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</button> <ul id="toc-Physical_description-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Origin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Origin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Early evolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Initiation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Initiation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Initiation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Initiation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Initial_acceleration" 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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interactions_in_the_heliosphere"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Interactions in the heliosphere</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interactions_in_the_heliosphere-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Morphology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Solar_cycle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solar_cycle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Solar cycle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solar_cycle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact_on_Earth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_on_Earth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Impact on Earth</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Impact_on_Earth-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Impact on Earth subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Impact_on_Earth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Halo_coronal_mass_ejections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Halo_coronal_mass_ejections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Halo coronal mass ejections</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Halo_coronal_mass_ejections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Future_risk" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Future_risk"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Future risk</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Future_risk-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_traces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_traces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>First traces</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_traces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_optical_observations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_optical_observations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>First optical observations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_optical_observations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Instruments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Instruments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Instruments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Instruments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_coronal_mass_ejections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_coronal_mass_ejections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Notable coronal mass ejections</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_coronal_mass_ejections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stellar_coronal_mass_ejections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stellar_coronal_mass_ejections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Stellar coronal mass ejections</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stellar_coronal_mass_ejections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Books</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internet_articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internet_articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Internet articles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internet_articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Coronal mass ejection</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 40 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-40" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">40 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasmawolk" title="Plasmawolk – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Plasmawolk" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AB_%D9%83%D8%AA%D9%84%D9%8A_%D8%A5%D9%83%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%8A" title="انبعاث كتلي إكليلي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="انبعاث كتلي إكليلي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%8B_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Каранальныя выкіды масы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Каранальныя выкіды масы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%85%D0%B2%D1%8A%D1%80%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0" title="Коронално изхвърляне на маса – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Коронално изхвърляне на маса" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ejecci%C3%B3_de_massa_coronal" title="Ejecció de massa coronal – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ejecció de massa coronal" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%BDron_koron%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_hmoty" title="Výron koronální hmoty – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Výron koronální hmoty" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigantisk_soludbrud" title="Gigantisk soludbrud – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Gigantisk soludbrud" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koronaler_Massenauswurf" title="Koronaler Massenauswurf – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Koronaler Massenauswurf" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krooni_massi_purse" title="Krooni massi purse – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Krooni massi purse" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B5%CE%BA%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%AE_%CE%BC%CE%AC%CE%B6%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Στεμματική εκπομπή μάζας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Στεμματική εκπομπή μάζας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eyecci%C3%B3n_de_masa_coronal" title="Eyección de masa coronal – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Eyección de masa coronal" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koroa-masaren_eiekzio" title="Koroa-masaren eiekzio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Koroa-masaren eiekzio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AC_%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%85_%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%AC_%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="خروج جرم از تاج خورشیدی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="خروج جرم از تاج خورشیدی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89jection_de_masse_coronale" title="Éjection de masse coronale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Éjection de masse coronale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BD%94%EB%A1%9C%EB%82%98_%EC%A7%88%EB%9F%89_%EB%B0%A9%EC%B6%9C" title="코로나 질량 방출 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="코로나 질량 방출" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A3" title="कोरोना द्रव्य उत्क्षेपण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कोरोना द्रव्य उत्क्षेपण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koronalni_izba%C4%8Daji_masa" title="Koronalni izbačaji masa – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Koronalni izbačaji masa" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lontaran_massa_korona" title="Lontaran massa korona – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Lontaran massa korona" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espulsione_di_massa_coronale" title="Espulsione di massa coronale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Espulsione di massa coronale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koronale_Massenausworf" title="Koronale Massenausworf – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Koronale Massenausworf" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koronakidob%C3%B3d%C3%A1s" title="Koronakidobódás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Koronakidobódás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8A%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%BD_%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%87%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%BB" title="കൊറോണൽ മാസ് ഇജക്ഷൻ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കൊറോണൽ മാസ് ഇജക്ഷൻ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lentingan_jisim_korona" title="Lentingan jisim korona – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Lentingan jisim korona" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasmawolk" title="Plasmawolk – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Plasmawolk" 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title="Koronal massadan chiqarib tashlash – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Koronal massadan chiqarib tashlash" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koronalny_wyrzut_masy" title="Koronalny wyrzut masy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Koronalny wyrzut masy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eje%C3%A7%C3%A3o_de_massa_coronal" title="Ejeção de massa coronal – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ejeção de massa coronal" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ejec%C8%9Bie_de_mas%C4%83_coronal%C4%83" title="Ejecție de masă coronală – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Ejecție de masă coronală" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%8B_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Корональные выбросы массы – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Корональные выбросы массы" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%BDron_koron%C3%A1lnej_hmoty" title="Výron koronálnej 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class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coronal_mass_ejection_on_28_October_2021_ESA25032924.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Coronal_mass_ejection_on_28_October_2021_ESA25032924.gif/330px-Coronal_mass_ejection_on_28_October_2021_ESA25032924.gif" decoding="async" width="330" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Coronal_mass_ejection_on_28_October_2021_ESA25032924.gif/495px-Coronal_mass_ejection_on_28_October_2021_ESA25032924.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Coronal_mass_ejection_on_28_October_2021_ESA25032924.gif 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="440" /></a><figcaption>Coronal mass ejections are usually visible in white-light <a href="/wiki/Coronagraph" title="Coronagraph">coronagraphs</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>coronal mass ejection</b> (<b>CME</b>) is a significant ejection of <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasma</a> mass from the <a href="/wiki/Sun%27s_corona" class="mw-redirect" title="Sun's corona">Sun's corona</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Heliosphere" title="Heliosphere">heliosphere</a>. CMEs are often associated with <a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">solar flares</a> and other forms of <a href="/wiki/Solar_activity" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar activity">solar activity</a>, but a broadly accepted theoretical understanding of these relationships has not been established. </p><p>If a CME enters <a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Interplanetary space">interplanetary space</a>, it is referred to as an <b>interplanetary coronal mass ejection</b> (<b>ICME</b>). ICMEs are capable of reaching and colliding with <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's magnetosphere">Earth's magnetosphere</a>, where they can cause <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_storm" title="Geomagnetic storm">geomagnetic storms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aurorae" class="mw-redirect" title="Aurorae">aurorae</a>, and in rare cases damage to <a href="/wiki/Electrical_power_grid" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical power grid">electrical power grids</a>. The largest recorded geomagnetic perturbation, resulting presumably from a CME, was the <a href="/wiki/Solar_storm_of_1859" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar storm of 1859">solar storm of 1859</a>. Also known as the <a href="/wiki/Carrington_Event" title="Carrington Event">Carrington Event</a>, it disabled parts of the newly created United States <a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph" title="Electrical telegraph">telegraph</a> network, starting fires and electrically shocking some telegraph operators. </p><p>Near <a href="/wiki/Solar_maximum" title="Solar maximum">solar maxima</a>, the Sun produces about three CMEs every day, whereas near <a href="/wiki/Solar_minimum" title="Solar minimum">solar minima</a>, there is about one CME every five days. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physical_description">Physical description</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coronal_mass_ejection&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Physical description"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>CMEs release large quantities of matter from the Sun's atmosphere into the <a href="/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">solar wind</a> and <a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Interplanetary space">interplanetary space</a>. The ejected matter is a <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasma</a> consisting primarily of <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> embedded within its magnetic field. This magnetic field is commonly in the form of a flux rope, a <a href="/wiki/Helix" title="Helix">helical</a> magnetic field with changing <a href="/wiki/Pitch_angle_(particle_motion)" title="Pitch angle (particle motion)">pitch angles</a>. </p><p>The average mass ejected is 1.6<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup>12</sup> kg (3.5<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup>12</sup> lb). However, the estimated mass values for CMEs are only lower limits, because coronagraph measurements provide only two-dimensional data. </p><p>CMEs erupt from strongly twisted or sheared, large-scale magnetic field structures in the corona that are kept in equilibrium by overlying magnetic fields. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origin">Origin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coronal_mass_ejection&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/44px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="44" height="31" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/66px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/88px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b> with: information about precursors and observations thereof. