CINXE.COM
Policing a Pandemic: Stay-at-Home Orders and What they Mean for the Police | American Journal of Criminal Justice
<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" class="no-js"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge"> <meta name="applicable-device" content="pc,mobile"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:large"> <meta name="access" content="Yes"> <meta name="360-site-verification" content="1268d79b5e96aecf3ff2a7dac04ad990" /> <title>Policing a Pandemic: Stay-at-Home Orders and What they Mean for the Police | American Journal of Criminal Justice</title> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@SpringerLink"/> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image"/> <meta name="twitter:image:alt" content="Content cover image"/> <meta name="twitter:title" content="Policing a Pandemic: Stay-at-Home Orders and What they Mean for the Police"/> <meta name="twitter:description" content="American Journal of Criminal Justice - The COVID-19 pandemic has dramatically altered life globally during the first 4&nbsp;months of 2020. Many countries, including the United States,..."/> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://media.springernature.com/full/springer-static/cover-hires/journal/12103"/> <meta name="journal_id" content="12103"/> <meta name="dc.title" content="Policing a Pandemic: Stay-at-Home Orders and What they Mean for the Police"/> <meta name="dc.source" content="American Journal of Criminal Justice 2020 45:4"/> <meta name="dc.format" content="text/html"/> <meta name="dc.publisher" content="Springer"/> <meta name="dc.date" content="2020-06-09"/> <meta name="dc.type" content="OriginalPaper"/> <meta name="dc.language" content="En"/> <meta name="dc.copyright" content="2020 Southern Criminal Justice Association"/> <meta name="dc.rights" content="2020 Southern Criminal Justice Association"/> <meta name="dc.rightsAgent" content="journalpermissions@springernature.com"/> <meta name="dc.description" content="The COVID-19 pandemic has dramatically altered life globally during the first 4&nbsp;months of 2020. Many countries, including the United States, responded to the pandemic by issuing stay-at-home orders/shelter-in-place orders (SaHOs/SiPOs) to their citizens. By April 2020, more than 90% of the U.S. population was subject to an order. SaHOs/SiPOs raise a number of complex issues for the police, ranging from concerns about infringement of constitutional rights to potential sanctions for violations of an order. This article delves into the issues surrounding SaHOs/SiPOs and highlights their complexity for the police. First, we examine the “why the police?” question, and point to key features of their role which make enforcement of SaHOs/SiPOs the proper business of the police. Second, we examine the relevant legal doctrines that can serve as the basis for police actions against violators of orders, most notably the special needs doctrine. Last, we offer police legitimacy as a lens for viewing the appropriateness of police responses to violators of SaHOs/SiPOs."/> <meta name="prism.issn" content="1936-1351"/> <meta name="prism.publicationName" content="American Journal of Criminal Justice"/> <meta name="prism.publicationDate" content="2020-06-09"/> <meta name="prism.volume" content="45"/> <meta name="prism.number" content="4"/> <meta name="prism.section" content="OriginalPaper"/> <meta name="prism.startingPage" content="702"/> <meta name="prism.endingPage" content="717"/> <meta name="prism.copyright" content="2020 Southern Criminal Justice Association"/> <meta name="prism.rightsAgent" content="journalpermissions@springernature.com"/> <meta name="prism.url" content="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0"/> <meta name="prism.doi" content="doi:10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0"/> <meta name="citation_pdf_url" content="https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0.pdf"/> <meta name="citation_fulltext_html_url" content="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0"/> <meta name="citation_journal_title" content="American Journal of Criminal Justice"/> <meta name="citation_journal_abbrev" content="Am J Crim Just"/> <meta name="citation_publisher" content="Springer US"/> <meta name="citation_issn" content="1936-1351"/> <meta name="citation_title" content="Policing a Pandemic: Stay-at-Home Orders and What they Mean for the Police"/> <meta name="citation_volume" content="45"/> <meta name="citation_issue" content="4"/> <meta name="citation_publication_date" content="2020/08"/> <meta name="citation_online_date" content="2020/06/09"/> <meta name="citation_firstpage" content="702"/> <meta name="citation_lastpage" content="717"/> <meta name="citation_article_type" content="Article"/> <meta name="citation_fulltext_world_readable" content=""/> <meta name="citation_language" content="en"/> <meta name="dc.identifier" content="doi:10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0"/> <meta name="DOI" content="10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0"/> <meta name="size" content="115376"/> <meta name="citation_doi" content="10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0"/> <meta name="citation_springer_api_url" content="http://api.springer.com/xmldata/jats?q=doi:10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0&api_key="/> <meta name="description" content="The COVID-19 pandemic has dramatically altered life globally during the first 4&nbsp;months of 2020. Many countries, including the United States, respo"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="White, Michael D."/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Fradella, Henry F."/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Criminology and Criminal Justice, general"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Aitken, P. (2020). Homeowners sue over restricted access to Outer Banks second homes due to coronavirus. Fox News. Retrieved from https://www.foxnews.com/us/homeowners-sue-outerbanks-access-second-home-coronavirus "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Ansari, T., & Abbott, B. (2020). U.S. considers how to enforce coronavirus quarantines. Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from https://www.wsj.com/articles/us-considers-how-to-enforce-coronavirus-quarantines-11583963653 "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=The functions of the police in modern society; citation_publication_date=1970; citation_id=CR3; citation_author=E Bittner; citation_publisher=National Institute of Mental Health"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=Florence nightingale in pursuit of Willie Sutton: A theory of the police; citation_inbook_title=Potential for reform of criminal justice; citation_publication_date=1974; citation_pages=17-44; citation_id=CR4; citation_author=E Bittner; citation_publisher=Sage"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Board of Education of Independent School District No. 92 v. Earls, 536 U.S. 822 (2002)."/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Brooks, B. (2020). Like the flu? Trump's coronavirus messaging confuses public, pandemic researchers say. Reuters Health News. Retrieved from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-mixed-messages/like-the-flu-trumps-coronavirus-messaging-confuses-public-pandemic-researchers-say-idUSKBN2102GY "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Butcher, K. (2020). “Assume you’re contagious, even if you feel fine,” health experts urging Oklahomans to be cautious for sake of others. Retrieved from https://kfor.com/health/coronavirus/assume-youre-contagious-even-if-you-feel-fine-health-experts-urging-oklahomans-to-be-cautious-for-sake-of-others/ "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="California Executive Order N-33-20. (2020). Retrieved from https://covid19.ca.gov/img/Executive-Order-N-33-20.pdf "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Camara v. Municipal Court of San Francisco, 387 U.S. 523 (1967)."/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Cave, D., & Dahir, A. L. (2020). How far should police go in enforcing coronavirus lockdowns? New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/02/world/australia/coronavirus-police-lockdowns.html "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2001). Model state emergency health powers act. Retrieved from https://www.aapsonline.org/legis/msehpa2.pdf "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020a). Legal authorities for isolation and quarantine. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/quarantine/aboutlawsregulationsquarantineisolation.html "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2020b). CDC, Washington State report first COVID-19 death. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2020/s0229-COVID-19-first-death.html "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2020c). Cases in the U.S. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/cases-updates/cases-in-us.html "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Chandler, S. (2020). Coronavirus could infect privacy and civil liberties forever. Forbes. Retrieved from https://www.forbes.com/sites/simonchandler/2020/03/23/coronavirus-could-infect-privacy-and-civil-liberties-forever/#71aa2b64365d "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Chandler v. Miller, 520 U.S. 305 (1997)."/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="City of Ontario v. Quon, 560 U.S. 746 (2010)."/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Columbia Law Review; citation_title=The qualitative dimension of Fourth Amendment “reasonableness”; citation_author=SF Colb; citation_volume=98; citation_issue=7; citation_publication_date=1998; citation_pages=1642-1725; citation_doi=10.2307/1123463; citation_id=CR18"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=Federal and state quarantine and isolation authority; citation_publication_date=2014; citation_id=CR19; citation_author=JP Cole; citation_publisher=Congressional Research Service"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Cummings, W. (2020). ‘We’re not playing around’: Md. Gov. Hogan says arrest for coronavirus offense sends ‘great message.’ USA Today. Retrieved from https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2020/03/30/gov-larry-hogan-arrest-breaking-coronavirus-rule-sends-message/5088364002/ "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Damato, D. S. (2020). Civil liberties under attack during Covid-19. The Hill. https://thehill.com/opinion/civil-rights/491731-civil-liberties-under-attack-during-covid-19 "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology; citation_title=Emergency circumstances, police responses, and fourth amendment restrictions; citation_author=JF Decker; citation_volume=89; citation_issue=2; citation_publication_date=1999; citation_pages=433-533; citation_doi=10.2307/1144137; citation_id=CR22"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Fedschun, T. (2020). Coronvirus spurs police to deploy ‘talking’ drones in Florida, New Jersey to enforce social distancing. Fox News. Retrieved from https://www.foxnews.com/us/coronavirus-talking-drone-florida-new-jersey-police-social-distancing-enforcement "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=Criminal procedure for the criminal justice professional; citation_publication_date=2015; citation_id=CR24; citation_author=JN Ferdico; citation_author=HF Fradella; citation_author=CD Totten; citation_publisher=Wadsworth/Cengage"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Florence v. Board of Chosen Freeholders of County of Burlington, 566 U.S. 318 (2012)."/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="French, D., Nott, L., Rosen, J., & McDermott, J. (2020). Civil liberties and COVID-19 [Audio podcast]. https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/podcast/civil-liberties-and-covid-19 "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=“Good” policing; citation_inbook_title=The socio-economics of crime and justice; citation_publication_date=1993; citation_id=CR27; citation_author=JJ Fyfe; citation_publisher=New York"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Gibbons v. Ogden, 22 U.S. (9 Wheat.) 1 (1824)."/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Health Matrix; citation_title=The model state emergency health powers act: Public health and civil liberties in a time of terrorism; citation_author=LO Gostin; citation_volume=13; citation_issue=1; citation_publication_date=2003; citation_pages=3-32; citation_id=CR29"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Guillen, J., & Kaufman, G. (2020). How the coronavirus spread through the Detroit Police Department. Detroit Free Press. https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/detroit/2020/03/28/coronavirus-detroit-police-pancake-breakfast/2931224001/ "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Heneghan, C., Brassey, J., & Jefferson, T. (2020). Covid-19: What Proportion Are Asymptomatic? Retrieved from https://www.cebm.net/covid-19/covid-19-what-proportion-are-asymptomatic/ "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=The political economy of crisis opportunism. Mercatus policy series; citation_publication_date=2009; citation_id=CR32; citation_author=R Higgs; citation_publisher=Mercatus Center at George Mason University"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Illinois v. Gates, 462 U.S. 213 (1983)."