_a_Mosaic_with_Mithras_-_Walters_437.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Roman_-_Fragment_of_a_Mosaic_with_Mithras_-_Walters_437.jpg/440px-Roman_-_Fragment_of_a_Mosaic_with_Mithras_-_Walters_437.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1628" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>Mosaic (1st century CE) depicting Mithras emerging from his cave and flanked by Cautes and Cautopates (<a href="/wiki/Walters_Art_Museum" title="Walters Art Museum">Walters Art Museum</a>)</figcaption></figure> The philosopher <a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyry</a> (3rd–4th century CE) gives an account of the origins of the Mysteries in his work <a href="/wiki/On_the_Cave_of_the_Nymphs_in_the_Odyssey" title="On the Cave of the Nymphs in the Odyssey">De antro nympharum</a> (The Cave of the Nymphs).<a href="#cite_note-deantro2-138">[93]</a> Citing Eubulus as his source, Porphyry writes that the original temple of Mithras was a natural cave, containing fountains, which <a href="/wiki/Zoroaster" title="Zoroaster">Zoroaster</a> found in the mountains of Persia. To Zoroaster, this cave was an image of the whole world, so he consecrated it to Mithras, the creator of the world. Later in the same work, Porphyry links Mithras and the bull with planets and star-signs: Mithras himself is associated with the sign of <a href="/wiki/Aries_(astrology)" title="Aries (astrology)">Aries</a> and the planet <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a>, while the bull is associated with <a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-139">[at]</a> Porphyry is writing close to the demise of the cult, and Robert Turcan has challenged the idea that Porphyry's statements about Mithraism are accurate. His case is that far from representing what Mithraists believed, they are merely representations by the Neoplatonists of what it suited them in the late 4th century to read into the mysteries.<a href="#cite_note-140">[94]</a> Merkelbach & Beck believed Porphyry's work "is in fact thoroughly coloured with the doctrines of the Mysteries".<a href="#cite_note-Beck-1987-66">[43]</a>(p 308 note 37) Beck holds that classical scholars have neglected Porphyry's evidence and have taken an unnecessarily skeptical view of Porphyry.<a href="#cite_note-141">[95]</a> According to Beck, Porphyry's De antro is the only clear text from antiquity which tells us about the intent of the Mithraic mysteries and how that intent was realized.<a href="#cite_note-143">[au]</a> David Ulansey finds it important that Porphyry "confirms ... that astral conceptions played an important role in Mithraism."<a href="#cite_note-Ulansey-1991-Origins-12">[9]</a>(p 18) <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mithras_Liturgy">Mithras Liturgy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Mithras Liturgy">edit</a>]</div> In later antiquity, the Greek name of Mithras (Μίθρας) occurs in the text known as the "<a href="/wiki/Mithras_Liturgy" title="Mithras Liturgy">Mithras Liturgy</a>", a part of the <a href="/wiki/Greek_Magical_Papyri" title="Greek Magical Papyri">Paris Greek Magical Papyrus</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[97]</a> here Mithras is given the epithet "the great god", and is identified with the sun god <a href="/wiki/Helios" title="Helios">Helios</a>.<a href="#cite_note-146">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[100]</a> There have been different views among scholars as to whether this text is an expression of Mithraism as such. <a href="/wiki/Franz_Cumont" title="Franz Cumont">Franz Cumont</a> argued that it isn't;<a href="#cite_note-Mthrs-Ltrg-2003-148">[101]</a>(p 12) <a href="/wiki/Marvin_Meyer" title="Marvin Meyer">Marvin Meyer</a> thinks it is;<a href="#cite_note-Meyer-2006-145">[98]</a>(pp 180–182) while <a href="/wiki/Hans_Dieter_Betz" title="Hans Dieter Betz">Hans Dieter Betz</a> sees it as a synthesis of Greek, Egyptian, and Mithraic traditions.<a href="#cite_note-Mthrs-Ltrg-2003-148">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_debate_on_origin">Modern debate on origin</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Modern debate on origin">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cumont's_hypothesis:_from_Persian_state_religion">Cumont's hypothesis: from Persian state religion</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Cumont's hypothesis: from Persian state religion">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_-_Intaglio_of_a_Mithraic_Sacrifice_-_Walters_421342.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Greek_-_Intaglio_of_a_Mithraic_Sacrifice_-_Walters_421342.jpg/220px-Greek_-_Intaglio_of_a_Mithraic_Sacrifice_-_Walters_421342.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Greek_-_Intaglio_of_a_Mithraic_Sacrifice_-_Walters_421342.jpg/330px-Greek_-_Intaglio_of_a_Mithraic_Sacrifice_-_Walters_421342.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Greek_-_Intaglio_of_a_Mithraic_Sacrifice_-_Walters_421342.jpg/440px-Greek_-_Intaglio_of_a_Mithraic_Sacrifice_-_Walters_421342.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1387" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustan</a>-era <a href="/wiki/Engraved_gem" title="Engraved gem">intaglio</a> depicting a tauroctony (<a href="/wiki/Walters_Art_Museum" title="Walters Art Museum">Walters Art Museum</a>)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taq-e_Bostan_-_High-relief_of_Ardeshir_II_investiture.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Taq-e_Bostan_-_High-relief_of_Ardeshir_II_investiture.jpg/220px-Taq-e_Bostan_-_High-relief_of_Ardeshir_II_investiture.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Taq-e_Bostan_-_High-relief_of_Ardeshir_II_investiture.jpg/330px-Taq-e_Bostan_-_High-relief_of_Ardeshir_II_investiture.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Taq-e_Bostan_-_High-relief_of_Ardeshir_II_investiture.jpg/440px-Taq-e_Bostan_-_High-relief_of_Ardeshir_II_investiture.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="920" /></a><figcaption>4th-century relief of the investiture of the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a> king <a href="/wiki/Ardashir_II" title="Ardashir II">Ardashir II</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mithra" title="Mithra">Mithra</a> stands on a <a href="/wiki/Lotus_flower" class="mw-redirect" title="Lotus flower">lotus flower</a> on the left holding a <a href="/wiki/Barsom" title="Barsom">barsom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-iranica-150">[103]</a></figcaption></figure> Scholarship on Mithras begins with <a href="/wiki/Franz_Cumont" title="Franz Cumont">Franz Cumont</a>, who published a two volume collection of source texts and images of monuments in French in 1894–1900, Textes et monuments figurés relatifs aux mystères de Mithra [French: Texts and Illustrated Monuments Relating to the Mysteries of Mithra].<a href="#cite_note-151">[104]</a> An English translation of part of this work was published in 1903, with the title The Mysteries of Mithra.<a href="#cite_note-152">[105]</a> Cumont's hypothesis, as the author summarizes it in the first 32 pages of his book, was that the Roman religion was "the Roman form of <a href="/wiki/Mazdaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mazdaism">Mazdaism</a>",<a href="#cite_note-Beck-1987-66">[43]</a>(p 298) the Persian state religion, disseminated from the East. He identified the ancient <a href="/wiki/Aryan" title="Aryan">Aryan</a> deity who appears in Persian literature as Mithras with the Hindu god <a href="/wiki/Mitra_(Vedic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitra (Vedic)">Mitra</a> of the Vedic hymns.<a href="#cite_note-RichardsonHopfe1994-3-153">[106]</a> According to Cumont, the god <a href="/wiki/Mithra" title="Mithra">Mithra</a> came to Rome "accompanied by a large representation of the Mazdean Pantheon."<a href="#cite_note-154">[107]</a> Cumont considers that while the tradition "underwent some modification in the Occident ... the alterations that it suffered were largely superficial."<a href="#cite_note-155">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Criticisms_and_reassessments_of_Cumont">Criticisms and reassessments of Cumont</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Criticisms and reassessments of Cumont">edit</a>]</div> Cumont's theories came in for severe criticism from John R. Hinnells and R.L. Gordon at the First International Congress of Mithraic Studies held in 1971.<a href="#cite_note-156">[av]</a> John Hinnells was unwilling to reject entirely the idea of Iranian origin,<a href="#cite_note-157">[109]</a> but wrote: "we must now conclude that his reconstruction simply will not stand. It receives no support from the Iranian material and is in fact in conflict with the ideas of that tradition as they are represented in the extant texts. Above all, it is a theoretical reconstruction which does not accord with the actual Roman iconography."<a href="#cite_note-159">[aw]</a> He discussed Cumont's reconstruction of the bull-slaying scene and stated "that the portrayal of Mithras given by Cumont is not merely unsupported by Iranian texts but is actually in serious conflict with known Iranian theology."<a href="#cite_note-160">[ax]</a> Another paper by R.L. Gordon argued that Cumont severely distorted the available evidence by forcing the material to conform to his predetermined model of Zoroastrian origins. Gordon suggested that the theory of Persian origins was completely invalid and that the Mithraic mysteries in the West were an entirely new creation.<a href="#cite_note-161">[111]</a> A similar view has been expressed by Luther H. Martin: "Apart from the name of the god himself, in other words, Mithraism seems to have developed largely in and is, therefore, best understood from the context of Roman culture."<a href="#cite_note-162">[112]</a>(p xiv) According to Hopfe, "All theories of the origin of Mithraism acknowledge a connection, however vague, to the Mithra/Mitra figure of ancient <a href="/wiki/Aryan" title="Aryan">Aryan</a> religion."<a href="#cite_note-RichardsonHopfe1994-4-28">[17]</a> Reporting on the Second International Congress of Mithraic Studies, 1975, Ugo Bianchi says that although he welcomes "the tendency to question in historical terms the relations between Eastern and Western Mithraism", it "should not mean obliterating what was clear to the Romans themselves, that Mithras was a 'Persian' (in wider perspective: an Indo-Iranian) god."<a href="#cite_note-163">[113]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mary_Boyce" title="Mary Boyce">Boyce</a> wrote, "no satisfactory evidence has yet been adduced to show that, before Zoroaster, the concept of a supreme god existed among the Iranians, or that among them <a href="/wiki/Mithra" title="Mithra">Mithra</a> – or any other divinity – ever enjoyed a separate cult of his or her own outside either their ancient or their Zoroastrian pantheons."<a href="#cite_note-164">[114]</a> She also said that although recent studies have minimized the Iranizing aspects of the self-consciously Persian religion "at least in the form which it attained under the Roman Empire", the name Mithras is enough to show "that this aspect is of some importance." She also says that "the Persian affiliation of the Mysteries is acknowledged in the earliest literary references to them."<a href="#cite_note-Boyce-Grenet-1975-35">[22]</a> Beck tells us that since the 1970s scholars have generally rejected Cumont, but adds that recent theories about how Zoroastrianism was during the period BCE now make some new form of Cumont's east–west transfer possible.<a href="#cite_note-165">[ay]</a> He says that <blockquote>... an indubitable residuum of things Persian in the Mysteries and a better knowledge of what constituted actual Mazdaism have allowed modern scholars to postulate for Roman Mithraism a continuing Iranian theology. This indeed is the main line of Mithraic scholarship, the Cumontian model which subsequent scholars accept, modify, or reject. For the transmission of Iranian doctrine from East to West, Cumont postulated a plausible, if hypothetical, intermediary: the Magusaeans of the Iranian diaspora in Anatolia. More problematic – and never properly addressed by Cumont or his successors – is how real-life Roman Mithraists subsequently maintained a quite complex and sophisticated Iranian theology behind an occidental facade. Other than the images at Dura of the two 'magi' with scrolls, there is no direct and explicit evidence for the carriers of such doctrines. ... Up to a point, Cumont's Iranian paradigm, especially in Turcan's modified form, is certainly plausible.<a href="#cite_note-166">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-167">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-168">[117]</a></blockquote> He also says that "the old Cumontian model of formation in, and diffusion from, Anatolia ... is by no means dead – nor should it be."<a href="#cite_note-169">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Modern_theories">Modern theories</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Modern theories">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Musei_Vaticani_-_Mithra_-_Sol_invictus_01136.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Musei_Vaticani_-_Mithra_-_Sol_invictus_01136.JPG/280px-Musei_Vaticani_-_Mithra_-_Sol_invictus_01136.JPG" decoding="async" width="280" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Musei_Vaticani_-_Mithra_-_Sol_invictus_01136.JPG/420px-Musei_Vaticani_-_Mithra_-_Sol_invictus_01136.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Musei_Vaticani_-_Mithra_-_Sol_invictus_01136.JPG/560px-Musei_Vaticani_-_Mithra_-_Sol_invictus_01136.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="1384" /></a><figcaption>Bas-relief depicting the tauroctony. Mithras is depicted looking to Sol Invictus as he slays the bull. Sol and Luna appear at the top of the relief.</figcaption></figure> Beck theorizes that the cult was created in Rome, by a single founder who had some knowledge of both Greek and Oriental religion, but suggests that some of the ideas used may have passed through the Hellenistic kingdoms. He observes that "Mithras – moreover, a Mithras who was identified with the Greek Sun god <a href="/wiki/Helios" title="Helios">Helios</a>" was among the gods of the syncretic Greco-Armenian-Iranian royal cult at <a href="/wiki/Mount_Nemrut" title="Mount Nemrut">Nemrut</a>, founded by <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_I_Theos_of_Commagene" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiochus I Theos of Commagene">Antiochus I</a> of <a href="/wiki/Commagene" title="Commagene">Commagene</a> in the mid 1st century BCE.<a href="#cite_note-Beck_2002-170">[119]</a> While proposing the theory, Beck says that his scenario may be regarded as Cumontian in two ways. Firstly, because it looks again at Anatolia and Anatolians, and more importantly, because it hews back to the methodology first used by Cumont.<a href="#cite_note-171">[120]</a> Merkelbach suggests that its mysteries were essentially created by a particular person or persons<a href="#cite_note-172">[121]</a> and created in a specific place, the city of Rome, by someone from an eastern province or border state who knew the <a href="/wiki/Persian_mythology" title="Persian mythology">Iranian myths</a> in detail, which he wove into his new grades of initiation; but that he must have been Greek and Greek-speaking because he incorporated elements of Greek <a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a> into it. The myths, he suggests, were probably created in the milieu of the imperial bureaucracy, and for its members.<a href="#cite_note-173">[122]</a> Clauss tends to agree. Beck calls this "the most likely scenario" and states "Until now, Mithraism has generally been treated as if it somehow evolved <a href="/wiki/Uncle_Tom%27s_Cabin#Other_characters" title="Uncle Tom's Cabin">Topsy</a>-like from its Iranian precursor – a most implausible scenario once it is stated explicitly."<a href="#cite_note-Beck-1987-66">[43]</a>(pp 304, 306) Archaeologist Lewis M. Hopfe notes that there are only three mithraea in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Roman Syria</a>, in contrast to further west. He writes: "Archaeology indicates that Roman Mithraism had its epicenter in Rome ... the fully developed religion known as Mithraism seems to have begun in Rome and been carried to Syria by soldiers and merchants."<a href="#cite_note-174">[az]</a> Taking a different view from other modern scholars, Ulansey argues that the Mithraic mysteries began in the Greco-Roman world as a religious response to the discovery by the Greek astronomer <a href="/wiki/Hipparchus" title="Hipparchus">Hipparchus</a> of the astronomical phenomenon of the <a href="/wiki/Precession_of_the_equinoxes" class="mw-redirect" title="Precession of the equinoxes">precession of the equinoxes</a> – a discovery that amounted to discovering that the entire cosmos was moving in a hitherto unknown way. This new cosmic motion, he suggests, was seen by the founders of Mithraism as indicating the existence of a powerful new god capable of shifting the cosmic spheres and thereby controlling the universe.<a href="#cite_note-Ulansey-1991-Origins-12">[9]</a>(pp 77 ff) <a href="/wiki/Adrian_David_Hugh_Bivar" class="mw-redirect" title="Adrian David Hugh Bivar">A. D. H. Bivar</a>, L. A. Campbell, and G. Widengren have variously argued that Roman Mithraism represents a continuation of some form of Iranian Mithra worship.<a href="#cite_note-175">[123]</a> More recently, <a href="/wiki/Parvaneh_Pourshariati" title="Parvaneh Pourshariati">Parvaneh Pourshariati</a> has made similar claims.<a href="#cite_note-176">[124]</a> According to Antonia Tripolitis, Roman Mithraism originated in <a href="/wiki/Vedic_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic India">Vedic India</a> and picked up many features of the cultures which it encountered in its westward journey.<a href="#cite_note-178">[ba]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sol_Invictus_staue_in_Milan_Archeology_Museum_IMG_4874_1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Sol_Invictus_staue_in_Milan_Archeology_Museum_IMG_4874_1.JPG/170px-Sol_Invictus_staue_in_Milan_Archeology_Museum_IMG_4874_1.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Sol_Invictus_staue_in_Milan_Archeology_Museum_IMG_4874_1.JPG/255px-Sol_Invictus_staue_in_Milan_Archeology_Museum_IMG_4874_1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Sol_Invictus_staue_in_Milan_Archeology_Museum_IMG_4874_1.JPG/340px-Sol_Invictus_staue_in_Milan_Archeology_Museum_IMG_4874_1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Sol Invictus from the <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Milan" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological Museum of Milan">Archaeological Museum of Milan</a> (Museo archeologico)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_history">Later history</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Later history">edit</a>]</div> The first important expansion of the mysteries in the Empire seems to have happened quite quickly, late in the reign of <a href="/wiki/Antoninus_Pius" title="Antoninus Pius">Antoninus Pius</a> (b. 121 CE, d. 161 CE) and under <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a>. By this time all the key elements of the mysteries were in place.<a href="#cite_note-180">[bb]</a> Mithraism reached the apogee of its popularity during the 2nd and 3rd centuries, spreading at an "astonishing" rate at the same period when the worship of <a href="/wiki/Sol_Invictus" title="Sol Invictus">Sol Invictus</a> was incorporated into the state-sponsored cults.<a href="#cite_note-Beck-1987-66">[43]</a>(p 299)<a href="#cite_note-181">[bc]</a> At this period a certain Pallas devoted a monograph to Mithras, and a little later Euboulus wrote a History of Mithras, although both works are now lost.<a href="#cite_note-182">[127]</a> According to the 4th century <a href="/wiki/Augustan_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustan History">Historia Augusta</a>, the emperor <a href="/wiki/Commodus" title="Commodus">Commodus</a> participated in its mysteries<a href="#cite_note-183">[128]</a> but it never became one of the state cults.<a href="#cite_note-184">[bd]</a> The historian <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Burckhardt" title="Jacob Burckhardt">Jacob Burckhardt</a> writes:<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"> Mithras is the guide of souls which he leads from the earthly life into which they had fallen back up to the light from which they issued ... It was not only from the religions and the wisdom of Orientals and Egyptians, even less from Christianity, that the notion that life on earth was merely a transition to a higher life was derived by the Romans. Their own anguish and the awareness of senescence made it plain enough that earthly existence was all hardship and bitterness. Mithras-worship became one, and perhaps the most significant, of the religions of redemption in declining paganism.<a href="#cite_note-185">[129]</a> </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Persecution_and_Christianization">Persecution and Christianization</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Persecution and Christianization">edit</a>]</div> The religion and its followers faced persecution in the 4th century from <a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a>, and Mithraism came to an end at some point between its last decade and the 5th century. Ulansey states that "Mithraism declined with the rise to power of Christianity, until the beginning of the fifth century, when Christianity became strong enough to exterminate by force rival religions such as Mithraism."<a href="#cite_note-187">[be]</a> According to Speidel, Christians fought fiercely with this feared enemy and suppressed it during the late 4th century. Mithraic sanctuaries were destroyed and religion was no longer a matter of personal choice.<a href="#cite_note-189">[bf]</a><a href="#cite_note-191">[bg]</a> According to L.H. Martin, Roman Mithraism came to an end with the <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_pagans_under_Theodosius_I" title="Persecution of pagans under Theodosius I">anti-pagan decrees</a> of the Christian emperor <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius</a> during the last decade of the 4th century.<a href="#cite_note-192">[bh]</a> Clauss states that inscriptions show Mithras as one of the cults listed on inscriptions by <a href="/wiki/Roman_senate" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman senate">Roman senators</a> who had not converted to Christianity, as part of the "pagan revival" among the elite in the second half of the 4th century.<a href="#cite_note-193">[bi]</a> Beck states that "Quite early in the [fourth] century the religion was as good as dead throughout the empire."<a href="#cite_note-Beck-1987-66">[43]</a>(p 299) Archaeological evidence indicates the continuance of the cult of Mithras up until the end of the 4th century. In particular, large numbers of votive coins deposited by worshippers have been recovered at the Mithraeum at Pons Sarravi (Sarrebourg) in Gallia Belgica, in a series that runs from <a href="/wiki/Gallienus" title="Gallienus">Gallienus</a> (r. 253–268) to <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a> (r. 379–395). These were scattered over the floor when the mithraeum was destroyed, as Christians apparently regarded the coins as polluted; therefore, providing reliable dates for the functioning of the mithraeum up until near the end of the century.<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-6">[4]</a>(pp 31–32) Franz Cumont states that Mithraism may have survived in certain remote cantons of the Alps and Vosges into the 5th century.<a href="#cite_note-Cumont_Mysteries-194">[133]</a> According to Mark Humphries, the deliberate concealment of Mithraic cult objects in some areas suggests that precautions were being taken against Christian attacks. In areas like the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a> frontier, barbarian invasions may have also played a role in the end of Mithraism.<a href="#cite_note-HarveyHunter2008-195">[134]</a> At some of the mithraeums that have been found below churches, such as the Santa Prisca Mithraeum and the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_San_Clemente_al_Laterano" class="mw-redirect" title="Basilica of San Clemente al Laterano">San Clemente</a> Mithraeum, the ground plan of the church above was made in a way to symbolize Christianity's domination of Mithraism.<a href="#cite_note-churchmithraeum-196">[135]</a> The cult disappeared earlier than that of <a href="/wiki/Isis" title="Isis">Isis</a>. Isis was still remembered in the Middle Ages as a pagan deity, but Mithras was already forgotten in <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-6">[4]</a>(p 171) <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interpretations_of_the_bull-slaying_scene">Interpretations of the bull-slaying scene</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Interpretations of the bull-slaying scene">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Museul_de_istorie_IMG_1703Siboiumithra_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Museul_de_istorie_IMG_1703Siboiumithra_02.jpg/330px-Museul_de_istorie_IMG_1703Siboiumithra_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Museul_de_istorie_IMG_1703Siboiumithra_02.jpg/495px-Museul_de_istorie_IMG_1703Siboiumithra_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Museul_de_istorie_IMG_1703Siboiumithra_02.jpg/660px-Museul_de_istorie_IMG_1703Siboiumithra_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3298" data-file-height="2700" /></a><figcaption>Unusual tauroctony at the <a href="/wiki/Brukenthal_National_Museum" title="Brukenthal National Museum">Brukenthal National Museum</a></figcaption></figure> According to Cumont, the imagery of the tauroctony was a Graeco-Roman representation of an event in Zoroastrian cosmogony described in a 9th-century Zoroastrian text, the <a href="/wiki/Bundahishn" title="Bundahishn">Bundahishn</a>. In this text the evil spirit <a href="/wiki/Ahriman" title="Ahriman">Ahriman</a> (not Mithra) slays the primordial creature <a href="/wiki/Gavaevodata" title="Gavaevodata">Gavaevodata</a>, which is represented as a bovine.<a href="#cite_note-198">[bj]</a> Cumont held that a version of the myth must have existed in which Mithras, not Ahriman, killed the bovine. But according to Hinnells, no such variant of the myth is known, and that this is merely speculation: "In no known Iranian text [either Zoroastrian or otherwise] does Mithra slay a bull."<a href="#cite_note-199">[137]</a>(p 291) David Ulansey finds astronomical evidence from the mithraeum itself.<a href="#cite_note-Ulansey_1989-200">[138]</a> He reminds us that the Platonic writer <a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyry</a> wrote in the 3rd century CE that the cave-like temple Mithraea depicted "an image of the world"<a href="#cite_note-202">[bk]</a> and that Zoroaster consecrated a cave resembling the world fabricated by Mithras.<a href="#cite_note-203">[bl]</a> The ceiling of the Caesarea Maritima Mithraeum retains traces of blue paint, which may mean the ceiling was painted to depict the sky and the stars.<a href="#cite_note-204">[140]</a> Beck has given the following celestial composition of the Tauroctony:<a href="#cite_note-205">[141]</a> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Component of Tauroctony </th> <th>Celestial counterpart </th></tr> <tr> <td>Bull </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Taurus_(constellation)" title="Taurus (constellation)">Taurus</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sol </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Luna </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Dog </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Canis_Minor" title="Canis Minor">Canis Minor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canis_Major" title="Canis Major">Canis Major</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Snake </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hydra_(constellation)" title="Hydra (constellation)">Hydra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serpens" title="Serpens">Serpens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Draco_(constellation)" title="Draco (constellation)">Draco</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Raven </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Corvus_(constellation)" title="Corvus (constellation)">Corvus</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Scorpion </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Scorpius_(constellation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Scorpius (constellation)">Scorpius</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Wheat's ear (on bull's tail) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Spica" title="Spica">Spica</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Twins Cautes and Cautopates </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gemini_(constellation)" title="Gemini (constellation)">Gemini</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Lion </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Leo_(constellation)" title="Leo (constellation)">Leo</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Krater" title="Krater">Crater</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Crater_(constellation)" title="Crater (constellation)">Crater</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cave </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> Several celestial identities for the Tauroctonous Mithras (TM) himself have been proposed. Beck summarizes them in the table below.<a href="#cite_note-Beck-2004-TM-ID-206">[142]</a> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Scholar </th> <th>Identifies tauroctonous Mithras (TM) as<a href="#cite_note-Beck-2004-TM-ID-206">[142]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Bausani, A. (1979) </td> <td>TM associated with Leo, in that the tauroctony is a type of the ancient lion–bull (Leo–Taurus) combat motif. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Beck, R.L. (1994) </td> <td>TM = Sun in Leo </td></tr> <tr> <td>Insler, S. (1978) </td> <td>[tauroctony = heliacal setting of Taurus] </td></tr> <tr> <td>Jacobs, B. (1999) </td> <td>[tauroctony = heliacal setting of Taurus] </td></tr> <tr> <td>North, J.D. (1990) </td> <td>TM = <a href="/wiki/Betelgeuse" title="Betelgeuse">Betelgeuse</a> (Alpha Orionis) setting, TM knife = <a href="/wiki/Triangulum_(constellation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Triangulum (constellation)">Triangulum</a> setting, TM cloak = <a href="/wiki/Capella_(star)" class="mw-redirect" title="Capella (star)">Capella</a> (Alpha Aurigae) setting. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Rutgers, A.J. (1970) </td> <td>TM = Sun, Bull = Moon </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sandelin, K.-G. (1988) </td> <td>TM = <a href="/wiki/Auriga_(constellation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Auriga (constellation)">Auriga</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Speidel, M.P. (1980) </td> <td>TM = Orion </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ulansey, D. (1989) </td> <td>TM = Perseus </td></tr> <tr> <td>Weiss, M. (1994, 1998) </td> <td>TM = the Night Sky </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mithras_banquet_Louvre_Ma3441.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Mithras_banquet_Louvre_Ma3441.jpg/220px-Mithras_banquet_Louvre_Ma3441.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Mithras_banquet_Louvre_Ma3441.jpg/330px-Mithras_banquet_Louvre_Ma3441.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Mithras_banquet_Louvre_Ma3441.jpg/440px-Mithras_banquet_Louvre_Ma3441.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2810" data-file-height="2440" /></a><figcaption>Sol and Mithras banqueting with Luna and the twin divinities Cautes and Cautopates, his attendants (side B of a double-sided Roman marble relief, 2nd or 3rd century CE)</figcaption></figure> Ulansey has proposed that Mithras seems to have been derived from the <a href="/wiki/Perseus_(constellation)" title="Perseus (constellation)">constellation of Perseus</a>, which is positioned just above Taurus in the night sky. He sees iconographic and mythological parallels between the two figures: both are young heroes, carry a dagger, and wear a Phrygian cap. He also mentions the similarity of the image of Perseus killing the <a href="/wiki/Gorgon" class="mw-redirect" title="Gorgon">Gorgon</a> and the tauroctony, both figures being associated with caverns and both having connections to Persia as further evidence.<a href="#cite_note-Ulansey-1991-Origins-12">[9]</a>(pp 25–39) Michael Speidel associates Mithras with the constellation of <a href="/wiki/Orion_(constellation)" title="Orion (constellation)">Orion</a> because of the proximity to Taurus, and the consistent nature of the depiction of the figure as having wide shoulders, a garment flared at the hem, and narrowed at the waist with a belt, thus taking on the form of the constellation.<a href="#cite_note-Speidel-1997-190">[132]</a> In opposition to the theories above, which link Mithras to specific constellations, Jelbert suggests that the deity represented the Milky Way.<a href="#cite_note-207">[143]</a> Jelbert argues that within the tauroctony image, Mithras' body is analogous to the path of the Milky Way that bridges Taurus and Scorpius, and that this bifurcated section mirrors the shape, scale and position of the deity relative to the other characters in the scene. The notion of Mithras as the Milky Way would have resonated with his status as god of light and lord of genesis, suggests Jelbert, due to the luminosity of this celestial feature, as well as the location of the traditional soul gates at Taurus-Gemini and Scorpius- Sagittarius, portals once believed to represent the points of entry for the soul at birth and death respectively. Beck has criticized Speidel and Ulansey of adherence to a literal cartographic logic, describing their theories as a "will-o'-the-wisp" that "lured them down a false trail".<a href="#cite_note-Beck-2004-InPlcLion-49">[30]</a> He argues that a literal reading of the tauroctony as a star chart raises two major problems: it is difficult to find a constellation counterpart for Mithras himself (despite efforts by Speidel and Ulansey) and that, unlike in a star chart, each feature of the tauroctony might have more than a single counterpart. Rather than seeing Mithras as a constellation, Beck argues that Mithras is the prime traveller on the celestial stage (represented by the other symbols of the scene), the Unconquered Sun moving through the constellations.<a href="#cite_note-Beck-2004-InPlcLion-49">[30]</a> But again, Meyer holds that the Mithras Liturgy reflects the world of Mithraism and may be a confirmation for Ulansey's theory of Mithras being held responsible for the precession of equinoxes.<a href="#cite_note-209">[bm]</a> <a href="/wiki/Peter_Chrisp" title="Peter Chrisp">Peter Chrisp</a> posits that the killing was of a "<a href="/wiki/Sacred_bull" title="Sacred bull">sacred bull</a>" and that the "act [was] believed" to create the universe's <a href="/wiki/Energy_(esotericism)" title="Energy (esotericism)">life force</a> and maintain it.<a href="#cite_note-210">[145]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comparable_belief_systems">Comparable belief systems</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Comparable belief systems">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mithraism_in_comparison_with_other_belief_systems" title="Mithraism in comparison with other belief systems">Mithraism in comparison with other belief systems</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cautes_riding_bull,_Hermannstadt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Cautes_riding_bull%2C_Hermannstadt.jpg/170px-Cautes_riding_bull%2C_Hermannstadt.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="338" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Cautes_riding_bull%2C_Hermannstadt.jpg/255px-Cautes_riding_bull%2C_Hermannstadt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Cautes_riding_bull%2C_Hermannstadt.jpg/340px-Cautes_riding_bull%2C_Hermannstadt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1293" data-file-height="2570" /></a><figcaption>Mithraic altar depicting <a href="/wiki/Cautes_and_Cautopates" title="Cautes and Cautopates">Cautes</a> riding a bull (Sibiu/Hermannstadt, Romania)</figcaption></figure> The cult of Mithras was part of the <a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">syncretic</a> nature of <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">ancient Roman religion</a>. Almost all Mithraea contain statues dedicated to gods of other cults, and it is common to find inscriptions dedicated to Mithras in other sanctuaries, especially those of <a href="/wiki/Jupiter_Dolichenus" title="Jupiter Dolichenus">Jupiter Dolichenus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-6">[4]</a>(p 158) Mithraism was not an alternative to Rome's other traditional religions, but was one of many forms of religious practice, and many Mithraic initiates can also be found participating in the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_cult_(ancient_Rome)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial cult (ancient Rome)">civic religion</a>, and as initiates of other mystery cults.<a href="#cite_note-211">[146]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christianity">Christianity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Christianity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mithraism_in_comparison_with_other_belief_systems#Mithraism_and_Christianity" title="Mithraism in comparison with other belief systems">Mithraism in comparison with other belief systems § Mithraism and Christianity</a></div> Early Christian apologists noted similarities between Mithraic and <a href="/wiki/Rite_(Christianity)" title="Rite (Christianity)">Christian rituals</a>, but nonetheless took an extremely negative view of Mithraism: they interpreted Mithraic rituals as evil copies of Christian ones.<a href="#cite_note-RichardsonHopfe1994-2-212">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-213">[148]</a> For instance, <a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a> wrote that as a prelude to the Mithraic initiation ceremony, the initiate was given a ritual bath and at the end of the ceremony, received a mark on the forehead. He described these rites as a diabolical counterfeit of the baptism and <a href="/wiki/Chrism" title="Chrism">chrismation</a> of Christians.<a href="#cite_note-214">[149]</a> <a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a> contrasted Mithraic initiation communion with the <a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharist</a>:<a href="#cite_note-215">[150]</a> <dl><dd>Wherefore also the evil demons in mimicry have handed down that the same thing should be done in the Mysteries of Mithras. For that bread and a cup of water are in these mysteries set before the initiate with certain speeches you either know or can learn.<a href="#cite_note-216">[151]</a></dd></dl> <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Ernest Renan</a> suggested in 1882 that, under different circumstances, Mithraism might have risen to the prominence of modern-day Christianity. Renan wrote: "If the growth of Christianity had been arrested by some mortal malady, the world would have been Mithraic".<a href="#cite_note-217">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-219">[bn]</a> This theory has since been contested. <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Boyle" title="Leonard Boyle">Leonard Boyle</a> wrote in 1987 that "too much ... has been made of the 'threat' of Mithraism to Christianity",<a href="#cite_note-220">[154]</a> pointing out that there are only fifty known mithraea in the entire city of Rome. J.A. Ezquerra holds that since the two religions did not share similar aims, there was never any real threat of Mithraism taking over the Roman world.<a href="#cite_note-222">[bo]</a> Mithraism had backing from the Roman aristocracy during a time when their conservative values were seen as under attack during the rising tides of Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-223">[156]</a> According to Mary Boyce, Mithraism was a potent enemy for Christianity in the West, though she is sceptical about its hold in the East.<a href="#cite_note-225">[bp]</a><a href="#cite_note-226">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-227">[159]</a> F. Coarelli (1979) has tabulated forty actual or possible Mithraea and estimated that Rome would have had "not less than 680–690" mithraea.<a href="#cite_note-HaaseTemporini1984-11">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-228">[bq]</a> L.M. Hopfe states that more than 400 Mithraic sites have been found. These sites are spread all over the Roman empire from places as far as Dura-Europos in the east, and England in the west. He, too, says that Mithraism may have been a rival of Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-229">[br]</a> David Ulansey thinks Renan's statement "somewhat exaggerated",<a href="#cite_note-ulanseyrenan-230">[bs]</a> but does consider Mithraism "one of Christianity's major competitors in the Roman Empire".<a href="#cite_note-ulanseyrenan-230">[bs]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/London_Mithraeum" title="London Mithraeum">London Mithraeum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Maitreya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithra" title="Mithra">Mithra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehregan" title="Mehregan">Mehregan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santo_Stefano_al_Monte_Celio#Mithraeum" title="Santo Stefano al Monte Celio">Santo Stefano al Monte Celio#Mithraeum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tienen_Mithraeum" title="Tienen Mithraeum">Tienen Mithraeum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraic_Reliefs_of_Jort" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithraic Reliefs of Jort">Mithraic Reliefs of Jort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helmet_of_Co%C8%9Bofene%C8%99ti" title="Helmet of Coțofenești">Helmet of Coțofenești</a> - dated to about 450 BCE, before the beginning of Roman Mithraism</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Footnotes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> "The term "Mithraism" is of course a modern coinage: In antiquity the cult was known as "the mysteries of Mithras"; alternatively, as "the mysteries of the Persians". ... The Mithraists, who were manifestly not Persians in any ethnic sense, thought of themselves as cultic "Persians". ... the ancient Roman Mithraists themselves were convinced that their cult was founded by none other than Zoroaster, who "dedicated to Mithras, the creator and father of all, a cave in the mountains bordering Persia", an idyllic setting "abounding in flowers and springs of water"."(Porphyry, On the Cave of the Nymphs, 6)<a href="#cite_note-Beck-2002-07-20-1">[1]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-claussonhandshake-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-claussonhandshake_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-claussonhandshake_4-1">b</a> "That the hand-shaken might make their vows joyfully forever". — Clauss (2000).<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-6">[4]</a>(p 42) </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> "We know a good deal about them because archaeology has disinterred many meeting places together with numerous artifacts and representations of the cult myth, mostly in the form of relief sculpture" — Beck (2011).