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coronal_mass_ejection&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2023</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sunspot_diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Sunspot_diagram.svg/220px-Sunspot_diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Sunspot_diagram.svg/330px-Sunspot_diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Sunspot_diagram.svg/440px-Sunspot_diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="648" data-file-height="580" /></a><figcaption>Simplified model of magnetic fields emerging from the photosphere</figcaption></figure> <p>CMEs erupt from the lower corona, where processes associated with the local magnetic field dominate over other processes. As a result, the coronal magnetic field plays an important role in the formation and eruption of CMEs. Pre-eruption structures originate from magnetic fields that are initially generated in the Sun's interior by the <a href="/wiki/Solar_dynamo" title="Solar dynamo">solar dynamo</a>. These magnetic fields rise to the Sun's surface—the <a href="/wiki/Photosphere" title="Photosphere">photosphere</a>—where they may form localized areas of highly concentrated magnetic flux and expand into the lower solar atmosphere forming <a href="/wiki/Active_region" title="Active region">active regions</a>. At the photosphere, active region magnetic flux is often distributed in a <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_dipole" title="Magnetic dipole">dipole configuration</a>, that is, with two adjacent areas of opposite magnetic polarity across which the magnetic field arches. Over time, the concentrated magnetic flux cancels and disperses across the Sun's surface, merging with the remnants of past active regions to become a part of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Quiet-Sun_region&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Quiet-Sun region (page does not exist)">quiet Sun</a>. Pre-eruption CME structures can be present at different stages of the growth and decay of these regions, but they always lie above polarity inversion lines (PIL), or boundaries across which the sign of the vertical component of the magnetic field reverses. PILs may exist in, around, and between active regions or form in the quiet Sun between active region remnants. More complex magnetic flux configurations, such as quadrupolar fields, can also host pre-eruption structures.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In order for pre-eruption CME structures to develop, large amounts of energy must be stored and be readily available to be released. As a result of the dominance of magnetic field processes in the lower corona, the majority of the energy must be stored as <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_energy" title="Magnetic energy">magnetic energy</a>. The magnetic energy that is freely available to be released from a pre-eruption structure, referred to as the <i>magnetic free energy</i> or <i>nonpotential energy</i> of the structure, is the excess magnetic energy stored by the structure's magnetic configuration relative to that stored by the lowest-energy magnetic configuration the underlying photospheric magnetic flux distribution could theoretically take, a <a href="/wiki/Force-free_magnetic_field#Zero_current_density" title="Force-free magnetic field">potential field</a> state. Emerging magnetic flux and photospheric motions continuously shifting the footpoints of a structure can result in magnetic free energy building up in the coronal magnetic field as twist or shear.<sup id="cite_ref-chen11_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chen11-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some pre-eruption structures, referred to as <i lang="en"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sigmoids#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:sigmoids">sigmoids</a></i>, take on an <i>S</i> or reverse-<i>S</i> shape as shear accumulates. This has been observed in active region <a href="/wiki/Coronal_loop" title="Coronal loop">coronal loops</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solar_prominence" title="Solar prominence">filaments</a> with forward-<i>S</i> sigmoids more common in the southern hemisphere and reverse-<i>S</i> sigmoids more common in the northern hemisphere.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Magnetic flux ropes—twisted and sheared <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_flux_tube" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic flux tube">magnetic flux tubes</a> that can carry electric current and magnetic free energy—are an integral part of the post-eruption CME structure; however, whether flux ropes are always present in the pre-eruption structure or whether they are created during the eruption from a strongly sheared core field (see <a href="#Initiation">§ Initiation</a>) is subject to ongoing debate.<sup id="cite_ref-chen11_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chen11-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-howard11_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-howard11-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some pre-eruption structures have been observed to support <a href="/wiki/Solar_prominence" title="Solar prominence">prominences</a>, also known as filaments, composed of much cooler material than the surrounding coronal plasma. Prominences are embedded in magnetic field structures referred to as prominence cavities, or filament channels, which may constitute part of a pre-eruption structure (see <a href="#Coronal_signatures">§ Coronal signatures</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_evolution">Early evolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coronal_mass_ejection&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series of articles about</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Heliophysics" title="Heliophysics">Heliophysics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Heliospheric-current-sheet.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Heliospheric current sheet"><img alt="Heliospheric current sheet" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Heliospheric-current-sheet.gif/190px-Heliospheric-current-sheet.gif" decoding="async" width="190" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Heliospheric-current-sheet.gif/285px-Heliospheric-current-sheet.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Heliospheric-current-sheet.gif/380px-Heliospheric-current-sheet.gif 2x" data-file-width="866" data-file-height="676" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption" style="font-size:90%;padding-top:0.4em;font-style;"><a href="/wiki/Heliospheric_current_sheet" title="Heliospheric current sheet">Heliospheric current sheet</a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above hlist" style="display:block;margin-bottom:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heliosphere" title="Heliosphere">Heliosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_climate" title="Space climate">Space climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_weather" title="Space weather">Space weather</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Fundamentals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">Plasma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flux_tube" title="Flux tube">Flux tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_reconnection" title="Magnetic reconnection">Magnetic reconnection</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_acceleration" title="Particle acceleration">Particle acceleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_medium" title="Interplanetary medium">Interplanetary medium</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_magnetic_field" title="Interplanetary magnetic field">IMF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parker_spiral" class="mw-redirect" title="Parker spiral">Parker spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">Solar wind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">Cosmic ray</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">ICME</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forbush_decrease" title="Forbush decrease">Forbush decrease</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">Magnetospherics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere_chronology" title="Magnetosphere chronology">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere_particle_motion" title="Magnetosphere particle motion">Particle motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetosheath" title="Magnetosheath">Magnetosheath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmasphere" title="Plasmasphere">Plasmasphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt" title="Van Allen radiation belt">Van Allen radiation belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_current" title="Ring current">Ring current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birkeland_current" title="Birkeland current">Birkeland current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_storm" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic storm">Magnetic storm</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aurora" title="Aurora">Aurora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomagnetically_induced_current" title="Geomagnetically induced current">GIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disturbance_storm_time_index" title="Disturbance storm time index">Dst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substorm" title="Substorm">Substorm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_tornado" title="Space tornado">Space tornado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_hurricane" title="Space hurricane">Space hurricane</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polar_wind" title="Polar wind">Polar wind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flux_transfer_event" title="Flux transfer event">Flux transfer event</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Solar_phenomena" title="Solar phenomena">Solar phenomena</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cycle" title="Solar cycle">Solar cycle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_maximum" title="Solar maximum">max</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_minimum" title="Solar minimum">min</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_storm" title="Solar storm">Solar storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coronal_hole" title="Coronal hole">Coronal hole</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">CME</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_prominence" title="Solar prominence">Solar prominence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">Solar flare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_particle_event" title="Solar particle event">Solar particle event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_radio_emission" title="Solar radio emission">Radio emission</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Heliophysics" title="Template:Heliophysics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Heliophysics" title="Template talk:Heliophysics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Heliophysics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Heliophysics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The early evolution of a CME involves its initiation from a pre-eruption structure in the corona and the acceleration that follows. The processes involved in the early evolution of CMEs are poorly understood due to a lack of observational evidence. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Initiation">Initiation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coronal_mass_ejection&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Initiation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>CME initiation occurs when a pre-eruption structure in an equilibrium state enters a nonequilibrium or <a href="/wiki/Metastable" class="mw-redirect" title="Metastable">metastable</a> state where energy can be released to drive an eruption. The specific processes involved in CME initiation are debated, and various models have been proposed to explain this phenomenon based on physical speculation. Furthermore, different CMEs may be initiated by different processes.<sup id="cite_ref-howard11_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-howard11-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 175">: 175 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-vial15_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vial15-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 303">: 303 </span></sup> </p><p>It is unknown whether a magnetic flux rope exists prior to initiation, in which case either <a href="/wiki/Magnetohydrodynamics#Ideal_MHD" title="Magnetohydrodynamics">ideal</a> or non-ideal magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) processes drive the expulsion of this flux rope, or whether a flux rope is created during the eruption by non-ideal process.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-aschwanden19_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aschwanden19-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 555">: 555 </span></sup> Under ideal MHD, initiation may involve ideal instabilities or <a href="/wiki/Catastrophe_theory" title="Catastrophe theory">catastrophic</a> loss of equilibrium along an existing flux rope:<sup id="cite_ref-chen11_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chen11-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The <b>kink instability</b> occurs when a magnetic flux rope is twisted to a critical point, whereupon the flux rope is unstable to further twisting.</li> <li>The <b>torus instability</b> occurs when the magnetic field strength of an arcade overlying a flux rope decreases rapidly with height. When this decrease is sufficiently rapid, the flux rope is unstable to further expansion.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <b>catastrophe model</b> involves a catastrophic loss of equilibrium.</li></ul> <p>Under non-ideal MHD, initiations mechanisms may involve resistive instabilities or <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_reconnection" title="Magnetic reconnection">magnetic reconnection</a>: </p> <ul><li><b>Tether-cutting</b>, or <b>flux cancellation</b>, occurs in strongly sheared arcades when nearly antiparallel field lines on opposite sides of the arcade form a current sheet and reconnect with each other. This can form a helical flux rope or cause a flux rope already present to grow and its axis to rise.</li> <li>The <b>magnetic breakout model</b> consists of an initial quadrupolar <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_topology" title="Magnetic topology">magnetic topology</a> with a null point above a central flux system. As shearing motions cause this central flux system to rise, the null point forms a current sheet and the core flux system reconnects with the overlying magnetic field.<sup id="cite_ref-aschwanden19_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aschwanden19-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Close-up_on_launching_filament_%28SDO-AIA%2C_304_%C3%85%29.ogv/220px--Close-up_on_launching_filament_%28SDO-AIA%2C_304_%C3%85%29.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="4" data-mwtitle="Close-up_on_launching_filament_(SDO-AIA,_304_Å).ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Close-up_on_launching_filament_(SDO-AIA,_304_%C3%85).ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/77/Close-up_on_launching_filament_%28SDO-AIA%2C_304_%C3%85%29.ogv/Close-up_on_launching_filament_%28SDO-AIA%2C_304_%C3%85%29.