/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Illinois v. Rodriguez, 497 U.S. 177 (1990)."/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Jacobson v. Massachusetts, 197 U.S. 11 (1905)."/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Johns Hopkins University & Medicine. (2020). COVID-19 dashboard. Coronavirus resource Center. Retrieved April 15, 2020 from https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/map.html "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Johnson, K., & Wolf, R. (2020). Enforcing the shutdown: Law enforcement grapples with policing stay-at-home orders, social distancing, quarantines. USA Today. Retrieved from https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2020/04/02/coronavirus-police-fines-jail-breaking-stay-home-orders/5104704002/ "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=Jammed up: An examination of career-ending police misconduct; citation_publication_date=2013; citation_id=CR38; citation_author=RJ Kane; citation_author=MD White; citation_publisher=NYU Press"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347 (1967)."/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Kennedy, M. (2020). WHO declares coronavirus outbreak a global health emergency. NPR. Retrieved from https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2020/01/30/798894428/who-declares-coronavirus-outbreak-a-global-health-emergency "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Lau, K. (2020). Tucson police chief on enforcing stay-at-home order. Arizona Public Media. Retrieved from https://news.azpm.org/p/news-articles/2020/4/3/169212-tucson-police-chief-on-enforcing-stay-at-home-order/ "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Lazo, L. & Shaver, K. (2020). Covid-10 checkpoints targeting out-of-state residents draw complaints and legal scrutiny. Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/us/covid-19-checkpoints-targeting-out-of-state-residents-draw-complaints-and-legal-scrutiny/ar-BB12CWYu?fbclid=IwAR3OosGK-N5U30IH0sZSRMU0CU_kc8amkNROKC-QFisSip-W8EjRlritfbo "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Lee, A. (2020). These states have implemented stay-at-home orders. Here’s what that means for you. CNN. Retrieved from https://www.cnn.com/2020/03/23/us/coronavirus-which-states-stay-at-home-order-trnd/index.html "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Lum, C., Maupin, C., & Stoltz, M. (2020). The impact of COVID-19 on law enforcement agencies (wave 1). A joint report of the International Association of Chiefs of Police and the Center for Evidence-Based Crime Policy, George Mason University. Retrieved from https://www.theiacp.org/sites/default/files/IACP-GMU%20Survey.pdf "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=The police: Mandate, strategies, and appearances; citation_inbook_title=Policing: A view from the street; citation_publication_date=1978; citation_id=CR45; citation_author=PK Manning; citation_publisher=Random House"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=The police and noncrime services; citation_inbook_title=Evaluating the performance of criminal justice agencies; citation_publication_date=1983; citation_id=CR46; citation_author=SD Mastrofski; citation_publisher=Sage"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency; citation_title=Compliance on demand: The public's response to specific police requests; citation_author=SD Mastrofski, JB Snipes, AE Supina; citation_volume=33; citation_issue=3; citation_publication_date=1996; citation_pages=269-305; citation_doi=10.1177/0022427896033003001; citation_id=CR47"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Michigan Department of State Police v. Sitz, 496 U.S. 444 (1990)."/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Mincey v. Arizona, 437 U.S. 385 (1978)."/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Moshtaghian, A., & Croft, J. (2020). That's an expensive round of 'essential drinks.' Seven people fined $1,000 each for violating stay-at-home order. CNN. Retrieved from https://www.cnn.com/2020/04/12/us/santa-cruz-fine-drinks-stay-home-order-trnd/index.html "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="National Conference of State Legislatures. (2020). State quarantine and isolation statutes. Retrieved from https://www.ncsl.org/research/health/state-quarantine-and-isolation-statutes.aspx "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="National Treasury Employees Union v. Von Raab, 489 U.S. 656 (1989)."/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="O’Connor v. Ortega, 480 U.S. 709 (1987)."/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Office of the Mayor, City and County of San Francisco (2020). Shelter in place order. https://www.sfdph.org/dph/alerts/files/HealthOrderC19-07-%20Shelter-in-Place.pdf "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Pearl, B., Hunter, L., Lo, K., & Chung, E. (2020). The enforcement of COVID-19 stay-at-home orders. Retrieved from https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/criminal-justice/news/2020/04/02/482558/enforcement-covid-19-stay-home-orders/ "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Plater, R. (2020). As many as 50 percent of people with Covid-19 aren’t aware they have the virus. Healthline. Retrieved from https://www.healthline.com/health-news/50-percent-of-people-with-covid19-not-aware-have-virus "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title= (critical issues in policing); citation_publication_date=2016; citation_id=CR57; citation_publisher=Author"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="PoliceOne. (2020). COVID-19: Law enforcement deaths. Retrieved April 15, 2020 from https://www.policeone.com/coronavirus-covid-19/articles/covid-19-law-enforcement-deaths-3ftkdPnVffq55iHU/ "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Povich, E. S. (2020). Border checkpoints discourage travelers between states. Pew. Retrieved from https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/blogs/stateline/2020/04/08/border-checkpoints-discourage-travelers-between-states "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=Final report of the President’s task force on 21st century policing; citation_publication_date=2015; citation_id=CR60; citation_publisher=Office of Community Oriented Policing Services"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Public Health Service Act, July 1, 1944, c. 373, Title III, § 361, 58 Stat. 703 (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. § 264 et seq.)."/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=The social contract and the police use of deadly force; citation_inbook_title=Moral issues in police work; citation_publication_date=1985; citation_id=CR62; citation_author=J Reiman; citation_publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=The police and the public; citation_publication_date=1971; citation_id=CR63; citation_author=AJ Reiss; citation_publisher=Yale University Press"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Rochin v. California, 342 U.S. 165 (1952)."/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=Calls for service: Citizen demand and initial police response; citation_publication_date=1981; citation_id=CR65; citation_author=EJ Scott; citation_publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Secon, H., Woodward, A., & Mosher, D. (2002). Business Insider. A comprehensive timeline of the new coronavirus pandemic, from China’s first COVID-19 case to the present. Business Insider. Business Insider. Retrieved from https://www.businessinsider.com/coronavirus-pandemic-timeline-history-major-events-2020-3 "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=Above the law: Police and the excessive use of force; citation_publication_date=1993; citation_id=CR67; citation_author=JH Skolnick; citation_author=JJ Fyfe; citation_publisher=The Free Press"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Skinner v. Railway Labor Executives’ Association, 489 U.S. 602 (1989)."/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="The Soufan Center. (2020). Intelbrief: Covid-19 exposes fault lines in U.S. public trust and government. Retrieved from https://thesoufancenter.org/intelbrief-covid-19-exposes-fault-lines-in-u-s-public-trust-and-government/ "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Southall, A. (2020). Virus’s toll on N.Y. police: 1 in 6 officers is out sick. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/03/nyregion/coronavirus-nypd.html "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Law & Society Review; citation_title=The role of procedural justice and legitimacy in shaping public support for policing; citation_author=J Sunshine, TR Tyler; citation_volume=37; citation_issue=3; citation_publication_date=2003; citation_pages=513-548; citation_doi=10.1111/1540-5893.3703002; citation_id=CR71"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1 (1968)."/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Criminology; citation_title=Viewing things differently: The dimensions of public perceptions of police legitimacy; citation_author=J Tankebe; citation_volume=51; citation_issue=1; citation_publication_date=2013; citation_pages=103-136; citation_doi=10.1111/j.1745-9125.2012.00291.x; citation_id=CR73"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=Why people obey the law; citation_publication_date=1990; citation_id=CR74; citation_author=TR Tyler; citation_publisher=Yale University Press"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Crime and Justice; citation_title=Procedural justice, legitimacy, and the effective rule of law; citation_author=TR Tyler; citation_volume=30; citation_publication_date=2003; citation_pages=283-357; citation_doi=10.1086/652233; citation_id=CR75"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science; citation_title=Enhancing police legitimacy; citation_author=TR Tyler; citation_volume=593; citation_publication_date=2004; citation_pages=593-608; citation_doi=10.1177/0002716203262627; citation_id=CR76"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law; citation_title=Legitimacy and cooperation: Why do people help the police fight crime in their communities?; citation_author=TR Tyler, J Fagan; citation_volume=6; citation_publication_date=2008; citation_pages=231-275; citation_id=CR77"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=Trust in the law, encouraging public cooperation with the police and courts; citation_publication_date=2002; citation_id=CR78; citation_author=TR Tyler; citation_author=YJ Huo; citation_publisher=Russell Sage Foundation"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Stetson Law Review; citation_title=Florida’s law of storms: Emergency management, local government, and the police power; citation_author=DG Tucker, AO Bragg; citation_volume=30; citation_publication_date=2001; citation_pages=837-873; citation_id=CR79"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Southern Methodist University Law Review; citation_title=Quarantine and the federal role in epidemics; citation_author=MR Ulrich, WK Mariner; citation_volume=71; citation_publication_date=2018; citation_pages=391-444; citation_id=CR80"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="United States v. Flores-Montano, 541 U.S. 149 (2004)."/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="United States v. Jones, 565 U.S. 400 (2012)."/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Vernonia School District 47J v. Acton, 515 U.S. 646 (1995)."/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Weiss, D. C. (2020). Lawsuits over coronavirus quarantines are unlikely to succeed, experts say. ABA Journal. Retrieved from https://www.abajournal.com/news/article/suits-over-coronavirus-quarantines-unlikely-to-succeed-experts-say "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Welsh v. Wisconsin, 466 U.S. 470 (1984)."/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=Stop and frisk: The use and abuse of a controversial police tactic; citation_publication_date=2016; citation_id=CR86; citation_author=MD White; citation_author=HF Fradella; citation_publisher=New York University Press"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=Varieties of police behavior: The management of law and order in eight communities; citation_publication_date=1968; citation_id=CR87; citation_author=JQ Wilson; citation_publisher=Harvard University Press"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Woodward, A. (2020). It's estimated 1 in 4 coronavirus carriers could be asymptomatic. Here's what we know. Science Alert. Retrieved from https://www.sciencealert.com/here-s-what-we-know-so-far-about-those-who-can-pass-corona-without-symptoms "/> <meta name="citation_author" content="White, Michael D."