<a href="#cite_note-9">[7]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> ... in the absence of any ancient explanations of its meaning, Mithraic iconography has proven to be exceptionally difficult to decipher. — Ulansey (1991)<a href="#cite_note-Ulansey-1991-Origins-12">[9]</a>(p 3) </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> "After this, Celsus, desiring to exhibit his learning in his treatise against us, quotes also certain Persian mysteries, where he says: 'These things are obscurely hinted at in the accounts of the Persians, and especially in the mysteries of Mithras, which are celebrated among them ...' " Chapter 24: "After the instance borrowed from the Mithraic mysteries, Celsus declares that he who would investigate the Christian mysteries, along with the aforesaid Persian, will, on comparing the two together, and on unveiling the rites of the Christians, see in this way the difference between them".<a href="#cite_note-14">[10]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> "For most of the twentieth century, the major problem addressed by scholarship on both Roman Mithraism and the Iranian god Mithra was the question of continuity."<a href="#cite_note-Beck-2002-07-20-1">[1]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> It is therefore highly likely that it was in the context of Mithridates' alliance with the Cilician pirates that there arose the synchretistic link between Perseus and Mithra which led to the name Mithras (a Greek form of the name Mithra) being given to the god of the new cult. — D. Ulansey (1991)<a href="#cite_note-Ulansey-1991-Origins-12">[9]</a>(p 90) </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> ... Mithra is the next most important deity and may even have occupied a position of near equality with Ahura Mazde. He was associated with the Sun, and in time the name Mithra became a common word for "Sun". Mithra functioned preeminently in the ethical sphere; he was the god of the covenant, who oversaw all solemn agreements that people made among themselves ... In later times Mithra gave his name to Mithraism, a mystery religion.<a href="#cite_note-19">[12]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Cumont's ... argument was straightforward and may be summarized succinctly: The name of the god of the cult, Mithras, is the Latin (and Greek) form of the name of an ancient Iranian god, Mithra; in addition, the Romans believed that their cult was connected with Persia (as the Romans called Iran); therefore we may assume that Roman Mithraism is nothing other than the Iranian cult of Mithra transplanted into the Roman Empire. — D. Ulansey (1991)<a href="#cite_note-Ulansey-1991-Origins-12">[9]</a>(p 8) </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Quoting from Gordon:<a href="#cite_note-Gordon-1978-23">[14]</a>(p 160) "The usual western nominative form of Mithras' name in the mysteries ended in -s, as we can see from the one authentic dedication in the nominative, recut over a dedication to Sarapis (463, Terme de Caracalla), and from occasional grammatical errors such as deo inviato Metras (1443). But it is probable that Euboulus and Pallas, at least, used the name 'Mithra' as an indeclinable [foreign word] (ap. Porphyry, <a href="/wiki/On_Abstinence_from_Eating_Animals" title="On Abstinence from Eating Animals">De abstinentia</a> II.56 and IV.16)."<a href="#cite_note-Gordon-1978-23">[14]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> India's sacred literature refers to him since the hymns of the Rig Veda. But it was in Iran where Mithras rose to the greatest prominence: Rebounding after the reforms of Zarathustra, Mithras became one of the great gods of the Achaemenian emperors and to this very day he is worshipped in India and Iran by Parsees and Zarathustrians.<a href="#cite_note-Speidel-1980-26">[16]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> The name Mithras comes from a root mei- (which implies the idea of exchange), accompanied by an instrumental suffix. It was therefore a means of exchange, the 'contract' which rules human relations and is the basis of social life. In Sanskrit, mitra means 'friend' or 'friendship', like mihr in Persian. In Zend, mithra means precisely the 'contract', which eventually became deified, following the same procedure as Venus, the 'charm' for the Romans. We find him invoked with Varuna in an agreement concluded circa </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> ... the intimate alliance between the pirates and Mithridates Eupator, named after Mithra and mythically descended from Perseus, led to the pirates adopting the name Mithras for the new god. — D. Ulansey (1991)<a href="#cite_note-Ulansey-1991-Origins-12">[9]</a>(p 94) </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> "The theory that the complex iconography of the characteristic monuments (of which the oldest belong to the second century A.C.) could be interpreted by direct reference to Iranian religion is now widely rejected; and recent studies have tended greatly to reduce what appears to be the actual Iranian content of this "self consciously 'Persian' religion", at least in the form which it attained under the Roman empire. Nevertheless, as the name Mithras alone shows, this content was of some importance; and the Persian affiliation of the Mysteries is acknowledged in the earliest literary reference to them.<a href="#cite_note-Boyce-Grenet-1975-35">[22]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Clauss-2000-xxi-quote-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000-xxi-quote_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000-xxi-quote_37-1">b</a> ... we possess virtually no theological statements either by Mithraists themselves or by other writers. — Clauss (2000)<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-6">[4]</a>(p xxi) </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> English tauroctony is an adaption of the Greek word tauroktónos (ταυροκτόνος, "bull killing"). </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> "Although the iconography of the cult varied a great deal from temple to temple, there is one element of the cult's iconography which was present in essentially the same form in every mithraeum and which, moreover, was clearly of the utmost importance to the cult's ideology; namely the so-called tauroctony, or bull-slaying scene, in which the god Mithras, accompanied by a series of other figures, is depicted in the act of killing the bull." — D. Ulansey (1991)<a href="#cite_note-Ulansey-1991-Origins-12">[9]</a>(p <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=25_SOWldSUUC&q=cumont+tauroctony&pg=PA6">6</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> "The god's right leg, appearing on the left as one faces the tauroctony, is nearly always straight as it pins the bull's hoof to the ground, while his left leg, which is usually resting on the back or flank of the bull, is bent at the knee with his foot often partially obscured beneath the folds of his tunic. Anyone familiar with the cult's iconography will immediately recognize this awkward and possibly unnatural posture as a typical or even essential aspect of the tauroctony. The remarkable consistency of this particular feature is underscored by comparison with the subtle variability of others ..." — Z. Mazur (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2011)<a href="#cite_note-40">[23]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-name="jonasicondescription"-46"><a href="#cite_ref-name="jonasicondescription"_46-0">^</a> The figure of Mithras himself is usually attired in an oriental costume of Phrygian cap, tunica manicata (a long-sleeved tunic), <a href="/wiki/Anaxyrides" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaxyrides">anaxyrides</a> (eastern style trousers), and a cape, though in some cases, he is depicted heroically nude or even, in a unique example from Ostia, in what seems to be a Greek chiton. Like the general trend in Graeco-Roman art, most if not all tauroctony scenes, regardless of the medium they were executed in, were painted, and the different items of Mithras' clothing was usually colored in either blue or red, often, as in the painting at Marino, with most of the costume in red with only the inside of the cape being blue and star-speckled. The bull was often white, sometimes wearing the dorsuale, the Roman sacrificial band in reds or browns, while the torchbearers could be depicted in a variety of colors with reds and greens being the most common. — Bjørnebye (2007).<a href="#cite_note-Bjørnebye-2007-45">[27]</a>: chapter: The Mithraic icon in fourth century Rome: The composition of the Mithraic cult icon  </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> Note, however, that no inscription naming Arimanius has been found engraved on a lion-headed figure. All of the dedications to the name Arimanius are inscribed on altars without figures.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-Barnett-1975-lion-man-note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-Barnett-1975-lion-man-note_60-0">^</a> According to some, the lion man is <a href="/wiki/Aion_(deity)" title="Aion (deity)">Aion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Zurvan" class="mw-redirect" title="Zurvan">Zurvan</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Cronus" title="Cronus">Kronos</a>); according to others, <a href="/wiki/Ahriman" title="Ahriman">Ahriman</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Barnett-1975-59">[39]</a>(p 467 ff) </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> One should bear in mind that the Mithraic New Year began on Natalis Invicti, the birthday of their invincible god, i.e., December 25th, when the new light ... appears from the vault of heaven. — Vermaseren & van Essen (1965)<a href="#cite_note-62">[41]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> "For a time, coins and other monuments continued to link Christian doctrines with the worship of the Sun, to which Constantine had been addicted previously. But even when this phase came to an end, Roman paganism continued to exert other, permanent influences, great and small. ... The ecclesiastical calendar retains numerous remnants of pre-Christian festivals — notably Christmas, which blends elements including both the feast of the Saturnalia and the birthday of Mithra."<a href="#cite_note-64">[42]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> The original editor of the text, Albrecht Dieterich, claimed that it recorded an authentic Mithraic ritual, but this claim was rejected by Cumont, who felt that the references to Mithras in the text were merely the result of an extravagant syncretism evident in magical traditions. Until recently, most scholars followed Cumont in refusing to see any authentic Mithraic doctrine in the Mithras Liturgy. — D. Ulansey (1991)<a href="#cite_note-Ulansey-1991-Origins-12">[9]</a>(p 105) </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> "Nevertheless, the fact that Porphyry and / or his sources would have had no scruples about adapting or even inventing Mithraic data to suit their arguments does not necessarily mean that they actually did so. It is far more likely that Mithraic doctrine (in the weak sense of the term!) really was what the philosophers said it was ... there are no insuperable discrepancies between Mithraic practice and theory as attested in Porphyry and Mithraic practice and theory as archaeology has allowed us to recover them. Even if there were major discrepancies, they would matter only in the context of the old model of an internally consistent and monolithic Mithraic doctrine.<a href="#cite_note-Beck-2006-77">[53]</a>(p 87) </li> <li id="cite_note-jonas-secretive-81"><a href="#cite_ref-jonas-secretive_81-0">^</a> The discovery of a large quantity of tableware as well as animal remains in a pit outside the newly excavated mithraeum at Tienen, Belgium, has also attracted new attention to the topic of Mithraic processions and large-scale feasts, begging a re-examination of the secrecy of the cult and its visibility in local society ... provides evidence for large-scale, semi-public feasts outside of the mithraeum itself, suggesting that each mithraeum might have had a far larger following than its relative size would imply. — Bjørnebye (2007).<a href="#cite_note-Bjørnebye-2007-45">[27]</a>(pp 12, 36) </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> The extant mithraea present us with actual physical remains of the architectural structures of the sacred spaces of the Mithraic cult. While the Mithraists themselves never used the word mithraeum as far as we know, but preferred words like speleum or antrum (cave), crypta (underground hallway or corridor), fanum (sacred or holy place), or even templum (a temple or a sacred space), the word mithraeum is the common appellation in Mithraic scholarship and is used throughout this study. — Bjørnebye (2007).<a href="#cite_note-Bjørnebye-2007-45">[27]</a>: chapter: The mithraea as buildings  </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> Whilst the majority of the Oriental cults accorded to women a considerable role in their churches, and sometimes even a preponderating one, finding in them ardent supporters of the faith, Mithra forbade their participation in his Mysteries and so deprived himself of the incalculable assistance of these propagandists. The rude discipline of the order did not permit them to take the degrees in the sacred cohorts, and, as among the Mazdeans of the Orient, they occupied only a secondary place in the society of the faithful. Among the hundreds of inscriptions that have come down to us, not one mentions either a priestess, a woman initiate, or even a donatress.<a href="#cite_note-94">[67]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> ... Moreover, not a single woman is listed: The repeated attempts to show that women might belong to the cult are wishful thinking (Piccottini, 1994).<a href="#cite_note-96">[68]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> Porphyry moreover seems to be the only writer who makes reference to women initiates into the service and rites of Mithra, and his allusion is perhaps due to a misunderstanding.... The participation of women in the ritual was not unknown in the Eastern cults, but the predominant military influence in Mithraism seems to render it unlikely in this instance.<a href="#cite_note-Geden-1925-2004-3">[2]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> "Justin's charge does at least make clear that Mithraic commandments did exist."<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-6">[4]</a>(pp 144–145) </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> Hermes addresses Julian: <dl><dd>"As for you ... I have granted you to know Mithras the Father. Keep his commandments, thus securing for yourself an anchor-cable and safe mooring all through your life, and, when you must leave the world, having every confidence that the god who guides you will be kindly disposed." — Clauss (2000).<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-6">[4]</a>(p 144) citing Caesares (336c in the translation of W.C. Wright).</dd></dl> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> Other early evidence of the first decades <a href="/wiki/BCE" class="mw-redirect" title="BCE">BCE</a> refers only to the reverence paid to Mithras without mentioning the mysteries: examples which may be quoted are the tomb inscriptions of King Antiochus I of Commagene at Nemrud Dagh, and of his father Mithridates at Arsameia on the Orontes. Both the kings had erected on vast terraces a number of colossal statues seated on thrones to the honour of their ancestral gods. At Nemrud we find in their midst King Antiochus (69–34 BCE) and in the inscription Mithras is mentioned ... — Vermaseren (1963)<a href="#cite_note-104">[72]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> "I ... see these figures or some of them in the impression of the remarkable royal seal of King Saussatar of Mitanni (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1450 BCE great-great-grandfather of Kurtiwaza), the only royal Mitannian seal that we possess ... Mithra-tauroctonos, characteristically kneeling on the bull to despatch it. We can even see also the dog and snake ... below him are twin figures, one marked by a star, each fighting lions ... below a winged disc between lions and ravens, stands a winged, human-headed lion, ..."<a href="#cite_note-Barnett-1975-59">[39]</a>(pp 467–468) </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> "Our earliest evidence for the Mithraic mysteries places their appearance in the middle of the 1st century BCE: The historian Plutarch says that in 67 BCE a large band of pirates based in Cilicia (a province on the southeastern coast of Asia Minor) were practicing "secret rites of Mithras". The earliest physical remains of the cult date from around the end of the 1st century CE, and Mithraism reached its height of popularity in the third century."<a href="#cite_note-111">[77]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> "Traditionally there are two geographical regions where Mithraism first struck root in the Roman empire: Italy and the Danube. Italy I propose to omit, as the subject needs considerable discussion, and the introduction of the cult there, as witnessed by its early dedicators, seems not to have been military. Before we turn to the Danube, however, there is one early event (rather than geographical location) which should perhaps be mentioned briefly in passing. This is the supposed arrival of the cult in Italy as a result of Pompey the Great's defeat of the Cilician pirates, who practised 'strange sacrifices of their own ... and celebrated certain secret rites, amongst which those of Mithra continue to the present time, having been first instituted by them'. <dl><dd></dd></dl> Suffice it to say that there is neither archaeological nor allied evidence for the arrival of Mithraism in the West at that time, nor is there any ancient literary reference, either contemporary or later. If anything, Plutarch's mention carefully omits making the point that the cult was introduced into Italy at that time or by the pirates."<a href="#cite_note-Daniels-1975-113">[78]</a>(p 250) </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> "Another possible piece of evidence is offered by five terracotta plaques with a tauroctone, found in Crimea and taken into the records of Mithraic monuments by Cumont and Vermaseren. If they are Mithraic, they are certainly the oldest known representations of Mithras tauroctone; the somewhat varying dates given by Russian archaeologists will set the beginning of the 1st century CE as a terminus ad quem, which is also said to have been confirmed by the stratigraphic conditions."<a href="#cite_note-Beskow-Études-117">[81]</a>(p 14) <dl><dd></dd></dl> Note 20 cites the book as Blawatsky & Kolchelenko (1966).<a href="#cite_note-118">[82]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> ... the area [the Crimea] is of interest mainly because of the terracotta plaques from Kerch (five, of which two are in <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_et_Monumentorum_Religionis_Mithriacae" title="Corpus Inscriptionum et Monumentorum Religionis Mithriacae">CIMRM</a><a href="#cite_note-CIMRM-1960-54">[35]</a> as numbers 11 and 12): These show a bull-killing figure and their probable date (second half of 1st century BCE to first half of 1st century CE) would make them the earliest tauroctonies – if it is Mithras that they portray. Their iconography is significantly different from that of the standard tauroctony (e.g. in the <a href="/wiki/Attis" title="Attis">Attis</a>-like exposure of the god's genitals).<a href="#cite_note-120">[83]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> "The plaques are typical Bosporan terracottas ... At the same time it must be admitted that the plaques have some strange features which make it debatable if this is really Mithra(s). Most striking is the fact that his genitals are visible as they are in the iconography of Attis, which is accentuated by a high anaxyrides. Instead of the tunic and flowing cloak he wears a kind of jacket, buttoned over the breast with only one button, perhaps the attempt of a not so skillful artist to depict a cloak. The bull is small and has a hump and the tauroctone does not plunge his knife into the flank of the bull but holds it lifted. The nudity gives it the character of a fertility god and if we want to connect it directly with the Mithraic mysteries it is indeed embarrassing that the first one of these plaques was found in a woman's tomb."<a href="#cite_note-Beskow-Études-117">[81]</a>(p 15) <dl><dd></dd></dl> "He is grasping one of the bull's horns with his left hand, and wrenching back its head; the right arm is raised to deliver the death-blow. So far, this god must be Mithras. But in sharp contrast with the usual representations [of Mithras], he is dressed in a jacket-like garment, fastened at the chest with a brooch, which leaves his genitals exposed – the iconography typical of Attis."<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-6">[4]</a>(p 156) </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> CIMRM<a href="#cite_note-CIMRM-1960-54">[35]</a> 362 a, b = el l, VI 732 = Moretti, lGUR I 179: <dl><dd>SOLI | INVICTO MITHRAE | T . FLAVIUS AUG. LIB. HYGINUS | EPHEBIANUS | D.D."</dd></dl> but the Greek title is just "Helioi Mithrai" (ʽΗλιωι Μιθραι). The name "FLAVIUS" for an imperial freedman dates it between 70–136 CE. The Greek section refers to a pater of the cult named Lollius Rufus, evidence of the existence of the rank system at this early date.<a href="#cite_note-Gordon-1978-23">[14]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> "The considerable movement [of civil servants and military] throughout the empire was of great importance to Mithraism, and even with the very fragmentary and inadequate evidence that we have it is clear that the movement of troops was a major factor in the spread of the cult. Traditionally there are two geographical regions where Mithraism first struck root: Italy and the Danube. Italy I propose to omit, as the subject needs considerable discussion, and the introduction of the cult there, as witnessed by its early dedicators, seems not to have been military. Before we turn to the Danube, however, there is one early event (rather than geographical location) which should perhaps be mentioned briefly in passing. This is the supposed arrival of the cult in Italy as a result of Pompey the Great's defeat of Cilician pirates, who practiced 'strange sacrifices of their own ... and celebrated certain secret rites, amongst which those of Mithras continue to the present time, have been first instituted by them'." (ref. Plutarch, Pompey 24–25) <dl><dd></dd></dl> Suffice it to say that there is neither archaeological nor allied evidence for the arrival of Mithraism in the west at that time, nor is there any ancient literary reference, either contemporary or later. If anything, Plutarch's mention carefully omits making the point that the cult was introduced into Italy at that time or by the pirates. Turning to the Danube, the earliest dedication from that region is an altar to 'Mitrhe'  [<a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a>] set up by C. Sacidus Barbarus, a centurion of XV Appolinaris, stationed at the time at Carnuntum in Pannonia (Deutsches-Altenburg, Austria). The movements of this legion are particularly informative." The article then goes on to say that XV Appolinaris was originally based at Carnuntum, but between 62–71 CE transferred to the east, first in the Armenian campaign, and then to put down the Jewish uprising. Then 71–86 back in Carnuntum, then 86–105 intermittently in the Dacian wars, then 105–114 back in Carnuntum, and finally moved to Cappadocia in 114.<a href="#cite_note-Daniels-1975-113">[78]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> The first dateable Mithraeum outside Italy is from Böckingen on the Neckar, where a centurion of the legion VIII Augustus dedicated two altars, one to Mithras and the other (dated 148) to Apollo.<a href="#cite_note-Daniels-1975-113">[78]</a>(p 263) </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> "At present this is the only Mithraeum known in Roman Palestine."<a href="#cite_note-Hopfe-1994-126">[84]</a>(p 154) <dl><dd></dd></dl> "It is difficult to assign an exact date to the founding of the Caesarea Maritima Mithraeum. No dedicatory plaques have been discovered that might aid in the dating. The lamps found with the taurectone medallion are from the end of the first century to the late 3rd century CE. Other pottery and coins from the vault are also from this era. Therefore, it is speculated that this Mithraeum developed toward the end of the 1st century and remained active until the late 3rd century. This matches the dates assigned to the Dura-Europos and the <a href="/wiki/Sidon_Mithraeum" title="Sidon Mithraeum">Sidon Mithraea</a>."<a href="#cite_note-Hopfe-1994-126">[84]</a>(p 153) </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> ... the Persian affiliation of the Mysteries is acknowledged in the earliest literary reference to them. This is by the Latin poet <a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a>: Writing about 80 CE, he described Mithras as one who "twists the unruly horns beneath the rocks of a Persian cave". Only a little later (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 100 CE) Plutarch attributed an Anatolian origin to the mysteries, for according to him the <a href="/wiki/Cilician_pirates" title="Cilician pirates">Cilician pirates</a> whom Pompey defeated in 67 BCE. "celebrated certain secret rites, amongst which those of Mithras continue to the present time, having been first instituted by them".<a href="#cite_note-Boyce-Grenet-1975-35">[22]</a>(pp 468–469) </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> In the Cumontian scenario this episode cannot mark the definitive moment of transfer, for Mithraism in that scenario was already established in Rome, albeit on a scale too small to have left any trace in the historical or archaeological record. Nevertheless, it could have been a spur to Mithraism's emergence on to the larger stage of popular appeal.<a href="#cite_note-136">[92]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> "Hence, a place near to the equinoctial circle was assigned to Mithra as an appropriate seat. And on this account he bears the sword of Aries, which is a martial sign. He is likewise carried in the Bull, which is the sign of Venus. For Mithra. as well as the Bull, is the Demiurgus and lord of generation." — Porphyry<a href="#cite_note-deantro2-138">[93]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> [Porphyry's] De antro 6 is actually the sole explicit testimony from antiquity as to the intent of Mithraism's mysteries and the means by which that intent was realized. Porphyry, moreover, was an intelligent and well-placed theoretician of contemporary religion, with access to predecessors' studies, now lost.<a href="#cite_note-142">[96]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> In the course of the First International Congress, two scholars in particular presented devastating critiques of Cumont's Iranian hypothesis ... One, John Hinnells, was the organizer of the conference ... Of more importance in the long run, however, was the even more radical paper presented by R.L. Gordon ... — Ulansey (1991)<a href="#cite_note-Ulansey-1991-Origins-12">[9]</a>(p 10) </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> "Since Cumont's reconstruction of the theology underlying the reliefs in terms of the Zoroastrian myth of creation depends upon the symbolic expression of the conflict of good and evil, we must now conclude that his reconstruction simply will not stand. It receives no support from the Iranian material and is in fact in conflict with the ideas of that tradition as they are represented in the extant texts. Above all, it is a theoretical reconstruction which does not accord with the actual Roman iconography. What, then, do the reliefs depict? And how can we proceed in any study of Mithraism? I would accept with R. Gordon that Mithraic scholars must in future start with the Roman evidence, not by outlining Zoroastrian myths and then making the Roman iconography fit that scheme. ... Unless we discover Euboulus' history of Mithraism we are never likely to have conclusive proof for any theory. Perhaps all that can be hoped for is a theory which is in accordance with the evidence and commends itself by (mere) plausibility."<a href="#cite_note-HinnellsReflections-158">[110]</a>(pp 303–304) </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> "Indeed, one can go further and say that the portrayal of Mithras given by Cumont is not merely unsupported by Iranian texts but is actually in serious conflict with known Iranian theology. Cumont reconstructs a primordial life of the god on earth, but such a concept is unthinkable in terms of known, specifically Zoroastrian, Iranian thought where the gods never, and apparently never could, live on earth. To interpret Roman Mithraism in terms of Zoroastrian thought and to argue for an earthly life of the god is to combine irreconcilables. If it is believed that Mithras had a primordial life on earth, then the concept of the god has changed so fundamentally that the Iranian background has become virtually irrelevant."<a href="#cite_note-HinnellsReflections-158">[110]</a>(p 292) </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> "Since the 1970s scholars of western Mithraism have generally agreed that Cumont's master narrative of east-west transfer is unsustainable"; although he adds that "recent trends in the scholarship on Iranian religion, by modifying the picture of that religion prior to the birth of the western mysteries, now render a revised Cumontian scenario of east-west transfer and continuities now viable."<a href="#cite_note-Beck-2004-Zoroastrianism-61">[40]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> "Beyond these three Mithraea [in Syria and Palestine], there are only a handful of objects from Syria that may be identified with Mithraism. Archaeological evidence of Mithraism in Syria is therefore in marked contrast to the abundance of Mithraea and materials that have been located in the rest of the Roman Empire. Both the frequency and the quality of Mithraic materials is greater in the rest of the empire. Even on the western frontier in <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Britain</a>, archaeology has produced rich Mithraic materials, such as those found at Walbrook. <big>     </big>If one accepts Cumont's theory that Mithraism began in Iran, moved west through <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a> to <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>, and then to Rome, one would expect that the cult left its traces in those locations. Instead, archaeology indicates that Roman Mithraism had its epicenter in Rome. Wherever its ultimate place of origin may have been, the fully developed religion known as Mithraism seems to have begun in Rome and been carried to Syria by soldiers and merchants. None of the Mithraic materials or temples in Roman Syria except the Commagene sculpture bears any date earlier than the late first or early second century. [footnote in cited text: 30. Mithras, identified with a Phrygian cap and the nimbus about his head, is depicted in colossal statuary erected by King Antiochus I of Commagene, 69–34 BCE. (see Vermaseren, <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_et_Monumentorum_Religionis_Mithriacae" title="Corpus Inscriptionum et Monumentorum Religionis Mithriacae">CIMRM</a><a href="#cite_note-CIMRM-1960-54">[35]</a> 1.53–56). There are no other literary or archaeological evidences to indicate that the religion of Mithras as it was known among the Romans in the second to fourth centuries AD was practiced in Commagene]. While little can be proved from silence, it seems that the relative lack of archaeological evidence from Roman Syria would argue against the traditional theories for the origins of Mithraism."<a href="#cite_note-hopfe-5-5">[3]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> It originated in Vedic, India, migrated to Persia by way of Babylon, and then westward through the Hellenized East, and finally across the length and breadth of the Hellenistic-Roman world. On its westward journey, it incorporated many of the features of the cultures in which it found itself.<a href="#cite_note-177">[125]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> "The first important expansion of the mysteries in the Empire seems to have occurred relatively rapidly late in the reign of Antoninus Pius and under Marcus Aurelius (9). By that date, it is clear, the mysteries were fully institutionalised and capable of relatively stereotyped self-reproduction through the medium of an agreed, and highly complex, symbolic system reduced in iconography and architecture to a readable set of 'signs'. Yet we have good reason to believe that the establishment of at least some of those signs is to be dated at least as early as the Flavian period or in the very earliest years of the second century. Beyond that we cannot go ..."<a href="#cite_note-179">[126]</a>(pp150–151) </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> "... the astonishing spread of the cult in the later 2nd and early 3rd centuries AD ... This extraordinary expansion, documented by the archaeological monuments ..."<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-6">[4]</a>(p 25) </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> "The cult of Mithras never became one of those supported by the state with public funds, and was never admitted to the official list of festivals celebrated by the state and army – at any rate as far as the latter is known to us from the <a href="/wiki/Feriale_Duranum" title="Feriale Duranum">Feriale Duranum</a>, the religious calendar of the units at Dura-Europos in Coele Syria;" [where there was a Mithraeum] "the same is true of all the other mystery cults too." He adds that at the individual level, various individuals did hold roles both in the state cults and the priesthood of Mithras.<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-6">[4]</a>(p 24) </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> "Mithraism declined with the rise to power of Christianity, until the beginning of the fifth century, when Christianity became strong enough to exterminate by force rival religions such as Mithraism."<a href="#cite_note-186">[130]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> "As a mystery religion it engulfed the Roman empire during the first four centuries of our era. Mithraic sanctuaries are found from Roman Arabia to Britain, from the Danube to the Sahara, wherever the Roman soldier went. Christian apologetics fiercely fought the cult they feared., and during the late 4th century CE, as a victim of the Judaeo-Christian spirit of intolerance, Roman Mithraism was suppressed, its sanctuaries destroyed together with the last vestiges of religious freedom in the empire."<a href="#cite_note-188">[131]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> Michael Speidel, who specializes in military history, associates Mithras with <a href="/wiki/Orion_(constellation)" title="Orion (constellation)">Orion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Speidel-1997-190">[132]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> The cult was vigorously opposed by Christian polemicists, especially by Justin and Tertullian, because of perceived similarities between it and early Christianity. And with the anti-pagan decrees of the Christian emperor Theodosius during the final decade of the fourth century, Mithraism disappeared from the history of religions as a viable religious practice.<a href="#cite_note-collectedworks-8">[6]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> "Mithras also found a place in the 'pagan revival' that occurred, particularly in the western empire, in the latter half of the 4th century CE. For a brief period, especially in Rome, the cult enjoyed, along with others, a last efflorescence, for which we have evidence from among the highest circles of the senatorial order. One of these senators was Rufius Caeionius Sabinus, who in 377 CE dedicated an altar" to a long list of gods that includes Mithras.<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-6">[4]</a>(pp 29–30) </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> "19. He let loose Greed, Needfulness, [Pestilence,] Disease, Hunger, Illness, Vice and Lethargy on the body of Gav' and Gayomard. 20. Before his coming to the 'Gav', Ohrmazd gave the healing Cannabis, which is what one calls 'banj', to the' Gav' to eat, and rubbed it before her eyes, so that her discomfort, owing to smiting, [sin] and injury, might decrease; she immediately became feeble and ill, her milk dried up, and she passed away."<a href="#cite_note-197">[136]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> 10: "Since, however, a cavern is an image and symbol of the world ..."<a href="#cite_note-201">[139]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> 2: "For, as Eubulus says, Zoroaster was the first who consecrated in the neighbouring mountains of Persia, a spontaneously produced cave, florid, and having fountains, in honour of Mithra, the maker and father of all things; 12: a cave, according to Zoroaster, bearing a resemblance of the world, which was fabricated by Mithra. But the things contained in the cavern being arranged according to commensurate intervals, were symbols of the mundane elements and climates."<a href="#cite_note-deantro2-138">[93]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> ... The Mithras Liturgy reflects the world of Mithraism, but precisely how it relates to other expressions of the mysteries of Mithras is unclear. ... With the leg of the bull, interpreted astronomically, the Mithraic god, or Mithras, turns the sphere of heaven around, and if the text suggests that Mithras "moves heaven and turns it back (antistrephousa)," Mithras may be responsible for the astronomical precession of the equinoxes, the progressive change in the earth's orientation in space caused by a wobble in the earth's rotation (so Ulansey).<a href="#cite_note-208">[144]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> "I sometimes permit myself to say that, if Christianity had not carried the day, Mithraicism would have become the religion of the world. It had its mysterious meetings: its chapels, which bore a strong resemblance to little churches. It forged a very lasting bond of brotherhood between its initiates: it had a Eucharist, a Supper ..." — Renan (2004)<a href="#cite_note-218">[153]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> "Many people have erroneously supposed that all religions have a sort of universalist tendency or ambition. In the case of Mithraism, such an ambition has often been taken for granted and linked to a no less questionable assumption, that there was a rivalry between Mithras and Christ for imperial favour. ... If Christianity had failed, the Roman empire would never have become Mithraist."<a href="#cite_note-221">[155]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> "Mithraism proselytized energetically to the west, and for a time presented a formidable challenge to Christianity; but it is not yet known how far, or how effectively, it penetrated eastward. A Mithraeum has been uncovered at the Parthian fortress-town of Dura-Europos on the Euphrates; but Zoroastrianism itself may well have been a barrier to its spread into Iran proper."<a href="#cite_note-224">[157]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> A useful topographic survey, with map, by F. Coarelli (1979) lists 40 actual or possible mithraea (the latter inferred from find-spots, with the sensible proviso that a mithraeum will not necessarily correspond to every find). Principally from comparisons of size and population with Ostia, Coarelli calculates that there will have been in Rome "not less than 680–690" mithraea in all ... .<a href="#cite_note-HaaseTemporini1984-11">[8]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> Today more than four hundred locations of Mithraic worship have been identified in every area of the Roman Empire. Mithraea have been found as far west as Britain and as far east as <a href="/wiki/Dura-Europas" class="mw-redirect" title="Dura-Europas">Dura-Europas</a>. Between the second and fourth centuries C.E. Mithraism may have vied with Christianity for domination of the Roman world.<a href="#cite_note-Richardson-Hopfe-1994-Archeol-7">[5]</a>(p <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/uncoveringancien0000unse/page/147">147</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-ulanseyrenan-230">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ulanseyrenan_230-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ulanseyrenan_230-1">b</a> ... the study of Mithraism is also of great important for our understanding of what Arnold Toynbee has called the 'Crucible of Christianity', the cultural matrix in which the Christian religion came to birth out of the civilization of the ancient Mediterranean. For Mithraism was one of Christianity's major competitors in the Roman Empire ... No doubt Renan's statement is somewhat exaggerated. — D. Ulansey (1991)<a href="#cite_note-Ulansey-1991-Origins-12">[9]</a>(pp 3–4) </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Beck-2002-07-20-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Beck-2002-07-20_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beck-2002-07-20_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beck-2002-07-20_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beck-2002-07-20_1-3">d</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBeck2002" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Beck, Roger (20 July 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/mithraism">"Mithraism"</a>. Encyclopaedia Iranica (Online ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200520055846/http://iranicaonline.org/articles/mithraism">Archived</a> from the original on 20 May 2020. Retrieved 14 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mithraism&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft.edition=Online&rft.date=2002-07-20&rft.aulast=Beck&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fmithraism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Geden-1925-2004-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Geden-1925-2004_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Geden-1925-2004_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Geden-1925-2004_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Geden-1925-2004_3-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeden,_A.S.2004" class="citation book cs1">Geden, A.S. (15 October 2004) [1925]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z4sQkWdh-7oC&pg=PA51">Select Passages Illustrating Mithraism</a>. Kessinger Publishing. p. 51ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4179-8229-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4179-8229-5"><bdi>978-1-4179-8229-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 28 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Select+Passages+Illustrating+Mithraism&rft.pages=51ff&rft.pub=Kessinger+Publishing&rft.date=2004-10-15&rft.isbn=978-1-4179-8229-5&rft.au=Geden%2C+A.S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz4sQkWdh-7oC%26pg%3DPA51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-hopfe-5-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hopfe-5_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hopfe-5_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hopfe-5_5-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hopfe-5_5-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHopfe1994" class="citation book cs1">Hopfe, Lewis M. (1994). "Archaeological indications on the origins of Roman Mithraism". In Hopfe, Lewis M. (ed.). Uncovering Ancient Stones: Essays in memory of H. Neil Richardson. Eisenbrauns. pp. 147–158, 156.