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/77/Close-up_on_launching_filament_%28SDO-AIA%2C_304_%C3%85%29.ogv/Close-up_on_launching_filament_%28SDO-AIA%2C_304_%C3%85%29.ogv.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Close-up_on_launching_filament_%28SDO-AIA%2C_304_%C3%85%29.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora"" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/77/Close-up_on_launching_filament_%28SDO-AIA%2C_304_%C3%85%29.ogv/Close-up_on_launching_filament_%28SDO-AIA%2C_304_%C3%85%29.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/77/Close-up_on_launching_filament_%28SDO-AIA%2C_304_%C3%85%29.ogv/Close-up_on_launching_filament_%28SDO-AIA%2C_304_%C3%85%29.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/77/Close-up_on_launching_filament_%28SDO-AIA%2C_304_%C3%85%29.ogv/Close-up_on_launching_filament_%28SDO-AIA%2C_304_%C3%85%29.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/77/Close-up_on_launching_filament_%28SDO-AIA%2C_304_%C3%85%29.ogv/Close-up_on_launching_filament_%28SDO-AIA%2C_304_%C3%85%29.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Video of a <a href="/wiki/Solar_prominence" title="Solar prominence">solar filament</a> being launched</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Initial_acceleration">Initial acceleration</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coronal_mass_ejection&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Initial acceleration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Following initiation, CMEs are subject to different forces that either assist or inhibit their rise through the lower corona. Downward <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_tension" title="Magnetic tension">magnetic tension</a> force exerted by the strapping magnetic field as it is stretched and, to a lesser extent, the gravitational pull of the Sun oppose movement of the core CME structure. In order for sufficient acceleration to be provided, past models have involved magnetic reconnection below the core field or an ideal MHD process, such as instability or acceleration from the solar wind. </p><p>In the majority of CME events, acceleration is provided by magnetic reconnection cutting the strapping field's connections to the photosphere from below the core and outflow from this reconnection pushing the core upward. When the initial rise occurs, the opposite sides of the strapping field below the rising core are oriented nearly <a href="/wiki/Euclidean_vector#Opposite,_parallel,_and_antiparallel_vectors" title="Euclidean vector">antiparallel</a> to one another and are brought together to form a <a href="/wiki/Current_sheet" title="Current sheet">current sheet</a> above the PIL. Fast magnetic reconnection can be excited along the current sheet by microscopic instabilities, resulting in the rapid release of stored magnetic energy as kinetic, thermal, and nonthermal energy. The restructuring of the magnetic field cuts the strapping field's connections to the photosphere thereby decreasing the downward magnetic tension force while the upward reconnection outflow pushes the CME structure upwards. A <a href="/wiki/Positive_feedback_loop" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive feedback loop">positive feedback loop</a> results as the core is pushed upwards and the sides of the strapping field are brought in closer and closer contact to produce additional magnetic reconnection and rise. While upward reconnection outflow accelerates the core, simultaneous downward outflow is sometimes responsible for other phenomena associated with CMEs (see <a href="#Coronal_signatures">§ Coronal signatures</a>). </p><p>In cases where significant magnetic reconnection does not occur, ideal MHD instabilities or the dragging force from the solar wind can theoretically accelerate a CME. However, if sufficient acceleration is not provided, the CME structure may fall back in what is referred to as a <i>failed</i> or <i>confined eruption</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-aschwanden19_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aschwanden19-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-chen11_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chen11-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Coronal_signatures">Coronal signatures</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coronal_mass_ejection&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Coronal signatures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/44px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="44" height="31" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/66px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/88px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b> with: information about EUV waves and other coronal signatures. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coronal_mass_ejection&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2023</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The early evolution of CMEs is frequently associated with other <a href="/wiki/Solar_phenomena" title="Solar phenomena">solar phenomena</a> observed in the low corona, such as eruptive prominences and solar flares. CMEs that have no observed signatures are sometimes referred to as <i>stealth CMEs</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prominences embedded in some CME pre-eruption structures may erupt with the CME as eruptive prominences. Eruptive prominences are associated with at least 70% of all CMEs<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and are often embedded within the bases of CME flux ropes. When observed in white-light coronagraphs, the eruptive prominence material, if present, corresponds to the observed bright core of dense material.<sup id="cite_ref-vial15_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vial15-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When magnetic reconnection is excited along a current sheet of a rising CME core structure, the downward reconnection outflows can collide with loops below to form a cusp-shaped, two-ribbon solar flare. </p><p>CME eruptions can also produce EUV waves, also known as <i>EIT waves</i> after the <a href="/wiki/Extreme_ultraviolet_Imaging_Telescope" title="Extreme ultraviolet Imaging Telescope">Extreme ultraviolet Imaging Telescope</a> or as <i><a href="/wiki/Moreton_wave" title="Moreton wave">Moreton waves</a></i> when observed in the chromosphere, which are fast-mode MHD wave fronts that emanate from the site of the CME.<sup id="cite_ref-howard11_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-howard11-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-chen11_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chen11-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A coronal dimming is a localized decrease in <a href="/wiki/Extreme_ultraviolet" title="Extreme ultraviolet">extreme ultraviolet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soft_X-ray" class="mw-redirect" title="Soft X-ray">soft X-ray</a> emissions in the lower corona. When associated with a CME, coronal dimmings are thought to occur predominantly due to a decrease in plasma density caused by mass outflows during the expansion of the associated CME. They often occur either in pairs located within regions of opposite magnetic polarity, a core dimming, or in a more widespread area, a secondary dimming. Core dimmings are interpreted as the footpoint locations of the erupting flux rope; secondary dimmings are interpreted as the result of the expansion of the overall CME structure and are generally more diffuse and shallow.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coronal dimming was first reported in 1974,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and, due to their appearance resembling that of <a href="/wiki/Coronal_hole" title="Coronal hole">coronal holes</a>, they were sometimes referred to as <i>transient coronal holes</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Propagation">Propagation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coronal_mass_ejection&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Propagation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/44px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="44" height="31" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/66px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/88px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coronal_mass_ejection&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2023</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Observations of CMEs are typically through white-light <a href="/wiki/Coronagraph" title="Coronagraph">coronagraphs</a> which measure the <a href="/wiki/Thomson_scattering" title="Thomson scattering">Thomson scattering</a> of sunlight off of free electrons within the CME plasma.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An observed CME may have any or all of three distinctive features: a bright core, a dark surrounding cavity, and a bright leading edge.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The bright core is usually interpreted as a prominence embedded in the CME (see <a href="#Origin">§ Origin</a>) with the leading edge as an area of compressed plasma ahead of the CME flux rope. However, some CMEs exhibit more complex geometry.<sup id="cite_ref-vial15_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vial15-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From white-light coronagraph observations, CMEs have been measured to reach speeds in the plane-of-sky ranging from 20 to 3,200 km/s (12 to 2,000 mi/s) with an average speed of 489 km/s (304 mi/s).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Observations of CME speeds indicate that CMEs tend to accelerate or decelerate until they reach the speed of the solar wind (<a href="#Interactions_in_the_heliosphere">§ Interactions in the heliosphere</a>). </p><p>When observed in interplanetary space at distances greater than about 50 solar radii (0.23 AU) away from the Sun, CMEs are sometimes referred to as <i>interplanetary CMEs</i>, or <i>ICMEs</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-howard11_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-howard11-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 4">: 4 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Interactions_in_the_heliosphere">Interactions in the heliosphere</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coronal_mass_ejection&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Interactions in the heliosphere"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As CMEs propagate through the heliosphere, they may interact with the surrounding solar wind, the interplanetary magnetic field, and other CMEs and celestial bodies. </p><p>CMEs can experience aerodynamic drag forces that act to bring them to kinematic equilibrium with the solar wind. As a consequence, CMEs faster than the solar wind tend to slow down whereas CMEs slower than the solar wind tend to speed up until their speed matches that of the solar wind.<sup id="cite_ref-Manoharan2006_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manoharan2006-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>How CMEs evolve as they propagate through the heliosphere is poorly understood. Models of their evolution have been proposed that are accurate to some CMEs but not others. Aerodynamic drag and snowplow models assume that ICME evolution is governed by its interactions with the solar wind. Aerodynamic drag alone may be able to account for the evolution of some ICMEs, but not all of them.<sup id="cite_ref-howard11_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-howard11-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 199">: 199 </span></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Dynamic_Earth-A_New_Beginning.webm/220px--Dynamic_Earth-A_New_Beginning.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="264" data-mwtitle="Dynamic_Earth-A_New_Beginning.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Dynamic_Earth-A_New_Beginning.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/40/Dynamic_Earth-A_New_Beginning.webm/Dynamic_Earth-A_New_Beginning.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Dynamic_Earth-A_New_Beginning.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, opus"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/40/Dynamic_Earth-A_New_Beginning.webm/Dynamic_Earth-A_New_Beginning.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/40/Dynamic_Earth-A_New_Beginning.webm/Dynamic_Earth-A_New_Beginning.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/40/Dynamic_Earth-A_New_Beginning.webm/Dynamic_Earth-A_New_Beginning.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/40/Dynamic_Earth-A_New_Beginning.webm/Dynamic_Earth-A_New_Beginning.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/40/Dynamic_Earth-A_New_Beginning.webm/Dynamic_Earth-A_New_Beginning.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/40/Dynamic_Earth-A_New_Beginning.webm/Dynamic_Earth-A_New_Beginning.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Follow a CME as it passes Venus then Earth, and explore how the Sun drives Earth's winds and oceans</figcaption></figure> <p>CMEs typically reach Earth one to five days after leaving the Sun. The strongest deceleration or acceleration occurs close to the Sun, but it can continue even beyond Earth orbit (1 <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_unit" title="Astronomical unit">AU</a>), which was observed using measurements at <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by the <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_(spacecraft)" title="Ulysses (spacecraft)"><i>Ulysses</i> spacecraft</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ICMEs faster than about 500 km/s (310 mi/s) eventually drive a <a href="/wiki/Shock_wave" title="Shock wave">shock wave</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilkinson2012_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilkinson2012-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This happens when the speed of the ICME in the <a href="/wiki/Frame_of_reference" title="Frame of reference">frame of reference</a> moving with the solar wind is faster than the local fast <a href="/wiki/Magnetosonic_wave" title="Magnetosonic wave">magnetosonic</a> speed. Such shocks have been observed directly by coronagraphs<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the corona, and are related to type II radio bursts. They are thought to form sometimes as low as 2 <var>R</var><sub>☉</sub> (<a href="/wiki/Solar_radius" title="Solar radius">solar radii</a>). They are also closely linked with the acceleration of <a href="/wiki/Solar_energetic_particles" title="Solar energetic particles">solar energetic particles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As ICMEs propagate through the interplanetary medium, they may collide with other ICMEs in what is referred to as <i>CME–CME interaction</i> or <i>CME cannibalism</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-aschwanden19_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aschwanden19-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 599">: 599 </span></sup> </p><p>During such CME-CME interactions, the first CME may clear the way for the second one<sup id="cite_ref-Liu,_Y.,_Luhmann,_J.,_Kajdič,_P._et_al._26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liu,_Y.,_Luhmann,_J.,_Kajdič,_P._et_al.