/> <meta name="citation_author_email" content="mdwhite1@asu.edu"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="School of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Arizona State University, Phoenix, USA"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Fradella, Henry F."/> <meta name="citation_author_email" content="Hank.Fradella@asu.edu"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="School of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Arizona State University, Phoenix, USA"/> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"/> <meta name="citation_cover_date" content="2020/08/01"/> <meta property="og:url" content="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0"/> <meta property="og:type" content="article"/> <meta property="og:site_name" content="SpringerLink"/> <meta property="og:title" content="Policing a Pandemic: Stay-at-Home Orders and What they Mean for the Police - American Journal of Criminal Justice"/> <meta property="og:description" content="The COVID-19 pandemic has dramatically altered life globally during the first 4 months of 2020. Many countries, including the United States, responded to the pandemic by issuing stay-at-home orders/shelter-in-place orders (SaHOs/SiPOs) to their citizens. By April 2020, more than 90% of the U.S. population was subject to an order. SaHOs/SiPOs raise a number of complex issues for the police, ranging from concerns about infringement of constitutional rights to potential sanctions for violations of an order. This article delves into the issues surrounding SaHOs/SiPOs and highlights their complexity for the police. First, we examine the “why the police?” question, and point to key features of their role which make enforcement of SaHOs/SiPOs the proper business of the police. Second, we examine the relevant legal doctrines that can serve as the basis for police actions against violators of orders, most notably the special needs doctrine. Last, we offer police legitimacy as a lens for viewing the appropriateness of police responses to violators of SaHOs/SiPOs."/> <meta property="og:image" content="https://media.springernature.com/full/springer-static/cover-hires/journal/12103"/> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="180x180" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/apple-touch-icon-92e819bf8a.png> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="192x192" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/android-chrome-192x192-6f081ca7e5.png> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="32x32" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/favicon-32x32-1435da3e82.png> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="16x16" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/favicon-16x16-ed57f42bd2.png> <link rel="shortcut icon" data-test="shortcut-icon" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/favicon-c6d59aafac.ico> <meta name="theme-color" content="#e6e6e6"> <!-- Please see discussion: https://github.com/springernature/frontend-open-space/issues/316--> <!--TODO: Implement alternative to CTM in here if the discussion concludes we do not continue with CTM as a practice--> <link rel="stylesheet" media="print" href=/oscar-static/app-springerlink/css/print-b8af42253b.css> <style> html{text-size-adjust:100%;line-height:1.15}body{font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;line-height:1.8;margin:0}details,main{display:block}h1{font-size:2em;margin:.67em 0}a{background-color:transparent;color:#025e8d}sub{bottom:-.25em;font-size:75%;line-height:0;position:relative;vertical-align:baseline}img{border:0;height:auto;max-width:100%;vertical-align:middle}button,input{font-family:inherit;font-size:100%;line-height:1.15;margin:0;overflow:visible}button{text-transform:none}[type=button],[type=submit],button{-webkit-appearance:button}[type=search]{-webkit-appearance:textfield;outline-offset:-2px}summary{display:list-item}[hidden]{display:none}button{cursor:pointer}svg{height:1rem;width:1rem} </style> <style>@media only print, only all and (prefers-color-scheme: no-preference), only all and (prefers-color-scheme: light), only all and (prefers-color-scheme: dark) { body{background:#fff;color:#222;font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;line-height:1.8;min-height:100%}a{color:#025e8d;text-decoration:underline;text-decoration-skip-ink:auto}button{cursor:pointer}img{border:0;height:auto;max-width:100%;vertical-align:middle}html{box-sizing:border-box;font-size:100%;height:100%;overflow-y:scroll}h1{font-size:2.25rem}h2{font-size:1.75rem}h1,h2,h4{font-weight:700;line-height:1.2}h4{font-size:1.25rem}body{font-size:1.125rem}*{box-sizing:inherit}p{margin-bottom:2rem;margin-top:0}p:last-of-type{margin-bottom:0}.c-ad{text-align:center}@media only screen and (min-width:480px){.c-ad{padding:8px}}.c-ad--728x90{display:none}.c-ad--728x90 .c-ad__inner{min-height:calc(1.5em + 94px)}@media only screen and (min-width:876px){.js .c-ad--728x90{display:none}}.c-ad__label{color:#333;font-size:.875rem;font-weight:400;line-height:1.5;margin-bottom:4px}.c-ad__label,.c-status-message{font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif}.c-status-message{align-items:center;box-sizing:border-box;display:flex;position:relative;width:100%}.c-status-message :last-child{margin-bottom:0}.c-status-message--boxed{background-color:#fff;border:1px solid #ccc;line-height:1.4;padding:16px}.c-status-message__heading{font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:.875rem;font-weight:700}.c-status-message__icon{fill:currentcolor;display:inline-block;flex:0 0 auto;height:1.5em;margin-right:8px;transform:translate(0);vertical-align:text-top;width:1.5em}.c-status-message__icon--top{align-self:flex-start}.c-status-message--info .c-status-message__icon{color:#003f8d}.c-status-message--boxed.c-status-message--info{border-bottom:4px solid #003f8d}.c-status-message--error .c-status-message__icon{color:#c40606}.c-status-message--boxed.c-status-message--error{border-bottom:4px solid #c40606}.c-status-message--success .c-status-message__icon{color:#00b8b0}.c-status-message--boxed.c-status-message--success{border-bottom:4px solid #00b8b0}.c-status-message--warning .c-status-message__icon{color:#edbc53}.c-status-message--boxed.c-status-message--warning{border-bottom:4px solid #edbc53}.eds-c-header{background-color:#fff;border-bottom:2px solid #01324b;font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:1rem;line-height:1.5;padding:8px 0 0}.eds-c-header__container{align-items:center;display:flex;flex-wrap:nowrap;gap:8px 16px;justify-content:space-between;margin:0 auto 8px;max-width:1280px;padding:0 8px;position:relative}.eds-c-header__nav{border-top:2px solid #c5e0f4;padding-top:4px;position:relative}.eds-c-header__nav-container{align-items:center;display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;margin:0 auto 4px;max-width:1280px;padding:0 8px;position:relative}.eds-c-header__nav-container>:not(:last-child){margin-right:32px}.eds-c-header__link-container{align-items:center;display:flex;flex:1 0 auto;gap:8px 16px;justify-content:space-between}.eds-c-header__list{list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.eds-c-header__list-item{font-weight:700;margin:0 auto;max-width:1280px;padding:8px}.eds-c-header__list-item:not(:last-child){border-bottom:2px solid #c5e0f4}.eds-c-header__item{color:inherit}@media only screen and (min-width:768px){.eds-c-header__item--menu{display:none;visibility:hidden}.eds-c-header__item--menu:first-child+*{margin-block-start:0}}.eds-c-header__item--inline-links{display:none;visibility:hidden}@media only screen and (min-width:768px){.eds-c-header__item--inline-links{display:flex;gap:16px 16px;visibility:visible}}.eds-c-header__item--divider:before{border-left:2px solid #c5e0f4;content:"";height:calc(100% - 16px);margin-left:-15px;position:absolute;top:8px}.eds-c-header__brand{padding:16px 8px}.eds-c-header__brand a{display:block;line-height:1;text-decoration:none}.eds-c-header__brand img{height:1.5rem;width:auto}.eds-c-header__link{color:inherit;display:inline-block;font-weight:700;padding:16px 8px;position:relative;text-decoration-color:transparent;white-space:nowrap;word-break:normal}.eds-c-header__icon{fill:currentcolor;display:inline-block;font-size:1.5rem;height:1em;transform:translate(0);vertical-align:bottom;width:1em}.eds-c-header__icon+*{margin-left:8px}.eds-c-header__expander{background-color:#f0f7fc}.eds-c-header__search{display:block;padding:24px 0}@media only screen and (min-width:768px){.eds-c-header__search{max-width:70%}}.eds-c-header__search-container{position:relative}.eds-c-header__search-label{color:inherit;display:inline-block;font-weight:700;margin-bottom:8px}.eds-c-header__search-input{background-color:#fff;border:1px solid #000;padding:8px 48px 8px 8px;width:100%}.eds-c-header__search-button{background-color:transparent;border:0;color:inherit;height:100%;padding:0 8px;position:absolute;right:0}.has-tethered.eds-c-header__expander{border-bottom:2px solid #01324b;left:0;margin-top:-2px;top:100%;width:100%;z-index:10}@media only screen and (min-width:768px){.has-tethered.eds-c-header__expander--menu{display:none;visibility:hidden}}.has-tethered .eds-c-header__heading{display:none;visibility:hidden}.has-tethered .eds-c-header__heading:first-child+*{margin-block-start:0}.has-tethered .eds-c-header__search{margin:auto}.eds-c-header__heading{margin:0 auto;max-width:1280px;padding:16px 16px 0}.eds-c-pagination{align-items:center;display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:.875rem;gap:16px 0;justify-content:center;line-height:1.4;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:32px 0}@media only screen and (min-width:480px){.eds-c-pagination{padding:32px 16px}}.eds-c-pagination__item{margin-right:8px}.eds-c-pagination__item--prev{margin-right:16px}.eds-c-pagination__item--next .eds-c-pagination__link,.eds-c-pagination__item--prev .eds-c-pagination__link{padding:16px 8px}.eds-c-pagination__item--next{margin-left:8px}.eds-c-pagination__item:last-child{margin-right:0}.eds-c-pagination__link{align-items:center;color:#222;cursor:pointer;display:inline-block;font-size:1rem;margin:0;padding:16px 24px;position:relative;text-align:center;transition:all .2s ease 0s}.eds-c-pagination__link:visited{color:#222}.eds-c-pagination__link--disabled{border-color:#555;color:#555;cursor:default}.eds-c-pagination__link--active{background-color:#01324b;background-image:none;border-radius:8px;color:#fff}.eds-c-pagination__link--active:focus,.eds-c-pagination__link--active:hover,.eds-c-pagination__link--active:visited{color:#fff}.eds-c-pagination__link-container{align-items:center;display:flex}.eds-c-pagination__icon{fill:#222;height:1.5rem;width:1.5rem}.eds-c-pagination__icon--disabled{fill:#555}.eds-c-pagination__visually-hidden{clip:rect(0,0,0,0);border:0;clip-path:inset(50%);height:1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute!important;white-space:nowrap;width:1px}.c-breadcrumbs{color:#333;font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:1rem;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.c-breadcrumbs>li{display:inline}svg.c-breadcrumbs__chevron{fill:#333;height:10px;margin:0 .25rem;width:10px}.c-breadcrumbs--contrast,.c-breadcrumbs--contrast .c-breadcrumbs__link{color:#fff}.c-breadcrumbs--contrast svg.c-breadcrumbs__chevron{fill:#fff}@media only screen and (max-width:479px){.c-breadcrumbs .c-breadcrumbs__item{display:none}.c-breadcrumbs .c-breadcrumbs__item:last-child,.c-breadcrumbs .c-breadcrumbs__item:nth-last-child(2){display:inline}}.c-skip-link{background:#01324b;bottom:auto;color:#fff;font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:1rem;padding:8px;position:absolute;text-align:center;transform:translateY(-100%);width:100%;z-index:9999}@media (prefers-reduced-motion:reduce){.c-skip-link{transition:top .3s ease-in-out 0s}}@media print{.c-skip-link{display:none}}.c-skip-link:active,.c-skip-link:hover,.c-skip-link:link,.c-skip-link:visited{color:#fff}.c-skip-link:focus{transform:translateY(0)}.l-with-sidebar{display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap}.l-with-sidebar>*{margin:0}.l-with-sidebar__sidebar{flex-basis:var(--with-sidebar--basis,400px);flex-grow:1}.l-with-sidebar>:not(.l-with-sidebar__sidebar){flex-basis:0px;flex-grow:999;min-width:var(--with-sidebar--min,53%)}.l-with-sidebar>:first-child{padding-right:4rem}@supports (gap:1em){.l-with-sidebar>:first-child{padding-right:0}.l-with-sidebar{gap:var(--with-sidebar--gap,4rem)}}.c-header__link{color:inherit;display:inline-block;font-weight:700;padding:16px 8px;position:relative;text-decoration-color:transparent;white-space:nowrap;word-break:normal}.app-masthead__colour-4{--background-color:#ff9500;--gradient-light:rgba(0,0,0,.5);--gradient-dark:rgba(0,0,0,.8)}.app-masthead{background:var(--background-color,#0070a8);position:relative}.app-masthead:after{background:radial-gradient(circle at top right,var(--gradient-light,rgba(0,0,0,.4)),var(--gradient-dark,rgba(0,0,0,.7)));bottom:0;content:"";left:0;position:absolute;right:0;top:0}@media only screen and (max-width:479px){.app-masthead:after{background:linear-gradient(225deg,var(--gradient-light,rgba(0,0,0,.4)),var(--gradient-dark,rgba(0,0,0,.7)))}}.app-masthead__container{color:var(--masthead-color,#fff);margin:0 auto;max-width:1280px;padding:0 16px;position:relative;z-index:1}.u-button{align-items:center;background-color:#01324b;background-image:none;border:4px solid transparent;border-radius:32px;cursor:pointer;display:inline-flex;font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:.875rem;font-weight:700;justify-content:center;line-height:1.3;margin:0;padding:16px 32px;position:relative;transition:all .2s ease 0s;width:auto}.u-button svg,.u-button--contrast svg,.u-button--primary svg,.u-button--secondary svg,.u-button--tertiary svg{fill:currentcolor}.u-button,.u-button:visited{color:#fff}.u-button,.u-button:hover{box-shadow:0 0 0 1px #01324b;text-decoration:none}.u-button:hover{border:4px solid #fff}.u-button:focus{border:4px solid #fc0;box-shadow:none;outline:0;text-decoration:none}.u-button:focus,.u-button:hover{background-color:#fff;background-image:none;color:#01324b}.app-masthead--pastel .