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Archaeological+indications+on+the+origins+of+Roman+Mithraism&rft.btitle=Uncovering+Ancient+Stones%3A+Essays+in+memory+of+H.+Neil+Richardson&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E147-%3C%2Fspan%3E158%2C+156&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Hopfe&rft.aufirst=Lewis+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Clauss-2000-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000_6-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000_6-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000_6-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000_6-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000_6-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000_6-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000_6-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000_6-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000_6-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000_6-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000_6-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000_6-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000_6-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000_6-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000_6-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000_6-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000_6-18">s</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000_6-19">t</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000_6-20">u</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000_6-21">v</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000_6-22">w</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000_6-23">x</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000_6-24">y</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000_6-25">z</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000_6-26">aa</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000_6-27">ab</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000_6-28">ac</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000_6-29">ad</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000_6-30">ae</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000_6-31">af</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clauss-2000_6-32">ag</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClauss2000" class="citation book cs1">Clauss, Manfred (2000). The Roman Cult of Mithras: The god and his mysteries. Edinburgh University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-92977-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-92977-6"><bdi>0-415-92977-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Cult+of+Mithras%3A+The+god+and+his+mysteries&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-415-92977-6&rft.aulast=Clauss&rft.aufirst=Manfred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7486-1396-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7486-1396-X">0-7486-1396-X</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Richardson-Hopfe-1994-Archeol-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Richardson-Hopfe-1994-Archeol_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Richardson-Hopfe-1994-Archeol_7-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHopfeRichardson1994" class="citation book cs1">Hopfe, Lewis M.; Richardson, Henry Neil (September 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QRfhSBLmAK8C&pg=PA147">"Archaeological Indications on the Origins of Roman Mithraism"</a>. In Hopfe, Lewis M. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/uncoveringancien0000unse/">Uncovering Ancient Stones: Essays in memory of H. Neil Richardson</a>. Eisenbrauns. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-931464-73-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-931464-73-7"><bdi>978-0-931464-73-7</bdi></a>. Retrieved 19 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Archaeological+Indications+on+the+Origins+of+Roman+Mithraism&rft.btitle=Uncovering+Ancient+Stones%3A+Essays+in+memory+of+H.+Neil+Richardson&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1994-09&rft.isbn=978-0-931464-73-7&rft.aulast=Hopfe&rft.aufirst=Lewis+M.&rft.au=Richardson%2C+Henry+Neil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQRfhSBLmAK8C%26pg%3DPA147&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-collectedworks-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-collectedworks_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-collectedworks_8-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin2004" class="citation book cs1">Martin, Luther H. (30 December 2004). "Foreword". Beck on Mithraism: Collected works with new essays. Ashgate Publishing. p. xiii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-4081-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-4081-3"><bdi>978-0-7546-4081-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Foreword&rft.btitle=Beck+on+Mithraism%3A+Collected+works+with+new+essays&rft.pages=xiii&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2004-12-30&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-4081-3&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Luther+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeck2011" class="citation web cs1">Beck, Roger (17 February 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/paganshadowchrist_article_01.shtml">"The pagan shadow of Christ?"</a>. BBC-History. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191023233258/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/paganshadowchrist_article_01.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 23 October 2019. Retrieved 4 June 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+pagan+shadow+of+Christ%3F&rft.pub=BBC-History&rft.date=2011-02-17&rft.aulast=Beck&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fhistory%2Fancient%2Fromans%2Fpaganshadowchrist_article_01.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HaaseTemporini1984-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HaaseTemporini1984_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HaaseTemporini1984_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HaaseTemporini1984_11-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoarelliBeckHaase1984" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Coarelli, Filippo; Beck, Roger; Haase, Wolfgang (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wFceDNFgVowC&pg=PA2026">Aufstieg und niedergang der römischen welt</a> [The Rise and Decline of the Roman World] (in German). Walter de Gruyter. p. 202 ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-010213-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-010213-0"><bdi>978-3-11-010213-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved 20 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aufstieg+und+niedergang+der+r%C3%B6mischen+welt&rft.pages=202+ff&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-3-11-010213-0&rft.aulast=Coarelli&rft.aufirst=Filippo&rft.au=Beck%2C+Roger&rft.au=Haase%2C+Wolfgang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwFceDNFgVowC%26pg%3DPA2026&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ulansey-1991-Origins-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ulansey-1991-Origins_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ulansey-1991-Origins_12-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ulansey-1991-Origins_12-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ulansey-1991-Origins_12-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ulansey-1991-Origins_12-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ulansey-1991-Origins_12-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ulansey-1991-Origins_12-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ulansey-1991-Origins_12-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ulansey-1991-Origins_12-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ulansey-1991-Origins_12-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ulansey-1991-Origins_12-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ulansey-1991-Origins_12-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ulansey-1991-Origins_12-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ulansey-1991-Origins_12-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ulansey-1991-Origins_12-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ulansey-1991-Origins_12-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ulansey-1991-Origins_12-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ulansey-1991-Origins_12-17">r</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUlansey1991" class="citation book cs1">Ulansey, David (1991). Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-506788-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-506788-6"><bdi>0-19-506788-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origins+of+the+Mithraic+Mysteries&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-19-506788-6&rft.aulast=Ulansey&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrigen" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/04166.htm">"Contra Celsus"</a>. Book 6, Chapter 22. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170703184032/http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/04166.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 3 July 2017. Retrieved 11 November 2012 – via newadvent.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Contra+Celsus&rft.pages=Book-6%2C+Chapter-22&rft.au=Origen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Ffathers%2F04166.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewisShort" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Lewis, Charlton T.; Short, Charles (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3DMithras">"Mithras"</a>. A Latin Dictionary. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201003070443/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry=Mithras">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2020. Retrieved 20 February 2021 – via Tufts University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mithras&rft.btitle=A+Latin+Dictionary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.04.0059%253Aentry%253DMithras&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Encyclopedia of World Religions. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2006. p. 509. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59339-491-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59339-491-2"><bdi>978-1-59339-491-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+World+Religions&rft.pages=509&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-59339-491-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXenophon" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cyropaedia" title="Cyropaedia">Cyropaedia</a>. 7.5.53.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cyropaedia&rft.pages=7.5.53&rft.au=Xenophon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> cited in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiddellScott" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aalphabetic+letter%3D*m%3Aentry+group%3D67%3Aentry%3D*mi%2Fqras">"Μίθρας"</a>. A Greek-English Lexicon. <a href="/wiki/Tufts_University" title="Tufts University">Tufts University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230124102707/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aalphabetic%20letter%3D%2Am%3Aentry%20group%3D67%3Aentry%3D%2Ami%2Fqras">Archived</a> from the original on 24 January 2023. Retrieved 24 January 2023 – via perseus.tufts.edu.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%CE%9C%CE%AF%CE%B8%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%82&rft.btitle=A+Greek-English+Lexicon&rft.pub=Tufts+University&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.04.0057%253Aalphabetic%2Bletter%253D%2Am%253Aentry%2Bgroup%253D67%253Aentry%253D%2Ami%252Fqras&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gordon-1978-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gordon-1978_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gordon-1978_23-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gordon-1978_23-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gordon-1978_23-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon1978" class="citation journal cs1">Gordon, Richard L. (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100525042933/http://www.hums.canterbury.ac.nz/clas/ejms/out_of_print/JMSv2n2/JMSv2n2Gordon.pdf">"The date and significance of CIMRM 593 (British Museum, Townley collection)"</a> (PDF). <a href="/w/index.php?title=Journal_of_Mithraic_Studies&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Journal of Mithraic Studies (page does not exist)">Journal of Mithraic Studies</a>. II: 148–174. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hums.canterbury.ac.nz/clas/ejms/out_of_print/JMSv2n2/JMSv2n2Gordon.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 25 May 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Mithraic+Studies&rft.atitle=The+date+and+significance+of+CIMRM+593+%28British+Museum%2C+Townley+collection%29&rft.volume=II&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E148-%3C%2Fspan%3E174&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=Richard+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hums.canterbury.ac.nz%2Fclas%2Fejms%2Fout_of_print%2FJMSv2n2%2FJMSv2n2Gordon.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> E.g. in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv03059.htm">"Hymn 59"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Rig_Veda" class="mw-redirect" title="Rig Veda">Rig Veda</a>. Vol. 3. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190312035437/http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv03059.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 12 March 2019. Retrieved 13 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hymn+59&rft.btitle=Rig+Veda&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sacred-texts.com%2Fhin%2Frigveda%2Frv03059.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Speidel-1980-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Speidel-1980_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Speidel-1980_26-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpeidel,_Michael1980" class="citation book cs1">Speidel, Michael (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7-YUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1">Mithras-Orion: Greek hero and Roman army god</a>. Brill. p. 1 ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-06055-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-06055-5"><bdi>978-90-04-06055-5</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mithras-Orion%3A+Greek+hero+and+Roman+army+god&rft.pages=1-ff&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-90-04-06055-5&rft.au=Speidel%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7-YUAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RichardsonHopfe1994-4-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RichardsonHopfe1994-4_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RichardsonHopfe1994-4_28-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHopfeRichardson1994" class="citation book cs1">Hopfe, Lewis M.; Richardson, Henry Neil (September 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QRfhSBLmAK8C&q=Archaelogical%20Indications%20on%20the%20Origins%20of%20Roman%20Mithraism&pg=PA150">"Archaeological indications on the origins of Roman Mithraism"</a>. In Hopfe, Lewis M. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/uncoveringancien0000unse/page/150">Uncovering Ancient Stones: Essays in memory of H. Neil Richardson</a>. Eisenbrauns. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/uncoveringancien0000unse/page/150">150</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-931464-73-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-931464-73-7"><bdi>978-0-931464-73-7</bdi></a>. Retrieved 19 March 2011. <q>All theories of the origin of Mithraism acknowledge a connection, however vague, to the Mithra / Mitra figure of ancient Aryan religion.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Archaeological+indications+on+the+origins+of+Roman+Mithraism&rft.btitle=Uncovering+Ancient+Stones%3A+Essays+in+memory+of+H.+Neil+Richardson&rft.pages=150&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1994-09&rft.isbn=978-0-931464-73-7&rft.aulast=Hopfe&rft.aufirst=Lewis+M.&rft.au=Richardson%2C+Henry+Neil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQRfhSBLmAK8C%26q%3DArchaelogical%2520Indications%2520on%2520the%2520Origins%2520of%2520Roman%2520Mithraism%26pg%3DPA150&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Turcan-1996-earliest-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Turcan-1996-earliest_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Turcan-1996-earliest_29-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurcan1996" class="citation book cs1">Turcan, Robert (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cultsofromanempi00robe">The cults of the Roman Empire</a>. Wiley-Blackwell. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cultsofromanempi00robe/page/196">196</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-20047-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-20047-5"><bdi>978-0-631-20047-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 19 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+cults+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pages=196&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-631-20047-5&rft.aulast=Turcan&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcultsofromanempi00robe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThieme1960" class="citation journal cs1">Thieme, Paul (October–December 1960). "The 'Aryan' gods of the Mitanni treaties". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 80 (4): 301–317. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F595878">10.2307/595878</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/595878">595878</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.atitle=The+%27Aryan%27+gods+of+the+Mitanni+treaties&rft.volume=80&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E301-%3C%2Fspan%3E317&rft.date=1960-10%2F1960-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F595878&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F595878%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Thieme&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/mithra-i">"Mithraism"</a> at <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Iranica" title="Encyclopædia Iranica">Encyclopædia Iranica</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHinnells1990" class="citation book cs1">Hinnells, John R. (1990). "Introduction: The questions asked and to be asked". In Hinnells, John R. (ed.). Studies in Mithraism. Rome: L'Erma di Bretschneider. p. 11. <q>The god is unique in being worshipped in four distinct religions: <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> (as Mitra), in Iranian Zoroastrianism and <a href="/wiki/Manicheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Manicheism">Manicheism</a> (as Mithra), and in the Roman Empire (as Mithras).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+The+questions+asked+and+to+be+asked&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Mithraism&rft.place=Rome&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=L%27Erma+di+Bretschneider&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Hinnells&rft.aufirst=John+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Boyce-Grenet-1975-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Boyce-Grenet-1975_35-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Boyce-Grenet-1975_35-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Boyce-Grenet-1975_35-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Boyce-Grenet-1975_35-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyceGrenet1975" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Boyce, Mary; Grenet, Frantz (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MWiMV6llZesC&pg=PA468">Zoroastrianism under Macedonian and Roman Rule</a>. Vol. Part 1. Brill. pp. 468–469. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-09271-4" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-09271-4"><bdi>90-04-09271-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 16 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zoroastrianism+under+Macedonian+and+Roman+Rule&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E468-%3C%2Fspan%3E469&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=90-04-09271-4&rft.aulast=Boyce&rft.aufirst=Mary&rft.au=Grenet%2C+Frantz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMWiMV6llZesC%26pg%3DPA468&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMazur" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_J._Mazur" title="Alexander J. Mazur">Mazur, Zeke</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111121161617/http://www.irisnoir.com/Zeke/HarmoniousOpposition.pdf">"Harmonious Opposition (Part I): Pythagorean themes of cosmogonic mediation in the Roman mysteries of Mithras"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.irisnoir.com/Zeke/HarmoniousOpposition.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 21 November 2011. Retrieved 14 June 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Harmonious+Opposition+%28Part+I%29%3A+Pythagorean+themes+of+cosmogonic+mediation+in+the+Roman+mysteries+of+Mithras&rft.aulast=Mazur&rft.aufirst=Zeke&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.irisnoir.com%2FZeke%2FHarmoniousOpposition.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNäsström" class="citation web cs1">Näsström, Britt-Marie. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.isvroma.it/public/pecus/nasstrom.pdf">"The sacrifices of Mithras"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160409212158/http://www.isvroma.it/public/pecus/nasstrom.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 9 April 2016. Retrieved 4 April 2011. <q>He is wearing a <a href="/wiki/Phrygian_cap" title="Phrygian cap">Phrygian cap</a> and a wind-filled cloak, and, most remarkable of all, his head is turned in the other direction as if he would not look at his own deed. Still, this sacrifice is a guarantee of salvation for the participants.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+sacrifices+of+Mithras&rft.aulast=N%C3%A4sstr%C3%B6m&rft.aufirst=Britt-Marie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.isvroma.it%2Fpublic%2Fpecus%2Fnasstrom.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHinnells1976" class="citation journal cs1">Hinnells, J.R. (1976). "The iconography of Cautes and Cautopates: The data". Journal of Mithraic Studies. 1: 36–67.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Mithraic+Studies&rft.atitle=The+iconography+of+Cautes+and+Cautopates%3A+The+data&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E36-%3C%2Fspan%3E67&rft.date=1976&rft.aulast=Hinnells&rft.aufirst=J.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> See also <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalandra" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Malandra, William W. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranica.com/newsite/index.isc?Article=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/unicode/v5f1/v5f1a033.html">"Cautes and Cautopates"</a>. Encyclopædia Iranica.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cautes+and+Cautopates&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.aulast=Malandra&rft.aufirst=William+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranica.com%2Fnewsite%2Findex.isc%3FArticle%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranica.com%2Fnewsite%2Farticles%2Funicode%2Fv5f1%2Fv5f1a033.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-griffithlecole-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-griffithlecole_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-griffithlecole_44-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-griffithlecole_44-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffith1996" class="citation web cs1">Griffith, Alison (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040427151813/http://www2.evansville.edu/ecoleweb/articles/mithraism.html">"Mithraism"</a>. L'Ecole Initiative. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.evansville.edu/ecoleweb/articles/mithraism.html">the original</a> on 27 April 2004. Retrieved 2 April 2004.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=L%27Ecole+Initiative&rft.atitle=Mithraism&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Griffith&rft.aufirst=Alison&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww2.evansville.edu%2Fecoleweb%2Farticles%2Fmithraism.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bjørnebye-2007-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bjørnebye-2007_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bjørnebye-2007_45-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bjørnebye-2007_45-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bjørnebye-2007_45-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBjørnebye2007" class="citation thesis cs1">Bjørnebye, Jonas (2007). Hic locus est felix, sanctus, piusque benignus: The cult of Mithras in fourth century Rome (PhD thesis).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Hic+locus+est+felix%2C+sanctus%2C+piusque+benignus%3A+The+cult+of+Mithras+in+fourth+century+Rome&rft.degree=PhD&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Bj%C3%B8rnebye&rft.aufirst=Jonas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlauckMcNeil2003" class="citation book cs1">Klauck, Hans-Josef; McNeil, Brian (December 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XEuddWHIqaYC&pg=PA146">The Religious Context of Early Christianity: A guide to Graeco-Roman religions</a>. T & T Clark Ltd. pp. 146ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-08943-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-08943-4"><bdi>978-0-567-08943-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 4 September 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Religious+Context+of+Early+Christianity%3A+A+guide+to+Graeco-Roman+religions&rft.pages=146ff&rft.pub=T+%26+T+Clark+Ltd.&rft.date=2003-12&rft.isbn=978-0-567-08943-4&rft.aulast=Klauck&rft.aufirst=Hans-Josef&rft.au=McNeil%2C+Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXEuddWHIqaYC%26pg%3DPA146&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeck2006" class="citation book cs1">Beck, Roger (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordworldheroi00libg">The Religion of the Mithras Cult in the Roman Empire</a>. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordworldheroi00libg/page/n35">21</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-814089-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-814089-4"><bdi>978-0-19-814089-4</bdi></a>. <q>Often, the mithraeum was embellished elsewhere with secondary exemplars of the tauroctony, and there also seem to have been small portable versions, perhaps for private devotion.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Religion+of+the+Mithras+Cult+in+the+Roman+Empire&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-19-814089-4&rft.aulast=Beck&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foxfordworldheroi00libg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beck-2004-InPlcLion-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Beck-2004-InPlcLion_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beck-2004-InPlcLion_49-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beck-2004-InPlcLion_49-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beck-2004-InPlcLion_49-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beck-2004-InPlcLion_49-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beck-2004-InPlcLion_49-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beck-2004-InPlcLion_49-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beck-2004-InPlcLion_49-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeck,_Roger2004" class="citation book cs1">Beck, Roger (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SIYTfTYrs1UC&dq=ulansey+mithras+sol+luna&pg=PA276">"In the place of the lion: Mithras in the tauroctony"</a>. Beck on Mithraism: Collected works with new essays. Ashgate Publishing. pp. 270–276. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-4081-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-4081-3"><bdi>978-0-7546-4081-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230414153757/https://books.google.com/books?id=SIYTfTYrs1UC&dq=ulansey+mithras+sol+luna&pg=PA276">Archived</a> from the original on 14 April 2023. Retrieved 23 February 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=In+the+place+of+the+lion%3A+Mithras+in+the+tauroctony&rft.btitle=Beck+on+Mithraism%3A+Collected+works+with+new+essays&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E270-%3C%2Fspan%3E276&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-4081-3&rft.au=Beck%2C+Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSIYTfTYrs1UC%26dq%3Dulansey%2Bmithras%2Bsol%2Bluna%26pg%3DPA276&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beck_2006_27_28-50">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Beck_2006_27_28_50-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beck_2006_27_28_50-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeck2007" class="citation book cs1">Beck, Roger (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/religionmithrasc00beck_853">The Religion of the Mithras Cult in the Roman Empire</a>. London, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/religionmithrasc00beck_853/page/n43">27</a>-28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-921613-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-921613-0"><bdi>978-0-19-921613-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Religion+of+the+Mithras+Cult+in+the+Roman+Empire&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pages=27-28&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-19-921613-0&rft.aulast=Beck&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freligionmithrasc00beck_853&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vermaseren-1951-birth-51">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vermaseren-1951-birth_51-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vermaseren-1951-birth_51-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vermaseren-1951-birth_51-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVermaseren1951" class="citation book cs1">Vermaseren, M.J. (1951). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HQ0VAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA93">"The miraculous birth of Mithras"</a>. In Gerevich, László (ed.). Studia Archaeologica. Brill. pp. 93–109. Retrieved 4 October 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+miraculous+birth+of+Mithras&rft.btitle=Studia+Archaeologica&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E93-%3C%2Fspan%3E109&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1951&rft.aulast=Vermaseren&rft.aufirst=M.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHQ0VAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA93&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVermaseren1951" class="citation book cs1">Vermaseren, M.J. (1951). Gerevich, László (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HQ0VAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA93">Studia Archaeologica</a>. Brill. p. 108. Retrieved 4 October 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studia+Archaeologica&rft.pages=108&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1951&rft.aulast=Vermaseren&rft.aufirst=M.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHQ0VAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA93&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCommodian" class="citation book cs1">Commodian. Instructiones. 1.13. <q>The unconquered one was born from a rock, if he is regarded as a god.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Instructiones&rft.pages=1.13&rft.au=Commodian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> See also the image of "Mithras petra genetrix Terme", inset above. </li> <li id="cite_note-CIMRM-1960-54">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CIMRM-1960_54-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CIMRM-1960_54-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CIMRM-1960_54-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CIMRM-1960_54-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CIMRM-1960_54-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CIMRM-1960_54-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CIMRM-1960_54-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CIMRM-1960_54-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CIMRM-1960_54-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CIMRM-1960_54-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CIMRM-1960_54-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CIMRM-1960_54-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CIMRM-1960_54-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CIMRM-1960_54-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CIMRM-1960_54-14">o</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CIMRM" class="citation book cs1">Vermaseren, Maarten Jozef (1960) [1956]. Corpus inscriptionum et monumentorum religionis mithriacae. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Corpus+inscriptionum+et+monumentorum+religionis+mithriacae&rft.place=The+Hague&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhoff&rft.date=1960&rft.aulast=Vermaseren&rft.aufirst=Maarten+Jozef&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-von_Gall-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-von_Gall_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-von_Gall_55-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Gall,_Hubertus1978" class="citation book cs1">von Gall, Hubertus (1978). "The lion-headed and the human-headed god in the Mithraic mysteries". In <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Duchesne-Guillemin" title="Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin">Duchesne-Guillemin, Jacques</a> (ed.). Études mithriaques. p. 511.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+lion-headed+and+the+human-headed+god+in+the+Mithraic+mysteries&rft.btitle=%C3%89tudes+mithriaques&rft.pages=511&rft.date=1978&rft.au=von+Gall%2C+Hubertus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCumont,_Franz" class="citation book cs1">Cumont, Franz. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/mom/mom07.htm">The Mysteries of Mithras</a>. p. 105. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170702092009/http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/mom/mom07.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2 July 2017. Retrieved 13 February 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mysteries+of+Mithras&rft.pages=105&rft.au=Cumont%2C+Franz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sacred-texts.com%2Fcla%2Fmom%2Fmom07.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jackson-58"><a href="#cite_ref-Jackson_58-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson,_Howard_M.1985" class="citation journal cs1">Jackson, Howard M. (July 1985). "The meaning and function of the leontocephaline in Roman Mithraism". <a href="/wiki/Numen_(journal)" title="Numen (journal)">Numen</a>. 32 (1): 17–45. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F156852785X00148">10.1163/156852785X00148</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144419653">144419653</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Numen&rft.atitle=The+meaning+and+function+of+the+leontocephaline+in+Roman+Mithraism&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E17-%3C%2Fspan%3E45&rft.date=1985-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F156852785X00148&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144419653%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Jackson%2C+Howard+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Barnett-1975-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Barnett-1975_59-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Barnett-1975_59-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Barnett-1975_59-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnett1975" class="citation conference cs1">Barnett, R.D. (1975). "[no title cited]". In Hinnells, John R. (ed.). Mithraic Studies. International Congress of Mithraic Studies. Vol. II. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. pp. 467–468.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=%5Bno+title+cited%5D&rft.btitle=Mithraic+Studies&rft.place=Manchester%2C+UK&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E467-%3C%2Fspan%3E468&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.aulast=Barnett&rft.aufirst=R.D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beck-2004-Zoroastrianism-61">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Beck-2004-Zoroastrianism_61-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beck-2004-Zoroastrianism_61-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeck2004" class="citation book cs1">Beck, Roger B. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SIYTfTYrs1UC&q=generally+agreed+that+Cumont%27s+master+narrative+of+east-west+transfer+is+unsustainable&pg=PA28">"Cumont's master narrative"</a>. Beck on Mithraism: Collected works with new essays. Aldershot: Ashgate. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7546-4081-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7546-4081-7"><bdi>0-7546-4081-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230504001153/https://books.google.com/books?id=SIYTfTYrs1UC&q=generally+agreed+that+Cumont%27s+master+narrative+of+east-west+transfer+is+unsustainable&pg=PA28">Archived</a> from the original on 4 May 2023. Retrieved 23 February 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cumont%27s+master+narrative&rft.btitle=Beck+on+Mithraism%3A+Collected+works+with+new+essays&rft.place=Aldershot&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-7546-4081-7&rft.aulast=Beck&rft.aufirst=Roger+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSIYTfTYrs1UC%26q%3Dgenerally%2Bagreed%2Bthat%2BCumont%2527s%2Bmaster%2Bnarrative%2Bof%2Beast-west%2Btransfer%2Bis%2Bunsustainable%26pg%3DPA28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVermaserenvan_Essen1965" class="citation book cs1">Vermaseren, Maarten Jozef; van Essen, Carel Claudius (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iskUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA238">The Excavations in the Mithraeum of the Church of Santa Prisca in Rome</a>. Brill. p. 238. Retrieved 3 April 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Excavations+in+the+Mithraeum+of+the+Church+of+Santa+Prisca+in+Rome&rft.pages=238&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Vermaseren&rft.aufirst=Maarten+Jozef&rft.au=van+Essen%2C+Carel+Claudius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiskUAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA238&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/507866/Roman-religion">"Roman religion"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica (online ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110903154737/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/507866/Roman-religion">Archived</a> from the original on 3 September 2011. Retrieved 4 July 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Roman+religion&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=online&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F507866%2FRoman-religion&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beck-1987-66">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Beck-1987_66-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beck-1987_66-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beck-1987_66-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beck-1987_66-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beck-1987_66-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beck-1987_66-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beck-1987_66-6">g</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeck1987" class="citation journal cs1">Beck, Roger (1987). "Merkelbach's Mithras". Phoenix. 41 (3): 296–316. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1088197">10.2307/1088197</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1088197">1088197</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phoenix&rft.atitle=Merkelbach%27s+Mithras&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E296-%3C%2Fspan%3E316&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1088197&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1088197%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Beck&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClauss1990" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Clauss, Manfred (1990). Mithras: Kult und Mysterien (in German). München, DE: Beck. p. 70.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mithras%3A+Kult+und+Mysterien&rft.place=M%C3%BCnchen%2C+DE&rft.pages=70&rft.pub=Beck&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Clauss&rft.aufirst=Manfred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NovaRoma-2009-03-11-68">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NovaRoma-2009-03-11_68-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NovaRoma-2009-03-11_68-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130518044617/http://www.novaroma.org/nr/Sodalitas_Graeciae_%28Nova_Roma%29/Religion_from_the_Papyri/Mithraism">"Mithraism"</a>. Sodalitas Graeciae (Nova Roma) / Religion from the Papyri. Nova Roma. 11 March 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.novaroma.org/nr/Sodalitas_Graeciae_%28Nova_Roma%29/Religion_from_the_Papyri/Mithraism">the original</a> on 18 May 2013. Retrieved 7 September 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mithraism&rft.series=Sodalitas+Graeciae+%28Nova+Roma%29+%2F+Religion+from+the+Papyri&rft.pub=Nova+Roma&rft.date=2009-03-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.novaroma.org%2Fnr%2FSodalitas_Graeciae_%2528Nova_Roma%2529%2FReligion_from_the_Papyri%2FMithraism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-69"><a href="#cite_ref-:0_69-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJansonJanson2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Horst_Woldemar_Janson" class="mw-redirect" title="Horst Woldemar Janson">Janson, Horst Woldemar</a>; Janson, Anthony F. (2004). Touborg, Sarah; Moore, Julia; Oppenheimer, Margaret; Castro, Anita (eds.). History of Art: The Western Tradition. Vol. 1 (Revised 6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: <a href="/wiki/Pearson_Education" title="Pearson Education">Pearson Education</a>. p. 220. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-182622-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-182622-0"><bdi>0-13-182622-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Art%3A+The+Western+Tradition&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pages=220&rft.edition=Revised+6th&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-13-182622-0&rft.aulast=Janson&rft.aufirst=Horst+Woldemar&rft.au=Janson%2C+Anthony+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrashear1992" class="citation book cs1">Brashear, William M. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GonXAAAAMAAJ&q=catechism">A Mithraic catechism from Egypt: (P. Berol. 21196)</a>. Supplementband Tyche. Vol. 1. Staatliche Museen Preußischer Kulturbesitz (contributor). Verlag Adolf Holzhausens. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783900518073" title="Special:BookSources/9783900518073"><bdi>9783900518073</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164814/https://books.google.com/books?id=GonXAAAAMAAJ&q=catechism">Archived</a> from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 6 August 2022 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Mithraic+catechism+from+Egypt%3A+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E%28P.+Berol.+21196%29%3C%2Fspan%3E&rft.series=Supplementband+%27%27Tyche%27%27&rft.pub=Verlag+Adolf+Holzhausens&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9783900518073&rft.aulast=Brashear&rft.aufirst=William+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGonXAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dcatechism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyer1976" class="citation book cs1">Meyer, Marvin W. (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mithrasliturgy0000unse">The "Mithras liturgy"</a>. Missoula, MT: Scholars Press for the Society of Biblical Literature. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0891301135" title="Special:BookSources/0891301135"><bdi>0891301135</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+%22Mithras+liturgy%22&rft.place=Missoula%2C+MT&rft.pub=Scholars+Press+for+the+Society+of+Biblical+Literature&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=0891301135&rft.aulast=Meyer&rft.aufirst=Marvin+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmithrasliturgy0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrancis1971" class="citation book cs1">Francis, E.D. (1971). "Mithraic graffiti from Dura-Europos". In Hinnells, John R. (ed.). Mithraic Studies. Vol. 2. Manchester University Press. pp. 424–445.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mithraic+graffiti+from+Dura-Europos&rft.btitle=Mithraic+Studies&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E424-%3C%2Fspan%3E445&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Francis&rft.aufirst=E.D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurkert1987" class="citation book cs1">Burkert, Walter (1987). Ancient Mystery Cults. Harvard University Press. p. 41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-03387-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-03387-6"><bdi>0-674-03387-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Mystery+Cults&rft.pages=41&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-674-03387-6&rft.aulast=Burkert&rft.aufirst=Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Price-Kearns-ODCMR-75">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Price-Kearns-ODCMR_75-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Price-Kearns-ODCMR_75-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Price-Kearns-ODCMR_75-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrice,_S.Kearns,_E." class="citation book cs1">Price, S.; Kearns, E. (eds.). Oxford Dictionary of Classical Myth and Religion.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+Classical+Myth+and+Religion&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTripolitis,_Antonía2002" class="citation book cs1">Tripolitis, Antonía (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/religionshelleni00trip">Religions of the Hellenistic-Roman Age</a>. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/religionshelleni00trip/page/n65">55</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-4913-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-4913-7"><bdi>978-0-8028-4913-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religions+of+the+Hellenistic-Roman+Age&rft.pages=55&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-4913-7&rft.au=Tripolitis%2C+Anton%C3%ADa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freligionshelleni00trip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beck-2006-77"><a href="#cite_ref-Beck-2006_77-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeck2006" class="citation book cs1">Beck, Roger (2006). The Religion of the Mithras Cult in the Roman Empire. London, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 16, 85–87, 288–289. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-921613-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-921613-0"><bdi>978-0-19-921613-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Religion+of+the+Mithras+Cult+in+the+Roman+Empire&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pages=16%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E85-%3C%2Fspan%3E87%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E288-%3C%2Fspan%3E289&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-19-921613-0&rft.aulast=Beck&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHinnells,_John_R.1971" class="citation book cs1">Hinnells, John R., ed. (1971). Mithraic Studies. Vol. 2. Manchester University Press. plate 25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mithraic+Studies&rft.pages=plate-25&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1971&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurkert1987" class="citation book cs1">Burkert, Walter (1987). Ancient Mystery Cults. Harvard University Press. p. 10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-03387-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-03387-6"><bdi>0-674-03387-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Mystery+Cults&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-674-03387-6&rft.aulast=Burkert&rft.aufirst=Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Suda" title="Suda">Suda</a> reference given is 3: 394, M 1045 (Adler).<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-6">[4]</a>(p 102) </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> The Gregory reference given is to Oratio 4.70 .<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-6">[4]</a>(p 102) </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJerome" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Saint_Jerome" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Jerome">Jerome</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081007132224/http://www.ccel.org/fathers/NPNF2-06/letters/lette107.htm">"To Laeta, ch. 2"</a>. Letters. Vol. 107. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/fathers/NPNF2-06/letters/lette107.htm">the original</a> on 7 October 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=To+Laeta%2C+ch.+2&rft.btitle=Letters&rft.au=Jerome&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Ffathers%2FNPNF2-06%2Fletters%2Flette107.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClauss1990" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Clauss, Manfred (1990). "Die sieben Grade des Mithras-Kultes" [The seven grades of the Mithras cult]. Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik (in German). 82: 183–194.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Papyrologie+und+Epigraphik&rft.atitle=Die+sieben+Grade+des+Mithras-Kultes&rft.volume=82&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E183-%3C%2Fspan%3E194&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Clauss&rft.aufirst=Manfred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffith" class="citation journal cs1">Griffith, Alison. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100928222225/http://www.uhu.es/ejms/Papers/Volume1Papers/ABGMS.DOC">"Mithraism in the private and public lives of 4th-c. senators in Rome"</a>. Electronic Journal of Mithraic Studies. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uhu.es/ejms/Papers/Volume1Papers/ABGMS.DOC">the original</a> on 28 September 2010. Retrieved 10 January 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Electronic+Journal+of+Mithraic+Studies&rft.atitle=Mithraism+in+the+private+and+public+lives+of+4th-c.+senators+in+Rome&rft.aulast=Griffith&rft.aufirst=Alison&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uhu.es%2Fejms%2FPapers%2FVolume1Papers%2FABGMS.DOC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> ... "the followers of Mithras were the 'initiates of the theft of the bull, united by the handshake of the illustrious father'." (Err. prof. relig. 5.2)<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-6">[4]</a>(p 105) </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHealy1909" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Healy, Patrick J., ed. (1909). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06080a.htm">"Firmicus Maternus"</a>. Catholic Encyclopedia. New York, NY: Robert Appleton Company. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170702064031/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06080a.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2 July 2017. Retrieved 8 April 2011 – via newadvent.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Firmicus+Maternus&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1909&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F06080a.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurkert1987" class="citation book cs1">Burkert, Walter (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qCvlvqCXF8UC&pg=PA16">Ancient mystery cults</a>. Harvard University Press. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03387-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03387-0"><bdi>978-0-674-03387-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved 4 November 2011. <q>Taking the right hand is the old Iranian form of a promise of allegiance, ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+mystery+cults&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-674-03387-0&rft.aulast=Burkert&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqCvlvqCXF8UC%26pg%3DPA16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beck-2000-91"><a href="#cite_ref-Beck-2000_91-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeck2000" class="citation journal cs1">Beck, Roger (2000). "Ritual, myth, doctrine, and initiation in the Mysteries of Mithras: New evidence from a cult vessel". The Journal of Roman Studies. 90 (90): 145–180. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F300205">10.2307/300205</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/300205">300205</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161475387">161475387</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Roman+Studies&rft.atitle=Ritual%2C+myth%2C+doctrine%2C+and+initiation+in+the+Mysteries+of+Mithras%3A+New+evidence+from+a+cult+vessel&rft.volume=90&rft.issue=90&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E145-%3C%2Fspan%3E180&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161475387%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F300205%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F300205&rft.aulast=Beck&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerkelbach1995" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Merkelbach, Reinhold (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uni-koeln.de/phil-fak/ifa/zpe/downloads/1995/108pdf/108001.pdf">"Das Mainzer Mithrasgefäß"</a> [The Mithras vessel from Mainz] (PDF). Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik (in German) (108): 1–6. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200718201632/http://www.uni-koeln.de/phil-fak/ifa/zpe/downloads/1995/108pdf/108001.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 18 July 2020. Retrieved 17 October 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Papyrologie+und+Epigraphik&rft.atitle=Das+Mainzer+Mithrasgef%C3%A4%C3%9F&rft.issue=108&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E6&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Merkelbach&rft.aufirst=Reinhold&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uni-koeln.de%2Fphil-fak%2Fifa%2Fzpe%2Fdownloads%2F1995%2F108pdf%2F108001.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin2004" class="citation book cs1">Martin, Luther H. (2004). "Ritual competence and Mithraic ritual". In Wilson, Brian C. (ed.). Religion as a Human Capacity: A festschrift in honor of E. Thomas Lawson. BRILL. p. 257.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ritual+competence+and+Mithraic+ritual&rft.btitle=Religion+as+a+Human+Capacity%3A+A+festschrift+in+honor+of+E.+Thomas+Lawson&rft.pages=257&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Luther+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCumont1903" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Franz_Cumont" title="Franz Cumont">Cumont, Franz</a> (1903). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/mysteriesofmythr00cumouoft#page/n193/mode/2up">The Mysteries of Mithras</a>. p. 173. Retrieved 6 July 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mysteries+of+Mithras&rft.pages=173&rft.date=1903&rft.aulast=Cumont&rft.aufirst=Franz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fmysteriesofmythr00cumouoft%23page%2Fn193%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> cited in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon,_Richard2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Gordon, Richard (2005). "Mithraism". In Jones, Lindsay (ed.). Encyclopedia Of Religion. Vol. 9 (2nd ed.). Thomas Gale, Macmillan Reference USA. p. 6090.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mithraism&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Of+Religion&rft.pages=6090&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Thomas+Gale%2C+Macmillan+Reference+USA&rft.date=2005&rft.au=Gordon%2C+Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-David_2000-99"><a href="#cite_ref-David_2000_99-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid2000" class="citation journal cs1">David, Jonathan (2000). "The Exclusion of women in the Mithraic Mysteries: Ancient or modern?". Numen. 47 (2): 121–141. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F156852700511469">10.1163/156852700511469</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Numen&rft.atitle=The+Exclusion+of+women+in+the+Mithraic+Mysteries%3A+Ancient+or+modern%3F&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E121-%3C%2Fspan%3E141&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F156852700511469&rft.aulast=David&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTertullian" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a>. De Corona Militis. 15.3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+Corona+Militis&rft.pages=15.3&rft.au=Tertullian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grenet-2016-EncIranica-103">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Grenet-2016-EncIranica_103-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grenet-2016-EncIranica_103-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grenet-2016-EncIranica_103-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrenet2016" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Grenet, Franz (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/mithra-2-iconography-in-iran-and-central-asia">"Mithra (ii). Iconography in Iran and Central Asia"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Iranica" title="Encyclopædia Iranica">Encyclopædia Iranica</a> (online ed.). Retrieved 19 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mithra+%28ii%29.+Iconography+in+Iran+and+Central+Asia&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.edition=online&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Grenet&rft.aufirst=Franz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fmithra-2-iconography-in-iran-and-central-asia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVermaseren1963" class="citation book cs1">Vermaseren, M.J. (1963). Mithras: the Secret God. London, UK: Chatto and Windus. p. 29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mithras%3A+the+Secret+God&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=Chatto+and+Windus&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Vermaseren&rft.aufirst=M.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CIMRM_29-106"><a href="#cite_ref-CIMRM_29_106-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVermaseren1956" class="citation book cs1">Vermaseren, M.J. (1956). Corpus inscriptionum et monumentorum religionis mithriacae. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. CIMRM 29. <q>Head of a beardless Mithras in Phrygian cap, point of which is missing.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Corpus+inscriptionum+et+monumentorum+religionis+mithriacae&rft.place=The+Hague&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhoff&rft.date=1956&rft.aulast=Vermaseren&rft.aufirst=M.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVermaseren1956" class="citation book cs1">Vermaseren, M.J. (1956). Corpus inscriptionum et monumentorum religionis mithriacae. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. CIMRM 28. <q>The gods are represented in a sitting position on a throne and are: Apollo-Mithras (see below); Tyche-Commagene; Zeus-Ahura-Mazda; Antiochus himself and finally Ares-Artagnes.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Corpus+inscriptionum+et+monumentorum+religionis+mithriacae&rft.place=The+Hague&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhoff&rft.date=1956&rft.aulast=Vermaseren&rft.aufirst=M.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVermaseren1956" class="citation book cs1">Vermaseren, M.J. (1956). Corpus inscriptionum et monumentorum religionis mithriacae. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. CIMRM 32, verse 55.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Corpus+inscriptionum+et+monumentorum+religionis+mithriacae&rft.place=The+Hague&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhoff&rft.date=1956&rft.aulast=Vermaseren&rft.aufirst=M.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeck" class="citation book cs1">Beck, Roger. "On Becoming a Mithraist New Evidence for the Propagation of the Mysteries". In Leif E. Vaage; et al. (eds.). Religious Rivalries in the Early Roman Empire and the Rise of Christianity. p. 182. <q>The origins and spread of the Mysteries are matters of perennial debate among scholars of the cult.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+Becoming+a+Mithraist+New+Evidence+for+the+Propagation+of+the+Mysteries&rft.btitle=Religious+Rivalries+in+the+Early+Roman+Empire+and+the+Rise+of+Christianity&rft.pages=182&rft.aulast=Beck&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUlansey" class="citation web cs1">Ulansey, David. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.well.com/user/davidu/mithras.html">"The Cosmic Mysteries of Mithras"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080415054733/http://www.well.com/user/davidu/mithras.html">Archived</a> from the original on 15 April 2008. Retrieved 20 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Cosmic+Mysteries+of+Mithras&rft.aulast=Ulansey&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.well.com%2Fuser%2Fdavidu%2Fmithras.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Daniels-1975-113">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Daniels-1975_113-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Daniels-1975_113-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Daniels-1975_113-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Daniels-1975_113-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Daniels-1975_113-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniels1971" class="citation conference cs1">Daniels, C.M. (1971). "The role of the Roman army in the spread and practice of Mithraism". In Hinnells, John R. (ed.). Mithraic Studies. The First International Congress of Mithraic Studies. Vol. 2. Manchester University Press (published 1975). pp. 249–274.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=The+role+of+the+Roman+army+in+the+spread+and+practice+of+Mithraism&rft.btitle=Mithraic+Studies&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E249-%3C%2Fspan%3E274&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Daniels&rft.aufirst=C.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeck1998" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rodger_Beck&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rodger Beck (page does not exist)">Beck, R.</a> (1998). "The mysteries of Mithras: A new account of their genesis". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Roman_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Roman Studies">Journal of Roman Studies</a>. 88: 115–128. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F300807">10.2307/300807</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/300807">300807</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162251490">162251490</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Roman+Studies&rft.atitle=The+mysteries+of+Mithras%3A+A+new+account+of+their+genesis&rft.volume=88&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E115-%3C%2Fspan%3E128&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162251490%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F300807%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F300807&rft.aulast=Beck&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon1978" class="citation journal cs1">Gordon, Richard L. (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100525042933/http://www.hums.canterbury.ac.nz/clas/ejms/out_of_print/JMSv2n2/JMSv2n2Gordon.pdf">"The date and significance of CIMRM 593 (British Museum, Townley Collection"</a> (PDF). <a href="/w/index.php?title=Journal_of_Mithraic_Studies&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Journal of Mithraic Studies (page does not exist)">Journal of Mithraic Studies</a>. II: 148–174. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hums.canterbury.ac.nz/clas/ejms/out_of_print/JMSv2n2/JMSv2n2Gordon.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 25 May 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Mithraic+Studies&rft.atitle=The+date+and+significance+of+CIMRM+593+%28British+Museum%2C+Townley+Collection&rft.volume=II&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E148-%3C%2Fspan%3E174&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=Richard+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hums.canterbury.ac.nz%2Fclas%2Fejms%2Fout_of_print%2FJMSv2n2%2FJMSv2n2Gordon.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beskow-Études-117">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Beskow-Études_117-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beskow-Études_117-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeskow" class="citation book cs1">Beskow, Per. "The routes of early Mithraism". In Duchesne-Guillemin, Jacques (ed.). Études mithriaques.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+routes+of+early+Mithraism&rft.btitle=%C3%89tudes+mithriaques&rft.aulast=Beskow&rft.aufirst=Per&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlawatskyKolchelenko1966" class="citation book cs1">Blawatsky, W.; Kolchelenko, G. (1966). Le culte de Mithra sur la cote spetentrionale de la Mer Noire. Leiden. p. 14 ff.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+culte+de+Mithra+sur+la+cote+spetentrionale+de+la+Mer+Noire&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=14-ff&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Blawatsky&rft.aufirst=W.&rft.au=Kolchelenko%2C+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeck1984" class="citation book cs1">Beck, Roger (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wFceDNFgVowC&dq=beck%20%22mithraism%20since%20franz%20cumont%22&pg=PA2018">"Mithraism since Franz Cumont"</a>. Aufsteig und Niedergang der romischen Welt [Ascent and Descent in the Roman World]. Religion Heidentum: Römische Götterkulte, Orientalische Kulte in der Römischen Welt. Vol. II. p. 2019. 17.4. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230414153745/https://books.google.com/books?id=wFceDNFgVowC&dq=beck%20%22mithraism%20since%20franz%20cumont%22&pg=PA2018">Archived</a> from the original on 14 April 2023. Retrieved 6 August 2022 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mithraism+since+Franz+Cumont&rft.btitle=Aufsteig+und+Niedergang+der+romischen+Welt&rft.series=Religion+Heidentum%3A+R%C3%B6mische+G%C3%B6tterkulte%2C+Orientalische+Kulte+in+der+R%C3%B6mischen+Welt&rft.pages=2019&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Beck&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwFceDNFgVowC%26dq%3Dbeck%2520%2522mithraism%2520since%2520franz%2520cumont%2522%26pg%3DPA2018&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hopfe-1994-126">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hopfe-1994_126-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hopfe-1994_126-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHopfe1994" class="citation book cs1">Hopfe, Lewis M. (1994). "Archaeological indications on the origins of Roman Mithraism". In Hopfe, Lewis M. (ed.). Uncovering Ancient Stones: Essays in memory of H. Neil Richardson. Eisenbrauns. pp. 147–158.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Archaeological+indications+on+the+origins+of+Roman+Mithraism&rft.btitle=Uncovering+Ancient+Stones%3A+Essays+in+memory+of+H.+Neil+Richardson&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E147-%3C%2Fspan%3E158&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Hopfe&rft.aufirst=Lewis+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStatius" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a>. Thebaid. 1.719–720.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thebaid&rft.pages=1.719-720&rft.au=Statius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> <dl><dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/statius/theb1.shtml">"Latin text"</a>. The Latin Library. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170909030551/http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/statius/theb1.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 9 September 2017. Retrieved 12 April 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Latin+Library&rft.atitle=Latin+text&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thelatinlibrary.com%2Fstatius%2Ftheb1.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"></dd> <dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theoi.com/Text/StatiusThebaid1.html">"English translation"</a>. Classical e-Text. Translated by Mozey, J.H. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170929092016/http://www.theoi.com/Text/StatiusThebaid1.html">Archived</a> from the original on 29 September 2017. Retrieved 12 April 2011 – via theoi.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=English+translation&rft.series=Classical+e-Text&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theoi.com%2FText%2FStatiusThebaid1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"></dd></dl> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> The prayer begins at <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStatius" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a>. Thebaid. 1.696.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thebaid&rft.pages=1.696&rft.au=Statius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> <dl><dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/statius/theb1.shtml">"Latin text"</a>. The Latin Library. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170909030551/http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/statius/theb1.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 9 September 2017. Retrieved 12 April 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Latin+Library&rft.atitle=Latin+text&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thelatinlibrary.com%2Fstatius%2Ftheb1.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"></dd> <dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theoi.com/Text/StatiusThebaid1.html">"English translation"</a>. Classical e-Text. Translated by Mozey, J.H. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170929092016/http://www.theoi.com/Text/StatiusThebaid1.html">Archived</a> from the original on 29 September 2017. Retrieved 12 April 2011 – via theoi.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=English+translation&rft.series=Classical+e-Text&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theoi.com%2FText%2FStatiusThebaid1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"></dd></dl> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJustin_Martyr" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a>. First and Second Apologies of Justin Martyr. Chapter 66.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=First+and+Second+Apologies+of+Justin+Martyr&rft.pages=Chapter-66&rft.au=Justin+Martyr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Life_of_Pompey_24-132">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Life_of_Pompey_24_132-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Life_of_Pompey_24_132-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlutarch" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Pompey*.html#24">"Life of Pompey"</a>. Lives. 24. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220731043359/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Pompey%2A.html#24">Archived</a> from the original on 31 July 2022. Retrieved 19 February 2021 – via penelope.uchicago.edu.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Life+of+Pompey&rft.btitle=Lives&rft.pages=24&rft.au=Plutarch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2FPlutarch%2FLives%2FPompey%2A.html%2324&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> — refers to events <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 68 BCE </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a> Mith 14.92 cited in<a href="#cite_note-Ulansey-1991-Origins-12">[9]</a>(p 89) </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrancis1971" class="citation conference cs1">Francis, E.D. (1971). "Plutarch's Mithraic pirates: An appendix to the article by Franz Cummont "The Dura Mithraeum"". In Hinnells, John R. (ed.). Mithraic Studies. The First International Congress of Mithraic Studies. Vol. 1. Manchester University Press (published 1975). pp. 207–210.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=Plutarch%27s+Mithraic+pirates%3A+An+appendix+to+the+article+by+Franz+Cummont+%22The+Dura+Mithraeum%22&rft.btitle=Mithraic+Studies&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E207-%3C%2Fspan%3E210&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Francis&rft.aufirst=E.D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> <dl><dd>The reference to Servius is in a</dd></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHinnells1975" class="citation book cs1">Hinnells, John R. (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xRy8AAAAIAAJ&dq=Servius+Plutarch+Cumont&pg=PA208">lengthy footnote for page 208</a>. Manchester University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780719005367" title="Special:BookSources/9780719005367"><bdi>9780719005367</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230515064453/https://books.google.com/books?id=xRy8AAAAIAAJ&dq=Servius+Plutarch+Cumont&pg=PA208">Archived</a> from the original on 15 May 2023. Retrieved 23 February 2023 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=lengthy+footnote+for+page+208&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=9780719005367&rft.aulast=Hinnells&rft.aufirst=John+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxRy8AAAAIAAJ%26dq%3DServius%2BPlutarch%2BCumont%26pg%3DPA208&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988">. </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDio_Cassius" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dio_Cassius" class="mw-redirect" title="Dio Cassius">Dio Cassius</a>. [no title cited]. 63.5.2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3Agray%22%3E%5Bno+title+cited%5D%3C%2Fspan%3E&rft.pages=63.5.2&rft.au=Dio+Cassius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeck2002" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Beck, Roger (20 July 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/mithraism">"Mithraism"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Iranica" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopaedia Iranica">Encyclopaedia Iranica</a> (online ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200520055846/http://iranicaonline.org/articles/mithraism">Archived</a> from the original on 20 May 2020. Retrieved 15 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mithraism&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft.edition=online&rft.date=2002-07-20&rft.aulast=Beck&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fmithraism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-deantro2-138">^ <a href="#cite_ref-deantro2_138-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-deantro2_138-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-deantro2_138-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPorphyry" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyry</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/porphyry_cave_of_nymphs_02_translation.htm">De Antro Nympharum</a> [On the Cave of the Nymphs]. 2. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170822111032/http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/porphyry_cave_of_nymphs_02_translation.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 22 August 2017. Retrieved 9 October 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+Antro+Nympharum&rft.pages=2&rft.au=Porphyry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tertullian.org%2Ffathers%2Fporphyry_cave_of_nymphs_02_translation.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurcan1975" class="citation book cs1">Turcan, Robert (1975). Mithras Platonicus. Leiden, NL.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mithras+Platonicus&rft.place=Leiden%2C+NL&rft.date=1975&rft.aulast=Turcan&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) <dl><dd>cited by Beck (1987)<a href="#cite_note-Beck-1987-66">[43]</a>(p 301–302)</dd></dl> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeck,_RogerMartin,_Luther_H.Whitehouse,_Harvey2004" class="citation book cs1">Beck, Roger; Martin, Luther H.; Whitehouse, Harvey (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m3Hu5icpP1AC&pg=PA101">Theorizing Religions Past: Archaeology, history, and cognition</a>. Rowman Altamira. p. 101 ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-0621-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-0621-5"><bdi>978-0-7591-0621-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 28 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theorizing+Religions+Past%3A+Archaeology%2C+history%2C+and+cognition&rft.pages=101+ff&rft.pub=Rowman+Altamira&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7591-0621-5&rft.au=Beck%2C+Roger&rft.au=Martin%2C+Luther+H.&rft.au=Whitehouse%2C+Harvey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm3Hu5icpP1AC%26pg%3DPA101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeck2006" class="citation book cs1">Beck, Roger (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordworldheroi00libg">The Religion of the Mithras Cult in the Roman Empire</a>. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordworldheroi00libg/page/n31">17</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-814089-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-814089-4"><bdi>978-0-19-814089-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Religion+of+the+Mithras+Cult+in+the+Roman+Empire&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pages=17&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-19-814089-4&rft.aulast=Beck&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foxfordworldheroi00libg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Greek Magical Papyrus. Paris, FR: Bibliothèque Nationale. Suppl. gr. 574.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek+Magical+Papyrus&rft.place=Paris%2C+FR&rft.pages=Suppl.+gr.-574&rft.pub=Biblioth%C3%A8que+Nationale&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Meyer-2006-145">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Meyer-2006_145-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Meyer-2006_145-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyer2006" class="citation book cs1">Meyer, Marvin (2006). "The Mithras Liturgy". In Levine, A.J.; Allison, Dale C. Jr.; Crossan, John Dominic (eds.). The Historical Jesus in Context. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-00991-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-00991-0"><bdi>0-691-00991-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Mithras+Liturgy&rft.btitle=The+Historical+Jesus+in+Context&rft.place=New+Jersey&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-691-00991-0&rft.aulast=Meyer&rft.aufirst=Marvin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> The reference is at line 482 of the Great Magical Papyrus of Paris.<a href="#cite_note-Meyer-2006-145">[98]</a>(p 180) The entire Mithras Liturgy comprises lines 475–834 of the papyrus. </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDieterich1910" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Dieterich, Albrecht (1910). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/einemithraslitur00dietuoft#page/2/mode/2up">Eine Mithrasliturgie</a> (in German) (2nd ed.). Leipzig, DE: B.G. Teubner. pp. 1–2. ark:/13960/t03x8jd9d.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eine+Mithrasliturgie&rft.place=Leipzig%2C+DE&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=B.G.+Teubner&rft.date=1910&rft.aulast=Dieterich&rft.aufirst=Albrecht&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Feinemithraslitur00dietuoft%23page%2F2%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> — Greek source with German translation </li> <li id="cite_note-Mthrs-Ltrg-2003-148">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mthrs-Ltrg-2003_148-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mthrs-Ltrg-2003_148-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">The "Mithras Liturgy": Text, translation, and commentary. Tübingen, DE: Mohr Siebeck. 2003.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+%22Mithras+Liturgy%22%3A+Text%2C+translation%2C+and+commentary&rft.place=T%C3%BCbingen%2C+DE&rft.pub=Mohr+Siebeck&rft.date=2003&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon2005" class="citation journal cs1">Gordon, Richard (March 2005). "Probably not Mithras". <a href="/wiki/The_Classical_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="The Classical Review">The Classical Review</a>. 55 (1): 99–100. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fclrevj%2Fbni059">10.1093/clrevj/bni059</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Classical+Review&rft.atitle=Probably+not+Mithras&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E99-%3C%2Fspan%3E100&rft.date=2005-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fclrevj%2Fbni059&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-iranica-150"><a href="#cite_ref-iranica_150-0">^</a> Franz Grenet, 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/mithra-2-iconography-in-iran-and-central-asia">"Mithra ii. Iconography in Iran and Central Asia"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Iranica" title="Encyclopædia Iranica">Encyclopædia Iranica</a>, online edition (accessed 19 May 2016). </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> Cumont, Franz (1894–1900). Textes et monuments figurés relatifs aux mystères de Mithra. Brussels: H. Lamertin. </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> Cumont, Franz (1903). The Mysteries of Mithra. Translated by Thomas J. McCormack. Chicago: Open Court. Accessible online at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/mom/index.htm">Internet Sacred Text Archive: The Mysteries of Mithra Index</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171006100448/http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/mom/index.htm">Archived</a> 6 October 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (accessed 13 February 2011) </li> <li id="cite_note-RichardsonHopfe1994-3-153"><a href="#cite_ref-RichardsonHopfe1994-3_153-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHopfeRichardson1994" class="citation book cs1">Hopfe, Lewis M.; Richardson, Henry Neil (September 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QRfhSBLmAK8C&pg=PA148">"Archaeological indications on the origins of Roman Mithraism"</a>. In Hopfe, Lewis M. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/uncoveringancien0000unse/page/148">Uncovering ancient stones: Essays in memory of H. Neil Richardson</a>. Eisenbrauns. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/uncoveringancien0000unse/page/148">148ff</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-931464-73-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-931464-73-7"><bdi>978-0-931464-73-7</bdi></a>. Retrieved 19 March 2011 – via Google Books. <q>Franz Cumont, one of the greatest students of Mithraism, theorized that the roots of the Roman mystery religion were in ancient Iran. He identified the ancient Aryan deity who appears in Persian literature as Mithras with the Hindu god Mitra of the Vedic hymns.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Archaeological+indications+on+the+origins+of+Roman+Mithraism&rft.btitle=Uncovering+ancient+stones%3A+Essays+in+memory+of+H.+Neil+Richardson&rft.pages=148ff&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1994-09&rft.isbn=978-0-931464-73-7&rft.aulast=Hopfe&rft.aufirst=Lewis+M.&rft.au=Richardson%2C+Henry+Neil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQRfhSBLmAK8C%26pg%3DPA148&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/mom/mom07.htm">Cumont, Franz (1903). The Mysteries of Mithra. p. 107.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170702092009/http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/mom/mom07.htm">Archived</a> 2 July 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (accessed 13 February 2011) </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/mom/mom07.htm">Cumont, Franz (1903). The Mysteries of Mithra. p. 104.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170702092009/http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/mom/mom07.htm">Archived</a> 2 July 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (accessed 13 February 2011) </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> John R. Hinnells, "Reflections on the bull-slaying scene" in Mithraic studies, vol. 2, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eBy8AAAAIAAJ&q=Since+Cumont%27s+reconstruction+&pg=PA303">pp. 303–304</a>: "Nevertheless we would not be justified in swinging to the opposite extreme from Cumont and Campbell and denying all connection between Mithraism and Iran." </li> <li id="cite_note-HinnellsReflections-158">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HinnellsReflections_158-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HinnellsReflections_158-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHinnells1975" class="citation book cs1">Hinnells, John R. (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eBy8AAAAIAAJ&q=Since+Cumont%27s+reconstruction+&pg=PA303">"Reflections on the bull-slaying scene"</a>. Mithraic Studies. Vol. 2. Manchester University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780719005367" title="Special:BookSources/9780719005367"><bdi>9780719005367</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Reflections+on+the+bull-slaying+scene&rft.btitle=Mithraic+Studies&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=9780719005367&rft.aulast=Hinnells&rft.aufirst=John+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeBy8AAAAIAAJ%26q%3DSince%2BCumont%2527s%2Breconstruction%2B%26pg%3DPA303&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon" class="citation book cs1">Gordon, R.L. "Franz Cumont and the doctrines of Mithraism". In Hinnells, John R. (ed.). Mithraic Studies. Vol. 1. pp. 215 ff.