-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and/or when two CMEs collide<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it can lead to more severe impacts on Earth. Historical records show that the most extreme space weather events involved multiple successive CMEs. For example, the famous <a href="/wiki/Carrington_Event" title="Carrington Event">Carrington event</a> in 1859 had several eruptions and caused auroras to be visible at low latitudes for four nights.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_storm_of_September_1770&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Solar storm of September 1770 (page does not exist)">solar storm of September 1770</a> lasted for nearly nine days, and caused repeated low-latitude auroras.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The interaction between two moderate CMEs between the Sun and Earth can create extreme conditions on Earth. Recent studies have shown that the magnetic structure in particular its <a href="/wiki/Chirality" title="Chirality">chirality</a>/handedness, of a CME can greatly affect how it interacts with Earth's magnetic field. This interaction can result in the conservation or loss of magnetic flux, particularly its southward magnetic field component, through <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_reconnection" title="Magnetic reconnection">magnetic reconnection</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_magnetic_field" title="Interplanetary magnetic field">interplanetary magnetic field</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Morphology">Morphology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coronal_mass_ejection&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/44px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="44" height="31" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/66px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/88px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b> with: information about CME sheaths and other aspects of CME morphology. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coronal_mass_ejection&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2023</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In the solar wind, CMEs manifest as <b>magnetic clouds</b>. They have been defined as regions of enhanced magnetic field strength, smooth rotation of the magnetic field vector, and low <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">proton</a> temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The association between CMEs and magnetic clouds was made by Burlaga et al. in 1982 when a magnetic cloud was observed by <a href="/wiki/Helios_probes" class="mw-redirect" title="Helios probes">Helios-1</a> two days after being observed by <a href="/wiki/Solar_Maximum_Mission" title="Solar Maximum Mission">SMM</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, because observations near Earth are usually done by a single spacecraft, many CMEs are not seen as being associated with magnetic clouds. The typical structure observed for a fast CME by a satellite such as <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Composition_Explorer" title="Advanced Composition Explorer">ACE</a> is a fast-mode <a href="/wiki/Shock_wave" title="Shock wave">shock wave</a> followed by a dense (and hot) sheath of plasma (the downstream region of the shock) and a magnetic cloud. </p><p>Other signatures of magnetic clouds are now used in addition to the one described above: among other, bidirectional superthermal <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a>, unusual charge state or abundance of <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>, and/or <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>. </p><p>The typical time for a magnetic cloud to move past a satellite at the <a href="/wiki/Lagrange_Point" class="mw-redirect" title="Lagrange Point">L1</a> point is 1 day corresponding to a <a href="/wiki/Earth_radius" title="Earth radius">radius</a> of 0.15 <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_Unit" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronomical Unit">AU</a> with a typical speed of 450 km/s (280 mi/s) and magnetic field strength of 20 <a href="/wiki/Tesla_(unit)" title="Tesla (unit)">nT</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Solar_cycle">Solar cycle</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coronal_mass_ejection&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Solar cycle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Solar_cycle" title="Solar cycle">Solar cycle</a></div> <p>The frequency of ejections depends on the phase of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_cycle" title="Solar cycle">solar cycle</a>: from about 0.2 per day near the <a href="/wiki/Solar_minimum" title="Solar minimum">solar minimum</a> to 3.5 per day near the <a href="/wiki/Solar_maximum" title="Solar maximum">solar maximum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the peak CME occurrence rate is often 6–12 months after sunspot number reaches its maximum.<sup id="cite_ref-chen11_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chen11-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impact_on_Earth">Impact on Earth</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coronal_mass_ejection&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Impact on Earth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aurora_Australis_From_ISS.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Aurora_Australis_From_ISS.JPG/220px-Aurora_Australis_From_ISS.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Aurora_Australis_From_ISS.JPG/330px-Aurora_Australis_From_ISS.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Aurora_Australis_From_ISS.JPG/440px-Aurora_Australis_From_ISS.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4256" data-file-height="2832" /></a><figcaption>Photo from the <a href="/wiki/ISS" class="mw-redirect" title="ISS">ISS</a> of <a href="/wiki/Aurora_australis" class="mw-redirect" title="Aurora australis">aurora australis</a> during a geomagnetic storm on 29 May 2010. The storm was most likely caused by a CME that had erupted from the Sun on 24 May 2010, five days prior to the storm.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_2" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Comparing_CMEs.ogv/220px--Comparing_CMEs.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="134" data-mwtitle="Comparing_CMEs.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Comparing_CMEs.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Comparing_CMEs.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/0a/Comparing_CMEs.ogv/Comparing_CMEs.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/0a/Comparing_CMEs.ogv/Comparing_CMEs.ogv.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/0a/Comparing_CMEs.ogv/Comparing_CMEs.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/0a/Comparing_CMEs.ogv/Comparing_CMEs.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/0a/Comparing_CMEs.ogv/Comparing_CMEs.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/0a/Comparing_CMEs.ogv/Comparing_CMEs.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>This video features two model runs. One looks at a moderate CME from 2006. The second run examines the consequences of a large CME such as the Carrington-class CME of 1859.</figcaption></figure> <p>Only a very small fraction of CMEs are directed toward, and reach, the Earth. A CME arriving at Earth results in a <a href="/wiki/Shock_wave" title="Shock wave">shock wave</a> causing a <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_storm" title="Geomagnetic storm">geomagnetic storm</a> that may disrupt Earth's <a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">magnetosphere</a>, compressing it on the day side and extending the night-side <a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere#Magnetic_tails" title="Magnetosphere">magnetic tail</a>. When the magnetosphere <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_reconnection" title="Magnetic reconnection">reconnects</a> on the nightside, it releases <a href="/wiki/Power_(physics)" title="Power (physics)">power</a> on the order of <a href="/wiki/Watt" title="Watt">terawatts</a> directed back toward Earth's <a href="/wiki/Celestial_body_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Celestial body atmosphere">upper atmosphere</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> This can result in events such as the <a href="/wiki/March_1989_geomagnetic_storm" title="March 1989 geomagnetic storm">March 1989 geomagnetic storm</a>. </p><p>CMEs, along with <a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">solar flares</a>, can disrupt <a href="/wiki/Radio_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio transmission">radio transmissions</a> and cause damage to <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electrical_transmission_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical transmission line">electrical transmission line</a> facilities, resulting in potentially massive and long-lasting <a href="/wiki/Power_outage" title="Power outage">power outages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-awst20130114_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-awst20130114-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Shocks in the upper corona driven by CMEs can also accelerate <a href="/wiki/Solar_energetic_particle" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar energetic particle">solar energetic particles</a> toward the Earth resulting in <a href="/wiki/Solar_particle_event#Gradual_events" title="Solar particle event">gradual solar particle events</a>. Interactions between these energetic particles and the Earth can cause an increase in the number of free electrons in the <a href="/wiki/Ionosphere" title="Ionosphere">ionosphere</a>, especially in the high-latitude polar regions, enhancing radio wave absorption, especially within the D-region of the ionosphere, leading to polar cap absorption events.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The interaction of CMEs with the Earth's <a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">magnetosphere</a> leads to dramatic changes in the outer <a href="/wiki/Radiation_belt" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation belt">radiation belt</a>, with either a decrease or an increase of relativistic particle fluxes by orders of magnitude.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="How many orders of magnitude? (February 2023)">quantify</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The changes in radiation belt particle fluxes are caused by acceleration, scattering and radial <a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">diffusion</a> of relativistic electrons, due to the interactions with various <a href="/wiki/Plasma_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasma waves">plasma waves</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Halo_coronal_mass_ejections">Halo coronal mass ejections</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coronal_mass_ejection&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Halo coronal mass ejections"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <b>halo coronal mass ejection</b> is a CME which appears in white-light coronagraph observations as an expanding ring completely surrounding the occulting disk of the coronagraph. Halo CMEs are interpreted as CMEs directed toward or away from the observing coronagraph. When the expanding ring does not completely surround the occulting disk, but has an <a href="/wiki/Angular_width" class="mw-redirect" title="Angular width">angular width</a> of more than 120 degrees around the disk, the CME is referred to as a <b>partial halo coronal mass ejection</b>. Partial and full halo CMEs have been found to make up about 10% of all CMEs with about 4% of all CMEs being full halo CMEs.<sup id="cite_ref-webb12_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-webb12-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Frontside, or Earth-direct, halo CMEs are often associated with Earth-impacting CMEs; however, not all frontside halo CMEs impact Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Future_risk">Future risk</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coronal_mass_ejection&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Future risk"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2019, researchers used an alternative method (<a href="/wiki/Weibull_distribution" title="Weibull distribution">Weibull distribution</a>) and estimated the chance of Earth being hit by a Carrington-class storm in the next decade to be between 0.46% and 1.88%.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coronal_mass_ejection&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Solar_observation" title="Solar observation">Solar observation</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_traces">First traces</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coronal_mass_ejection&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: First traces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/44px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="44" height="31" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/66px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/88px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b> with: information about the history of indirect observations made prior to 1973 discovery. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coronal_mass_ejection&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2023</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>CMEs have been observed indirectly for thousands of years via aurora. Other indirect observations that predated the discovery of CMEs were through measurements of geomagnetic perturbations, radioheliograph measurements of solar radio bursts, and in-situ measurements of interplanetary shocks.<sup id="cite_ref-howard11_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-howard11-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The largest recorded geomagnetic perturbation, resulting presumably from a CME, coincided with the first-observed <a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">solar flare</a> on 1 September 1859. The resulting solar storm of 1859 is referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Carrington_Event" title="Carrington Event">Carrington Event</a>. The flare and the associated sunspots were visible to the naked eye, and the flare was independently observed by English astronomers <a href="/wiki/Richard_Christopher_Carrington" title="Richard Christopher Carrington">R. C. Carrington</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Hodgson_(publisher)" title="Richard Hodgson (publisher)">R. Hodgson</a>. At around the same time as the flare, a magnetometer at <a href="/wiki/Kew_Gardens" title="Kew Gardens">Kew Gardens</a> recorded what would become known as a <i><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_crochet" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic crochet">magnetic crochet</a></i>, a magnetic field detected by ground-based magnetometers induced by a perturbation of Earth's ionosphere by ionizing <a href="/wiki/Soft_X-ray" class="mw-redirect" title="Soft X-ray">soft X-rays</a>. This could not easily be understood at the time because it predated the discovery of X-rays in 1895 and the recognition of the <a href="/wiki/Ionosphere" title="Ionosphere">ionosphere</a> in 1902. </p><p>About 18 hours after the flare, further geomagnetic perturbations were recorded by multiple magnetometers as a part of a <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_storm" title="Geomagnetic storm">geomagnetic storm</a>. The storm disabled parts of the recently created US telegraph network, starting fires and shocking some telegraph operators.