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary:focus svg path,.app-masthead--pastel .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary:hover svg path,.c-context-bar--sticky .c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary:focus svg path,.c-context-bar--sticky .c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary:hover svg path,.u-button--primary:focus svg path,.u-button--primary:hover svg path,.u-button:focus svg path,.u-button:hover svg path{fill:#01324b}.u-button--primary{background-color:#01324b;background-image:none;border:4px solid transparent;box-shadow:0 0 0 1px #01324b;color:#fff;font-weight:700}.u-button--primary:visited{color:#fff}.u-button--primary:hover{border:4px solid #fff;box-shadow:0 0 0 1px #01324b;text-decoration:none}.u-button--primary:focus{border:4px solid #fc0;box-shadow:none;outline:0;text-decoration:none}.u-button--primary:focus,.u-button--primary:hover{background-color:#fff;background-image:none;color:#01324b}.u-button--secondary{background-color:#fff;border:4px solid #fff;color:#01324b;font-weight:700}.u-button--secondary:visited{color:#01324b}.u-button--secondary:hover{border:4px solid #01324b;box-shadow:none}.u-button--secondary:focus,.u-button--secondary:hover{background-color:#01324b;color:#fff}.app-masthead--pastel .c-pdf-download .u-button--secondary:focus svg path,.app-masthead--pastel .c-pdf-download .u-button--secondary:hover svg path,.c-context-bar--sticky .c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button--secondary:focus svg path,.c-context-bar--sticky .c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button--secondary:hover svg path,.u-button--secondary:focus svg path,.u-button--secondary:hover svg path,.u-button--tertiary:focus svg path,.u-button--tertiary:hover svg path{fill:#fff}.u-button--tertiary{background-color:#ebf1f5;border:4px solid transparent;box-shadow:none;color:#666;font-weight:700}.u-button--tertiary:visited{color:#666}.u-button--tertiary:hover{border:4px solid #01324b;box-shadow:none}.u-button--tertiary:focus,.u-button--tertiary:hover{background-color:#01324b;color:#fff}.u-button--contrast{background-color:transparent;background-image:none;color:#fff;font-weight:400}.u-button--contrast:visited{color:#fff}.u-button--contrast,.u-button--contrast:focus,.u-button--contrast:hover{border:4px solid #fff}.u-button--contrast:focus,.u-button--contrast:hover{background-color:#fff;background-image:none;color:#000}.u-button--contrast:focus svg path,.u-button--contrast:hover svg path{fill:#000}.u-button--disabled,.u-button:disabled{background-color:transparent;background-image:none;border:4px solid #ccc;color:#000;cursor:default;font-weight:400;opacity:.7}.u-button--disabled svg,.u-button:disabled svg{fill:currentcolor}.u-button--disabled:visited,.u-button:disabled:visited{color:#000}.u-button--disabled:focus,.u-button--disabled:hover,.u-button:disabled:focus,.u-button:disabled:hover{border:4px solid #ccc;text-decoration:none}.u-button--disabled:focus,.u-button--disabled:hover,.u-button:disabled:focus,.u-button:disabled:hover{background-color:transparent;background-image:none;color:#000}.u-button--disabled:focus svg path,.u-button--disabled:hover svg path,.u-button:disabled:focus svg path,.u-button:disabled:hover svg path{fill:#000}.u-button--small,.u-button--xsmall{font-size:.875rem;padding:2px 8px}.u-button--small{padding:8px 16px}.u-button--large{font-size:1.125rem;padding:10px 35px}.u-button--full-width{display:flex;width:100%}.u-button--icon-left svg{margin-right:8px}.u-button--icon-right svg{margin-left:8px}.u-clear-both{clear:both}.u-container{margin:0 auto;max-width:1280px;padding:0 16px}.u-justify-content-space-between{justify-content:space-between}.u-display-none{display:none}.js .u-js-hide,.u-hide{display:none;visibility:hidden}.u-visually-hidden{clip:rect(0,0,0,0);border:0;clip-path:inset(50%);height:1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute!important;white-space:nowrap;width:1px}.u-icon{fill:currentcolor;display:inline-block;height:1em;transform:translate(0);vertical-align:text-top;width:1em}.u-list-reset{list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.u-ma-16{margin:16px}.u-mt-0{margin-top:0}.u-mt-24{margin-top:24px}.u-mt-32{margin-top:32px}.u-mb-8{margin-bottom:8px}.u-mb-32{margin-bottom:32px}.u-button-reset{background-color:transparent;border:0;padding:0}.u-sans-serif{font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif}.u-serif{font-family:Merriweather,serif}h1,h2,h4{-webkit-font-smoothing:antialiased}p{overflow-wrap:break-word;word-break:break-word}.u-h4{font-size:1.25rem;font-weight:700;line-height:1.2}.u-mbs-0{margin-block-start:0!important}.c-article-header{font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif}.c-article-identifiers{color:#6f6f6f;display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;font-size:1rem;line-height:1.3;list-style:none;margin:0 0 8px;padding:0}.c-article-identifiers__item{border-right:1px solid #6f6f6f;list-style:none;margin-right:8px;padding-right:8px}.c-article-identifiers__item:last-child{border-right:0;margin-right:0;padding-right:0}@media only screen and (min-width:876px){.c-article-title{font-size:1.875rem;line-height:1.2}}.c-article-author-list{display:inline;font-size:1rem;list-style:none;margin:0 8px 0 0;padding:0;width:100%}.c-article-author-list__item{display:inline;padding-right:0}.c-article-author-list__show-more{display:none;margin-right:4px}.c-article-author-list__button,.js .c-article-author-list__item--hide,.js .c-article-author-list__show-more{display:none}.js .c-article-author-list--long .c-article-author-list__show-more,.js .c-article-author-list--long+.c-article-author-list__button{display:inline}@media only screen and (max-width:767px){.js .c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen{display:none}.js .c-article-author-list--short .c-article-author-list__show-more,.js .c-article-author-list--short+.c-article-author-list__button{display:inline}}#uptodate-client,.js .c-article-author-list--expanded .c-article-author-list__show-more{display:none!important}.js .c-article-author-list--expanded .c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen{display:inline!important}.c-article-author-list__button,.c-button-author-list{background:#ebf1f5;border:4px solid #ebf1f5;border-radius:20px;color:#666;font-size:.875rem;line-height:1.4;padding:2px 11px 2px 8px;text-decoration:none}.c-article-author-list__button svg,.c-button-author-list svg{margin:1px 4px 0 0}.c-article-author-list__button:hover,.c-button-author-list:hover{background:#025e8d;border-color:transparent;color:#fff}.c-article-body .c-article-access-provider{padding:8px 16px}.c-article-body .c-article-access-provider,.c-notes{border:1px solid #d5d5d5;border-image:initial;border-left:none;border-right:none;margin:24px 0}.c-article-body .c-article-access-provider__text{color:#555}.c-article-body .c-article-access-provider__text,.c-notes__text{font-size:1rem;margin-bottom:0;padding-bottom:2px;padding-top:2px;text-align:center}.c-article-body .c-article-author-affiliation__address{color:inherit;font-weight:700;margin:0}.c-article-body .c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list{list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.c-article-body .c-article-author-affiliation__authors-item{display:inline;margin-left:0}.c-article-authors-search{margin-bottom:24px;margin-top:0}.c-article-authors-search__item,.c-article-authors-search__title{font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif}.c-article-authors-search__title{color:#626262;font-size:1.05rem;font-weight:700;margin:0;padding:0}.c-article-authors-search__item{font-size:1rem}.c-article-authors-search__text{margin:0}.c-code-block{border:1px solid #fff;font-family:monospace;margin:0 0 24px;padding:20px}.c-code-block__heading{font-weight:400;margin-bottom:16px}.c-code-block__line{display:block;overflow-wrap:break-word;white-space:pre-wrap}.c-article-share-box{font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;margin-bottom:24px}.c-article-share-box__description{font-size:1rem;margin-bottom:8px}.c-article-share-box__no-sharelink-info{font-size:.813rem;font-weight:700;margin-bottom:24px;padding-top:4px}.c-article-share-box__only-read-input{border:1px solid #d5d5d5;box-sizing:content-box;display:inline-block;font-size:.875rem;font-weight:700;height:24px;margin-bottom:8px;padding:8px 10px}.c-article-share-box__additional-info{color:#626262;font-size:.813rem}.c-article-share-box__button{background:#fff;box-sizing:content-box;text-align:center}.c-article-share-box__button--link-like{background-color:transparent;border:0;color:#025e8d;cursor:pointer;font-size:.875rem;margin-bottom:8px;margin-left:10px}.c-article-associated-content__container .c-article-associated-content__collection-label{font-size:.875rem;line-height:1.4}.c-article-associated-content__container .c-article-associated-content__collection-title{line-height:1.3}.c-reading-companion{clear:both;min-height:389px}.c-reading-companion__figures-list,.c-reading-companion__references-list{list-style:none;min-height:389px;padding:0}.c-reading-companion__references-list--numeric{list-style:decimal inside}.c-reading-companion__figure-item{border-top:1px solid #d5d5d5;font-size:1rem;padding:16px 8px 16px 0}.c-reading-companion__figure-item:first-child{border-top:none;padding-top:8px}.c-reading-companion__reference-item{font-size:1rem}.c-reading-companion__reference-item:first-child{border-top:none}.c-reading-companion__reference-item a{word-break:break-word}.c-reading-companion__reference-citation{display:inline}.c-reading-companion__reference-links{font-size:.813rem;font-weight:700;list-style:none;margin:8px 0 0;padding:0;text-align:right}.c-reading-companion__reference-links>a{display:inline-block;padding-left:8px}.c-reading-companion__reference-links>a:first-child{display:inline-block;padding-left:0}.c-reading-companion__figure-title{display:block;font-size:1.25rem;font-weight:700;line-height:1.2;margin:0 0 8px}.c-reading-companion__figure-links{display:flex;justify-content:space-between;margin:8px 0 0}.c-reading-companion__figure-links>a{align-items:center;display:flex}.c-article-section__figure-caption{display:block;margin-bottom:8px;word-break:break-word}.c-article-section__figure .video,p.app-article-masthead__access--above-download{margin:0 0 16px}.c-article-section__figure-description{font-size:1rem}.c-article-section__figure-description>*{margin-bottom:0}.c-cod{display:block;font-size:1rem;width:100%}.c-cod__form{background:#ebf0f3}.c-cod__prompt{font-size:1.125rem;line-height:1.3;margin:0 0 24px}.c-cod__label{display:block;margin:0 0 4px}.c-cod__row{display:flex;margin:0 0 16px}.c-cod__row:last-child{margin:0}.c-cod__input{border:1px solid #d5d5d5;border-radius:2px;flex-shrink:0;margin:0;padding:13px}.c-cod__input--submit{background-color:#025e8d;border:1px solid #025e8d;color:#fff;flex-shrink:1;margin-left:8px;transition:background-color .2s ease-out 0s,color .2s ease-out 0s}.c-cod__input--submit-single{flex-basis:100%;flex-shrink:0;margin:0}.c-cod__input--submit:focus,.c-cod__input--submit:hover{background-color:#fff;color:#025e8d}.save-data .c-article-author-institutional-author__sub-division,.save-data .c-article-equation__number,.save-data .c-article-figure-description,.save-data .c-article-fullwidth-content,.save-data .c-article-main-column,.save-data .c-article-satellite-article-link,.save-data .c-article-satellite-subtitle,.save-data .c-article-table-container,.save-data .c-blockquote__body,.save-data .c-code-block__heading,.save-data .c-reading-companion__figure-title,.save-data .c-reading-companion__reference-citation,.save-data .c-site-messages--nature-briefing-email-variant .serif,.save-data .c-site-messages--nature-briefing-email-variant.serif,.save-data .serif,.save-data .u-serif,.save-data h1,.save-data h2,.save-data h3{font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif}.c-pdf-download__link{display:flex;flex:1 1 0%;padding:13px 24px}.c-pdf-download__link:hover{text-decoration:none}@media only screen and (min-width:768px){.c-context-bar--sticky .c-pdf-download__link{align-items:center;flex:1 1 183px}}@media only screen and (max-width:320px){.c-context-bar--sticky .c-pdf-download__link{padding:16px}}.c-article-body .c-article-recommendations-list,.c-book-body .c-article-recommendations-list{display:flex;flex-direction:row;gap:16px 16px;margin:0;max-width:100%;padding:16px 0 0}.c-article-body .c-article-recommendations-list__item,.c-book-body .c-article-recommendations-list__item{flex:1 1 0%}@media only screen and (max-width:767px){.c-article-body .c-article-recommendations-list,.c-book-body .c-article-recommendations-list{flex-direction:column}}.c-article-body .c-article-recommendations-card__authors{display:none;font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:.875rem;line-height:1.5;margin:0 0 8px}@media only screen and (max-width:767px){.c-article-body .c-article-recommendations-card__authors{display:block;margin:0}}.c-article-body .c-article-history{margin-top:24px}.app-article-metrics-bar p{margin:0}.app-article-masthead{display:flex;flex-direction:column;gap:16px 16px;padding:16px 0 24px}.app-article-masthead__info{display:flex;flex-direction:column;flex-grow:1}.app-article-masthead__brand{border-top:1px solid hsla(0,0%,100%,.8);display:flex;flex-direction:column;flex-shrink:0;gap:8px 8px;min-height:96px;padding:16px 0 0}.app-article-masthead__brand img{border:1px solid #fff;border-radius:8px;box-shadow:0 4px 15px 0 hsla(0,0%,50%,.25);height:auto;left:0;position:absolute;width:72px}.app-article-masthead__journal-link{display:block;font-size:1.125rem;font-weight:700;margin:0 0 8px;max-width:400px;padding:0 0 0 88px;position:relative}.app-article-masthead__journal-title{-webkit-box-orient:vertical;-webkit-line-clamp:3;display:-webkit-box;overflow:hidden}.app-article-masthead__submission-link{align-items:center;display:flex;font-size:1rem;gap:4px 4px;margin:0 0 0 88px}.app-article-masthead__access{align-items:center;display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;font-size:.875rem;font-weight:300;gap:4px 4px;margin:0}.app-article-masthead__buttons{display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;gap:16px 16px}.app-article-masthead__access svg,.app-masthead--pastel .