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Franz+Cumont+and+the+doctrines+of+Mithraism&rft.btitle=Mithraic+Studies&rft.pages=215+ff&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=R.L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin2004" class="citation book cs1">Martin, Luther H. (2004). "Foreword". Beck on Mithraism: Collected works with new essays. Aldershot: Ashgate. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7546-4081-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7546-4081-7"><bdi>0-7546-4081-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Foreword&rft.btitle=Beck+on+Mithraism%3A+Collected+works+with+new+essays&rft.place=Aldershot&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-7546-4081-7&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Luther+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBianchi" class="citation web cs1">Bianchi, Ugo. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110724230041/http://www.hums.canterbury.ac.nz/clas/ejms/out_of_print/JMSv1n1/JMSv1n1Bianchi.pdf">"The Second International Congress of Mithraic Studies, Tehran, September 1975"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hums.canterbury.ac.nz/clas/ejms/out_of_print/JMSv1n1/JMSv1n1Bianchi.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 24 July 2011. Retrieved 20 March 2011. <q>I welcome the present tendency to question in historical terms the relations between Eastern and Western Mithraism, which should not mean obliterating what was clear to the Romans themselves, that Mithras was a 'Persian' (in wider perspective: an Indo-Iranian) god.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Second+International+Congress+of+Mithraic+Studies%2C+Tehran%2C+September+1975&rft.aulast=Bianchi&rft.aufirst=Ugo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hums.canterbury.ac.nz%2Fclas%2Fejms%2Fout_of_print%2FJMSv1n1%2FJMSv1n1Bianchi.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyce2001" class="citation journal cs1">Boyce, Mary (2001). "Mithra the King and Varuna the Master". Festschrift für Helmut Humbach zum 80. Trier: WWT.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Festschrift+f%C3%BCr+Helmut+Humbach+zum+80&rft.atitle=Mithra+the+King+and+Varuna+the+Master&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Boyce&rft.aufirst=Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> pp. 243, n.18 </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeck2006" class="citation book cs1">Beck, Roger (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordworldheroi00libg">The Religion of the Mithras cult in the Roman empire</a>. Great Britain: Oxford University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordworldheroi00libg/page/n62">48</a>–50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-814089-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-814089-4"><bdi>978-0-19-814089-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Religion+of+the+Mithras+cult+in+the+Roman+empire&rft.place=Great+Britain&rft.pages=48-50&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-19-814089-4&rft.aulast=Beck&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foxfordworldheroi00libg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwell" class="citation web cs1">Edwell, Peter. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110810203356/http://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2006/2006-12-08.html">"Roger Beck, The Religion of the Mithras Cult in the Roman Empire: Mysteries of the Unconquered Sun. Reviewed by Peter Edwell, Macquarie University, Sydney"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2006/2006-12-08.html">the original</a> on 10 August 2011. Retrieved 14 June 2011. <q>The study of the ancient mystery cult of Mithraism has been heavily influenced over the last century by the pioneering work of Franz Cumont followed by that of M. J. Vermaseren. Ever since Cumont's volumes first appeared in the 1890s, his ideas on Mithraism have been influential, particularly with regard to the quest for Mithraic doctrine. His emphasis on the Iranian features of the cult is now less influential with the Iranising influences generally played down in scholarship over the last thirty years. While the long shadow cast by Cumont is sometimes susceptible to exaggeration, recent research such as that of Robert Turcan demonstrates that Cumont's influence is still strong.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Roger+Beck%2C+The+Religion+of+the+Mithras+Cult+in+the+Roman+Empire%3A+Mysteries+of+the+Unconquered+Sun.+Reviewed+by+Peter+Edwell%2C+Macquarie+University%2C+Sydney&rft.aulast=Edwell&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbmcr.brynmawr.edu%2F2006%2F2006-12-08.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBelayche" class="citation book cs1">Belayche, Nicole. "Religious Actors in Daily Life: Practices and Related Beliefs". In <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6rg_R%C3%BCpke" title="Jörg Rüpke">Jörg Rüpke</a> (ed.). A Companion to Roman Religion. p. 291. <q>Cumont, who still stands as an authoritative scholar for historians of religions, analyzed the diffusion of "oriental religions" as filling a psychological gap and satisfying new spiritualistic needs (1929: 24–40).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Religious+Actors+in+Daily+Life%3A+Practices+and+Related+Beliefs&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Roman+Religion&rft.pages=291&rft.aulast=Belayche&rft.aufirst=Nicole&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeck" class="citation book cs1">Beck, Roger. "On Becoming a Mithraist New Evidence for the Propagation of the Mysteries". In Leif E. Vaage; et al. (eds.). Religious Rivalries in the Early Roman Empire and the Rise of Christianity. p. 182. <q>The old Cumontian model of formation in, and diffusion from, Anatolia (see Cumont 1956a, 11–32; cf. pp. 33–84 on propagation in the West) is by no means dead – nor should it be. On the role of the army in the spread of Mithraism, see Daniels 1975.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+Becoming+a+Mithraist+New+Evidence+for+the+Propagation+of+the+Mysteries&rft.btitle=Religious+Rivalries+in+the+Early+Roman+Empire+and+the+Rise+of+Christianity&rft.pages=182&rft.aulast=Beck&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beck_2002-170"><a href="#cite_ref-Beck_2002_170-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeck2002" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Beck, Roger (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/mithraism">"Mithraism"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Iranica" title="Encyclopædia Iranica">Encyclopædia Iranica</a>. Costa Mesa: Mazda Pub. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200520055846/http://iranicaonline.org/articles/mithraism">Archived</a> from the original on 20 May 2020. Retrieved 28 October 2007. <q>Mithras – moreover, a Mithras who was identified with the Greek Sun god Helios – was one of the deities of the syncretic Graeco-Iranian royal cult founded by Antiochus I (<a href="/wiki/Antiochus_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiochus I">q.v.</a>), king of the small but prosperous buffer state of Commagene (<a href="/wiki/Commagene" title="Commagene">q.v.</a>) in the mid 1st century BCE.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mithraism&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.place=Costa+Mesa&rft.pub=Mazda+Pub&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Beck&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fmithraism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeck" class="citation web cs1">Beck, Roger. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://azargoshnasp.net/Din/mysteriesofmithra.pdf">"The mysteries of Mithras: A new account of their genesis"</a> (PDF). Retrieved 23 March 2011. <q>... It may properly be called a 'Cumontian scenario' for two reasons: First, because it looks again to Anatolia and Anatolians; Secondly, and more importantly, because it hews to the methodological line first set by Cumont.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+mysteries+of+Mithras%3A+A+new+account+of+their+genesis&rft.aulast=Beck&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fazargoshnasp.net%2FDin%2Fmysteriesofmithra.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> Beck, R., 2002: "Discontinuity's weaker form of argument postulates re-invention among and for the denizens of the Roman empire (or certain sections thereof), but re-invention by a person or persons of some familiarity with Iranian religion in a form current on its western margins in the first century CE. Merkelbach (1984: pp. 75–77), expanding on a suggestion of M. P. Nilsson, proposes such a founder from eastern <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, working in court circles in Rome. So does Beck (1998), with special focus on the dynasty of Commagene (see above). Jakobs 1999 proposes a similar scenario." </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> Reinhold Merkelbach, Mithras, Konigstein, 1984, ch. 75–77 </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeck2002" class="citation web cs1">Beck, Roger (20 July 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/mithraism">"Mithraism"</a>. Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200520055846/http://iranicaonline.org/articles/mithraism">Archived</a> from the original on 20 May 2020. Retrieved 16 May 2011. <q>The time has come to review the principal scholarship which has argued for transmission and continuity based on the postulated similarities ... three argue for continuity in the strongest terms. A.D.H. Bivar (1998, and earlier studies mentioned there) argues that western Mithraism was but one of several manifestations of Mithra-worship current in antiquity across a wide swathe of Asia and Europe. L.A. Campbell (1968) argues in the Cumontian tradition ... extraordinarily detailed and learned form of Zoroastrian Mazdaism. A continuity as thoroughgoing, though not quite so systematic ideologically, was proposed in several studies by G. Widengren (1965: pp. 222–232; 1966; 1980).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mithraism&rft.pub=Encyclopaedia+Iranica%2C+Online+Edition&rft.date=2002-07-20&rft.aulast=Beck&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fmithraism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPourshariati2019" class="citation conference cs1">Pourshariati, Parvaneh (September 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0lI67iiAds4">The Literary Holy Grail of Mithraic Studies, East and West: The Parthian Epic of Samak-e ʿAyyar</a>. 9th European Conference of Iranian Studies (video). Berlin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210131181050/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0lI67iiAds4">Archived</a> from the original on 31 January 2021. Retrieved 5 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=The+Literary+Holy+Grail+of+Mithraic+Studies%2C+East+and+West%3A+The+Parthian+Epic+of+Samak-e+%CA%BFAyyar&rft.place=Berlin&rft.date=2019-09&rft.aulast=Pourshariati&rft.aufirst=Parvaneh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D0lI67iiAds4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTripolitis2002" class="citation book cs1">Tripolitis, Antonía (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/religionshelleni00trip">Religions of the Hellenistic-Roman Age</a>. Wm.B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/religionshelleni00trip/page/n13">3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-4913-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-4913-7"><bdi>978-0-8028-4913-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religions+of+the+Hellenistic-Roman+Age&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Wm.B.+Eerdmans+Publishing&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-4913-7&rft.aulast=Tripolitis&rft.aufirst=Anton%C3%ADa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freligionshelleni00trip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon1978" class="citation journal cs1">Gordon, Richard L. (1978). "The date and significance of CIMRM 593 (British Museum, Townley Collection)". Journal of Mithraic Studies. II: 148–174.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Mithraic+Studies&rft.atitle=The+date+and+significance+of+CIMRM+593+%28British+Museum%2C+Townley+Collection%29&rft.volume=II&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E148-%3C%2Fspan%3E174&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=Richard+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> Clauss (2000),<a href="#cite_note-Clauss-2000-6">[4]</a>(p 25) referring to Porphyry, De Abstinentia, 2.56 and 4.16.3 (for Pallas) and De antro nympharum 6 (for Euboulus and his history). </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoeb1932" class="citation book cs1">Loeb, D. Magie (1932). Scriptores Historiae Augustae: Commodus.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scriptores+Historiae+Augustae%3A+Commodus&rft.date=1932&rft.aulast=Loeb&rft.aufirst=D.+Magie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> pp. IX.6: Sacra Mithriaca homicidio vero polluit, cum illic aliquid ad speciem timoris vel dici vel fingi soleat "He desecrated the rites of Mithras with actual murder, although it was customary in them merely to say or pretend something that would produce an impression of terror". </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurckhardt1852" class="citation book cs1">Burckhardt, Jacob (1852). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ageofconstantine00burc/page/176">The Age of Constantine the Great</a>. University of California Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ageofconstantine00burc/page/176">176</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-04680-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-04680-1"><bdi>978-0-520-04680-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+Constantine+the+Great&rft.pages=176&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1852&rft.isbn=978-0-520-04680-1&rft.aulast=Burckhardt&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fageofconstantine00burc%2Fpage%2F176&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUlansey" class="citation web cs1">Ulansey, David. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.well.com/user/davidu/mithras.html">"The Cosmic Mysteries of Mithras"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080415054733/http://www.well.com/user/davidu/mithras.html">Archived</a> from the original on 15 April 2008. Retrieved 20 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Cosmic+Mysteries+of+Mithras&rft.aulast=Ulansey&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.well.com%2Fuser%2Fdavidu%2Fmithras.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpeidel,_Michael1980" class="citation book cs1">Speidel, Michael (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7-YUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1">Mithras-Orion: Greek hero and Roman army god</a>. Brill. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-06055-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-06055-5"><bdi>978-90-04-06055-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 27 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mithras-Orion%3A+Greek+hero+and+Roman+army+god&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-90-04-06055-5&rft.au=Speidel%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7-YUAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Speidel-1997-190">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Speidel-1997_190-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Speidel-1997_190-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpeidel1997" class="citation book cs1">Speidel, Michael P. (August 1997) [1980]. Mithras-Orion: Greek hero and Roman army god. Brill Academic Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-06055-3" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-06055-3"><bdi>90-04-06055-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mithras-Orion%3A+Greek+hero+and+Roman+army+god&rft.pub=Brill+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=1997-08&rft.isbn=90-04-06055-3&rft.aulast=Speidel&rft.aufirst=Michael+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cumont_Mysteries-194"><a href="#cite_ref-Cumont_Mysteries_194-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCumont1903" class="citation book cs1">Cumont, Franz (1903). McCormack, Thomas J. (trans.) (ed.). The Mysteries of Mithra. Chicago: Open Court. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-20323-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-20323-9"><bdi>0-486-20323-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mysteries+of+Mithra&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=Open+Court&rft.date=1903&rft.isbn=0-486-20323-9&rft.aulast=Cumont&rft.aufirst=Franz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/mom/mom09.htm">pp. 206</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171006112321/http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/mom/mom09.htm">Archived</a> 6 October 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>: "A few clandestine conventicles may, with stubborn persistence, have been held in the subterranean retreats of the palaces. The cult of the Persian god possibly existed as late as the fifth century in certain remote cantons of the Alps and the Vosges. For example, devotion to the Mithraic rites long persisted in the tribe of the Anauni, masters of a flourishing valley, of which a narrow defile closed the mouth." This is unreferenced; but the French text in Textes et monuments figurés relatifs aux mystères de Mithra tom. 1, p. 348 has a footnote. </li> <li id="cite_note-HarveyHunter2008-195"><a href="#cite_ref-HarveyHunter2008_195-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFhumphries2008" class="citation book cs1">humphries, mark (10 December 2008). Susan Ashbrook Harvey, David G. Hunter (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0-ovhYLJkRYC&pg=PA95">The Oxford handbook of early Christian studies</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 95–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-927156-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-927156-6"><bdi>978-0-19-927156-6</bdi></a>. Retrieved 3 April 2011. <q>In some instances, the deliberate concealment of Mithraic cult objects could suggest precautions were being taken against Christian attacks; but elsewhere, such as along the Rhine frontier, coin sequences suggest that Mithraic shrines were abandoned in the context of upheavals resulting from barbarian invasions, and that purely religious considerations cannot explain the end of Mithraism in that region (Sauer 1996).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+handbook+of+early+Christian+studies&rft.pages=95-&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008-12-10&rft.isbn=978-0-19-927156-6&rft.aulast=humphries&rft.aufirst=mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0-ovhYLJkRYC%26pg%3DPA95&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-churchmithraeum-196"><a href="#cite_ref-churchmithraeum_196-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVermaseren1965" class="citation book cs1">Vermaseren, M. J. (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iskUAAAAIAAJ&q=%22The%20Excavations%20in%20the%20Mithraeum%20of%20the%20Church%20of%20Santa%20Pricsa%20in%20Rome%22&pg=PA115">The Excavations in the Mithraeum of the Church of Santa Pricsa in Rome</a>. Brill. p. 115. Retrieved 3 April 2011. <q>The ground-plan ... shows clearly that the presbytery of the Church lies over the ante-Room V of the Mithraeum and that the apse covers the first part of the main hall W, including the niches of Cautes and Cautopates. One cannot fail to see the symbolism of this arrangement, which expresses in concrete terms that Christ keeps Mithras "under". The same also applies at S. Clemente.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Excavations+in+the+Mithraeum+of+the+Church+of+Santa+Pricsa+in+Rome&rft.pages=115&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Vermaseren&rft.aufirst=M.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiskUAAAAIAAJ%26q%3D%2522The%2520Excavations%2520in%2520the%2520Mithraeum%2520of%2520the%2520Church%2520of%2520Santa%2520Pricsa%2520in%2520Rome%2522%26pg%3DPA115&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.avesta.org/mp/grb1.htm#chap4">The Greater [Bundahishn]</a>. IV.19-20. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171020090417/http://www.avesta.org/mp/grb1.htm#chap4">Archived</a> from the original on 20 October 2017. Retrieved 9 October 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Greater+%5BBundahishn%5D&rft.pages=IV.19-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.avesta.org%2Fmp%2Fgrb1.htm%23chap4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHinnels" class="citation conference cs1">Hinnels, John R. "Reflections on the bull-slaying scene". Mithraic Studies. The First International Conference on Mithraic Studies. Vol. II. Manchester University Press. pp. 290–312.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=Reflections+on+the+bull-slaying+scene&rft.btitle=Mithraic+Studies&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E290-%3C%2Fspan%3E312&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.aulast=Hinnels&rft.aufirst=John+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ulansey_1989-200"><a href="#cite_ref-Ulansey_1989_200-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUlansey1989" class="citation book cs1">Ulansey, David (1989). The Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-505402-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-505402-4"><bdi>0-19-505402-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+the+Mithraic+Mysteries&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-19-505402-4&rft.aulast=Ulansey&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> (1991 revised edition<a href="#cite_note-Ulansey-1991-Origins-12">[9]</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPorphyry" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyry</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/porphyry_cave_of_nymphs_02_translation.htm">De Antro Nympharum</a> [On the Cave of the Nymphs]. 10. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170822111032/http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/porphyry_cave_of_nymphs_02_translation.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 22 August 2017. Retrieved 9 October 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+Antro+Nympharum&rft.pages=10&rft.au=Porphyry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tertullian.org%2Ffathers%2Fporphyry_cave_of_nymphs_02_translation.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHopfe1994" class="citation book cs1">Hopfe, Lewis M. (1994). "Archaeological indications on the origins of Roman Mithraism". In Hopfe, Lewis M. (ed.). Uncovering Ancient Stones: Essays in memory of H. Neil Richardson. Eisenbrauns. pp. 147–158, 154.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Archaeological+indications+on+the+origins+of+Roman+Mithraism&rft.btitle=Uncovering+Ancient+Stones%3A+Essays+in+memory+of+H.+Neil+Richardson&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E147-%3C%2Fspan%3E158%2C+154&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Hopfe&rft.aufirst=Lewis+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeck,_Roger2004" class="citation book cs1">Beck, Roger (2004). "Astral symbolism in the tauroctony: A statistical demonstration of the extreme improbability of unintended coincidence in the selection of elements in the composition". Beck on Mithraism: Collected works with new essays. Ashgate Publishing. p. 257. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-4081-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-4081-3"><bdi>978-0-7546-4081-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Astral+symbolism+in+the+tauroctony%3A+A+statistical+demonstration+of+the+extreme+improbability+of+unintended+coincidence+in+the+selection+of+elements+in+the+composition&rft.btitle=Beck+on+Mithraism%3A+Collected+works+with+new+essays&rft.pages=257&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-4081-3&rft.au=Beck%2C+Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beck-2004-TM-ID-206">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Beck-2004-TM-ID_206-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beck-2004-TM-ID_206-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeck2004" class="citation book cs1">Beck, Roger (2004). "The rise and fall of astral identifications of the tauroctonous Mithras". Beck on Mithraism: Collected works with new essays. Ashgate Publishing. p. 236. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-4081-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-4081-3"><bdi>978-0-7546-4081-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+rise+and+fall+of+astral+identifications+of+the+tauroctonous+Mithras&rft.btitle=Beck+on+Mithraism%3A+Collected+works+with+new+essays&rft.pages=236&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-4081-3&rft.aulast=Beck&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJelbert2022" class="citation journal cs1">Jelbert, Rebecca (2022). "Illuminating Mithraic Iconography: Mithras, God of Light, as the Milky Way". Culture and Cosmos. 26: 51–78. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.46472%2FCC.0126.0205">10.46472/CC.0126.0205</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:258253505">258253505</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Culture+and+Cosmos&rft.atitle=Illuminating+Mithraic+Iconography%3A+Mithras%2C+God+of+Light%2C+as+the+Milky+Way&rft.volume=26&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E51-%3C%2Fspan%3E78&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.46472%2FCC.0126.0205&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A258253505%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Jelbert&rft.aufirst=Rebecca&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyer2006" class="citation book cs1">Meyer, Marvin (2006). "The Mithras Liturgy". In Levine, A.J.; Allison, Dale C. Jr.; Crossan, John Dominic (eds.). The historical Jesus in context. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. pp. 179–180. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-00991-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-00991-0"><bdi>0-691-00991-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Mithras+Liturgy&rft.btitle=The+historical+Jesus+in+context&rft.place=New+Jersey&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E179-%3C%2Fspan%3E180&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-691-00991-0&rft.aulast=Meyer&rft.aufirst=Marvin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcIntoshChrispParkerGibson2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jane_McIntosh" title="Jane McIntosh">McIntosh, Jane</a>; <a href="/wiki/Peter_Chrisp" title="Peter Chrisp">Chrisp, Peter</a>; Parker, Philip; Gibson, Carrie; Grant, R. G.; Regan, Sally (October 2014). History of the World in 1,000 Objects. New York: <a href="/wiki/DK_(publisher)" title="DK (publisher)">DK</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Smithsonian">Smithsonian</a>. p. 83. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4654-2289-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4654-2289-7"><bdi>978-1-4654-2289-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+World+in+1%2C000+Objects&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=83&rft.pub=DK+and+the+Smithsonian&rft.date=2014-10&rft.isbn=978-1-4654-2289-7&rft.aulast=McIntosh&rft.aufirst=Jane&rft.au=Chrisp%2C+Peter&rft.au=Parker%2C+Philip&rft.au=Gibson%2C+Carrie&rft.au=Grant%2C+R.+G.&rft.au=Regan%2C+Sally&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurkert1987" class="citation book cs1">Burkert, Walter (1987). Ancient Mystery Cults. Harvard University Press. p. 49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-03387-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-03387-6"><bdi>0-674-03387-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Mystery+Cults&rft.pages=49&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-674-03387-6&rft.aulast=Burkert&rft.aufirst=Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RichardsonHopfe1994-2-212"><a href="#cite_ref-RichardsonHopfe1994-2_212-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHopfeRichardson1994" class="citation book cs1">Hopfe, Lewis M.; Richardson, Henry Neil (September 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QRfhSBLmAK8C&pg=PA147">"Archaeological indications on the origins of Roman Mithraism"</a>. In Hopfe, Lewis M. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/uncoveringancien0000unse/page/147">Uncovering Ancient Stones: Essays in memory of H. Neil Richardson</a>. Eisenbrauns. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/uncoveringancien0000unse/page/147">147–</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-931464-73-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-931464-73-7"><bdi>978-0-931464-73-7</bdi></a>. Retrieved 19 March 2011. <q>... The Christian's view of this rival religion is extremely negative, because they regarded it as a demonic mockery of their own faith.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Archaeological+indications+on+the+origins+of+Roman+Mithraism&rft.btitle=Uncovering+Ancient+Stones%3A+Essays+in+memory+of+H.+Neil+Richardson&rft.pages=147-&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1994-09&rft.isbn=978-0-931464-73-7&rft.aulast=Hopfe&rft.aufirst=Lewis+M.&rft.au=Richardson%2C+Henry+Neil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQRfhSBLmAK8C%26pg%3DPA147&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon" class="citation web cs1">Gordon, Richard. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110724192152/http://www.hums.canterbury.ac.nz/clas/ejms/faq.htm">"FAQ"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hums.canterbury.ac.nz/clas/ejms/faq.htm">the original</a> on 24 July 2011. Retrieved 22 March 2011. <q>In general, in studying Mithras, and the other Greco-oriental mystery cults, it is good practice to steer clear of all information provided by Christian writers: they are not 'sources', they are violent apologists, and one does best not to believe a word they say, however tempting it is to supplement our ignorance with such stuff.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=FAQ&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hums.canterbury.ac.nz%2Fclas%2Fejms%2Ffaq.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBouyer,_Louis2004" class="citation book cs1">Bouyer, Louis (10 September 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SWaxjZIO2JMC&pg=PA70">The Christian Mystery</a>. A&C Black. p. 70. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780567043405" title="Special:BookSources/9780567043405"><bdi>9780567043405</bdi></a>. Retrieved 28 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Christian+Mystery&rft.pages=70&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2004-09-10&rft.isbn=9780567043405&rft.au=Bouyer%2C+Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSWaxjZIO2JMC%26pg%3DPA70&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraf2011" class="citation book cs1">Graf, Fritz (2011). "Baptism and Graeco-Roman mystery cults". Ablution, Initiation, and Baptism: Late antiquity, early Judaism, and early Christianity. Walter de Gruyter. § Rituals of Purification, Rituals of Initiation, p 105.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Baptism+and+Graeco-Roman+mystery+cults&rft.btitle=Ablution%2C+Initiation%2C+and+Baptism%3A+Late+antiquity%2C+early+Judaism%2C+and+early+Christianity&rft.pages=%C2%A7-Rituals+of+Purification%2C+Rituals+of+Initiation%2C+p-105&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Graf&rft.aufirst=Fritz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLegge,_Francis1950" class="citation book cs1">Legge, Francis (1950). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FjQ9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA260">Forerunners and Rivals of Christianity: Being studies in religious history from 330 B.C.–330 A.D.</a> Retrieved 12 April 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forerunners+and+Rivals+of+Christianity%3A+Being+studies+in+religious+history+from+330+B.C.%26ndash%3B330+A.D.&rft.date=1950&rft.au=Legge%2C+Francis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFjQ9AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA260&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRenan,_E.1882" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Renan, E. (1882). Marc-Aurele et la fin du monde antique [Marcus Aurelius and the End of the Antique World] (in French). Paris, FR. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B8AaAAAAYAAJ&q=renan+Marc-Aurele+et+la+fin+du+monde+antique">579</a>. <q>On peut dire que, si le christianisme eût été arrêté dans sa croissance par quelque maladie mortelle, le monde eût été mithriaste.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marc-Aurele+et+la+fin+du+monde+antique&rft.place=Paris%2C+FR&rft.pages=579&rft.date=1882&rft.au=Renan%2C+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRenan,_Ernest2004" class="citation book cs1">Renan, Ernest (October 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DTR0dNVAvUgC&pg=PA35">The Hibbert Lectures 1880: Lectures on the Influence of the Institutions, Thought and Culture of Rome on Christianity and the Development of the Catholic Church 1898</a>. Kessinger Publishing. pp. 35 ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4179-8242-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4179-8242-4"><bdi>978-1-4179-8242-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 22 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hibbert+Lectures+1880%3A+Lectures+on+the+Influence+of+the+Institutions%2C+Thought+and+Culture+of+Rome+on+Christianity+and+the+Development+of+the+Catholic+Church+1898&rft.pages=35+ff&rft.pub=Kessinger+Publishing&rft.date=2004-10&rft.isbn=978-1-4179-8242-4&rft.au=Renan%2C+Ernest&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDTR0dNVAvUgC%26pg%3DPA35&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyle1987" class="citation book cs1">Boyle, Leonard (1987). A short guide to St. Clement's, Rome. Rome, IT: Collegio San Clemente. p. 71.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+short+guide+to+St.+Clement%27s%2C+Rome&rft.place=Rome%2C+IT&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=Collegio+San+Clemente&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Boyle&rft.aufirst=Leonard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEzquerra2008" class="citation book cs1">Ezquerra, J.A. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FH841IBf7mwC&dq=renan%20mithras%20clauss&pg=PA203">Romanising Oriental Gods: Myth, salvation and ethics in the cults of Cybele, Isis and Mithras</a>. Translated by Gordon, R. Brill. pp. 202–203. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004132931" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004132931"><bdi>978-9004132931</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230504001240/https://books.google.com/books?id=FH841IBf7mwC&dq=renan%20mithras%20clauss&pg=PA203">Archived</a> from the original on 4 May 2023. Retrieved 23 February 2023 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Romanising+Oriental+Gods%3A+Myth%2C+salvation+and+ethics+in+the+cults+of+Cybele%2C+Isis+and+Mithras&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E202-%3C%2Fspan%3E203&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-9004132931&rft.aulast=Ezquerra&rft.aufirst=J.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFH841IBf7mwC%26dq%3Drenan%2520mithras%2520clauss%26pg%3DPA203&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorth1988" class="citation book cs1">North, J.D. (1988). The Roman Cult of Mithras. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415929783" title="Special:BookSources/9780415929783"><bdi>9780415929783</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Cult+of+Mithras&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=9780415929783&rft.aulast=North&rft.aufirst=J.D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyce2001" class="citation book cs1">Boyce, Mary (2001) [1979]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a6gbxVfjtUEC&pg=PA99">Zoroastrians: Their religious beliefs and practices</a>. Routledge. p. 99. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-23902-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-23902-8"><bdi>978-0-415-23902-8</bdi></a>. Retrieved 17 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zoroastrians%3A+Their+religious+beliefs+and+practices&rft.pages=99&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-415-23902-8&rft.aulast=Boyce&rft.aufirst=Mary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da6gbxVfjtUEC%26pg%3DPA99&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVermaseren1965" class="citation book cs1">Vermaseren, M.J. (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iskUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR9">The Excavations in the Mithraeum of the Church of Santa Pricsa in Rome</a>. Brill. p. 9. Retrieved 4 September 2011. <q>This Mithraeum was discovered in 1934 ... they found a sanctuary of one of the most formidable antagonists of Christianity.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Excavations+in+the+Mithraeum+of+the+Church+of+Santa+Pricsa+in+Rome&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Vermaseren&rft.aufirst=M.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiskUAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPR9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/386025/Mithra">"Mithra"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica (Online ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150503165936/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/386025/Mithra">Archived</a> from the original on 3 May 2015. Retrieved 9 April 2011. <q>Mithra, also spelled Mithras, Sanskrit Mitra, ... In the 3rd and 4th centuries AD, the cult of Mithra, carried and supported by the soldiers of the Roman Empire, was the chief rival to the newly developing religion of Christianity.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mithra&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=Online&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F386025%2FMithra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCumont,_Franz1894–1896" class="citation book cs1">Cumont, Franz (1894–1896). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/textesetmonument02cumouoft">Textes et monuments figurés relatifs aux Mystères de Mithra : pub. avec une introduction critique</a> – via Archive.org. <q>Published in 2 volumes, and still of some value: Vol. 1 is an introduction. Vol. 2 is a collection of primary data.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Textes+et+monuments+figur%C3%A9s+relatifs+aux+Myst%C3%A8res+de+Mithra+%3A+pub.+avec+une+introduction+critique&rft.date=1894%2F1896&rft.au=Cumont%2C+Franz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftextesetmonument02cumouoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJitărel2005" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Jitărel, Alin (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120210184523/http://www.muzeulbanatului.ro/mbt/istorie/publicatii/analele_banatului_2005/cultul_mithriac.pdf">"Social Aspects of Mithraic Cult in Dacia"</a> (PDF). Analele Banatului, Seria Arheologie-Istorie (The Annals of Banat) (in Romanian and English). <a href="/wiki/Timi%C8%99oara" title="Timișoara">Timișoara</a>, Romania: Editura Grafite. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1221-678X">1221-678X</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.muzeulbanatului.ro/mbt/istorie/publicatii/analele_banatului_2005/cultul_mithriac.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 10 February 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Analele+Banatului%2C+Seria+Arheologie-Istorie+%28The+Annals+of+Banat%29&rft.atitle=Social+Aspects+of+Mithraic+Cult+in+Dacia&rft.date=2005&rft.issn=1221-678X&rft.aulast=Jit%C4%83rel&rft.aufirst=Alin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.muzeulbanatului.ro%2Fmbt%2Fistorie%2Fpublicatii%2Fanalele_banatului_2005%2Fcultul_mithriac.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurcan,_Robert2000" class="citation book cs1">Turcan, Robert (2000). Mithra et le mithriacisme. Paris, FR.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mithra+et+le+mithriacisme&rft.place=Paris%2C+FR&rft.date=2000&rft.au=Turcan%2C+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyer,_Marvin1987" class="citation book cs1">Meyer, Marvin (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N2URCb14ShQC&q=inauthor%3Amarvin%20inauthor%3Ameyer&pg=PA199">The Ancient Mysteries: A sourcebook of sacred texts</a>. University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780812216929" title="Special:BookSources/9780812216929"><bdi>9780812216929</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Mysteries%3A+A+sourcebook+of+sacred+texts&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=9780812216929&rft.au=Meyer%2C+Marvin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN2URCb14ShQC%26q%3Dinauthor%253Amarvin%2520inauthor%253Ameyer%26pg%3DPA199&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUlansey,_David" class="citation book cs1">Ulansey, David. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130622021758/http://rosicrucian.org/publications/digest/digest2_2010/04_web/ws_02_ulansey/ws_02_ulansey.pdf">Mithras and the hypercosmic sun</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rosicrucian.org/publications/digest/digest2_2010/04_web/ws_02_ulansey/ws_02_ulansey.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 22 June 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mithras+and+the+hypercosmic+sun&rft.au=Ulansey%2C+David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frosicrucian.org%2Fpublications%2Fdigest%2Fdigest2_2010%2F04_web%2Fws_02_ulansey%2Fws_02_ulansey.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUlansey,_David" class="citation book cs1">Ulansey, David. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.well.com/user/davidu/eighthgate.html">The Mithraic lion-headed figure and the Platonic world-soul</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110607122814/http://www.well.com/user/davidu/eighthgate.html">Archived</a> from the original on 7 June 2011. Retrieved 28 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mithraic+lion-headed+figure+and+the+Platonic+world-soul&rft.au=Ulansey%2C+David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.well.com%2Fuser%2Fdavidu%2Feighthgate.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeck,_Roger" class="citation book cs1">Beck, Roger. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110724230227/http://www.hums.canterbury.ac.nz/clas/ejms/out_of_print/JMSv1n1/JMSv1n1Beck2.pdf">The seat of Mithras at the equinoxes: Porphyry, De Antro Nympharum 241</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hums.canterbury.ac.nz/clas/ejms/out_of_print/JMSv1n1/JMSv1n1Beck2.