<sup id="cite_ref-awst20130114_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-awst20130114-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_optical_observations">First optical observations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coronal_mass_ejection&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: First optical observations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first optical observation of a CME was made on 14 December 1971 using the coronagraph of <a href="/wiki/Orbiting_Solar_Observatory_7" class="mw-redirect" title="Orbiting Solar Observatory 7">Orbiting Solar Observatory 7</a> (OSO-7). It was first described by R. Tousey of the <a href="/wiki/Naval_Research_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Naval Research Laboratory">Naval Research Laboratory</a> in a research paper published in 1973.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The discovery image (256 × 256 pixels) was collected on a Secondary Electron Conduction (SEC) <a href="/wiki/Vidicon" class="mw-redirect" title="Vidicon">vidicon</a> tube, transferred to the instrument computer after being digitized to 7 <a href="/wiki/Bit" title="Bit">bits</a>. Then it was compressed using a simple run-length encoding scheme and sent down to the ground at 200 bit/s. A full, uncompressed image would take 44 minutes to send down to the ground. The <a href="/wiki/Telemetry" title="Telemetry">telemetry</a> was sent to ground support equipment (GSE) which built up the image onto <a href="/wiki/Instant_film" title="Instant film">Polaroid</a> print. David Roberts, an electronics technician working for NRL who had been responsible for the testing of the SEC-vidicon camera, was in charge of day-to-day operations. He thought that his camera had failed because certain areas of the image were much brighter than normal. But on the next image the bright area had moved away from the Sun and he immediately recognized this as being unusual and took it to his supervisor, Dr. <a href="/wiki/Guenter_Brueckner" title="Guenter Brueckner">Guenter Brueckner</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and then to the solar physics branch head, Dr. Tousey. Earlier observations of <i>coronal transients</i> or even phenomena observed visually during <a href="/wiki/Solar_eclipses" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar eclipses">solar eclipses</a> are now understood as essentially the same thing. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Instruments">Instruments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coronal_mass_ejection&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Instruments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On 1 November 1994, <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> launched the <i><a href="/wiki/Wind_(spacecraft)" title="Wind (spacecraft)">Wind</a></i> spacecraft as a solar wind monitor to orbit Earth's <a href="/wiki/Lagrange_point#L1" title="Lagrange point">L<sub>1</sub></a> Lagrange point as the interplanetary component of the <a href="/wiki/Global_Geospace_Science" title="Global Geospace Science">Global Geospace Science</a> (GGS) Program within the International Solar Terrestrial Physics (ISTP) program. The spacecraft is a spin axis-stabilized satellite that carries eight instruments measuring solar wind particles from thermal to greater than <a href="/wiki/MeV" class="mw-redirect" title="MeV">MeV</a> energies, electromagnetic radiation from DC to 13 MHz radio waves, and gamma-rays.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>On 25 October 2006, NASA launched <a href="/wiki/STEREO" title="STEREO">STEREO</a>, two near-identical spacecraft which, from widely separated points in their orbits, are able to produce the first <a href="/wiki/Stereoscopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Stereoscopic">stereoscopic</a> images of CMEs and other solar activity measurements. The spacecraft orbit the Sun at distances similar to that of Earth, with one slightly ahead of Earth and the other trailing. Their separation gradually increased so that after four years they were almost diametrically opposite each other in orbit.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notable_coronal_mass_ejections">Notable coronal mass ejections</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coronal_mass_ejection&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Notable coronal mass ejections"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_solar_storms" title="List of solar storms">List of solar storms</a></div> <p>On 9 March 1989, a <a href="/wiki/March_1989_geomagnetic_storm" title="March 1989 geomagnetic storm">CME</a> occurred, which struck Earth four days later on 13 March. It caused power failures in Quebec, Canada and short-wave radio interference. </p><p>On 23 July 2012, a massive, and potentially damaging, <a href="/wiki/Solar_storm_of_2012" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar storm of 2012">solar superstorm</a> (<a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">solar flare</a>, CME, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_electromagnetic_pulse#E3" title="Nuclear electromagnetic pulse">solar EMP</a>) occurred but missed Earth,<sup id="cite_ref-NASA-20140723a_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA-20140723a-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NASA-20140429_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA-20140429-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an event that many scientists consider to be a <a href="/wiki/Solar_storm_of_1859" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar storm of 1859">Carrington-class</a> event. </p><p>On 14 October 2014, an ICME was photographed by the Sun-watching spacecraft <a href="/wiki/PROBA2" class="mw-redirect" title="PROBA2">PROBA2</a> (<a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">ESA</a>), <a href="/wiki/Solar_and_Heliospheric_Observatory" title="Solar and Heliospheric Observatory">Solar and Heliospheric Observatory</a> (ESA/NASA), and <a href="/wiki/Solar_Dynamics_Observatory" title="Solar Dynamics Observatory">Solar Dynamics Observatory</a> (NASA) as it left the Sun, and <a href="/wiki/STEREO-A" class="mw-redirect" title="STEREO-A">STEREO-A</a> observed its effects directly at <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7011149597870700000♠"></span>1 <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_unit" title="Astronomical unit">AU</a></span>. ESA's <i><a href="/wiki/Venus_Express" title="Venus Express">Venus Express</a></i> gathered data. The CME reached <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a> on 17 October and was observed by the <i><a href="/wiki/Mars_Express" title="Mars Express">Mars Express</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/MAVEN" title="MAVEN">MAVEN</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Mars_Odyssey" class="mw-redirect" title="Mars Odyssey">Mars Odyssey</a></i>, and <a href="/wiki/Mars_Science_Laboratory" title="Mars Science Laboratory">Mars Science Laboratory</a> missions. On 22 October, at <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7011463753399170000♠"></span>3.1 <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_unit" title="Astronomical unit">AU</a></span>, it reached comet <a href="/wiki/67P/Churyumov%E2%80%93Gerasimenko" title="67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko">67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko</a>, perfectly aligned with the Sun and Mars, and was observed by <i><a href="/wiki/Rosetta_(spacecraft)" title="Rosetta (spacecraft)">Rosetta</a></i>. On 12 November, at <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7012148101891993000♠"></span>9.9 <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_unit" title="Astronomical unit">AU</a></span>, it was observed by <i><a href="/wiki/Cassini%E2%80%93Huygens" title="Cassini–Huygens">Cassini</a></i> at <a href="/wiki/Saturn" title="Saturn">Saturn</a>. The <i><a href="/wiki/New_Horizons" title="New Horizons">New Horizons</a></i> spacecraft was at <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7012472729271412000♠"></span>31.6 <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_unit" title="Astronomical unit">AU</a></span> approaching <a href="/wiki/Pluto" title="Pluto">Pluto</a> when the CME passed three months after the initial eruption, and it may be detectable in the data. <i><a href="/wiki/Voyager_2" title="Voyager 2">Voyager 2</a></i> has data that can be interpreted as the passing of the CME, 17 months after. The <i><a href="/wiki/Curiosity_(rover)" title="Curiosity (rover)">Curiosity</a></i> rover's <a href="/wiki/Radiation_assessment_detector" title="Radiation assessment detector">RAD instrument</a>, <i>Mars Odyssey</i>, <i>Rosetta</i> and <i>Cassini</i> showed a sudden decrease in galactic cosmic rays (<a href="/wiki/Forbush_decrease" title="Forbush decrease">Forbush decrease</a>) as the CME's protective bubble passed by.<sup id="cite_ref-2017-08-14_Witasse_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2017-08-14_Witasse-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2017-08-17_SD_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2017-08-17_SD-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Stellar_coronal_mass_ejections">Stellar coronal mass ejections</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coronal_mass_ejection&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Stellar coronal mass ejections"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There have been a small number of CMEs observed on other stars, all of which as of 2016<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coronal_mass_ejection&action=edit">[update]</a></sup> have been found on <a href="/wiki/Red_dwarf" title="Red dwarf">red dwarfs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Korhonen2016_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Korhonen2016-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These have been detected mainly by spectroscopy, most often by studying <a href="/wiki/Balmer_series" title="Balmer series">Balmer lines</a>: the material ejected toward the observer causes asymmetry in the blue wing of the line profiles due to <a href="/wiki/Doppler_effect" title="Doppler effect">Doppler shift</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Vida2016_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vida2016-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This enhancement can be seen in absorption when it occurs on the stellar disc (the material is cooler than its surroundings), and in emission when it is outside the disc. The observed projected velocities of CMEs range from ≈84 to 5,800 km/s (52 to 3,600 mi/s).<sup id="cite_ref-Leitzinger2011_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leitzinger2011-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Houdebine1990_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Houdebine1990-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are few stellar CME candidates in shorter wavelengths in <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_astronomy" title="Ultraviolet astronomy">UV</a> or <a href="/wiki/X-ray_astronomy" title="X-ray astronomy">X-ray</a> data.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Compared to activity on the Sun, CME activity on other stars seems to be far less common.<sup id="cite_ref-Vida2016_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vida2016-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Leitzinger2014_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leitzinger2014-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The low number of stellar CME detections can be caused by lower intrinsic CME rates compared to the models (e.g. due to <a href="/wiki/Alfv%C3%A9n%27s_theorem" title="Alfvén's theorem">magnetic suppression</a>), projection effects, or overestimated Balmer signatures because of the unknown plasma parameters of the stellar CMEs.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coronal_mass_ejection&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forbush_decrease" title="Forbush decrease">Forbush decrease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_threat_from_cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Health threat from cosmic rays">Health threat from cosmic rays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-index" title="K-index">K-index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_solar_storms" title="List of solar storms">List of solar storms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbiting_Solar_Observatory" title="Orbiting Solar Observatory">Orbiting Solar Observatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_and_Heliospheric_Observatory" title="Solar and Heliospheric Observatory">Solar and Heliospheric Observatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_weather#Notable_space_weather_events" title="Space weather">Space weather</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coronal_mass_ejection&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output 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(1 January 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021NatAs...5..697V">"Indications of stellar coronal mass ejections through coronal dimmings"</a>. <i>Nature Astronomy</i>. <b>5</b> (7): 697–706. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2110.12029">2110.12029</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021NatAs...5..697V">2021NatAs...5..697V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41550-021-01345-9">10.1038/s41550-021-01345-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2397-3366">2397-3366</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:236620701">236620701</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Astronomy&rft.atitle=Indications+of+stellar+coronal+mass+ejections+through+coronal+dimmings&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=697-706&rft.date=2021-01-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A236620701%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021NatAs...5..697V&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F2110.12029&rft.issn=2397-3366&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41550-021-01345-9&rft.aulast=Veronig&rft.aufirst=Astrid+M.&rft.au=Odert%2C+Petra&rft.au=Leitzinger%2C+Martin&rft.au=Dissauer%2C+Karin&rft.au=Fleck%2C+Nikolaus+C.&rft.au=Hudson%2C+Hugh+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fui.adsabs.harvard.edu%2Fabs%2F2021NatAs...5..697V&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoronal+mass+ejection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Leitzinger2014-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Leitzinger2014_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeitzingerOdertGreimelKorhonen2014" class="citation journal cs1">Leitzinger, M.; Odert, P.; Greimel, R.; et al. (September 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2Fstu1161">"A search for flares and mass ejections on young late-type stars in the open cluster Blanco-1"</a>. <i>Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</i>. <b>443</b> (1): 898–910. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1406.2734">1406.2734</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014MNRAS.443..898L">2014MNRAS.443..898L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2Fstu1161">10.1093/mnras/stu1161</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118587398">118587398</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monthly+Notices+of+the+Royal+Astronomical+Society&rft.atitle=A+search+for+flares+and+mass+ejections+on+young+late-type+stars+in+the+open+cluster+Blanco-1&rft.volume=443&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=898-910&rft.date=2014-09&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1406.2734&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A118587398%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmnras%2Fstu1161&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014MNRAS.443..898L&rft.aulast=Leitzinger&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Odert%2C+P.&rft.au=Greimel%2C+R.&rft.au=Korhonen%2C+H.&rft.au=Guenther%2C+E.+W.&rft.au=Hanslmeier%2C+A.&rft.au=Lammer%2C+H.&rft.au=Khodachenko%2C+M.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fmnras%252Fstu1161&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoronal+mass+ejection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOdertLeitzingerGuentherHeinzel2020" class="citation journal cs1">Odert, P.; Leitzinger, M.; Guenther, E. W.; Heinzel, P. (1 May 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2Fstaa1021">"Stellar coronal mass ejections - II. Constraints from spectroscopic observations"</a>. <i>Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</i>. <b>494</b> (3): 3766–3783. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2004.04063">2004.04063</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020MNRAS.494.3766O">2020MNRAS.494.3766O</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2Fstaa1021">10.1093/mnras/staa1021</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0035-8711">0035-8711</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monthly+Notices+of+the+Royal+Astronomical+Society&rft.atitle=Stellar+coronal+mass+ejections+-+II.+Constraints+from+spectroscopic+observations&rft.volume=494&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=3766-3783&rft.date=2020-05-01&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F2004.04063&rft.issn=0035-8711&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmnras%2Fstaa1021&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020MNRAS.494.3766O&rft.aulast=Odert&rft.aufirst=P.&rft.au=Leitzinger%2C+M.&rft.au=Guenther%2C+E.+W.&rft.au=Heinzel%2C+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fmnras%252Fstaa1021&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoronal+mass+ejection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coronal_mass_ejection&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books">Books</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coronal_mass_ejection&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Books"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGopalswamyMewaldtTorsti2006" class="citation book cs1">Gopalswamy, Natchimuthukonar; Mewaldt, Richard; Torsti, Jarmo (2006). Gopalswamy, Natchimuthukonar; Mewaldt, Richard A.; Torsti, Jarmo (eds.). <i>Solar Eruptions and Energetic Particles</i>. Geophysical Monograph Series. Vol. 165. Washington DC: American Geophysical Union. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006GMS...165.....G">2006GMS...165.....G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2FGM165">10.1029/GM165</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87590-430-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-87590-430-0"><bdi>0-87590-430-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Solar+Eruptions+and+Energetic+Particles&rft.place=Washington+DC&rft.series=Geophysical+Monograph+Series&rft.pub=American+Geophysical+Union&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2FGM165&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006GMS...165.....G&rft.isbn=0-87590-430-0&rft.aulast=Gopalswamy&rft.aufirst=Natchimuthukonar&rft.au=Mewaldt%2C+Richard&rft.au=Torsti%2C+Jarmo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoronal+mass+ejection" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internet_articles">Internet articles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coronal_mass_ejection&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Internet articles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBellPhillips2008" class="citation web cs1">Bell, Trudy E.; Phillips, Tony (6 May 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2008/06may_carringtonflare/">"A Super Solar Flare"</a>. Science@NASA.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Super+Solar+Flare&rft.series=Science%40NASA&rft.date=2008-05-06&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=Trudy+E.&rft.au=Phillips%2C+Tony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscience.nasa.gov%2Fscience-news%2Fscience-at-nasa%2F2008%2F06may_carringtonflare%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoronal+mass+ejection" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLavraudMasson2007" class="citation web cs1">Lavraud, Benoit; Masson, Arnaud (21 November 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://clusterlaunch.esa.int/science-e/www/object/index.cfm?fobjectid=41817">"Cluster captures the impact of CMEs"</a>. European Space Agency.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cluster+captures+the+impact+of+CMEs&rft.pub=European+Space+Agency&rft.date=2007-11-21&rft.aulast=Lavraud&rft.aufirst=Benoit&rft.au=Masson%2C+Arnaud&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fclusterlaunch.esa.int%2Fscience-e%2Fwww%2Fobject%2Findex.cfm%3Ffobjectid%3D41817&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoronal+mass+ejection" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOdenwaldGreen2008" class="citation news cs1">Odenwald, Sten F.; Green, James L. (28 July 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=bracing-for-a-solar-superstorm">"Bracing the Satellite Infrastructure for a Solar Superstorm"</a>. <i>Scientific American</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Bracing+the+Satellite+Infrastructure+for+a+Solar+Superstorm&rft.date=2008-07-28&rft.aulast=Odenwald&rft.aufirst=Sten+F.&rft.au=Green%2C+James+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle.cfm%3Fid%3Dbracing-for-a-solar-superstorm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoronal+mass+ejection" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillips2008" class="citation web cs1">Phillips, Tony (27 May 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225023949/https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2008/27may_cartwheelcme/">"Cartwheel Coronal Mass Ejection"</a>. Science@NASA. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2008/27may_cartwheelcme/">the original</a> on 25 February 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 July</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cartwheel+Coronal+Mass+Ejection&rft.series=Science%40NASA&rft.date=2008-05-27&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=Tony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscience.nasa.gov%2Fscience-news%2Fscience-at-nasa%2F2008%2F27may_cartwheelcme%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoronal+mass+ejection" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coronal_mass_ejection&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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talk:The Sun"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:The_Sun" title="Special:EditPage/Template:The Sun"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="The_Sun" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">The Sun</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_articles_related_to_the_Sun" title="List of articles related to the Sun">List</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Standard_solar_model" title="Standard solar model">Internal structure</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_core" title="Solar core">Core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation zone">Radiation zone</a></li> <li><a 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facula">Faculae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunspot" title="Sunspot">Sunspot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellerman_bomb" title="Ellerman bomb">Ellerman bomb</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Chromosphere" title="Chromosphere">Chromosphere</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_plage" title="Solar plage">Plage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_spicule" title="Solar spicule">Spicule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moreton_wave" title="Moreton wave">Moreton wave</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Stellar_corona" title="Stellar corona">Corona</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a 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<li><a href="/wiki/Helioseismology" title="Helioseismology">Helioseismology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heliosphere" title="Heliosphere">Heliosphere</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heliospheric_current_sheet" title="Heliospheric current sheet">Current sheet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliosphere#Termination_shock" title="Heliosphere">Termination shock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliosphere#Heliosheath" title="Heliosphere">Heliosheath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliopause_(astronomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Heliopause (astronomy)">Heliopause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_shock" title="Bow shock">Bow shock</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_eclipse" title="Solar eclipse">Eclipse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eclipses_in_mythology_and_culture" title="Eclipses in mythology and culture">In mythology and culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_eclipse" title="Lunar eclipse">Lunar eclipse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliophysics" title="Heliophysics">Heliophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Sun_in_culture" title="The Sun in culture">In culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_deity" title="Solar deity">Solar deity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_solar_deities" title="List of solar deities">List</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_in_fiction" title="Sun in fiction">Sun in fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_activity" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar activity">Solar activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar astronomy">Solar astronomy</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/Standard_solar_model" title="Standard solar model">Standard solar model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">Star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">Sunlight radiation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stellar_classification" title="Stellar classification">Spectral class</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/G-type_main-sequence_star" title="G-type main-sequence star">G-type main-sequence star</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Exploration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_observatory" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar observatory">Solar observatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heliophysics_missions" title="List of heliophysics missions">List of heliophysics missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Missions_to_the_Sun" title="Category:Missions to the Sun">Category:Missions to the Sun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Sun" title="Category:Sun">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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destruction">Mutual assured destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_Hand" title="Dead Hand">Dead Hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doomsday_Clock" title="Doomsday Clock">Doomsday Clock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doomsday_device" title="Doomsday device">Doomsday device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimatter_weapon" title="Antimatter weapon">Antimatter weapon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_pulse" title="Electromagnetic pulse">Electromagnetic pulse</a> (EMP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_of_high-energy_particle_collision_experiments" title="Safety of high-energy particle collision experiments">Safety of high-energy particle collision experiments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Micro_black_hole" title="Micro black hole">Micro black hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strangelet" title="Strangelet">Strangelet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_intelligence" title="Synthetic intelligence">Synthetic intelligence</a> / <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" 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climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">Tipping points in the climate system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_basalt" title="Flood basalt">Flood basalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_dimming" title="Global dimming">Global dimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_terrestrial_stilling" title="Global terrestrial stilling">Global terrestrial stilling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Global warming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypercane" title="Hypercane">Hypercane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_age" title="Ice age">Ice age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecocide" title="Ecocide">Ecocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological collapse">Ecological collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">Environmental degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">Habitat destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs" title="Environmental issues with coral reefs">coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">on marine life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_consumption" title="Land consumption">Land consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_surface_effects_on_climate" title="Land surface effects on climate">Land surface effects on climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_depletion" title="Resource depletion">Resource depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervolcano" title="Supervolcano">Supervolcano</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_winter" title="Volcanic winter">winter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verneshot" title="Verneshot">Verneshot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Earth_Overshoot_Day" title="Earth Overshoot Day">Earth Overshoot Day</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation">Overpopulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_overpopulation" title="Human overpopulation">Human overpopulation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Extinction event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_extinction" title="Human extinction">Human extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extinction_events" title="List of extinction events">List of extinction