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary svg,.app-masthead--pastel .c-pdf-download .u-button--secondary svg,.c-context-bar--sticky .c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary svg,.c-context-bar--sticky .c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button--secondary svg{fill:currentcolor}.app-article-masthead a{color:#fff}.app-masthead--pastel .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary,.c-context-bar--sticky .c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary{background-color:#025e8d;background-image:none;border:2px solid transparent;box-shadow:none;color:#fff;font-weight:700}.app-masthead--pastel .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary:visited,.c-context-bar--sticky .c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary:visited{color:#fff}.app-masthead--pastel .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary:hover,.c-context-bar--sticky .c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary:hover{text-decoration:none}.app-masthead--pastel .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary:focus,.c-context-bar--sticky .c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary:focus{border:4px solid #fc0;box-shadow:none;outline:0;text-decoration:none}.app-masthead--pastel .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary:focus,.app-masthead--pastel .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary:hover,.c-context-bar--sticky .c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary:focus,.c-context-bar--sticky .c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary:hover{background-color:#fff;background-image:none;color:#01324b}.app-masthead--pastel .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary:hover,.c-context-bar--sticky .c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary:hover{background:0 0;border:2px solid #025e8d;box-shadow:none;color:#025e8d}.app-masthead--pastel .c-pdf-download .u-button--secondary,.c-context-bar--sticky .c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button--secondary{background:0 0;border:2px solid #025e8d;color:#025e8d;font-weight:700}.app-masthead--pastel .c-pdf-download .u-button--secondary:visited,.c-context-bar--sticky .c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button--secondary:visited{color:#01324b}.app-masthead--pastel .c-pdf-download .u-button--secondary:hover,.c-context-bar--sticky .c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button--secondary:hover{background-color:#01324b;background-color:#025e8d;border:2px solid transparent;box-shadow:none;color:#fff}.app-masthead--pastel .c-pdf-download .u-button--secondary:focus,.c-context-bar--sticky .c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button--secondary:focus{background-color:#fff;background-image:none;border:4px solid #fc0;color:#01324b}@media only screen and (min-width:768px){.app-article-masthead{flex-direction:row;gap:64px 64px;padding:24px 0}.app-article-masthead__brand{border:0;padding:0}.app-article-masthead__brand img{height:auto;position:static;width:auto}.app-article-masthead__buttons{align-items:center;flex-direction:row;margin-top:auto}.app-article-masthead__journal-link{display:flex;flex-direction:column;gap:24px 24px;margin:0 0 8px;padding:0}.app-article-masthead__submission-link{margin:0}}@media only screen and (min-width:1024px){.app-article-masthead__brand{flex-basis:400px}}.app-article-masthead .c-article-identifiers{font-size:.875rem;font-weight:300;line-height:1;margin:0 0 8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0}.app-article-masthead .c-article-identifiers--cite-list{margin:0 0 16px}.app-article-masthead .c-article-identifiers *{color:#fff}.app-article-masthead .c-cod{display:none}.app-article-masthead .c-article-identifiers__item{border-left:1px solid #fff;border-right:0;margin:0 17px 8px -9px;padding:0 0 0 8px}.app-article-masthead .c-article-identifiers__item--cite{border-left:0}.app-article-metrics-bar{display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;font-size:1rem;padding:16px 0 0;row-gap:24px}.app-article-metrics-bar__item{padding:0 16px 0 0}.app-article-metrics-bar__count{font-weight:700}.app-article-metrics-bar__label{font-weight:400;padding-left:4px}.app-article-metrics-bar__icon{height:auto;margin-right:4px;margin-top:-4px;width:auto}.app-article-metrics-bar__arrow-icon{margin:4px 0 0 4px}.app-article-metrics-bar a{color:#000}.app-article-metrics-bar .app-article-metrics-bar__item--metrics{padding-right:0}.app-overview-section .c-article-author-list,.app-overview-section__authors{line-height:2}.app-article-metrics-bar{margin-top:8px}.c-book-toc-pagination+.c-book-section__back-to-top{margin-top:0}.c-article-body .c-article-access-provider__text--chapter{color:#222;font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;padding:20px 0}.c-article-body .c-article-access-provider__text--chapter svg.c-status-message__icon{fill:#003f8d;vertical-align:middle}.c-article-body-section__content--separator{padding-top:40px}.c-pdf-download__link{max-height:44px}.app-article-access .u-button--primary,.app-article-access .u-button--primary:visited{color:#fff}.c-article-sidebar{display:none}@media only screen and (min-width:1024px){.c-article-sidebar{display:block}}.c-cod__form{border-radius:12px}.c-cod__label{font-size:.875rem}.c-cod .c-status-message{align-items:center;justify-content:center;margin-bottom:16px;padding-bottom:16px}@media only screen and (min-width:1024px){.c-cod .c-status-message{align-items:inherit}}.c-cod .c-status-message__icon{margin-top:4px}.c-cod .c-cod__prompt{font-size:1rem;margin-bottom:16px}.c-article-body .app-article-access,.c-book-body .app-article-access{display:block}@media only screen and (min-width:1024px){.c-article-body .app-article-access,.c-book-body .app-article-access{display:none}}.c-article-body .app-card-service{margin-bottom:32px}@media only screen and (min-width:1024px){.c-article-body .app-card-service{display:none}}.app-article-access .buybox__buy .u-button--secondary,.app-article-access .u-button--primary,.c-cod__row .u-button--primary{background-color:#025e8d;border:2px solid #025e8d;box-shadow:none;font-size:1rem;font-weight:700;gap:8px 8px;justify-content:center;line-height:1.5;padding:8px 24px}.app-article-access .buybox__buy .u-button--secondary,.app-article-access .u-button--primary:hover,.c-cod__row .u-button--primary:hover{background-color:#fff;color:#025e8d}.app-article-access .buybox__buy .u-button--secondary:hover{background-color:#025e8d;color:#fff}.buybox__buy .c-notes__text{color:#666;font-size:.875rem;padding:0 16px 8px}.c-cod__input{flex-basis:auto;width:100%}.c-article-title{font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:2.25rem;font-weight:700;line-height:1.2;margin:12px 0}.c-reading-companion__figure-item figure{margin:0}@media only screen and (min-width:768px){.c-article-title{margin:16px 0}}.app-article-access{border:1px solid #c5e0f4;border-radius:12px}.app-article-access__heading{border-bottom:1px solid #c5e0f4;font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:1.125rem;font-weight:700;margin:0;padding:16px;text-align:center}.app-article-access .buybox__info svg{vertical-align:middle}.c-article-body .app-article-access p{margin-bottom:0}.app-article-access .buybox__info{font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:1rem;margin:0}.app-article-access{margin:0 0 32px}@media only screen and (min-width:1024px){.app-article-access{margin:0 0 24px}}.c-status-message{font-size:1rem}.c-article-body{font-size:1.125rem}.c-article-body dl,.c-article-body ol,.c-article-body p,.c-article-body ul{margin-bottom:32px;margin-top:0}.c-article-access-provider__text:last-of-type,.c-article-body .c-notes__text:last-of-type{margin-bottom:0}.c-article-body ol p,.c-article-body ul p{margin-bottom:16px}.c-article-section__figure-caption{font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif}.c-reading-companion__figure-item{border-top-color:#c5e0f4}.c-reading-companion__sticky{max-width:400px}.c-article-section .c-article-section__figure-description>*{font-size:1rem;margin-bottom:16px}.c-reading-companion__reference-item{border-top:1px solid #d5d5d5;padding:16px 0}.c-reading-companion__reference-item:first-child{padding-top:0}.c-article-share-box__button,.js .c-article-authors-search__item .c-article-button{background:0 0;border:2px solid #025e8d;border-radius:32px;box-shadow:none;color:#025e8d;font-size:1rem;font-weight:700;line-height:1.5;margin:0;padding:8px 24px;transition:all .2s ease 0s}.c-article-authors-search__item .c-article-button{width:100%}.c-pdf-download .u-button{background-color:#fff;border:2px solid #fff;color:#01324b;justify-content:center}.c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button svg,.c-pdf-download .u-button svg{fill:currentcolor}.c-pdf-download .u-button:visited{color:#01324b}.c-pdf-download .u-button:hover{border:4px solid #01324b;box-shadow:none}.c-pdf-download .u-button:focus,.c-pdf-download .u-button:hover{background-color:#01324b}.c-pdf-download .u-button:focus svg path,.c-pdf-download .u-button:hover svg path{fill:#fff}.c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button{background-image:none;border:2px solid;color:#fff}.c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button:visited{color:#fff}.c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button:hover{text-decoration:none}.c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button:focus{box-shadow:none;outline:0;text-decoration:none}.c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button:focus,.c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button:hover{background-color:#fff;background-image:none;color:#01324b}.c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button:focus svg path,.c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button:hover svg path{fill:#01324b}.c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button,.c-pdf-download .u-button{box-shadow:none;font-size:1rem;font-weight:700;line-height:1.5;padding:8px 24px}.c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button{background-color:#025e8d}.c-pdf-download .u-button:hover{border:2px solid #fff}.c-pdf-download .u-button:focus,.c-pdf-download .u-button:hover{background:0 0;box-shadow:none;color:#fff}.c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button:hover{border:2px solid #025e8d;box-shadow:none;color:#025e8d}.c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button:focus,.c-pdf-download .u-button:focus{border:2px solid #025e8d}.c-article-share-box__button:focus:focus,.c-article__pill-button:focus:focus,.c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button:focus:focus,.c-pdf-download .u-button:focus:focus{outline:3px solid #08c;will-change:transform}.c-pdf-download__link .u-icon{padding-top:0}.c-bibliographic-information__column button{margin-bottom:16px}.c-article-body .c-article-author-affiliation__list p,.c-article-body .c-article-author-information__list p,figure{margin:0}.c-article-share-box__button{margin-right:16px}.c-status-message--boxed{border-radius:12px}.c-article-associated-content__collection-title{font-size:1rem}.app-card-service__description,.c-article-body .app-card-service__description{color:#222;margin-bottom:0;margin-top:8px}.app-article-access__subscriptions a,.app-article-access__subscriptions