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 24 July 2011. Retrieved 31 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+seat+of+Mithras+at+the+equinoxes%3A+Porphyry%2C+De+Antro+Nympharum+241&rft.au=Beck%2C+Roger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hums.canterbury.ac.nz%2Fclas%2Fejms%2Fout_of_print%2FJMSv1n1%2FJMSv1n1Beck2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMazhjoo2024" class="citation journal cs1">Mazhjoo, Nina (2024). "Taking the Bull by His Horn: Augustus Slays the Mithraic Bull". DABIR. 10 (2): 61–77. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F29497833-20230003">10.1163/29497833-20230003</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=DABIR&rft.atitle=Taking+the+Bull+by+His+Horn%3A+Augustus+Slays+the+Mithraic+Bull&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E61-%3C%2Fspan%3E77&rft.date=2024&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F29497833-20230003&rft.aulast=Mazhjoo&rft.aufirst=Nina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMéndez,_Israel_Campos" class="citation web cs1">Méndez, Israel Campos. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110722104134/https://www.rosicrucian.org/publications/digest/digest2_2010/04_web/ws_01_campos/ws_01_campos.pdf">"In the Place of Mithras: Leadership in the Mithraic Mysteries"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rosicrucian.org/publications/digest/digest2_2010/04_web/ws_01_campos/ws_01_campos.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 22 July 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=In+the+Place+of+Mithras%3A+Leadership+in+the+Mithraic+Mysteries&rft.au=M%C3%A9ndez%2C+Israel+Campos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rosicrucian.org%2Fpublications%2Fdigest%2Fdigest2_2010%2F04_web%2Fws_01_campos%2Fws_01_campos.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMéndez,_Israel_Campos" class="citation web cs1">Méndez, Israel Campos. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://translate.google.co.in/translate?hl=en&sl=es&u=http://lam.mithra.free.fr/doc/elementos_de_continuidad_entre_oriente_y_occidente.doc&ei=oF_zTeTJM8exrAfdyf3EBg&sa=X&oi=translate&ct=result&resnum=27&ved=0CNABEO4BMBo&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dnama%2Bnabarze%2Bmithra%26num%3D100%26hl%3Den%26safe%3Doff%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26sa%3DN%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:en-US:official%26biw%3D1025%26bih%3D493%26prmd%3Divnsb">"Elementos de continuidad entre el culto del dios Mithra en Oriente y Occidente"</a> [Elements of continuity between the worship of the god Mithra in East and West]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201004204824/http://translate.google.co.in/translate?hl=en&sl=es&u=http%3A%2F%2Flam.mithra.free.fr%2Fdoc%2Felementos_de_continuidad_entre_oriente_y_occidente.doc&ei=oF_zTeTJM8exrAfdyf3EBg&sa=X&oi=translate&ct=result&resnum=27&ved=0CNABEO4BMBo&prev=%2Fsearch%3Fq%3Dnama%2Bnabarze%2Bmithra%26num%3D100%26hl%3Den%26safe%3Doff%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26sa%3DN%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla%3Aen-US%3Aofficial%26biw%3D1025%26bih%3D493%26prmd%3Divnsb">Archived</a> from the original on 4 October 2020. Retrieved 11 June 2011 – via Google Translate.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Elementos+de+continuidad+entre+el+culto+del+dios+Mithra+en+Oriente+y+Occidente&rft.au=M%C3%A9ndez%2C+Israel+Campos&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftranslate.google.co.in%2Ftranslate%3Fhl%3Den%26sl%3Des%26u%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Flam.mithra.free.fr%2Fdoc%2Felementos_de_continuidad_entre_oriente_y_occidente.doc%26ei%3DoF_zTeTJM8exrAfdyf3EBg%26sa%3DX%26oi%3Dtranslate%26ct%3Dresult%26resnum%3D27%26ved%3D0CNABEO4BMBo%26prev%3D%2Fsearch%253Fq%253Dnama%252Bnabarze%252Bmithra%2526num%253D100%2526hl%253Den%2526safe%253Doff%2526client%253Dfirefox-a%2526sa%253DN%2526rls%253Dorg.mozilla%3Aen-US%3Aofficial%2526biw%253D1025%2526bih%253D493%2526prmd%253Divnsb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon,_RichardMastrocinque,_Attilio2008" class="citation book cs1">Gordon, Richard; Mastrocinque, Attilio; et al. (15 April 2008). Rüpke, Jörg (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V1357R8OscQC&q=%22a+companion+to+romaqn+religion%22">A Companion to Roman Religion</a>. Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780470766453" title="Special:BookSources/9780470766453"><bdi>9780470766453</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Roman+Religion&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2008-04-15&rft.isbn=9780470766453&rft.au=Gordon%2C+Richard&rft.au=Mastrocinque%2C+Attilio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV1357R8OscQC%26q%3D%2522a%2Bcompanion%2Bto%2Bromaqn%2Breligion%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalloch2006" class="citation book cs1">Malloch, D.K. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AuoPAQAAIAAJ&q=christ%20taurobolium">Christ and the Taurobolium - Lord Mithras in the Genesis of Christianity</a>. Scotland: Lochan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780954078614" title="Special:BookSources/9780954078614"><bdi>9780954078614</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230414153751/https://books.google.com/books?id=AuoPAQAAIAAJ&q=christ%20taurobolium">Archived</a> from the original on 14 April 2023. Retrieved 21 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christ+and+the+Taurobolium+-+Lord+Mithras+in+the+Genesis+of+Christianity&rft.place=Scotland&rft.pub=Lochan&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780954078614&rft.aulast=Malloch&rft.aufirst=D.K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAuoPAQAAIAAJ%26q%3Dchrist%2520taurobolium&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Mastrocinque, Attilio, Studi sul mitraismo:il mitraismo e la magia.</li> <li>Mastrocinque, Attilio, Des Mysteres de Mithra Aux Mysteres de Jesus.</li> <li>Turcan, Robert, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6IAsHrDuSAwC">The Gods of Ancient Rome: Religion in everyday life from archaic to imperial</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164813/https://books.google.com/books?id=6IAsHrDuSAwC">Archived</a> 26 March 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li>Turcan, Robert, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/rhr_0035-1423_1978_num_194_2_6760">Note sur la liturgie mithriaque</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111130081242/http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/rhr_0035-1423_1978_num_194_2_6760">Archived</a> 30 November 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> [Note on the Mithraic Liturgy].</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Hutton" title="Ronald Hutton">Hutton, Ronald</a>, The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles:Their Nature and Legacy.</li> <li>Gawlikowski, Michal, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110912025526/http://www.centrumarcheologii.uw.edu.pl/fileadmin/pam/PAM_1998_X/324.pdf">Hawarte Preliminary Report</a>.</li> <li>Gawlikowski, Michal, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110912025601/http://www.centrumarcheologii.uw.edu.pl/fileadmin/pam/PAM_1999_XI/31.pdf">Hawarte Excavations, 1999</a>.</li> <li>Majcherek, Grzegorz, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110912025906/http://www.centrumarcheologii.uw.edu.pl/fileadmin/pam/PAM_2003_XV/184.pdf">Hawarte:Excavation and restoration work in 2003</a>.</li> <li>Gawlikowski, Michal, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=2800720">The mithraeum at Hawarte and its paintings</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120929024240/http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=2800720">Archived</a> 29 September 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Journal of Roman archaeology, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1047-7594">1047-7594</a>, Vol. 20, Nº. 1, 2007, pp. 337–361.</li> <li>Moga, Iulian, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120326190119/http://www.revistapeuce.icemtl.ro/11%20Moga.pdf">Mithra în asia mică şi în regiunile limitrofe. Mirajul originilor</a>. [Mithra in Asia Minor and in regions close].</li> <li>Sauer, Eberhard, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BTU_AQAAIAAJ&q=%22the+end+of+paganism%22+sauer">The end of paganism in the north-western provinces of the Roman Empire:The example of the Mithras cult</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230414153746/https://books.google.com/books?id=BTU_AQAAIAAJ&q=%22the+end+of+paganism%22+sauer">Archived</a> 14 April 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalsh2018" class="citation book cs1">Walsh, David (2018). The Cult of Mithras in Late Antiquity: Development, Decline and Demise ca. A.D. 270-430. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-38080-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-38080-6"><bdi>978-90-04-38080-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cult+of+Mithras+in+Late+Antiquity%3A+Development%2C+Decline+and+Demise+ca.+A.D.+270-430&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-90-04-38080-6&rft.aulast=Walsh&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Walters, Vivienne J., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=O-EUAAAAIAAJ&q=The+cult+of+Mithras+in+the+Roman+provinces+of+Gaul">The cult of Mithras in the Roman provinces of Gaul</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230504001121/https://books.google.com/books?id=O-EUAAAAIAAJ&q=The+cult+of+Mithras+in+the+Roman+provinces+of+Gaul">Archived</a> 4 May 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Brill</li> <li>Bianchi, Ugo, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vcMUAAAAIAAJ">The history of religions</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164813/https://books.google.com/books?id=vcMUAAAAIAAJ">Archived</a> 26 March 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li>Bivar, A. D. H., The personalities of Mithra in archaeology and literature</li> <li>Bivar, A. D. H., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110627014021/http://www.hums.canterbury.ac.nz/clas/ejms/out_of_print/JMSv1n1/JMSv1n1bivar.pdf">Mithraic symbols on a medallion of Buyid Iran?</a>.</li> <li>Bromiley, Geoffrey W., revised edition edited by Kyle, Melvin Grove, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6OJvO2jMCr8C&q=mithras&pg=PA116">The international standard Bible encyclopedia</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164809/https://books.google.com/books?id=6OJvO2jMCr8C&q=mithras&pg=PA116">Archived</a> 26 March 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Duchesne-Guillemin" title="Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin">Duchesne-Guillemin, Jacques</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OK15YW6BplwC&dq=beskow+mithraism&pg=PA7">Etudes mithriaques: actes du 2e congrès international</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230504001114/https://books.google.com/books?id=OK15YW6BplwC&dq=beskow+mithraism&pg=PA7">Archived</a> 4 May 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. (Some portions are in English).</li> <li>Harris, J. R. "Mithras at Hermopolis and Memphis", in Donald M. Bailey (ed), Archaeological Research in Roman Egypt (2004). Journal of Roman Archaeology.</li> <li>Kaper, Olaf E., "Mithras im ptolemäischen Ägypten", in Peter C. Bol, Gabriele Kaminski, and Caterina Maderna (eds), Fremdheit-Eigenheit: Ägypten, Griechenland und Rom : Austausch und Verständnis (2004). Prestel.</li> <li>Lane Fox, Robin, Pagans and Christians.</li> <li>Nicholson, Oliver, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121222221402/http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/069/Ant0690358.htm">The end of Mithraism</a>, Antiquity, Volume: 69 Number: 263 Page: 358–362.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRomero_Mayorga2017" class="citation journal cs1">Romero Mayorga, Claudina (2017). "Music and Theatrical Performance in the Mysteries of Mithras". Music in Art: International Journal for Music Iconography. 42 (1–2): 33–45. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1522-7464">1522-7464</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Music+in+Art%3A+International+Journal+for+Music+Iconography&rft.atitle=Music+and+Theatrical+Performance+in+the+Mysteries+of+Mithras&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E33-%3C%2Fspan%3E45&rft.date=2017&rft.issn=1522-7464&rft.aulast=Romero+Mayorga&rft.aufirst=Claudina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Roll, Israel, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110724192041/http://www.hums.canterbury.ac.nz/clas/ejms/out_of_print/JMSv2n1/JMSv2n1Roll.pdf">The mysteries of Mithras in the Roman Orient:the problem of origin</a>.</li> <li>Mary Beard, John A. North, S. R. F. Price, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2rtaTFYuM3QC&q=Religions+of+Rome:+A+history">Religions of Rome: A history</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230504001118/https://books.google.com/books?id=2rtaTFYuM3QC&q=Religions+of+Rome:+A+history">Archived</a> 4 May 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li>Mary Beard, John A. North, S. R. F. Price, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xQd82l39KX4C&q=Religions+of+Rome:+A+sourcebook">Religions of Rome: A Sourcebook</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230504001241/https://books.google.com/books?id=xQd82l39KX4C&q=Religions+of+Rome:+A+sourcebook">Archived</a> 4 May 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li>Will, Ernest, Le relief cultuel gréco-romain, (1955).</li> <li>Nilsson, Martin P., Geschichte der griechischen Religion, Volume 2.</li> <li>Marleen Martens, Guy De Boe, Roman Mithraism, (2004).</li> <li>Athanassiadi, P. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130412051359/http://jts.oxfordjournals.org/content/XXVIII/2/360.extract">A contribution to Mithraic Theology: The Emperor Julian's Hymn to King Helios</a>.</li> <li>Gwynn, David M., Religious diversity in late antiquity.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_Weitzmann" title="Kurt Weitzmann">Weitzmann, Kurt</a>, ed., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15324coll10/id/156533">Age of spirituality: late antique and early Christian art, third to seventh century</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150426182735/http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15324coll10/id/156533">Archived</a> 26 April 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, no. 173-175, 1979, <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a>, New York, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780870991790" title="Special:BookSources/9780870991790">9780870991790</a>; full text available online from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithraism&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Mithraism" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Mithraism">Mithraism</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">1911 Encyclopædia Britannica</a> article "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Mithras" class="extiw" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mithras">Mithras</a>".</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110517075732/http://www.uhu.es/ejms/">"Electronic Journal of Mithraic Studies"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uhu.es/ejms/">the original</a> on 17 May 2011. Retrieved 28 March 2011. <q>The Electronic Journal of Mithraic Studies (EJMS) is a revival of the Journal of Mithraic Studies edited by Dr. Richard Gordon. It is a place where researchers on Roman Mithraism can publish the product of their research and make it freely available for other interested people.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Electronic+Journal+of+Mithraic+Studies&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uhu.es%2Fejms%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMithraism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GhjYmAfEezA">Ostia Antica Mithraeum at the Baths of Mithras</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160809154032/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GhjYmAfEezA">Archived</a> 9 August 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. (YouTube video)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mithraeum.eu/">Mithraeum</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221114203737/https://www.mithraeum.eu/">Archived</a> 14 November 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> A website with a collection of monuments and bibliography about Mithraism.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/mom/mom00.htm">Cumont, "The Mysteries Of Mithra"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170502134311/http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/mom/mom00.htm">Archived</a> 2 May 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.google.com/maps/ms?hl=en&ie=UTF8&oe=UTF8&msa=0&msid=104477913843449314889.0000011265b7aa42e30c7&ll=44.276671,19.335938&spn=45.154216,76.992188&z=4">Google Maps: Map of the locations of Mithraea</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.archaeology.org/online/features/bull_killer/">Archaeology magazine</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121220011832/http://www.archaeology.org/online/features/bull_killer/">Archived</a> 20 December 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> A publication of the Archaeological Institute of America</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091020233142/http://www.mithraeum.eu/monumentae.php?tid=1">A list of Mithraea</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cumont-franz-valry-marie-b">Article on Franz Cumont</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170517031703/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cumont-franz-valry-marie-b">Archived</a> 17 May 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ostia-antica.org/dict/topics/mithraea/mithraea.htm">Ostia Mithraea</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170503232715/http://www.ostia-antica.org/dict/topics/mithraea/mithraea.htm">Archived</a> 3 May 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tertullian.org/rpearse/mithras/literary_sources.htm">Literary sources</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170517143202/http://www.tertullian.org/rpearse/mithras/literary_sources.htm">Archived</a> 17 May 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tertullian.org/rpearse/mithras/display.php?page=selected_monuments">A gallery of monuments and inscriptions</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170927005651/http://www.tertullian.org/rpearse/mithras/display.php?page=selected_monuments">Archived</a> 27 September 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xlF0gVedODE">Cult of Mithras Explained</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221015030817/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xlF0gVedODE">Archived</a> 15 October 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (YouTube video - with references)</li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style 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href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">mythology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dii_Consentes" title="Dii Consentes">Dii Consentes</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agenoria_(mythology)" title="Agenoria (mythology)">Agenoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angerona" title="Angerona">Angerona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Perenna" title="Anna Perenna">Anna Perenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo" title="Apollo">Apollo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurora_(mythology)" title="Aurora (mythology)">Aurora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bellona_(goddess)" title="Bellona (goddess)">Bellona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bona_Dea" title="Bona Dea">Bona Dea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carmenta" title="Carmenta">Carmenta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castor_and_Pollux" title="Castor and Pollux">Castor and Pollux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceres_(mythology)" title="Ceres (mythology)">Ceres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloacina" title="Cloacina">Cloacina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupid" title="Cupid">Cupid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dea_Dia" title="Dea Dia">Dea Dia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diana_(mythology)" title="Diana (mythology)">Diana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dies_(deity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dies (deity)">Dies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%ABs_Pater" class="mw-redirect" title="Dīs Pater">Dīs Pater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egeria_(mythology)" title="Egeria (mythology)">Egeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_(deity)" title="Fauna (deity)">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faunus" title="Faunus">Faunus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_(deity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora (deity)">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genius_(mythology)" title="Genius (mythology)">Genius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hercules_in_ancient_Rome" title="Hercules in ancient Rome">Hercules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janus" title="Janus">Janus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juno_(mythology)" title="Juno (mythology)">Juno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jupiter_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jupiter (mythology)">Jupiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lares" title="Lares">Lares</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lares_Familiares" title="Lares Familiares">Lares Familiares</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liber" title="Liber">Liber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertas" title="Libertas">Libertas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luna_(goddess)" title="Luna (goddess)">Luna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_(mythology)" title="Mars (mythology)">Mars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_(mythology)" title="Mercury (mythology)">Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerva" title="Minerva">Minerva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neptune_(mythology)" title="Neptune (mythology)">Neptune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nox_(goddess)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nox (goddess)">Nox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ops" title="Ops">Ops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orcus" title="Orcus">Orcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Di_Penates" title="Di Penates">Penates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluto_(mythology)" title="Pluto (mythology)">Pluto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomona_(mythology)" title="Pomona (mythology)">Pomona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priapus" title="Priapus">Priapus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proserpina" title="Proserpina">Proserpina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quirinus" title="Quirinus">Quirinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salacia" title="Salacia">Salacia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturn_(mythology)" title="Saturn (mythology)">Saturn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silvanus_(mythology)" title="Silvanus (mythology)">Silvanus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sol_(Roman_mythology)" title="Sol (Roman mythology)">Sol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summanus" title="Summanus">Summanus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_(mythology)" title="Venus (mythology)">Venus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veritas" title="Veritas">Veritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vesta_(mythology)" title="Vesta (mythology)">Vesta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertumnus" title="Vertumnus">Vertumnus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulcan_(mythology)" title="Vulcan (mythology)">Vulcan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #F0ACAC;">Abstract deities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abundantia" title="Abundantia">Abundantia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aequitas" title="Aequitas">Aequitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeternitas" title="Aeternitas">Aeternitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africa_(goddess)" title="Africa (goddess)">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annona_(mythology)" title="Annona (mythology)">Annona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averruncus" title="Averruncus">Averruncus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caelus" title="Caelus">Caelus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concordia_(mythology)" title="Concordia (mythology)">Concordia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feronia_(mythology)" title="Feronia (mythology)">Feronia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fides_(deity)" title="Fides (deity)">Fides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortuna" title="Fortuna">Fortuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontus" title="Fontus">Fontus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laverna" title="Laverna">Laverna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_(goddess)" title="Pax (goddess)">Pax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietas" title="Pietas">Pietas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roma_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roma (mythology)">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salus" title="Salus">Salus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Securitas" title="Securitas">Securitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spes" title="Spes">Spes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tranquillitas" title="Tranquillitas">Tranquillitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terra_(mythology)" title="Terra (mythology)">Terra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_(mythology)" title="Victoria (mythology)">Victoria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lupa_Capitolina,_Rome.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Lupa_Capitolina%2C_Rome.jpg/100px-Lupa_Capitolina%2C_Rome.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="65" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Lupa_Capitolina%2C_Rome.jpg/150px-Lupa_Capitolina%2C_Rome.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Lupa_Capitolina%2C_Rome.jpg/200px-Lupa_Capitolina%2C_Rome.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7489" data-file-height="4876" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">Legendary figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aeneas" title="Aeneas">Aeneas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhea_Silvia" title="Rhea Silvia">Rhea Silvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romulus_and_Remus" title="Romulus and Remus">Romulus and Remus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numa_Pompilius" title="Numa Pompilius">Numa Pompilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tullus_Hostilius" title="Tullus Hostilius">Tullus Hostilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Servius_Tullius" title="Servius Tullius">Servius Tullius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancus_Marcius" title="Ancus Marcius">Ancus Marcius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Tarquinius_Priscus" title="Lucius Tarquinius Priscus">Lucius Tarquinius Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Tarquinius_Superbus" title="Lucius Tarquinius Superbus">Lucius Tarquinius Superbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Alba_Longa" title="Kings of Alba Longa">Kings of Alba Longa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hersilia" title="Hersilia">Hersilia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">Legendary beings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/She-wolf_(Roman_mythology)" title="She-wolf (Roman mythology)">She-wolf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barnacle_goose_myth" title="Barnacle goose myth">Barnacle goose</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">Texts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fasti_(poem)" title="Fasti (poem)">Fasti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamorphoses" title="Metamorphoses">Metamorphoses</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertius" title="Propertius">Propertius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiquitates_rerum_humanarum_et_divinarum" title="Antiquitates rerum humanarum et divinarum">Res divinae</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibylline_Books" title="Sibylline Books">Sibylline Books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Apuleius</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Golden_Ass" title="The Golden Ass">The Golden Ass</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">Concepts and practices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_festivals" title="Roman festivals">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpretatio_graeca" title="Interpretatio graeca">Interpretatio graeca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_imperial_cult" title="Roman imperial cult">Imperial cult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Charity" title="Roman Charity">Charity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palladium_(classical_antiquity)" title="Palladium (classical antiquity)">Palladium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theology_of_victory" title="Roman theology of victory">Theology of victory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomerium" title="Pomerium">Pomerium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Temples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capitolium" title="Capitolium">Capitolium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cella" title="Cella">Cella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Celtic_temple" title="Romano-Celtic temple">Celtic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">Philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripateticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Bough_(mythology)" title="Golden Bough (mythology)">Golden Bough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Founding of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape_of_the_Sabine_Women" class="mw-redirect" title="Rape of the Sabine Women">Rape of the Sabine Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lacus_Curtius" title="Battle of Lacus Curtius">Battle of Lacus Curtius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">Objects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gubernaculum_(classical)" title="Gubernaculum (classical)">Gubernaculum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parabiago_Plate" title="Parabiago Plate">Parabiago Plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pignora_imperii" title="Pignora imperii">Pignora imperii</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">Variations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_religion" title="Gallo-Roman religion">Gallo-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_mysteries" title="Greco-Roman mysteries">Mysteries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cybele" title="Cybele">Cybele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysteries_of_Isis" title="Mysteries of Isis">Isis</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mithraism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_mythology" title="Classical mythology">Classical mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Christianization_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of Christianization of the Roman Empire">Decline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_pagans_in_the_late_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire">Persecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_religion" title="Etruscan religion">Etruscan religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion" title="Glossary of ancient Roman religion">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Greek mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myth_and_ritual" title="Myth and ritual">Myth and ritual</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of religions"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_religions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History of religions</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_religion" title="Timeline of religion">Timeline of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">List of religions and spiritual traditions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Major_religious_groups" title="Major religious groups">Major groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="History of the Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rastafari" title="History of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Mythologies_of_the_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas">Amerindian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_religion" title="Aztec religion">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_religion" title="Maya religion">Mayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Inca_Empire" title="Religion in the Inca Empire">Inca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">East Asian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Confucianism" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taoism" title="History of Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shintoism#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Shintoism">Shinto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism" title="History of Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hinduism" title="History of Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jainism" title="History of Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sikhism" title="History of Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_religions" title="Iranian religions">Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism#History" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaeism#Origins" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/New_religious_movement" title="New religious movement">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Neopaganism" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Neopaganism">Neopaganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wicca" title="History of Wicca">Wicca</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Thought" title="History of New Thought">New Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kardecist_spiritism" title="Kardecist spiritism">Kardecist spiritism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal;line-height:1.4em;padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">Prehistoric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Paleolithic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal;line-height:1.4em;padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Religions_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="Religions of the ancient Near East">Near East</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic_religion" title="Ancient Semitic religion">Semitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Mesopotamian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal;line-height:1.4em;padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_mythology" title="Proto-Indo-European mythology">Indo-European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltic religion">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_polytheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic polytheism">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_mythology" title="Paleo-Balkan mythology">Illyro-thracian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic Hinduism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Evolution of morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary origin of religions">Evolutionary origin of religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Evolutionary psychology of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_atheism" title="History of atheism">History of atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_theology" title="History of theology">History of theology (Greco-Abrahamic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion" title="Irreligion">Irreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_School_(history_of_religion)" title="Roman School (history of religion)">Roman School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Religion" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Religion_topics" title="Template:Religion topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Religion_topics" title="Template talk:Religion topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Religion_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Religion topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Religion" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Religious_groups_and_denominations" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Religious groups and denominations</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Zionism" title="Religious Zionism">Zionist</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Church_of_the_East" title="Ancient Church of the East">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Church_of_the_East" title="Assyrian Church of the East">Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Protestantism" title="Proto-Protestantism">Proto-Protestantism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hussites" title="Hussites">Hussites</a>/<a href="/wiki/Moravian_Church" title="Moravian Church">Moravians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amish" title="Amish">Amish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schwarzenau_Brethren" title="Schwarzenau Brethren">Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutterites" title="Hutterites">Hutterites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mennonites" title="Mennonites">Mennonites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schwenkfelder_Church" title="Schwenkfelder Church">Schwenkfelder Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Reformed_Protestantism" title="Continental Reformed Protestantism">Reformed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Christianity" title="Charismatic Christianity">Charismatic Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_movement" title="Charismatic movement">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-charismatic_movement" title="Neo-charismatic movement">Neo-charismatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Apostolic_Church" title="Catholic Apostolic Church">Irvingism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondenominational_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Nondenominational Christianity">Nondenominational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Brethren" title="Plymouth Brethren">Plymouth Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakerism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_Movement" title="Restoration Movement">Restorationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esoteric_Christianity" title="Esoteric Christianity">Esoteric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Christian_Community" title="The Christian Community">The Christian Community</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Catholic_Church" title="Old Catholic Church">Old Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaizers" title="Judaizers">Judaizers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontrinitarianism" title="Nontrinitarianism">Nontrinitarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible_Student_movement" title="Bible Student movement">Bible Students</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible_Student_movement#Associated_Bible_Students" title="Bible Student movement">Associated Bible Students</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Bible_Students" title="Free Bible Students">Free Bible Students</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friends_of_Man" title="Friends of Man">Friends of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo#Kitawala" title="Religion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Kitawala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laymen%27s_Home_Missionary_Movement" title="Laymen's Home Missionary Movement">Laymen's Home Missionary Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christadelphians" title="Christadelphians">Christadelphians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism" title="Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oneness_Pentecostalism" title="Oneness Pentecostalism">Oneness Pentecostalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritual_Christianity" title="Spiritual Christianity">Spiritual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New_Church_(Swedenborgian)" title="The New Church (Swedenborgian)">Swedenborgianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolstoyan_movement" title="Tolstoyan movement">Tolstoyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitarianism" title="Unitarianism">Unitarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations" title="List of Christian denominations">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunnism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ash%27arism" title="Ash'arism">Ash'arism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maturidism" title="Maturidism">Maturidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atharism" title="Atharism">Atharism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salafi_movement" title="Salafi movement">Salafism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wahhabism" title="Wahhabism">Wahhabism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_modernism" title="Islamic modernism">Modernist Salafism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shi'ism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alawites" title="Alawites">Alawism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali-Illahism" title="Ali-Illahism">Ali-Illahism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isma%27ilism" title="Isma'ilism">Isma'ilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelver_Shi%27ism" title="Twelver Shi'ism">Twelver Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaydism" title="Zaydism">Zaydism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Khawarij</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam" title="Ibadi Islam">Ibadism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alevism" title="Alevism">Alevism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ishikism" title="Ishikism">Ishikism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_Alevism" title="Kurdish Alevism">Kurdish Alevism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya" title="Ahmadiyya">Ahmadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahdawi_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahdawi movement">Mahdavism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranism" title="Quranism">Quranism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milah_Abraham" title="Milah Abraham">Milah Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-denominational_Muslim" title="Non-denominational Muslim">Non-denominational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_schools_and_branches" title="Islamic schools and branches">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A1bism" title="Bábism">Bábism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azali" title="Azali">Azalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaeism" title="Mandaeism">Mandaeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastafari" title="Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritanism" title="Samaritanism">Samaritanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_religions" title="Iranian religions">Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrian">Zoroastrian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism_in_Russia" title="Zoroastrianism in Russia">Blagovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilm-e-Khshnoom" title="Ilm-e-Khshnoom">Ilm-e-Khshnoom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazdaznan" title="Mazdaznan">Mazdaznan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Kurdish</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shabakism" class="mw-redirect" title="Shabakism">Shabakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarsanism" title="Yarsanism">Yarsanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assianism" title="Assianism">Assianism/Uatsdin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roshani_movement" title="Roshani movement">Roshani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Manichaeism" title="Chinese Manichaeism">Chinese Manichaeism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazd%C3%A2nism" title="Yazdânism">Yazdânism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazidism" title="Yazidism">Yazidism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_religions" title="Eastern religions">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">East Asian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luo_teaching" title="Luo teaching">Luoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuo_folk_religion" title="Nuo folk religion">Nuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religions" title="Chinese salvationist religions">Salvationist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xiantiandao" title="Xiantiandao">Xiantiandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiguandao" title="Yiguandao">Yiguandao</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_mastery_traditions" title="Chinese ritual mastery traditions">Folk Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yao_folk_religion" title="Yao folk religion">Yao Taoism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Japan" title="Religion in Japan">Japonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shinto" title="Shinto">Shinto</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shinto_sects_and_schools" title="Shinto sects and schools">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shugend%C5%8D" title="Shugendō">Shugendō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenrikyo" title="Tenrikyo">Tenrikyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryukyuan_religion" title="Ryukyuan religion">Ryukyuan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Korea" title="Religion in Korea">Korean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_shamanism" title="Korean shamanism">Korean shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheondoism" title="Cheondoism">Cheondoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeung_San_Do" title="Jeung San Do">Jeungsanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vietnam" title="Religion in Vietnam">Vietnamese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_folk_religion" title="Vietnamese folk religion">Vietnamese folk religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1o_M%E1%BA%ABu" title="Đạo Mẫu">Đạo Mẫu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caodaism" title="Caodaism">Caodaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%B2a_H%E1%BA%A3o" title="Hòa Hảo">Hoahaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1o_B%E1%BB%ADu_S%C6%A1n_K%E1%BB%B3_H%C6%B0%C6%A1ng" title="Đạo Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương">Đạo Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Krishnaism" title="Krishnaism">Krishnaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Vaishnavism" title="Sri Vaishnavism">Sri Vaishnavism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Sampradaya" title="Brahma Sampradaya">Brahma Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pushtimarg" class="mw-redirect" title="Pushtimarg">Pushtimarg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahanubhava" title="Mahanubhava">Mahanubhava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramanandi_Sampradaya" title="Ramanandi Sampradaya">Ramanandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warkari" title="Warkari">Warkari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swaminarayan_Sampradaya" title="Swaminarayan Sampradaya">Swaminarayan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shaiva_Siddhanta" title="Shaiva Siddhanta">Shaiva Siddhanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganapatya" title="Ganapatya">Ganapatya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmir_Shaivism" title="Kashmir Shaivism">Kashmiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapalika" title="Kapalika">Kapalika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaumaram" title="Kaumaram">Kaumaram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingayatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Lingayatism">Lingayatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nath" class="mw-redirect" title="Nath">Nath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balinese_Hinduism" title="Balinese Hinduism">Balinese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaktism" title="Shaktism">Shaktism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smarta_tradition" title="Smarta tradition">Smartism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saura_(Hinduism)" title="Saura (Hinduism)">Sauraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arauta" title="Śrauta">Śrauta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant_Mat" title="Sant Mat">Sant Mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_reform_movements" title="Hindu reform movements">Neo-Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_denominations" title="Hindu denominations">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a>/<a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a>/<a href="/wiki/Thi%E1%BB%81n" title="Thiền">Thiền</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Amidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism" title="Nichiren Buddhism">Nichiren</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Neo-Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayyavazhi" title="Ayyavazhi">Ayyavazhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalash_people#Religion" title="Kalash people">Kalash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digambara" title="Digambara">Digambara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Avet%C4%81mbara" title="Śvetāmbara">Śvetāmbara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarnaism" title="Sarnaism">Sarnaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirat_Mundhum" title="Kirat Mundhum">Kirat Mundhum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedda#Religion" title="Vedda">Vedda religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravidassia" title="Ravidassia">Ravidassia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khalsa" title="Khalsa">Khalsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sects_of_Sikhism" title="Sects of Sikhism">Sects</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">Ethnic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Altaic_languages" title="Altaic languages">Altaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_mythology" title="Turkic mythology">Turko</a>-<a href="/wiki/Mongolian_shamanism" title="Mongolian shamanism">Mongolic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burkhanism" title="Burkhanism">Burkhanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tengrism" title="Tengrism">Tengrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vattisen_Yaly" title="Vattisen Yaly">Vattisen Yaly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tungusic_creation_myth" title="Tungusic creation myth">Tungusic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evenks#Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Evenks">Evenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_shamanism" title="Manchu shamanism">Manchu</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sarna_(place)" title="Sarna (place)">Sarnaism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parmalim" title="Parmalim">Batak Parmalim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayak_people#Religion_and_festivals" title="Dayak people">Dayak</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaharingan" title="Kaharingan">Kaharingan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Sabahan_religions" title="Traditional Sabahan religions">Traditional Sabahan religions</a></li></ul></li> <li>Indonesian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aliran_Kepercayaan" title="Aliran Kepercayaan">Aliran Kepercayaan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kejaw%C3%A8n" title="Kejawèn">Kejawèn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapitayan" title="Kapitayan">Kapitayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pemena" title="Pemena">Karo Pemena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_folk_religion" title="Malaysian folk religion">Malaysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Philippine_folk_religions" title="Indigenous Philippine folk religions">Philippine Dayawism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_religious_beliefs_of_the_Tagalog_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous religious beliefs of the Tagalog people">Tagalog</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_mythology" title="Polynesian mythology">Polynesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_religion" title="Hawaiian religion">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_M%C4%81ori_people" title="Religion of Māori people">Māori</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marapu" title="Marapu">Sumbese Marapu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunda_Wiwitan" title="Sunda Wiwitan">Sundanese Wiwitan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions" title="Native American religions">Native American</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abenaki_mythology" title="Abenaki mythology">Abenaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Native_religion" title="Alaska Native religion">Alaskan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe_traditional_beliefs" title="Anishinaabe traditional beliefs">Anishinaabe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe#Spiritual_beliefs" title="Ojibwe">Ojibwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midewiwin" title="Midewiwin">Midewiwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wabunowin" title="Wabunowin">Wabunowin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apache#Religion" title="Apache">Apache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_mythology" title="Blackfoot mythology">Blackfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_narratives_of_Indigenous_Californians" title="Traditional narratives of Indigenous Californians">Californian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kuksu_(religion)" title="Kuksu (religion)">Kuksu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miwok_mythology" title="Miwok mythology">Miwok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohlone_mythology" title="Ohlone mythology">Ohlone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomo_religion" title="Pomo religion">Pomo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilote_mythology" title="Chilote mythology">Chilote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_mythology" title="Choctaw mythology">Choctaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crow_religion" title="Crow religion">Crow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_Dance" title="Ghost Dance">Ghost Dance</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sun_Dance" title="Sun Dance">Sun Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guarani_mythology" title="Guarani mythology">Guarani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haida_mythology" title="Haida mythology">Haida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho-Chunk_mythology" title="Ho-Chunk mythology">Ho-Chunk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois_mythology" title="Iroquois mythology">Iroquois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_spiritual_beliefs" title="Cherokee spiritual beliefs">Cherokee</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Mothers_Society" title="Four Mothers Society">Four Mothers Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keetoowah_Nighthawk_Society" title="Keetoowah Nighthawk Society">Keetoowah Society</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse_Religion" title="Longhouse Religion">Longhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohawk_people#Religion" title="Mohawk people">Mohawk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_mythology" title="Creek mythology">Muscogee Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_mythology" title="Seneca mythology">Seneca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyandot_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Wyandot religion">Wyandot</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jivaroan_peoples#Religion" title="Jivaroan peoples">Jivaroan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwakwaka%CA%BCwakw_mythology" title="Kwakwakaʼwakw mythology">Kwakwakaʼwakw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenape_mythology" title="Lenape mythology">Lenape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapuche_religion" title="Mapuche religion">Mapuche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_religion" title="Mesoamerican religion">Mesoamerican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_religion" title="Aztec religion">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_religion" title="Maya religion">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pur%C3%A9pecha_religion" title="Purépecha religion">Purépecha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muisca_mythology" title="Muisca mythology">Muisca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Church" title="Native American Church">Native American Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo#Spiritual_and_religious_beliefs" title="Navajo">Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuu-chah-nulth_mythology" title="Nuu-chah-nulth mythology">Nuu-chah-nulth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawnee_mythology" title="Pawnee mythology">Pawnee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_religion" title="Pueblo religion">Pueblo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoma_Pueblo#Religion" title="Acoma Pueblo">Acoma Pueblo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hopi_mythology" title="Hopi mythology">Hopi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuni_mythology" title="Zuni mythology">Zuni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sioux#Religion" title="Sioux">Sioux</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lakota_religion" title="Lakota religion">Lakota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wocekiye" title="Wocekiye">Wocekiye</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsimshian_mythology" title="Tsimshian mythology">Tsimshian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ute_mythology" title="Ute mythology">Ute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions#Washat_Dreamers_Religion" title="Native American religions">Washat Dreamers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui#Yaqui_cosmology_and_religion" title="Yaqui">Yaqui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tai_peoples" title="Tai peoples">Tai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Miao_people" title="Miao people">Miao</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahom_religion" title="Ahom religion">Ahom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_folk_religion" title="Miao folk religion">Hmongism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mo_(religion)" title="Mo (religion)">Mo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_folk_religion" title="Tai folk religion">Satsana Phi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Tibeto-Burman languages">Tibeto-Burmese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bon" title="Bon">Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_folk_religion" title="Burmese folk religion">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzhuism" title="Benzhuism">Benzhuism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimoism" title="Bimoism">Bimoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathouism" title="Bathouism">Bathouism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mun_(religion)" title="Mun (religion)">Bongthingism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongba" title="Dongba">Dongba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donyi-Polo" title="Donyi-Polo">Donyi-Polo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurung_shamanism" title="Gurung shamanism">Gurung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraka" class="mw-redirect" title="Heraka">Heraka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirat_Mundhum" title="Kirat Mundhum">Kiratism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiang_folk_religion" title="Qiang folk religion">Qiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanamahism" title="Sanamahism">Sanamahism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_African_religions" title="Traditional African religions">Traditional African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">North African</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Berber_religion" title="Traditional Berber religion">Berber</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Guanche_People" title="Church of the Guanche People">Guanche church</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Africa" title="Religion in Africa">Sub-Saharan African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kamba_people" title="Kamba people">Akamba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akan_religion" title="Akan religion">Akan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baluba_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Baluba mythology">Baluba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bantu_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bantu mythology">Bantu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kongo_religion" title="Kongo religion">Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulu_traditional_religion" title="Zulu traditional religion">Zulu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushongo_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushongo mythology">Bushongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinka_religion" title="Dinka religion">Dinka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogon_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogon religion">Dogon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efik_mythology" title="Efik mythology">Efik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahomean_religion" title="Dahomean religion">Fon and Ewe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ik_people" title="Ik people">Ik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotuko_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Lotuko mythology">Lotuko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lozi_mythology" title="Lozi mythology">Lozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugbara_mythology" title="Lugbara mythology">Lugbara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maasai_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Maasai mythology">Maasai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mbuti_mythology" title="Mbuti mythology">Mbuti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odinala" title="Odinala">Odinala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_religion" title="San religion">San</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serer_religion" title="Serer religion">Serer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumbuka_mythology" title="Tumbuka mythology">Tumbuka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urhobo_people" title="Urhobo people">Urhobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waaqeffanna" title="Waaqeffanna">Waaqeffanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_religion" title="Yoruba religion">Yoruba</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/If%C3%A1" title="Ifá">Ifá</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_diaspora_religions" title="African diaspora religions">Diasporic</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9" title="Candomblé">Candomblé</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Bantu" title="Candomblé Bantu">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Jej%C3%A9" title="Candomblé Jejé">Jejé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Ketu" title="Candomblé Ketu">Ketu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comfa" title="Comfa">Comfa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convince" title="Convince">Convince</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Espiritismo" title="Espiritismo">Espiritismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumina" title="Kumina">Kumina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obeah" title="Obeah">Obeah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palo_(religion)" title="Palo (religion)">Palo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quimbanda" title="Quimbanda">Quimbanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santer%C3%ADa" title="Santería">Santería</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tambor_de_Mina" title="Tambor de Mina">Tambor de Mina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinidad_Orisha" title="Trinidad Orisha">Trinidad Orisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbanda" title="Umbanda">Umbanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Vodou" title="Haitian Vodou">Vodou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Voodoo" title="Louisiana Voodoo">Voodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winti" title="Winti">Winti</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other ethnic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_religion_and_mythology" title="Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology">Aboriginal Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_religion" title="Inuit religion">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papuan_mythology" title="Papuan mythology">Papuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism_in_Siberia" title="Shamanism in Siberia">Siberian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/New_religious_movement" title="New religious movement">New religious movements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Syncretic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism_in_Russia" title="Zoroastrianism in Russia">Blagovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmoism" title="Brahmoism">Brahmoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religions" title="Chinese salvationist religions">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Falun_Gong" title="Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coconut_Religion" title="Coconut Religion">Coconut Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_new_religions" title="Japanese new religions">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meivazhi" title="Meivazhi">Meivazhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modekngei" title="Modekngei">Modekngei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Acropolis" title="New Acropolis">New Acropolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Thought" title="New Thought">New Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajneesh_movement" title="Rajneesh movement">Rajneesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastafari" title="Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Sant_Mat_movements" title="Contemporary Sant Mat movements">Sant Mat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radha_Soami" title="Radha Soami">Radha Soami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subud" title="Subud">Subud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tensegrity_(Castaneda)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensegrity (Castaneda)">Tensegrity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thelema" title="Thelema">Thelema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theosophy" title="Theosophy">Theosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Theosophy" title="Neo-Theosophy">Neo-Theosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agni_Yoga" title="Agni Yoga">Agni Yoga</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roerichism" title="Roerichism">Roerichism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_Meditation" title="Transcendental Meditation">Transcendental Meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitarian_Universalism" title="Unitarian Universalism">Unitarian Universalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_White_Brotherhood" title="Universal White Brotherhood">White Brotherhood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Modern paganism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>African <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Godianism" title="Godianism">Godianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hetanism" title="Hetanism">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_neopaganism" title="Baltic neopaganism">Baltic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dievtur%C4%ABba" title="Dievturība">Dievturība</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romuva_(religion)" title="Romuva (religion)">Romuva</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_neopaganism" title="Caucasian neopaganism">Caucasian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_neopaganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Abkhaz neopaganism">Abkhaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adyghe_Xabze" title="Adyghe Xabze">Circassian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_neopaganism" title="Celtic neopaganism">Celtic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Druidry_(modern)" title="Druidry (modern)">Druidry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heathenry_(new_religious_movement)" title="Heathenry (new religious movement)">Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenism_(modern_religion)" title="Hellenism (modern religion)">Hellenism (modern religion)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoshamanism" title="Neoshamanism">Neoshamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assianism" title="Assianism">Ossetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheistic_reconstructionism" title="Polytheistic reconstructionism">Polytheistic reconstructionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Roman_religion" title="Reconstructionist Roman religion">Italo-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemetism" title="Kemetism">Kemetism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zalmoxianism" title="Zalmoxianism">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_Native_Faith" title="Slavic Native Faith">Slavic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Authentism" title="Russian Authentism">Authentism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uralic_neopaganism" title="Uralic neopaganism">Uralic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_neopaganism" title="Estonian neopaganism">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Finnish_paganism" title="Modern Finnish paganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Native_Faith" title="Hungarian Native Faith">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mari_religion" title="Mari religion">Mari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erzyan_native_religion" title="Erzyan native religion">Erzya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1mi_shamanism" title="Sámi shamanism">Sámi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurt_Vos" title="Udmurt Vos">Udmurt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wicca" title="Wicca">Wicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zalmoxianism" title="Zalmoxianism">Zalmoxianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_pagan_movements" title="List of modern pagan movements">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">De novo</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthroposophy" title="Anthroposophy">Anthroposophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Christian_Community" title="The Christian Community">The Christian Community</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discordianism" title="Discordianism">Discordianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eckankar" title="Eckankar">Eckankar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Way" title="Fourth Way">Fourth Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess_movement" title="Goddess movement">Goddess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jediism" title="Jediism">Jediism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satanism" title="Satanism">Satanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientology" title="Scientology">Scientology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UFO_religion" title="UFO religion">UFO religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%ABlism" title="Raëlism">Raëlism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Historical_religions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">Historical religions</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">Prehistoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Paleolithic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ainu_people#Religion" title="Ainu people">Ainu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_mythology" title="Armenian mythology">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_mythology" title="Latvian mythology">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_mythology" title="Lithuanian mythology">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prussian_mythology" title="Prussian mythology">Old Prussian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_mythology" title="Basque mythology">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">Druidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_mythology" title="Irish mythology">Irish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cook_Islands_mythology" title="Cook Islands mythology">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_folk_religion" title="Dravidian folk religion">Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atenism" title="Atenism">Atenism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_religion" title="Etruscan religion">Etruscan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_mythology" title="Finnish mythology">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuegians#Spiritual_culture" title="Fuegians">Fuegian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selk%27nam_mythology" title="Selk'nam mythology">Selk'nam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_mythology" title="Georgian mythology">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Germanic_mythology" title="Continental Germanic mythology">Continental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_paganism" title="Frankish paganism">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhism" title="Greco-Buddhism">Greco-Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeticism" title="Hermeticism">Hermeticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_mysteries" title="Greco-Roman mysteries">Mysteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphism" title="Orphism">Orphism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanches#System_of_beliefs" title="Guanches">Guanche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation#Religion" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Harappan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_mythology_and_religion" title="Hittite mythology and religion">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_mythology" title="Hungarian mythology">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurrian_religion" title="Hurrian religion">Hurrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illinois_Confederacy#Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Illinois Confederacy">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_mythology" title="Inca mythology">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_Maroon_religion" title="Jamaican Maroon religion">Jamaican Maroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdak" title="Mazdak">Mazdakism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanesian_mythology" title="Melanesian mythology">Melanesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Mesopotamian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_religion" title="Babylonian religion">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_religion" title="Sumerian religion">Sumerian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_mythology" title="Micronesian mythology">Micronesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nauruan_Indigenous_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nauruan Indigenous religion">Nauruan Indigenous religion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmec_religion" title="Olmec religion">Olmec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_mythology" title="Paleo-Balkan mythology">Paleo-Balkan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_folk_beliefs" class="mw-redirect" title="Albanian folk beliefs">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Dacian mythology">Dacian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illyrian_religion" title="Illyrian religion">Illyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thracian_religion" title="Thracian religion">Thracian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian religion">Proto-Indo-Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Iranian_religion" title="Ancient Iranian religion">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basketmaker_III_Era#Culture_and_religion" title="Basketmaker III Era">Ancestral Pueblo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_II_Period#Culture_and_religion" title="Pueblo II Period">Pueblo II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_III_Period#Culture_and_religion" title="Pueblo III Period">Pueblo III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_IV_Period#Culture_and_religion" title="Pueblo IV Period">Pueblo IV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapa_Nui_mythology" title="Rapa Nui mythology">Rapa Nui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cybele" title="Cybele">Cult of Magna Mater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_religion" title="Gallo-Roman religion">Gallo-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_imperial_cult" title="Roman imperial cult">Imperial cult</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysteries_of_Isis" title="Mysteries of Isis">Mysteries of Isis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic_religion" title="Ancient Semitic religion">Semitic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_religion" title="Canaanite religion">Canaanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punic_religion" title="Punic religion">Punic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahwism" title="Yahwism">Yahwism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_religion" title="Scythian religion">Scythian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_mythology" title="Somali mythology">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongan_religion" title="Tongan religion">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_mythology" title="Turkic mythology">Turkic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tengrism" title="Tengrism">Tengrism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartu#Religion" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vainakh_religion" title="Vainakh religion">Vainakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapotec_civilization#Religion_and_Myth" title="Zapotec civilization">Zapotec</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy" title="Apostasy">Apostasy</a> / <a href="/wiki/Religious_disaffiliation" title="Religious disaffiliation">Disaffiliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_behaviour" title="Religious behaviour">Behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief#Religion" title="Belief">Beliefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Call_to_prayer" title="Call to prayer">Call to prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laicism" title="Laicism">Laicism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Laity" title="Laity">Laity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covenant_(religion)" title="Covenant (religion)">Covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_conversion" title="Religious conversion">Conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_denomination" title="Religious denomination">Denomination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entheogen" title="Entheogen">Entheogens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess" title="Goddess">Goddess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meditation" title="Meditation">Meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">Monasticism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monk" title="Monk">Monk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novice" title="Novice">Novice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nun" title="Nun">Nun</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_mythology" title="Religion and mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination" title="Ordination">Ordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy" title="Orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthopraxy" title="Orthopraxy">Orthopraxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer" title="Prayer">Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophecy" title="Prophecy">Prophecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_experience" title="Religious experience">Religious experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">Ritual</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">Liturgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual_purification" title="Ritual purification">Purification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrifice" title="Sacrifice">Sacrifice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_space" title="Sacred space">Sacred space</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_waters" title="Sacred waters">Bodies of water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_grove" title="Sacred grove">Groves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_mountains" title="Sacred mountains">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_tree" title="Sacred tree">Trees</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">Spirituality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">Supernatural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_symbol" title="Religious symbol">Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">Text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_views_on_truth" title="Religious views on truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_and_religion" title="Water and religion">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worship" title="Worship">Worship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Worship_of_heavenly_bodies" title="Worship of heavenly bodies">Astral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_worship" title="Fire worship">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_worship" title="Nature worship">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Place_of_worship" title="Place of worship">Place</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transtheism" title="Transtheism">Transtheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Religious studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_religion" title="Anthropology of religion">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science_of_religion" title="Cognitive science of religion">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_religion" title="Comparative religion">Comparative</a></li> <li>Demographics <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">Ethnic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_religion" title="Folk religion">Folk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_religion" title="Indigenous religion">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_religious_groups" title="Major religious groups">Major</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_religions" title="World religions">World</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religion" title="Evolutionary origin of religion">Evolutionary origin of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Evolutionary psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_religion" title="Neuroscience of religion">Neurotheology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soteriology" title="Soteriology">Soteriology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salvation" title="Salvation">Salvation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religion" title="Theories about religion">Theories about religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_and_religion" title="Women and religion">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Religion_and_society" title="Category:Religion and society">Religion and society</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_agriculture" title="Religion and agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_business" title="Religion and business">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clericalism" title="Clericalism">Clericalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">Clergy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination" title="Ordination">Ordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priest" title="Priest">Priest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_conversion" title="Religious conversion">Conversion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_assimilation" title="Religious