events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_erosion" title="Genetic erosion">Genetic erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic pollution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">Biodiversity loss</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_amphibian_populations" title="Decline in amphibian populations">Decline in amphibian populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_insect_populations" title="Decline in insect populations">Decline in insect populations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_risk" title="Biotechnology risk">Biotechnology risk</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_agent" title="Biological agent">Biological agent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">Biological warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioterrorism" title="Bioterrorism">Bioterrorism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_collapse_disorder" title="Colony collapse disorder">Colony collapse disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defaunation" title="Defaunation">Defaunation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysgenics" title="Dysgenics">Dysgenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_contamination" title="Interplanetary contamination">Interplanetary contamination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">Pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator_decline" title="Pollinator decline">Pollinator decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">Overfishing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Astronomical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_Crunch" title="Big Crunch">Big Crunch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Rip" title="Big Rip">Big Rip</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Coronal mass ejection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_phase_transition" title="Cosmological phase transition">Cosmological phase transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_storm" title="Geomagnetic storm">Geomagnetic storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_vacuum_decay" class="mw-redirect" title="False vacuum decay">False vacuum decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst" title="Gamma-ray burst">Gamma-ray burst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_death_of_the_universe" title="Heat death of the universe">Heat death of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_decay" title="Proton decay">Proton decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_black_hole" title="Virtual black hole">Virtual black hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_event" title="Impact event">Impact event</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_impact_avoidance" title="Asteroid impact avoidance">Asteroid impact avoidance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_impact_prediction" title="Asteroid impact prediction">Asteroid impact prediction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potentially_hazardous_object" title="Potentially hazardous object">Potentially hazardous object</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_object" title="Near-Earth object">Near-Earth object</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_winter" title="Impact winter">winter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_planet" title="Rogue planet">Rogue planet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_supernova" title="Near-Earth supernova">Near-Earth supernova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypernova" title="Hypernova">Hypernova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronova" title="Micronova">Micronova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">Solar flare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_collision" title="Stellar collision">Stellar collision</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">Eschatological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_eschatology" title="Buddhist eschatology">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Maitreya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Ages_of_Buddhism" title="Three Ages of Buddhism">Three Ages</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_eschatology" title="Hindu eschatology">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalki" title="Kalki">Kalki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kali_Yuga" title="Kali Yuga">Kali Yuga</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_Judgment" title="Last Judgment">Last Judgement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Coming" title="Second Coming">Second Coming</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Enoch" title="Book of Enoch">1 Enoch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Daniel" title="Book of Daniel">Daniel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abomination_of_desolation" title="Abomination of desolation">Abomination of desolation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophecy_of_Seventy_Weeks" title="Prophecy of Seventy Weeks">Prophecy of Seventy Weeks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messiah" title="Messiah">Messiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_eschatology" title="Christian eschatology">Christian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Futurism_(Christianity)" title="Futurism (Christianity)">Futurism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism_(Christianity)" title="Historicism (Christianity)">Historicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historicist_interpretations_of_the_Book_of_Revelation" title="Historicist interpretations of the Book of Revelation">Interpretations of Revelation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism_(Christian_eschatology)" title="Idealism (Christian eschatology)"> Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preterism" title="Preterism">Preterism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2_Esdras" title="2 Esdras">2 Esdras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Epistle_to_the_Thessalonians" title="Second Epistle to the Thessalonians">2 Thessalonians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Man_of_sin" title="Man of sin">Man of sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katechon" title="Katechon">Katechon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antichrist" title="Antichrist">Antichrist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Book of Revelation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Events_of_Revelation" title="Events of Revelation">Events</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Horsemen_of_the_Apocalypse" title="Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse">Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_of_fire" title="Lake of fire">Lake of fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Number_of_the_beast" title="Number of the beast">Number of the Beast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_bowls" title="Seven bowls">Seven bowls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_seals" title="Seven seals">Seven seals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Beast_(Revelation)" title="The Beast (Revelation)">The Beast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_witnesses" title="Two witnesses">Two witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Heaven" title="War in Heaven">War in Heaven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whore_of_Babylon" title="Whore of Babylon">Whore of Babylon</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Apostasy" title="Great Apostasy">Great Apostasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Earth_(Christianity)" title="New Earth (Christianity)">New Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jerusalem" title="New Jerusalem">New Jerusalem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olivet_Discourse" title="Olivet Discourse">Olivet Discourse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Tribulation" title="Great Tribulation">Great Tribulation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Son_of_perdition" title="Son of perdition">Son of perdition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Sheep_and_the_Goats" title="The Sheep and the Goats">Sheep and Goats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">Islamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qa%27im_Al_Muhammad" title="Qa'im Al Muhammad">Al-Qa'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beast_of_the_Earth" title="Beast of the Earth">Beast of the Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhu_al-Qarnayn" title="Dhu al-Qarnayn">Dhu al-Qarnayn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhul-Suwayqatayn" title="Dhul-Suwayqatayn">Dhul-Suwayqatayn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Masih_ad-Dajjal" title="Al-Masih ad-Dajjal">Dajjal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israfil" title="Israfil">Israfil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahdi" title="Mahdi">Mahdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufyani" title="Sufyani">Sufyani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_eschatology" title="Jewish eschatology">Jewish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Messiah_in_Judaism" title="Messiah in Judaism">Messiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gog_and_Magog" title="Gog and Magog">War of Gog and Magog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Temple" title="Third Temple">Third Temple</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragnar%C3%B6k" title="Ragnarök">Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frashokereti" title="Frashokereti">Zoroastrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saoshyant" title="Saoshyant">Saoshyant</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2011_end_times_prediction" title="2011 end times prediction">2011 end times prediction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_phenomenon" title="2012 phenomenon">2012 phenomenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalypse" title="Apocalypse">Apocalypse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalyptic_literature" title="Apocalyptic literature">Apocalyptic literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalypticism" title="Apocalypticism">Apocalypticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armageddon" title="Armageddon">Armageddon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_moon_prophecy" title="Blood moon prophecy">Blood moon prophecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Changes" title="Earth Changes">Earth Changes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk" title="Global catastrophic risk">End time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gog_and_Magog" title="Gog and Magog">Gog and Magog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_dates_predicted_for_apocalyptic_events" title="List of dates predicted for apocalyptic events">List of dates predicted for apocalyptic events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messianism" title="Messianism">Messianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Messianic_Age" title="Messianic Age">Messianic Age</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millenarianism" title="Millenarianism">Millenarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millennialism" title="Millennialism">Millennialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Premillennialism" title="Premillennialism">Premillennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amillennialism" title="Amillennialism">Amillennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmillennialism" title="Postmillennialism">Postmillennialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemesis_(hypothetical_star)" title="Nemesis (hypothetical star)">Nemesis (hypothetical star)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nibiru_cataclysm" title="Nibiru cataclysm">Nibiru cataclysm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapture" title="Rapture">Rapture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rapture#Prewrath_premillennialism" title="Rapture">Prewrath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-tribulation_rapture" title="Post-tribulation rapture">Post-tribulation rapture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_resurrection" title="Universal resurrection">Resurrection of the dead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_to_come" title="World to come">World to come</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fictional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alien_invasion" title="Alien invasion">Alien invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalyptic_and_post-apocalyptic_fiction" title="Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction">Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_apocalyptic_and_post-apocalyptic_fiction" title="List of apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction">List of apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_apocalyptic_films" title="List of apocalyptic films">List of apocalyptic films</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_fiction" title="Climate fiction">Climate fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_film" title="Disaster film">Disaster films</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_disaster_films" title="List of disaster films">List of disaster films</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fictional_doomsday_devices" title="List of fictional doomsday devices">List of fictional doomsday devices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zombie_apocalypse" title="Zombie apocalypse">Zombie apocalypse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zombie" title="Zombie">Zombie</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centre_for_the_Study_of_Existential_Risk" title="Centre for the Study of Existential Risk">Centre for the Study of Existential Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Humanity_Institute" title="Future of Humanity Institute">Future of Humanity Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Life_Institute" title="Future of Life Institute">Future of Life Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Threat_Initiative" title="Nuclear Threat Initiative">Nuclear Threat Initiative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ransomware" title="Ransomware">Ransomware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyberwarfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster" title="Disaster">Disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_depression" title="Economic depression">Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis" title="Financial crisis">Financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">Pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riot" title="Riot">Riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_crisis" title="Social crisis">Social crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survivalism" title="Survivalism">Survivalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/16px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/24px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/32px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:World" title="Portal:World">World portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> Categories <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Apocalypticism" title="Category:Apocalypticism">Apocalypticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Future_problems" title="Category:Future problems">Future problems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hazards" title="Category:Hazards">Hazards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Risk_analysis" title="Category:Risk analysis">Risk analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Doomsday_scenarios" title="Category:Doomsday scenarios">Doomsday scenarios</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Magnetospherics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Magnetospherics" title="Template:Magnetospherics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Magnetospherics" title="Template talk:Magnetospherics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Magnetospherics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Magnetospherics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Magnetospherics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">Magnetospherics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Submagnetosphere</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_circulation" title="Atmospheric circulation">Atmospheric circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurora" title="Aurora">Aurora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">Earth's magnetic field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geosphere" title="Geosphere">Geosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jet_stream" title="Jet stream">Jet stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polar_wind" title="Polar wind">Polar wind</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Earth's magnetosphere</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Birkeland_current" title="Birkeland current">Birkeland current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_shock" title="Bow shock">Bow shock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionosphere" title="Ionosphere">Ionosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetopause" title="Magnetopause">Magnetopause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetosheath" title="Magnetosheath">Magnetosheath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">Magnetosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere_chronology" title="Magnetosphere chronology">Magnetosphere chronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere_particle_motion" title="Magnetosphere particle motion">Magnetosphere particle motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmasphere" title="Plasmasphere">Plasmasphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_current" title="Ring current">Ring current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt" title="Van Allen radiation belt">Van Allen radiation belt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">Solar wind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_cloud" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic cloud">Magnetic cloud</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Coronal mass ejection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">Solar flare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_storm" title="Geomagnetic storm">Geomagnetic storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliosphere" title="Heliosphere">Heliosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_magnetic_field" title="Interplanetary magnetic field">Interplanetary magnetic field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliospheric_current_sheet" title="Heliospheric current sheet">Heliospheric current sheet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliopause_(astronomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Heliopause (astronomy)">Heliopause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_particle_event" title="Solar particle event">Solar particle event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_climate" title="Space climate">Space climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_weather" title="Space weather">Space weather</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Satellites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Full list</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arase_(satellite)" title="Arase (satellite)">Arase</a> <small>(2016)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_II_(spacecraft)" title="Cluster II (spacecraft)">Cluster II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_Star_(satellite)" title="Double Star (satellite)">Double Star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geotail" title="Geotail">Geotail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IMAGE_(spacecraft)" title="IMAGE (spacecraft)">IMAGE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetospheric_Multiscale_Mission" title="Magnetospheric Multiscale Mission">MMS</a> <small>(2015)</small></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Polar_(satellite)" title="Polar (satellite)">Polar</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/THEMIS" title="THEMIS">THEMIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Van_Allen_Probes" title="Van Allen Probes">Van Allen Probes</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wind_(spacecraft)" title="Wind (spacecraft)">Wind</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research projects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/EISCAT" title="EISCAT">EISCAT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program" title="High-frequency Active Auroral Research Program">HAARP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere_Auroral_Radar_Experiment" title="Southern Hemisphere Auroral Radar Experiment">SHARE</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unwin_Radar" title="Unwin Radar">Unwin Radar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super_Dual_Auroral_Radar_Network" title="Super Dual Auroral Radar Network">SuperDARN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sura_Ionospheric_Heating_Facility" title="Sura Ionospheric Heating Facility">Sura Ionospheric Heating Facility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other magnetospheres</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mercury%27s_magnetic_field" title="Mercury's magnetic field">Hermian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field_of_the_Moon" title="Magnetic field of the Moon">Lunar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field_of_Mars" title="Magnetic field of Mars">Martian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere_of_Jupiter" title="Magnetosphere of Jupiter">Jovian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganymede_(moon)#Magnetosphere" title="Ganymede (moon)">Ganymedian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere_of_Saturn" title="Magnetosphere of Saturn">Saturnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranus#Magnetosphere" title="Uranus">Uranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neptune#Magnetosphere" title="Neptune">Neptunian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flux_tube" title="Flux tube">Flux tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_torus" title="Gas torus">Gas torus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_swirls" title="Lunar swirls">Lunar swirls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_system" title="Ring system">Ring systems</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter" title="Rings of Jupiter">Jupiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn" title="Rings of Saturn">Saturn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rings_of_Uranus" title="Rings of Uranus">Uranus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rings_of_Neptune" title="Rings of Neptune">Neptune</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Solar_storms" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Solar_storms" title="Template:Solar storms"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Solar_storms" title="Template talk:Solar storms"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Solar_storms" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Solar storms"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Solar_storms" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Solar_storm" title="Solar storm">Solar storms</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_weather" title="Space weather">Space weather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_climate" title="Space climate">Space climate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Solar_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar atmosphere">Solar atmosphere</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Coronal mass ejection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_prominence" title="Solar prominence">Solar prominence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_particle_event" title="Solar particle event">Solar particle event</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_energetic_particles" title="Solar energetic particles">Solar energetic particles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">Solar flare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_radio_emission" title="Solar radio emission">Solar radio emission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Active_region" title="Active region">Active region</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunspot" title="Sunspot">Sunspot</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coronal_hole" title="Coronal hole">Coronal hole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Interplanetary space">Interplanetary space</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">Solar wind</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pickup_ion" title="Pickup ion">Pickup ion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_coronal_mass_ejection" class="mw-redirect" title="Interplanetary coronal mass ejection">Interplanetary coronal mass ejection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forbush_decrease" title="Forbush decrease">Forbush decrease</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_current_sheet" class="mw-redirect" title="Interplanetary current sheet">Interplanetary current sheet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_magnetic_field" title="Interplanetary magnetic field">Interplanetary magnetic field</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">Magnetosphere</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_storm" title="Geomagnetic storm">Geomagnetic storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomagnetically_induced_current" title="Geomagnetically induced current">Geomagnetically induced current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disturbance_storm_time_index" title="Disturbance storm time index">Disturbance storm time index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-index" title="K-index">K-index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substorm" title="Substorm">Substorm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungey_Cycle" title="Dungey Cycle">Dungey Cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_hurricane" title="Space hurricane">Space hurricane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_tornado" title="Space tornado">Space tornado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_current" title="Ring current">Ring current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_pulsations" title="Magnetic pulsations">Magnetic pulsations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Planetary_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Planetary atmosphere">Planetary atmosphere</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aurora" title="Aurora">Aurora</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auroral_chorus" title="Auroral chorus">Auroral chorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subauroral_ion_drift" title="Subauroral ion drift">Subauroral ion drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/STEVE" title="STEVE">STEVE</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudden_ionospheric_disturbance" title="Sudden ionospheric disturbance">Sudden ionospheric disturbance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_level_enhancement" title="Ground level enhancement">Ground level enhancement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_crochet" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic crochet">Magnetic crochet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: right;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_threat_from_cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Health threat from cosmic rays">Health threat from cosmic rays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliophysics" title="Heliophysics">Heliophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cycle" title="Solar cycle">Solar cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_observation" title="Solar observation">Solar observation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="List_of_solar_storms" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_solar_storms" title="List of solar storms">List of solar storms</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: right;">Before 1800</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/774%E2%80%93775_carbon-14_spike" title="774–775 carbon-14 spike">774–775 carbon-14 spike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/993%E2%80%93994_carbon-14_spike" title="993–994 carbon-14 spike">993–994 carbon-14 spike</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: right;">1800s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carrington_Event" title="Carrington Event">Carrington Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/November_1882_geomagnetic_storm" title="November 1882 geomagnetic storm">November 1882 geomagnetic storm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: right;">1900s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/May_1921_geomagnetic_storm" title="May 1921 geomagnetic storm">May 1921 geomagnetic storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_1938_geomagnetic_storm" title="January 1938 geomagnetic storm">January 1938 geomagnetic storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_1972_geomagnetic_storm" class="mw-redirect" title="August 1972 geomagnetic storm">August 1972 geomagnetic storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_1989_geomagnetic_storm" title="March 1989 geomagnetic storm">March 1989 geomagnetic storm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: right;">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bastille_Day_solar_storm" title="Bastille Day solar storm">Bastille Day solar storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2003_Halloween_solar_storms" title="2003 Halloween solar storms">2003 Halloween solar storms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: right;">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/July_2012_solar_storm" title="July 2012 solar storm">July 2012 solar storm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: right;">2020s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/May_2024_solar_storms" title="May 2024 solar storms">May 2024 solar storms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style 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.portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer 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