a:visited,.app-book-series-listing__item a,.app-book-series-listing__item a:hover,.app-book-series-listing__item a:visited,.c-article-author-list a,.c-article-author-list a:visited,.c-article-buy-box a,.c-article-buy-box a:visited,.c-article-peer-review a,.c-article-peer-review a:visited,.c-article-satellite-subtitle a,.c-article-satellite-subtitle a:visited,.c-breadcrumbs__link,.c-breadcrumbs__link:hover,.c-breadcrumbs__link:visited{color:#000}.c-article-author-list svg{height:24px;margin:0 0 0 6px;width:24px}.c-article-header{margin-bottom:32px}@media only screen and (min-width:876px){.js .c-ad--conditional{display:block}}.u-lazy-ad-wrapper{background-color:#fff;display:none;min-height:149px}@media only screen and (min-width:876px){.u-lazy-ad-wrapper{display:block}}p.c-ad__label{margin-bottom:4px}.c-ad--728x90{background-color:#fff;border-bottom:2px solid #cedbe0} } </style> <style>@media only print, only all and (prefers-color-scheme: no-preference), only all and (prefers-color-scheme: light), only all and (prefers-color-scheme: dark) { .eds-c-header__brand img{height:24px;width:203px}.app-article-masthead__journal-link img{height:93px;width:72px}@media only screen and (min-width:769px){.app-article-masthead__journal-link img{height:161px;width:122px}} } </style> <link rel="stylesheet" data-test="critical-css-handler" data-inline-css-source="critical-css" href=/oscar-static/app-springerlink/css/core-darwin-5272567b64.css media="print" onload="this.media='all';this.onload=null"> <link rel="stylesheet" data-test="critical-css-handler" data-inline-css-source="critical-css" href="/oscar-static/app-springerlink/css/enhanced-darwin-article-72ba046d97.css" media="print" onload="this.media='only print, only all and (prefers-color-scheme: no-preference), only all and (prefers-color-scheme: light), only all and (prefers-color-scheme: dark)';this.onload=null"> <script type="text/javascript"> config = { env: 'live', site: '12103.springer.com', siteWithPath: '12103.springer.com' + window.location.pathname, twitterHashtag: '12103', cmsPrefix: 'https://studio-cms.springernature.com/studio/', publisherBrand: 'Springer', mustardcut: false }; </script> <script> window.dataLayer = [{"GA Key":"UA-26408784-1","DOI":"10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0","Page":"article","springerJournal":true,"Publishing Model":"Hybrid Access","page":{"attributes":{"environment":"live"}},"Country":"HK","japan":false,"doi":"10.1007-s12103-020-09538-0","Journal Id":12103,"Journal Title":"American Journal of Criminal Justice","imprint":"Springer","Keywords":"COVID-19, Police and pandemic, Stay-at-home order, Shelter-in-place order","kwrd":["COVID-19","Police_and_pandemic","Stay-at-home_order","Shelter-in-place_order"],"Labs":"Y","ksg":"Krux.segments","kuid":"Krux.uid","Has Body":"Y","Features":[],"Open Access":"N","hasAccess":"Y","bypassPaywall":"N","user":{"license":{"businessPartnerID":[],"businessPartnerIDString":""}},"Access Type":"permanently-free","Bpids":"","Bpnames":"","BPID":["1"],"VG Wort Identifier":"pw-vgzm.415900-10.1007-s12103-020-09538-0","Full HTML":"Y","Subject Codes":["SC1B","SC1B0000"],"pmc":["1B","1B0000"],"session":{"authentication":{"loginStatus":"N"},"attributes":{"edition":"academic"}},"content":{"serial":{"eissn":"1936-1351","pissn":"1066-2316"},"type":"Article","category":{"pmc":{"primarySubject":"Criminology and Criminal Justice","primarySubjectCode":"1B","secondarySubjects":{"1":"Criminology and Criminal Justice, general"},"secondarySubjectCodes":{"1":"1B0000"}},"sucode":"SC19","articleType":"Article"},"attributes":{"deliveryPlatform":"oscar"}},"Event Category":"Article"}]; </script> <script data-test="springer-link-article-datalayer"> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; window.dataLayer.push({ ga4MeasurementId: 'G-B3E4QL2TPR', ga360TrackingId: 'UA-26408784-1', twitterId: 'o47a7', baiduId: 'aef3043f025ccf2305af8a194652d70b', ga4ServerUrl: 'https://collect.springer.com', imprint: 'springerlink', page: { attributes:{ featureFlags: [{ name: 'darwin-orion', active: true }, { name: 'chapter-books-recs', active: true } ], darwinAvailable: true } } }); </script> <script> (function(w, d) { w.config = w.config || {}; w.config.mustardcut = false; if (w.matchMedia && w.matchMedia('only print, only all and (prefers-color-scheme: no-preference), only all and (prefers-color-scheme: light), only all and (prefers-color-scheme: dark)').matches) { w.config.mustardcut = true; d.classList.add('js'); d.classList.remove('grade-c'); d.classList.remove('no-js'); } })(window, document.documentElement); </script> <script class="js-entry"> if (window.config.mustardcut) { (function(w, d) { window.Component = {}; window.suppressShareButton = false; window.onArticlePage = true; var currentScript = d.currentScript || d.head.querySelector('script.js-entry'); function catchNoModuleSupport() { var scriptEl = d.createElement('script'); return (!('noModule' in scriptEl) && 'onbeforeload' in scriptEl) } var headScripts = [ {'src': '/oscar-static/js/polyfill-es5-bundle-572d4fec60.js', 'async': false} ]; var bodyScripts = [ {'src': '/oscar-static/js/global-article-es5-bundle-dad1690b0d.js', 'async': false, 'module': false}, {'src': '/oscar-static/js/global-article-es6-bundle-e7d03c4cb3.js', 'async': false, 'module': true} ]; function createScript(script) { var scriptEl = d.createElement('script'); scriptEl.src = script.src; scriptEl.async = script.async; if (script.module === true) { scriptEl.type = "module"; if (catchNoModuleSupport()) { scriptEl.src = ''; } } else if (script.module === false) { scriptEl.setAttribute('nomodule', true) } if (script.charset) { scriptEl.setAttribute('charset', script.charset); } return scriptEl; } for (var i = 0; i < headScripts.length; ++i) { var scriptEl = createScript(headScripts[i]); currentScript.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptEl, currentScript.nextSibling); } d.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', function() { for (var i = 0; i < bodyScripts.length; ++i) { var scriptEl = createScript(bodyScripts[i]); d.body.appendChild(scriptEl); } }); // Webfont repeat view var config = w.config; if (config && config.publisherBrand && sessionStorage.fontsLoaded === 'true') { d.documentElement.className += ' webfonts-loaded'; } })(window, document); } </script> <script data-src="https://cdn.optimizely.com/js/27195530232.js" data-cc-script="C03"></script> <script data-test="gtm-head"> window.initGTM = function() { if (window.config.mustardcut) { (function (w, d, s, l, i) { w[l] = w[l] || []; w[l].push({'gtm.start': new Date().getTime(), event: 'gtm.js'}); var f = d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0], j = d.createElement(s), dl = l != 'dataLayer' ? '&l=' + l : ''; j.async = true; j.src = 'https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id=' + i + dl; f.parentNode.insertBefore(j, f); })(window, document, 'script', 'dataLayer', 'GTM-MRVXSHQ'); } } </script> <script> (function (w, d, t) { function cc() { var h = w.location.hostname; var e = d.createElement(t), s = d.getElementsByTagName(t)[0]; if (h.indexOf('springer.com') > -1 && h.indexOf('biomedcentral.com') === -1 && h.indexOf('springeropen.com') === -1) { if (h.indexOf('link-qa.springer.com') > -1 || h.indexOf('test-www.springer.com') > -1) { e.src = 'https://cmp.springer.com/production_live/en/consent-bundle-17-52.js'; e.setAttribute('onload', "initGTM(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-MRVXSHQ')"); } else { e.src = 'https://cmp.springer.com/production_live/en/consent-bundle-17-52.js'; e.setAttribute('onload', "initGTM(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-MRVXSHQ')"); } } else if (h.indexOf('biomedcentral.com') > -1) { if (h.indexOf('biomedcentral.com.qa') > -1) { e.src = 'https://cmp.biomedcentral.com/production_live/en/consent-bundle-15-36.js'; e.setAttribute('onload', "initGTM(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-MRVXSHQ')"); } else { e.src = 'https://cmp.biomedcentral.com/production_live/en/consent-bundle-15-36.js'; e.setAttribute('onload', "initGTM(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-MRVXSHQ')"); } } else if (h.indexOf('springeropen.com') > -1) { if (h.indexOf('springeropen.com.qa') > -1) { e.src = 'https://cmp.springernature.com/production_live/en/consent-bundle-16-34.js'; e.setAttribute('onload', "initGTM(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-MRVXSHQ')"); } else { e.src = 'https://cmp.springernature.com/production_live/en/consent-bundle-16-34.js'; e.setAttribute('onload', "initGTM(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-MRVXSHQ')"); } } else if (h.indexOf('springernature.com') > -1) { if (h.indexOf('beta-qa.springernature.com') > -1) { e.src = 'https://cmp.springernature.com/production_live/en/consent-bundle-49-43.js'; e.setAttribute('onload', "initGTM(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-NK22KLS')"); } else { e.src = 'https://cmp.springernature.com/production_live/en/consent-bundle-49-43.js'; e.setAttribute('onload', "initGTM(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-NK22KLS')"); } } else { e.src = '/oscar-static/js/cookie-consent-es5-bundle-cb57c2c98a.js'; e.setAttribute('data-consent', h); } s.insertAdjacentElement('afterend', e); } cc(); })(window, document, 'script'); </script> <link rel="canonical" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0"/> <script type="application/ld+json">{"mainEntity":{"headline":"Policing a Pandemic: Stay-at-Home Orders and What they Mean for the Police","description":"The COVID-19 pandemic has dramatically altered life globally during the first 4 months of 2020. Many countries, including the United States, responded to the pandemic by issuing stay-at-home orders/shelter-in-place orders (SaHOs/SiPOs) to their citizens. By April 2020, more than 90% of the U.S. population was subject to an order. SaHOs/SiPOs raise a number of complex issues for the police, ranging from concerns about infringement of constitutional rights to potential sanctions for violations of an order. This article delves into the issues surrounding SaHOs/SiPOs and highlights their complexity for the police. First, we examine the “why the police?” question, and point to key features of their role which make enforcement of SaHOs/SiPOs the proper business of the police. Second, we examine the relevant legal doctrines that can serve as the basis for police actions against violators of orders, most notably the special needs doctrine. Last, we offer police legitimacy as a lens for viewing the appropriateness of police responses to violators of SaHOs/SiPOs.","datePublished":"2020-06-09T00:00:00Z","dateModified":"2020-06-09T00:00:00Z","pageStart":"702","pageEnd":"717","sameAs":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0","keywords":["COVID-19","Police and pandemic","Stay-at-home order","Shelter-in-place order","Criminology and Criminal Justice","general"],"image":[],"isPartOf":{"name":"American Journal of Criminal Justice","issn":["1936-1351","1066-2316"],"volumeNumber":"45","@type":["Periodical","PublicationVolume"]},"publisher":{"name":"Springer US","logo":{"url":"https://www.springernature.com/app-sn/public/images/logo-springernature.png","@type":"ImageObject"},"@type":"Organization"},"author":[{"name":"Michael D. White","affiliation":[{"name":"Arizona State University","address":{"name":"School of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Arizona State University, Phoenix, USA","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"email":"mdwhite1@asu.edu","@type":"Person"},{"name":"Henry F. Fradella","affiliation":[{"name":"Arizona State University","address":{"name":"School of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Arizona State University, Phoenix, USA","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"}],"isAccessibleForFree":true,"@type":"ScholarlyArticle"},"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"WebPage"}</script> </head> <body class="" > <!-- Google Tag Manager (noscript) --> <noscript> <iframe src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-MRVXSHQ" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe> </noscript> <!-- End Google Tag Manager (noscript) --> <!-- Google Tag Manager (noscript) --> <noscript data-test="gtm-body"> <iframe src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-MRVXSHQ" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe> </noscript> <!