assimilation">Assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">Missionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proselytism" title="Proselytism">Proselytism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_and_religion" title="Disability and religion">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_education" title="Religious education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_fanaticism" title="Religious fanaticism">Fanaticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Freedom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_pluralism" title="Religious pluralism">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">Syncretism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universalism" title="Universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Growth_of_religion" title="Growth of religion">Growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_happiness" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion and happiness">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_and_religion" title="Homosexuality and religion">Homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minority_religion" title="Minority religion">Minorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_church" title="National church">National church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Importance_of_religion_by_country" title="Importance of religion by country">National religiosity levels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_politics" title="Religion in politics">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_populations" title="List of religious populations">Populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religiocentrism" title="Religiocentrism">Religiocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schism" title="Schism">Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetarianism_and_religion" title="Vegetarianism and religion">Vegetarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_video_games" title="Religion and video games">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarian_violence" title="Sectarian violence">Sectarian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wealth_and_religion" title="Wealth and religion">Wealth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Irreligion" title="Irreligion">irreligion</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_deconstruction" title="Positive deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_theology" title="Secular theology">Secular theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularization" title="Secularization">Secularization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Unaffiliated</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Overviews and <a href="/wiki/Category:Religion-related_lists" title="Category:Religion-related lists">lists</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Table_of_prophets_of_Abrahamic_religions" title="Table of prophets of Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_who_have_been_considered_deities" title="List of people who have been considered deities">Deification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_deities" title="Lists of deities">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_founders_of_religious_traditions" title="List of founders of religious traditions">Founders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_religion-related_articles" title="Index of religion-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_peaceful_gatherings" title="List of largest peaceful gatherings">Mass gatherings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God" title="Names of God">Names of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_religious_movements" title="List of new religious movements">New religious movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_organizations" title="List of religious organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_religion" title="Outline of religion">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Religions and spiritual traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Scholars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_religion" title="Timeline of religion">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Religion_by_country" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Religion by country</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Africa" title="Religion in Africa">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Algeria" title="Religion in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Angola" title="Religion in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Benin" title="Religion in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Botswana" title="Religion in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Burkina_Faso" title="Religion in Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Burundi" title="Religion in Burundi">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cameroon" title="Religion in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cape_Verde" title="Religion in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Central_African_Republic" title="Religion in the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Chad" title="Religion in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Comoros" title="Religion in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Religion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Religion in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Djibouti" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Egypt" title="Religion in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Equatorial_Guinea" title="Religion in Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Eritrea" title="Religion in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Eswatini" title="Religion in Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ethiopia" title="Religion in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Gabon" title="Religion in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Gambia" title="Religion in the Gambia">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ghana" title="Religion in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guinea" title="Religion in Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="Religion in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ivory_Coast" title="Religion in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kenya" title="Religion in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lesotho" title="Religion in Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Liberia" title="Religion in Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Libya" title="Religion in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Madagascar" title="Religion in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malawi" title="Religion in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mali" title="Religion in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mauritania" title="Religion in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mauritius" title="Religion in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Morocco" title="Religion in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mozambique" title="Religion in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Namibia" title="Religion in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Niger" title="Religion in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nigeria" title="Religion in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Rwanda" title="Religion in Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="Religion in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Senegal" title="Religion in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Seychelles" title="Religion in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sierra_Leone" title="Religion in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Somalia" title="Religion in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Africa" title="Religion in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Sudan" title="Religion in South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sudan" title="Religion in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tanzania" title="Religion in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Togo" title="Religion in Togo">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tunisia" title="Religion in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Uganda" title="Religion in Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Zambia" title="Religion in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Zimbabwe" title="Religion in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Asia" title="Religion in Asia">Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Afghanistan" title="Religion in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Armenia" title="Religion in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Azerbaijan" title="Religion in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bahrain" title="Religion in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bangladesh" title="Religion in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bhutan" title="Religion in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Brunei" title="Religion in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cambodia" title="Religion in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cyprus" title="Religion in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_East_Timor" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in East Timor">East Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Religion in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Hong_Kong" title="Religion in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_India" title="Religion in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Indonesia" title="Religion in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iran" title="Religion in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iraq" title="Religion in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Israel" title="Religion in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Japan" title="Religion in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Jordan" title="Religion in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kazakhstan" title="Religion in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Korea" title="Religion in Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_North_Korea" title="Religion in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Korea" title="Religion in South Korea">South Korea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kuwait" title="Religion in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Religion in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Laos" title="Religion in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lebanon" title="Religion in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Macau" title="Religion in Macau">Macau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malaysia" title="Religion in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Maldives" title="Religion in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mongolia" title="Religion in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Myanmar" title="Religion in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nepal" title="Religion in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Oman" title="Religion in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Pakistan" title="Religion in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_State_of_Palestine" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Philippines" title="Religion in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Qatar" title="Religion in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Religion in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Singapore" title="Religion in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Religion in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Syria" title="Religion in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Taiwan" title="Religion in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tajikistan" title="Religion in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Thailand" title="Religion in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Turkey" title="Religion in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Turkmenistan" title="Religion in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Religion in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Uzbekistan" title="Religion in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vietnam" title="Religion in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Yemen" title="Religion in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Europe" title="Religion in Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Albania" title="Religion in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Andorra" title="Religion in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Austria" title="Religion in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belarus" title="Religion in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belgium" title="Religion in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bulgaria" title="Religion in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Croatia" title="Religion in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Religion in the Czech Republic">Czechia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Denmark" title="Religion in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Estonia" title="Religion in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Finland" title="Religion in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_France" title="Religion in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Germany" title="Religion in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Greece" title="Religion in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Hungary" title="Religion in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iceland" title="Religion in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Religion in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Italy" title="Religion in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kosovo" title="Religion in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Latvia" title="Religion in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Liechtenstein" title="Religion in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lithuania" title="Religion in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Luxembourg" title="Religion in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malta" title="Religion in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Moldova" title="Religion in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Monaco" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Montenegro" title="Religion in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Netherlands" title="Religion in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_North_Macedonia" title="Religion in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Norway" title="Religion in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Poland" title="Religion in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Portugal" title="Religion in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Romania" title="Religion in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Russia" title="Religion in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_San_Marino" title="Religion in San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Serbia" title="Religion in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Slovakia" title="Religion in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Slovenia" title="Religion in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Spain" title="Religion in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sweden" title="Religion in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Switzerland" title="Religion in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ukraine" title="Religion in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Religion in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_England" title="Religion in England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Religion in Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Scotland" title="Religion in Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Wales" title="Religion in Wales">Wales</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_North_America" title="Religion in North America">North America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Religion in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Bahamas" title="Religion in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Barbados" title="Religion in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belize" title="Religion in Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Canada" title="Religion in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Costa_Rica" title="Religion in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cuba" title="Religion in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Dominica" title="Religion in Dominica">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Religion in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_El_Salvador" title="Religion in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Grenada" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Grenada">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guatemala" title="Religion in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Haiti" title="Religion in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Honduras" title="Religion in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Jamaica" title="Religion in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mexico" title="Religion in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nicaragua" title="Religion in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Panama" title="Religion in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saint_Lucia" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Religion in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_States" title="Religion in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Oceania" title="Religion in Oceania">Oceania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Australia" title="Religion in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Fiji" title="Religion in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kiribati" title="Religion in Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Religion in the Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Religion in the Federated States of Micronesia">Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nauru" title="Religion in Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_New_Zealand" title="Religion in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Palau" title="Religion in Palau">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Religion in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Samoa" title="Religion in Samoa">Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Solomon_Islands" title="Religion in Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tonga" title="Religion in Tonga">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tuvalu" title="Religion in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vanuatu" title="Religion in Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_America" title="Religion in South America">South America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Argentina" title="Religion in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bolivia" title="Religion in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Brazil" title="Religion in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Chile" title="Religion in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Colombia" title="Religion in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ecuador" title="Religion in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guyana" title="Religion in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Paraguay" title="Religion in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Peru" title="Religion in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Suriname" title="Religion in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Uruguay" title="Religion in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Venezuela" title="Religion in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Religion" title="Category:Religion">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Religion" title="Portal:Religion">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Paganism_(and_modern_paganism)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Paganism" title="Template:Paganism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Paganism" title="Template talk:Paganism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Paganism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Paganism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Paganism_(and_modern_paganism)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a> (and <a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">modern paganism</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">ethnic religions</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_religions" title="List of ethnic religions">list</a>) (existing and extinct)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Asian" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Asian</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ainu_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Ainu religion">Ainu</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altaic_religion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Altaic religion (page does not exist)">Altaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_shamanism" title="Manchu shamanism">Manchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_shamanism" title="Mongolian shamanism">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tengrism" title="Tengrism">Tengrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_mythology" title="Turkic mythology">Turkic</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Austroasiatic_religion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Austroasiatic religion (page does not exist)">Austroasiatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarnaism" title="Sarnaism">Sarnaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_folk_religion" title="Vietnamese folk religion">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythology_of_Indonesia" title="Mythology of Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parmalim" title="Parmalim">Parmalim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaharingan" title="Kaharingan">Kaharingan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Momolianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Momolianism">Momolianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kejaw%C3%A8n" title="Kejawèn">Kejawèn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_folk_religion" title="Malaysian folk religion">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Philippine_folk_religions" title="Indigenous Philippine folk religions">Philippine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_religious_beliefs_of_the_Tagalog_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous religious beliefs of the Tagalog people">Tagalog</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marapu" title="Marapu">Marapu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunda_Wiwitan" title="Sunda Wiwitan">Sunda Wiwitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_mythology" title="Hindu mythology">Hindu mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_folk_religion" title="Dravidian folk religion">Dravidian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_mythology" title="Tamil mythology">Tamil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalash_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalash religion">Kalash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_folk_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Punjabi folk religion">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinto" title="Shinto">Shinto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryukyuan_religion" title="Ryukyuan religion">Ryukyuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_shamanism" title="Korean shamanism">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_folk_religion" title="Miao folk religion">Miao</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tai_religion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tai religion (page does not exist)">Tai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahom_religion" title="Ahom religion">Ahom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mo_(religion)" title="Mo (religion)">Mo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_folk_religion" title="Tai folk religion">Satsana Phi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tibeto-Burman_religion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tibeto-Burman religion (page does not exist)">Tibeto-Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathouism" title="Bathouism">Bathouism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzhuism" title="Benzhuism">Benzhuism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimoism" title="Bimoism">Bimoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bon" title="Bon">Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mun_(religion)" title="Mun (religion)">Bongthingism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_folk_religion" title="Burmese folk religion">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donyi-Polo" title="Donyi-Polo">Donyi-Polo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraka" class="mw-redirect" title="Heraka">Heraka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirat_Mundhum" title="Kirat Mundhum">Kiratism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiang_folk_religion" title="Qiang folk religion">Qiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanamahism" title="Sanamahism">Sanamahism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="European" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">European</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_folk_beliefs" class="mw-redirect" title="Albanian folk beliefs">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatolian_religion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anatolian religion (page does not exist)">Anatolian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_mythology_and_religion" title="Hittite mythology and religion">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lydian_religion" title="Lydian religion">Lydian</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phrygian_religion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phrygian religion (page does not exist)">Phrygian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_mythology" title="Armenian mythology">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prussian_mythology" title="Prussian mythology">Old Prussian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_mythology" title="Latvian mythology">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_mythology" title="Lithuanian mythology">Lithuanian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_mythology" title="Basque mythology">Basque</a></li> <li>Caucasian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_paganism" title="Circassian paganism">Circassian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_mythology" title="Georgian mythology">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossetian_mythology" title="Ossetian mythology">Ossetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vainakh_religion" title="Vainakh religion">Vainakh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_polytheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic polytheism">Celtic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_mythology" title="Irish mythology">Irish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_religion" title="Etruscan religion">Etruscan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish mythology">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_paganism" title="Gothic paganism">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_hero_cult" title="Greek hero cult">Hero cult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_mysteries" title="Greco-Roman mysteries">Sacred mysteries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eleusinian_Mysteries" title="Eleusinian Mysteries">Eleusinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphism" title="Orphism">Orphic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samothrace_temple_complex" title="Samothrace temple complex">Samothracian</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Iberian_religion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Iberian religion (page does not exist)">Iberian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cantabrian_mythology" title="Cantabrian mythology">Cantabrian</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Castro_religion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Castro religion (page does not exist)">Castro</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gallaecian_religion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gallaecian religion (page does not exist)">Gallaecian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusitanian_mythology" title="Lusitanian mythology">Lusitanian</a></li></ul></li> <li>Italic <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Camunni_religion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Camunni religion (page does not exist)">Camunnian</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ligures_religion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ligures religion (page does not exist)">Ligurian</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Umbri_religion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Umbri religion (page does not exist)">Umbrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_religion" title="Minoan religion">Minoan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuragic_religion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nuragic religion (page does not exist)">Nuragic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_mythology" title="Paleo-Balkan mythology">Paleo-Balkan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dacian_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Dacian religion">Dacian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illyrian_religion" title="Illyrian religion">Illyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thracian_religion" title="Thracian religion">Thracian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cybele" title="Cybele">Cybele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_religion" title="Gallo-Roman religion">Gallo-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_imperial_cult" title="Roman imperial cult">Imperial cult</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysteries_of_Isis" title="Mysteries of Isis">Mysteries of Isis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_religion" title="Scythian religion">Scythian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Finnic_paganism" title="Baltic Finnic paganism">Baltic Finnic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_mythology" title="Hungarian mythology">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mari_Native_Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Mari Native Religion">Mari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sami_shamanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sami shamanism">Sami</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Middle-Eastern_and_North_African" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Middle-Eastern and North African</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religions_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="Religions of the ancient Near East">Ancient Near Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurrian_religion" title="Hurrian religion">Hurrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kushite_religion" title="Kushite religion">Nubian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Mesopotamian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_religion" title="Babylonian religion">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_religion" title="Sumerian religion">Sumerian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic_religion" title="Ancient Semitic religion">Semitic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_religion" title="Canaanite religion">Canaanite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_religions" title="Iranian religions">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_mythology" title="Persian mythology">Persian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Berber_religion" title="Traditional Berber religion">Berber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punic_religion" title="Punic religion">Punic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Oceanian_and_Pacific_Islander" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Oceanian and Pacific Islander</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_religion_and_mythology" title="Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanesian_mythology" title="Melanesian mythology">Melanesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_mythology" title="Micronesian mythology">Micronesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nauruan_indigenous_religion" title="Nauruan indigenous religion">Nauruan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papuan_mythology" title="Papuan mythology">Papuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_mythology" title="Polynesian mythology">Polynesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cook_Islands_mythology" title="Cook Islands mythology">Cook Islander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_religion" title="Hawaiian religion">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_M%C4%81ori_people" title="Religion of Māori people">Māori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapa_Nui_mythology" title="Rapa Nui mythology">Rapa Nui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahiti_and_Society_Islands_mythology" title="Tahiti and Society Islands mythology">Tahitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongan_religion" title="Tongan religion">Tongan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Sub-Saharan_African" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_African_religions" title="Traditional African religions">Sub-Saharan African</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akan_religion" title="Akan religion">Akan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bantu_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bantu mythology">Bantu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bushongo_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushongo mythology">Bushongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kongo_religion" title="Kongo religion">Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lozi_mythology" title="Lozi mythology">Lozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulu_traditional_religion" title="Zulu traditional religion">Zulu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahomean_religion" title="Dahomean religion">Dahomean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinka_religion" title="Dinka religion">Dinka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efik_mythology" title="Efik mythology">Efik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hausa_animism" title="Hausa animism">Hausa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugbara_mythology" title="Lugbara mythology">Lugbara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maasai_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Maasai mythology">Maasai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malagasy_mythology" title="Malagasy mythology">Malagasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mbuti_mythology" title="Mbuti mythology">Mbuti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odinani" class="mw-redirect" title="Odinani">Odinani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_religion" title="San religion">San</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serer_religion" title="Serer religion">Serer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_mythology" title="Somali mythology">Somali</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Modern paganism</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_pagan_movements" title="List of modern pagan movements">movements</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Ethnic" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">Ethnic</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>African <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ausar_Auset_Society" title="Ausar Auset Society">Ausar Auset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godianism" title="Godianism">Godianism</a></li></ul></li> <li>American <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mexicayotl" title="Mexicayotl">Mexicayotl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Church" title="Native American Church">Native American Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Native_Faith" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenian Native Faith">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_neopaganism" title="Baltic neopaganism">Baltic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dievtur%C4%ABba" title="Dievturība">Dievturība</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romuva_(religion)" title="Romuva (religion)">Romuva</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_neopaganism" title="Caucasian neopaganism">Caucasian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_neopaganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Abkhaz neopaganism">Abkhaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adyghe_Habze" class="mw-redirect" title="Adyghe Habze">Adyghe Habze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uatsdin" class="mw-redirect" title="Uatsdin">Uatsdin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Reconstructionist_Paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Guanche_People" title="Church of the Guanche People">Canarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heathenry_(new_religious_movement)" title="Heathenry (new religious movement)">Heathenry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenism_(religion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenism (religion)">Hellenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_reform_movements" title="Hindu reform movements">Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Polytheistic_Reconstructionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Polytheistic Reconstructionism">Italo-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemetism" title="Kemetism">Kemetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zalmoxianism" title="Zalmoxianism">Zalmoxianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_folklore" title="Romani folklore">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semitic_neopaganism" title="Semitic neopaganism">Semitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_Native_Faith" title="Slavic Native Faith">Slavic</a></li> <li>Turko-Mongolic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burkhanism" title="Burkhanism">Burkhanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vattisen_Yaly" title="Vattisen Yaly">Vattisen Yaly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uralic_neopaganism" title="Uralic neopaganism">Uralic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_neopaganism" title="Estonian neopaganism">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_neopaganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Finnish neopaganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Native_Faith" title="Hungarian Native Faith">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mordvin_Native_Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Mordvin Native Religion">Mordvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurt_Vos" title="Udmurt Vos">Udmurt Vos</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Other" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neopagan_witchcraft" title="Neopagan witchcraft">Neopagan witchcraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochrane%27s_Craft" title="Cochrane's Craft">Cochrane's Craft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feri_Tradition" title="Feri Tradition">Feri Tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stregheria" title="Stregheria">Stregheria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wicca" title="Wicca">Wicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druidry_(modern)" title="Druidry (modern)">Druidry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Congress_of_Ethnic_Religions" title="European Congress of Ethnic Religions">European Congress of Ethnic Religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess_movement" title="Goddess movement">Goddess movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoshamanism" title="Neoshamanism">Neoshamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheistic_reconstructionism" title="Polytheistic reconstructionism">Polytheistic reconstructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_paganism" title="Secular paganism">Secular paganism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Myth_and_ritual" title="Myth and ritual">Myth and ritual</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Veneration_of_the_dead" title="Veneration of the dead">Veneration of the dead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bear_worship" title="Bear worship">Bear worship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bl%C3%B3t" title="Blót">Blót</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumulus" title="Tumulus">Tumulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dying_and_rising_deity" class="mw-redirect" title="Dying and rising deity">Dying and rising deity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethos" title="Ethos">Ethos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idolatry" title="Idolatry">Idolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_and_religion" title="Magic and religion">Magic and religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalith" title="Megalith">Megalith</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dolmen" title="Dolmen">Dolmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menhir" title="Menhir">Menhir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_row" title="Stone row">Stone row</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myth" title="Myth">Myth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Myth_and_ritual" title="Myth and ritual">Myth and ritual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythology">Mythology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthopraxy" title="Orthopraxy">Orthopraxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reincarnation" title="Reincarnation">Reincarnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_mythology" 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