-- End Google Tag Manager (noscript) --> <div class="u-visually-hidden" aria-hidden="true" data-test="darwin-icons"> <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><!DOCTYPE svg PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD SVG 1.1//EN" "http://www.w3.org/Graphics/SVG/1.1/DTD/svg11.dtd"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"><symbol id="icon-eds-i-accesses-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M15.59 1a1 1 0 0 1 .706.291l5.41 5.385a1 1 0 0 1 .294.709v13.077c0 .674-.269 1.32-.747 1.796a2.549 2.549 0 0 1-1.798.742H15a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h4.455a.549.549 0 0 0 .387-.16.535.535 0 0 0 .158-.378V7.8L15.178 3H5.545a.543.543 0 0 0-.538.451L5 3.538v8.607a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V3.538A2.542 2.542 0 0 1 5.545 1h10.046ZM8 13c2.052 0 4.66 1.61 6.36 3.4l.124.141c.333.41.516.925.516 1.459 0 .6-.232 1.178-.64 1.599C12.666 21.388 10.054 23 8 23c-2.052 0-4.66-1.61-6.353-3.393A2.31 2.31 0 0 1 1 18c0-.6.232-1.178.64-1.6C3.34 14.61 5.948 13 8 13Zm0 2c-1.369 0-3.552 1.348-4.917 2.785A.31.31 0 0 0 3 18c0 .083.031.161.09.222C4.447 19.652 6.631 21 8 21c1.37 0 3.556-1.35 4.917-2.785A.31.31 0 0 0 13 18a.32.32 0 0 0-.048-.17l-.042-.052C11.553 16.348 9.369 15 8 15Zm0 1a2 2 0 1 1 0 4 2 2 0 0 1 0-4Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-altmetric-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 1c5.978 0 10.843 4.77 10.996 10.712l.004.306-.002.022-.002.248C22.843 18.23 17.978 23 12 23 5.925 23 1 18.075 1 12S5.925 1 12 1Zm-1.726 9.246L8.848 12.53a1 1 0 0 1-.718.461L8.003 13l-4.947.014a9.001 9.001 0 0 0 17.887-.001L16.553 13l-2.205 3.53a1 1 0 0 1-1.735-.068l-.05-.11-2.289-6.106ZM12 3a9.001 9.001 0 0 0-8.947 8.013l4.391-.012L9.652 7.47a1 1 0 0 1 1.784.179l2.288 6.104 1.428-2.283a1 1 0 0 1 .722-.462l.129-.008 4.943.012A9.001 9.001 0 0 0 12 3Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-arrow-bend-down-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="m11.852 20.989.058.007L12 21l.075-.003.126-.017.111-.03.111-.044.098-.052.104-.074.082-.073 6-6a1 1 0 0 0-1.414-1.414L13 17.585v-12.2C13 4.075 11.964 3 10.667 3H4a1 1 0 1 0 0 2h6.667c.175 0 .333.164.333.385v12.2l-4.293-4.292a1 1 0 0 0-1.32-.083l-.094.083a1 1 0 0 0 0 1.414l6 6c.035.036.073.068.112.097l.11.071.114.054.105.035.118.025Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-arrow-bend-down-small" viewBox="0 0 16 16"><path d="M1 2a1 1 0 0 0 1 1h5v8.585L3.707 8.293a1 1 0 0 0-1.32-.083l-.094.083a1 1 0 0 0 0 1.414l5 5 .063.059.093.069.081.048.105.048.104.035.105.022.096.01h.136l.122-.018.113-.03.103-.04.1-.053.102-.07.052-.043 5.04-5.037a1 1 0 1 0-1.415-1.414L9 11.583V3a2 2 0 0 0-2-2H2a1 1 0 0 0-1 1Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-arrow-bend-up-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="m11.852 3.011.058-.007L12 3l.075.003.126.017.111.03.111.044.098.052.104.074.082.073 6 6a1 1 0 1 1-1.414 1.414L13 6.415v12.2C13 19.925 11.964 21 10.667 21H4a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h6.667c.175 0 .333-.164.333-.385v-12.2l-4.293 4.292a1 1 0 0 1-1.32.083l-.094-.083a1 1 0 0 1 0-1.414l6-6c.035-.036.073-.068.112-.097l.11-.071.114-.054.105-.035.118-.025Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-arrow-bend-up-small" viewBox="0 0 16 16"><path d="M1 13.998a1 1 0 0 1 1-1h5V4.413L3.707 7.705a1 1 0 0 1-1.32.084l-.094-.084a1 1 0 0 1 0-1.414l5-5 .063-.059.093-.068.081-.05.105-.047.104-.035.105-.022L7.94 1l.136.001.122.017.113.03.103.04.1.053.102.07.052.043 5.04 5.037a1 1 0 1 1-1.415 1.414L9 4.415v8.583a2 2 0 0 1-2 2H2a1 1 0 0 1-1-1Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-arrow-diagonal-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M14 3h6l.075.003.126.017.111.03.111.044.098.052.096.067.09.08c.036.035.068.073.097.112l.071.11.054.114.035.105.03.148L21 4v6a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V6.414l-4.293 4.293a1 1 0 0 1-1.414-1.414L17.584 5H14a1 1 0 0 1-.993-.883L13 4a1 1 0 0 1 1-1ZM4 13a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v3.584l4.293-4.291a1 1 0 1 1 1.414 1.414L6.414 19H10a1 1 0 0 1 .993.883L11 20a1 1 0 0 1-1 1l-6.075-.003-.126-.017-.111-.03-.111-.044-.098-.052-.096-.067-.09-.08a1.01 1.01 0 0 1-.097-.112l-.071-.11-.054-.114-.035-.105-.025-.118-.007-.058L3 20v-6a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-arrow-diagonal-small" viewBox="0 0 16 16"><path d="m2 15-.082-.004-.119-.016-.111-.03-.111-.044-.098-.052-.096-.067-.09-.08a1.008 1.008 0 0 1-.097-.112l-.071-.11-.031-.062-.034-.081-.024-.076-.025-.118-.007-.058L1 14.02V9a1 1 0 1 1 2 0v2.584l2.793-2.791a1 1 0 1 1 1.414 1.414L4.414 13H7a1 1 0 0 1 .993.883L8 14a1 1 0 0 1-1 1H2ZM14 1l.081.003.12.017.111.03.111.044.098.052.096.067.09.08c.036.035.068.073.097.112l.071.11.031.062.034.081.024.076.03.148L15 2v5a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V4.414l-2.96 2.96A1 1 0 1 1 8.626 5.96L11.584 3H9a1 1 0 0 1-.993-.883L8 2a1 1 0 0 1 1-1h5Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-arrow-down-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="m20.707 12.728-7.99 7.98a.996.996 0 0 1-.561.281l-.157.011a.998.998 0 0 1-.788-.384l-7.918-7.908a1 1 0 0 1 1.414-1.416L11 17.576V4a1 1 0 0 1 2 0v13.598l6.293-6.285a1 1 0 0 1 1.32-.082l.095.083a1 1 0 0 1-.001 1.414Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-arrow-down-small" viewBox="0 0 16 16"><path d="m1.293 8.707 6 6 .063.059.093.069.081.048.105.049.104.034.056.013.118.017L8 15l.076-.003.122-.017.113-.03.085-.032.063-.03.098-.058.06-.043.05-.043 6.04-6.037a1 1 0 0 0-1.414-1.414L9 11.583V2a1 1 0 1 0-2 0v9.585L2.707 7.293a1 1 0 0 0-1.32-.083l-.094.083a1 1 0 0 0 0 1.414Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-arrow-left-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="m11.272 3.293-7.98 7.99a.996.996 0 0 0-.281.561L3 12.001c0 .32.15.605.384.788l7.908 7.918a1 1 0 0 0 1.416-1.414L6.424 13H20a1 1 0 0 0 0-2H6.402l6.285-6.293a1 1 0 0 0 .082-1.32l-.083-.095a1 1 0 0 0-1.414.001Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-arrow-left-small" viewBox="0 0 16 16"><path d="m7.293 1.293-6 6-.059.063-.069.093-.048.081-.049.105-.034.104-.013.056-.017.118L1 8l.003.076.017.122.03.113.032.085.03.063.058.098.043.06.043.05 6.037 6.04a1 1 0 0 0 1.414-1.414L4.417 9H14a1 1 0 0 0 0-2H4.415l4.292-4.293a1 1 0 0 0 .083-1.32l-.083-.094a1 1 0 0 0-1.414 0Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-arrow-right-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="m12.728 3.293 7.98 7.99a.996.996 0 0 1 .281.561l.011.157c0 .32-.15.605-.384.788l-7.908 7.918a1 1 0 0 1-1.416-1.414L17.576 13H4a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h13.598l-6.285-6.293a1 1 0 0 1-.082-1.32l.083-.095a1 1 0 0 1 1.414.001Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-arrow-right-small" viewBox="0 0 16 16"><path d="m8.707 1.293 6 6 .059.063.069.093.048.081.049.105.034.104.013.056.017.118L15 8l-.003.076-.017.122-.03.113-.032.085-.03.063-.058.098-.043.06-.043.05-6.037 6.04a1 1 0 0 1-1.414-1.414L11.583 9H2a1 1 0 1 1 0-2h9.585L7.293 2.707a1 1 0 0 1-.083-1.32l.083-.094a1 1 0 0 1 1.414 0Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-arrow-up-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="m3.293 11.272 7.99-7.98a.996.996 0 0 1 .561-.281L12.001 3c.32 0 .605.15.788.384l7.918 7.908a1 1 0 0 1-1.414 1.416L13 6.424V20a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V6.402l-6.293 6.285a1 1 0 0 1-1.32.082l-.095-.083a1 1 0 0 1 .001-1.414Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-arrow-up-small" viewBox="0 0 16 16"><path d="m1.293 7.293 6-6 .063-.059.093-.069.081-.048.105-.049.104-.034.056-.013.118-.017L8 1l.076.003.122.017.113.03.085.032.063.03.098.058.06.043.05.043 6.04 6.037a1 1 0 0 1-1.414 1.414L9 4.417V14a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V4.415L2.707 8.707a1 1 0 0 1-1.32.083l-.094-.083a1 1 0 0 1 0-1.414Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-article-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M8 7a1 1 0 0 0 0 2h4a1 1 0 1 0 0-2H8ZM8 11a1 1 0 1 0 0 2h8a1 1 0 1 0 0-2H8ZM7 16a1 1 0 0 1 1-1h8a1 1 0 1 1 0 2H8a1 1 0 0 1-1-1Z"/><path d="M5.545 1A2.542 2.542 0 0 0 3 3.538v16.924A2.542 2.542 0 0 0 5.545 23h12.91A2.542 2.542 0 0 0 21 20.462V3.5A2.5 2.5 0 0 0 18.5 1H5.545ZM5 3.538C5 3.245 5.24 3 5.545 3H18.5a.5.5 0 0 1 .5.5v16.962c0 .293-.24.538-.546.538H5.545A.542.542 0 0 1 5 20.462V3.538Z" clip-rule="evenodd"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-book-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M18.5 1A2.5 2.5 0 0 1 21 3.5v12c0 1.16-.79 2.135-1.86 2.418l-.14.031V21h1a1 1 0 0 1 .993.883L21 22a1 1 0 0 1-1 1H6.5A3.5 3.5 0 0 1 3 19.5v-15A3.5 3.5 0 0 1 6.5 1h12ZM17 18H6.5a1.5 1.5 0 0 0-1.493 1.356L5 19.5A1.5 1.5 0 0 0 6.5 21H17v-3Zm1.5-15h-12A1.5 1.5 0 0 0 5 4.5v11.837l.054-.025a3.481 3.481 0 0 1 1.254-.307L6.5 16h12a.5.5 0 0 0 .492-.41L19 15.5v-12a.5.5 0 0 0-.5-.5ZM15 6a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H9a1 1 0 1 1 0-2h6Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-book-series-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M1 3.786C1 2.759 1.857 2 2.82 2H6.18c.964 0 1.82.759 1.82 1.786V4h3.168c.668 0 1.298.364 1.616.938.158-.109.333-.195.523-.252l3.216-.965c.923-.277 1.962.204 2.257 1.187l4.146 13.82c.296.984-.307 1.957-1.23 2.234l-3.217.965c-.923.277-1.962-.203-2.257-1.187L13 10.005v10.21c0 1.04-.878 1.785-1.834 1.785H7.833c-.291 0-.575-.07-.83-.195A1.849 1.849 0 0 1 6.18 22H2.821C1.857 22 1 21.241 1 20.214V3.786ZM3 4v11h3V4H3Zm0 16v-3h3v3H3Zm15.075-.04-.814-2.712 2.874-.862.813 2.712-2.873.862Zm1.485-5.49-2.874.862-2.634-8.782 2.873-.862 2.635 8.782ZM8 20V6h3v14H8Z" clip-rule="evenodd"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-calendar-acceptance-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M17 2a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v1h1.5C20.817 4 22 5.183 22 6.5v13c0 1.317-1.183 2.5-2.5 2.5h-15C3.183 22 2 20.817 2 19.5v-13C2 5.183 3.183 4 4.5 4a1 1 0 1 1 0 2c-.212 0-.5.288-.5.5v13c0 .212.288.5.5.5h15c.212 0 .5-.288.5-.5v-13c0-.212-.288-.5-.5-.5H18v1a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V3a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Zm-.534 7.747a1 1 0 0 1 .094 1.412l-4.846 5.538a1 1 0 0 1-1.352.141l-2.77-2.076a1 1 0 0 1 1.2-1.6l2.027 1.519 4.236-4.84a1 1 0 0 1 1.411-.094ZM7.5 2a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v1H14a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H8.5v1a1 1 0 1 1-2 0V3a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-calendar-date-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M17 2a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v1h1.5C20.817 4 22 5.183 22 6.5v13c0 1.317-1.183 2.5-2.5 2.5h-15C3.183 22 2 20.817 2 19.5v-13C2 5.183 3.183 4 4.5 4a1 1 0 1 1 0 2c-.212 0-.5.288-.5.5v13c0 .212.288.5.5.5h15c.212 0 .5-.288.5-.5v-13c0-.212-.288-.5-.5-.5H18v1a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V3a1 1 0 0 1 1-1ZM8 15a1 1 0 1 1 0 2 1 1 0 0 1 0-2Zm4 0a1 1 0 1 1 0 2 1 1 0 0 1 0-2Zm-4-4a1 1 0 1 1 0 2 1 1 0 0 1 0-2Zm4 0a1 1 0 1 1 0 2 1 1 0 0 1 0-2Zm4 0a1 1 0 1 1 0 2 1 1 0 0 1 0-2ZM7.5 2a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v1H14a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H8.5v1a1 1 0 1 1-2 0V3a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-calendar-decision-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M17 2a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v1h1.5C20.817 4 22 5.183 22 6.5v13c0 1.317-1.183 2.5-2.5 2.5h-15C3.183 22 2 20.817 2 19.5v-13C2 5.183 3.183 4 4.5 4a1 1 0 1 1 0 2c-.212 0-.5.288-.5.5v13c0 .212.288.5.5.5h15c.212 0 .5-.288.5-.5v-13c0-.212-.288-.5-.5-.5H18v1a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V3a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Zm-2.935 8.246 2.686 2.645c.34.335.34.883 0 1.218l-2.686 2.645a.858.858 0 0 1-1.213-.009.854.854 0 0 1 .009-1.21l1.05-1.035H7.984a.992.992 0 0 1-.984-1c0-.552.44-1 .984-1h5.928l-1.051-1.036a.854.854 0 0 1-.085-1.121l.076-.088a.858.858 0 0 1 1.213-.009ZM7.5 2a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v1H14a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H8.5v1a1 1 0 1 1-2 0V3a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-calendar-impact-factor-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M17 2a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v1h1.5C20.817 4 22 5.183 22 6.5v13c0 1.317-1.183 2.5-2.5 2.5h-15C3.183 22 2 20.817 2 19.5v-13C2 5.183 3.183 4 4.5 4a1 1 0 1 1 0 2c-.212 0-.5.288-.5.5v13c0 .212.288.5.5.5h15c.212 0 .5-.288.5-.5v-13c0-.212-.288-.5-.5-.5H18v1a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V3a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Zm-3.2 6.924a.48.48 0 0 1 .125.544l-1.52 3.283h2.304c.27 0 .491.215.491.483a.477.477 0 0 1-.13.327l-4.18 4.484a.498.498 0 0 1-.69.031.48.48 0 0 1-.125-.544l1.52-3.284H9.291a.487.487 0 0 1-.491-.482c0-.121.047-.238.13-.327l4.18-4.484a.498.498 0 0 1 .69-.031ZM7.5 2a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v1H14a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H8.5v1a1 1 0 1 1-2 0V3a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-call-papers-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><g><path d="m20.707 2.883-1.414 1.414a1 1 0 0 0 1.414 1.414l1.414-1.414a1 1 0 0 0-1.414-1.414Z"/><path d="M6 16.054c0 2.026 1.052 2.943 3 2.943a1 1 0 1 1 0 2c-2.996 0-5-1.746-5-4.943v-1.227a4.068 4.068 0 0 1-1.83-1.189 4.553 4.553 0 0 1-.87-1.455 4.868 4.868 0 0 1-.3-1.686c0-1.17.417-2.298 1.17-3.14.38-.426.834-.767 1.338-1 .51-.237 1.06-.36 1.617-.36L6.632 6H7l7.932-2.895A2.363 2.363 0 0 1 18 5.36v9.28a2.36 2.36 0 0 1-3.069 2.25l.084.03L7 14.997H6v1.057Zm9.637-11.057a.415.415 0 0 0-.083.008L8 7.638v5.536l7.424 1.786.104.02c.035.01.072.02.109.02.2 0 .363-.16.363-.36V5.36c0-.2-.163-.363-.363-.363Zm-9.638 3h-.874a1.82 1.82 0 0 0-.625.111l-.15.063a2.128 2.128 0 0 0-.689.517c-.42.47-.661 1.123-.661 1.81 0 .34.06.678.176.992.114.308.28.585.485.816.4.447.925.691 1.464.691h.874v-5Z" clip-rule="evenodd"/><path d="M20 8.997h2a1 1 0 1 1 0 2h-2a1 1 0 1 1 0-2ZM20.707 14.293l1.414 1.414a1 1 0 0 1-1.414 1.414l-1.414-1.414a1 1 0 0 1 1.414-1.414Z"/></g></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-card-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M19.615 2c.315 0 .716.067 1.14.279.76.38 1.245 1.107 1.245 2.106v15.23c0 .315-.067.716-.279 1.14-.38.76-1.107 1.245-2.106 1.245H4.385a2.56 2.56 0 0 1-1.14-.279C2.485 21.341 2 20.614 2 19.615V4.385c0-.315.067-.716.279-1.14C2.659 2.485 3.386 2 4.385 2h15.23Zm0 2H4.385c-.213 0-.265.034-.317.14A.71.71 0 0 0 4 4.385v15.23c0 .213.034.265.14.317a.71.71 0 0 0 .245.068h15.23c.213 0 .265-.034.317-.14a.71.71 0 0 0 .068-.245V4.385c0-.213-.034-.265-.14-.317A.71.71 0 0 0 19.615 4ZM17 16a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H7a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h10Zm0-3a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H7a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h10Zm-.5-7A1.5 1.5 0 0 1 18 7.5v3a1.5 1.5 0 0 1-1.5 1.5h-9A1.5 1.5 0 0 1 6 10.5v-3A1.5 1.5 0 0 1 7.5 6h9ZM16 8H8v2h8V8Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-cart-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M5.76 1a1 1 0 0 1 .994.902L7.155 6h13.34c.18 0 .358.02.532.057l.174.045a2.5 2.5 0 0 1 1.693 3.103l-2.069 7.03c-.36 1.099-1.398 1.823-2.49 1.763H8.65c-1.272.015-2.352-.927-2.546-2.244L4.852 3H2a1 1 0 0 1-.993-.883L1 2a1 1 0 0 1 1-1h3.76Zm2.328 14.51a.555.555 0 0 0 .55.488l9.751.001a.533.533 0 0 0 .527-.357l2.059-7a.5.5 0 0 0-.48-.642H7.351l.737 7.51ZM18 19a2 2 0 1 1 0 4 2 2 0 0 1 0-4ZM8 19a2 2 0 1 1 0 4 2 2 0 0 1 0-4Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-check-circle-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 1c6.075 0 11 4.925 11 11s-4.925 11-11 11S1 18.075 1 12 5.925 1 12 1Zm0 2a9 9 0 1 0 0 18 9 9 0 0 0 0-18Zm5.125 4.72a1 1 0 0 1 .156 1.405l-6 7.5a1 1 0 0 1-1.421.143l-3-2.5a1 1 0 0 1 1.28-1.536l2.217 1.846 5.362-6.703a1 1 0 0 1 1.406-.156Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-check-filled-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 1c6.075 0 11 4.925 11 11s-4.925 11-11 11S1 18.075 1 12 5.925 1 12 1Zm5.125 6.72a1 1 0 0 0-1.406.155l-5.362 6.703-2.217-1.846a1 1 0 1 0-1.28 1.536l3 2.5a1 1 0 0 0 1.42-.143l6-7.5a1 1 0 0 0-.155-1.406Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-chevron-down-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M3.305 8.28a1 1 0 0 0-.024 1.415l7.495 7.762c.314.345.757.543 1.224.543.467 0 .91-.198 1.204-.522l7.515-7.783a1 1 0 1 0-1.438-1.39L12 15.845l-7.28-7.54A1 1 0 0 0 3.4 8.2l-.096.082Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-chevron-down-small" viewBox="0 0 16 16"><path d="M13.692 5.278a1 1 0 0 1 .03 1.414L9.103 11.51a1.491 1.491 0 0 1-2.188.019L2.278 6.692a1 1 0 0 1 1.444-1.384L8 9.771l4.278-4.463a1 1 0 0 1 1.318-.111l.096.081Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-chevron-left-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M15.72 3.305a1 1 0 0 0-1.415-.024l-7.762 7.495A1.655 1.655 0 0 0 6 12c0 .467.198.91.522 1.204l7.783 7.515a1 1 0 1 0 1.39-1.438L8.155 12l7.54-7.28A1 1 0 0 0 15.8 3.4l-.082-.096Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-chevron-left-small" viewBox="0 0 16 16"><path d="M10.722 2.308a1 1 0 0 0-1.414-.03L4.49 6.897a1.491 1.491 0 0 0-.019 2.188l4.838 4.637a1 1 0 1 0 1.384-1.444L6.229 8l4.463-4.278a1 1 0 0 0 .111-1.318l-.081-.096Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-chevron-right-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M8.28 3.305a1 1 0 0 1 1.415-.024l7.762 7.495c.345.314.543.757.543 1.224 0 .467-.198.91-.522 1.204l-7.783 7.515a1 1 0 1 1-1.39-1.438L15.845 12l-7.54-7.28A1 1 0 0 1 8.2 3.4l.082-.096Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small" viewBox="0 0 16 16"><path d="M5.278 2.308a1 1 0 0 1 1.414-.03l4.819 4.619a1.491 1.491 0 0 1 .019 2.188l-4.838 4.637a1 1 0 1 1-1.384-1.444L9.771 8 5.308 3.722a1 1 0 0 1-.111-1.318l.081-.096Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-chevron-up-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M20.695 15.72a1 1 0 0 0 .024-1.415l-7.495-7.762A1.655 1.655 0 0 0 12 6c-.467 0-.91.198-1.204.522l-7.515 7.783a1 1 0 1 0 1.438 1.39L12 8.155l7.28 7.54a1 1 0 0 0 1.319.106l.096-.082Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-chevron-up-small" viewBox="0 0 16 16"><path d="M13.692 10.722a1 1 0 0 0 .03-1.414L9.103 4.49a1.491 1.491 0 0 0-2.188-.019L2.278 9.308a1 1 0 0 0 1.444 1.384L8 6.229l4.278 4.463a1 1 0 0 0 1.318.111l.096-.081Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-citations-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M15.59 1a1 1 0 0 1 .706.291l5.41 5.385a1 1 0 0 1 .294.709v13.077c0 .674-.269 1.32-.747 1.796a2.549 2.549 0 0 1-1.798.742h-5.843a1 1 0 1 1 0-2h5.843a.549.549 0 0 0 .387-.16.535.535 0 0 0 .158-.378V7.8L15.178 3H5.545a.543.543 0 0 0-.538.451L5 3.538v8.607a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V3.538A2.542 2.542 0 0 1 5.545 1h10.046ZM5.483 14.35c.197.26.17.62-.049.848l-.095.083-.016.011c-.36.24-.628.45-.804.634-.393.409-.59.93-.59 1.562.077-.019.192-.028.345-.028.442 0 .84.158 1.195.474.355.316.532.716.532 1.2 0 .501-.173.9-.518 1.198-.345.298-.767.446-1.266.446-.672 0-1.209-.195-1.612-.585-.403-.39-.604-.976-.604-1.757 0-.744.11-1.39.33-1.938.222-.549.49-1.009.807-1.38a4.28 4.28 0 0 1 .992-.88c.07-.043.148-.087.232-.133a.881.881 0 0 1 1.121.245Zm5 0c.197.26.17.62-.049.848l-.095.083-.016.011c-.36.24-.628.45-.804.634-.393.409-.59.93-.59 1.562.077-.019.192-.028.345-.028.442 0 .84.158 1.195.474.355.316.532.716.532 1.2 0 .501-.173.9-.518 1.198-.345.298-.767.446-1.266.446-.672 0-1.209-.195-1.612-.585-.403-.39-.604-.976-.604-1.757 0-.744.11-1.39.33-1.938.222-.549.49-1.009.807-1.38a4.28 4.28 0 0 1 .992-.88c.07-.043.148-.087.232-.133a.881.881 0 0 1 1.121.245Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-clipboard-check-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M14.4 1c1.238 0 2.274.865 2.536 2.024L18.5 3C19.886 3 21 4.14 21 5.535v14.93C21 21.86 19.886 23 18.5 23h-13C4.114 23 3 21.86 3 20.465V5.535C3 4.14 4.114 3 5.5 3h1.57c.27-1.147 1.3-2 2.53-2h4.8Zm4.115 4-1.59.024A2.601 2.601 0 0 1 14.4 7H9.6c-1.23 0-2.26-.853-2.53-2H5.5c-.27 0-.5.234-.5.535v14.93c0 .3.23.535.5.535h13c.27 0 .5-.234.5-.535V5.535c0-.3-.23-.535-.485-.535Zm-1.909 4.205a1 1 0 0 1 .19 1.401l-5.334 7a1 1 0 0 1-1.344.23l-2.667-1.75a1 1 0 1 1 1.098-1.672l1.887 1.238 4.769-6.258a1 1 0 0 1 1.401-.19ZM14.4 3H9.6a.6.6 0 0 0-.6.6v.8a.6.6 0 0 0 .6.6h4.8a.6.6 0 0 0 .6-.6v-.8a.6.6 0 0 0-.6-.6Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-clipboard-report-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M14.4 1c1.238 0 2.274.865 2.536 2.024L18.5 3C19.886 3 21 4.14 21 5.535v14.93C21 21.86 19.886 23 18.5 23h-13C4.114 23 3 21.86 3 20.465V5.535C3 4.14 4.114 3 5.5 3h1.57c.27-1.147 1.3-2 2.53-2h4.8Zm4.115 4-1.59.024A2.601 2.601 0 0 1 14.4 7H9.6c-1.23 0-2.26-.853-2.53-2H5.5c-.27 0-.5.234-.5.535v14.93c0 .3.23.535.5.535h13c.27 0 .5-.234.5-.535V5.535c0-.3-.23-.535-.485-.535Zm-2.658 10.929a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H8a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h7.857Zm0-3.929a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H8a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h7.857ZM14.4 3H9.6a.6.6 0 0 0-.6.6v.8a.6.6 0 0 0 .6.6h4.8a.6.6 0 0 0 .6-.6v-.8a.6.6 0 0 0-.6-.6Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-close-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 1c6.075 0 11 4.925 11 11s-4.925 11-11 11S1 18.075 1 12 5.925 1 12 1Zm0 2a9 9 0 1 0 0 18 9 9 0 0 0 0-18ZM8.707 7.293 12 10.585l3.293-3.292a1 1 0 0 1 1.414 1.414L13.415 12l3.292 3.293a1 1 0 0 1-1.414 1.414L12 13.415l-3.293 3.292a1 1 0 1 1-1.414-1.414L10.585 12 7.293 8.707a1 1 0 0 1 1.414-1.414Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-cloud-upload-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="m12.852 10.011.028-.004L13 10l.075.003.126.017.086.022.136.052.098.052.104.074.082.073 3 3a1 1 0 0 1 0 1.414l-.094.083a1 1 0 0 1-1.32-.083L14 13.416V20a1 1 0 0 1-2 0v-6.586l-1.293 1.293a1 1 0 0 1-1.32.083l-.094-.083a1 1 0 0 1 0-1.414l3-3 .112-.097.11-.071.114-.054.105-.035.118-.025Zm.587-7.962c3.065.362 5.497 2.662 5.992 5.562l.013.085.207.073c2.117.782 3.496 2.845 3.337 5.097l-.022.226c-.297 2.561-2.503 4.491-5.124 4.502a1 1 0 1 1-.009-2c1.619-.007 2.967-1.186 3.147-2.733.179-1.542-.86-2.979-2.487-3.353-.512-.149-.894-.579-.981-1.165-.21-2.237-2-4.035-4.308-4.308-2.31-.273-4.497 1.06-5.25 3.19l-.049.113c-.234.468-.718.756-1.176.743-1.418.057-2.689.857-3.32 2.084a3.668 3.668 0 0 0 .262 3.798c.796 1.136 2.169 1.764 3.583 1.635a1 1 0 1 1 .182 1.992c-2.125.194-4.193-.753-5.403-2.48a5.668 5.668 0 0 1-.403-5.86c.85-1.652 2.449-2.79 4.323-3.092l.287-.039.013-.028c1.207-2.741 4.125-4.404 7.186-4.042Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-collection-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M21 7a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v12.5a2.5 2.5 0 0 1-2.5 2.5H8a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h11.5a.5.5 0 0 0 .5-.5V8a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Zm-5.5-5A2.5 2.5 0 0 1 18 4.5v12a2.5 2.5 0 0 1-2.5 2.5h-11A2.5 2.5 0 0 1 2 16.5v-12A2.5 2.5 0 0 1 4.5 2h11Zm0 2h-11a.5.5 0 0 0-.5.5v12a.5.5 0 0 0 .5.5h11a.5.5 0 0 0 .5-.5v-12a.5.5 0 0 0-.5-.5ZM13 13a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H7a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h6Zm0-3.5a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H7a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h6ZM13 6a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H7a1 1 0 1 1 0-2h6Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-conference-series-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M4.5 2A2.5 2.5 0 0 0 2 4.5v11A2.5 2.5 0 0 0 4.5 18h2.37l-2.534 2.253a1 1 0 0 0 1.328 1.494L9.88 18H11v3a1 1 0 1 0 2 0v-3h1.12l4.216 3.747a1 1 0 0 0 1.328-1.494L17.13 18h2.37a2.5 2.5 0 0 0 2.5-2.5v-11A2.5 2.5 0 0 0 19.5 2h-15ZM20 6V4.5a.5.5 0 0 0-.5-.5h-15a.5.5 0 0 0-.5.5V6h16ZM4 8v7.5a.5.5 0 0 0 .5.5h15a.5.5 0 0 0 .5-.5V8H4Z" clip-rule="evenodd"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-delivery-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M8.51 20.598a3.037 3.037 0 0 1-3.02 0A2.968 2.968 0 0 1 4.161 19L3.5 19A2.5 2.5 0 0 1 1 16.5v-11A2.5 2.5 0 0 1 3.5 3h10a2.5 2.5 0 0 1 2.45 2.004L16 5h2.527c.976 0 1.855.585 2.27 1.49l2.112 4.62a1 1 0 0 1 .091.416v4.856C23 17.814 21.889 19 20.484 19h-.523a1.01 1.01 0 0 1-.121-.007 2.96 2.96 0 0 1-1.33 1.605 3.037 3.037 0 0 1-3.02 0A2.968 2.968 0 0 1 14.161 19H9.838a2.968 2.968 0 0 1-1.327 1.597Zm-2.024-3.462a.955.955 0 0 0-.481.73L5.999 18l.001.022a.944.944 0 0 0 .388.777l.098.065c.316.181.712.181 1.028 0A.97.97 0 0 0 8 17.978a.95.95 0 0 0-.486-.842 1.037 1.037 0 0 0-1.028 0Zm10 0a.955.955 0 0 0-.481.73l-.005.156a.944.944 0 0 0 .388.777l.098.065c.316.181.712.181 1.028 0a.97.97 0 0 0 .486-.886.95.95 0 0 0-.486-.842 1.037 1.037 0 0 0-1.028 0ZM21 12h-5v3.17a3.038 3.038 0 0 1 2.51.232 2.993 2.993 0 0 1 1.277 1.45l.058.155.058-.005.581-.002c.27 0 .516-.263.516-.618V12Zm-7.5-7h-10a.5.5 0 0 0-.5.5v11a.5.5 0 0 0 .5.5h.662a2.964 2.964 0 0 1 1.155-1.491l.172-.107a3.037 3.037 0 0 1 3.022 0A2.987 2.987 0 0 1 9.843 17H13.5a.5.5 0 0 0 .5-.5v-11a.5.5 0 0 0-.5-.5Zm5.027 2H16v3h4.203l-1.224-2.677a.532.532 0 0 0-.375-.316L18.527 7Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-download-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M22 18.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-3.5 3.5h-13A3.5 3.5 0 0 1 2 18.5V18a1 1 0 0 1 2 0v.5A1.5 1.5 0 0 0 5.5 20h13a1.5 1.5 0 0 0 1.5-1.5V18a1 1 0 0 1 2 0v.5Zm-3.293-7.793-6 6-.063.059-.093.069-.081.048-.105.049-.104.034-.056.013-.118.017L12 17l-.076-.003-.122-.017-.113-.03-.085-.032-.063-.03-.098-.058-.06-.043-.05-.043-6.04-6.037a1 1 0 0 1 1.414-1.414l4.294 4.29L11 3a1 1 0 0 1 2 0l.001 10.585 4.292-4.292a1 1 0 0 1 1.32-.083l.094.083a1 1 0 0 1 0 1.414Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-edit-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M17.149 2a2.38 2.38 0 0 1 1.699.711l2.446 2.46a2.384 2.384 0 0 1 .005 3.38L10.01 19.906a1 1 0 0 1-.434.257l-6.3 1.8a1 1 0 0 1-1.237-1.237l1.8-6.3a1 1 0 0 1 .257-.434L15.443 2.718A2.385 2.385 0 0 1 17.15 2Zm-3.874 5.689-7.586 7.536-1.234 4.319 4.318-1.234 7.54-7.582-3.038-3.039ZM17.149 4a.395.395 0 0 0-.286.126L14.695 6.28l3.029 3.029 2.162-2.173a.384.384 0 0 0 .106-.197L20 6.864c0-.103-.04-.2-.119-.278l-2.457-2.47A.385.385 0 0 0 17.149 4Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-education-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M12.41 2.088a1 1 0 0 0-.82 0l-10 4.5a1 1 0 0 0 0 1.824L3 9.047v7.124A3.001 3.001 0 0 0 4 22a3 3 0 0 0 1-5.83V9.948l1 .45V14.5a1 1 0 0 0 .087.408L7 14.5c-.913.408-.912.41-.912.41l.001.003.003.006.007.015a1.988 1.988 0 0 0 .083.16c.054.097.131.225.236.373.21.297.53.68.993 1.057C8.351 17.292 9.824 18 12 18c2.176 0 3.65-.707 4.589-1.476.463-.378.783-.76.993-1.057a4.162 4.162 0 0 0 .319-.533l.007-.015.003-.006v-.003h.002s0-.002-.913-.41l.913.408A1 1 0 0 0 18 14.5v-4.103l4.41-1.985a1 1 0 0 0 0-1.824l-10-4.5ZM16 11.297l-3.59 1.615a1 1 0 0 1-.82 0L8 11.297v2.94a3.388 3.388 0 0 0 .677.739C9.267 15.457 10.294 16 12 16s2.734-.543 3.323-1.024a3.388 3.388 0 0 0 .677-.739v-2.94ZM4.437 7.5 12 4.097 19.563 7.5 12 10.903 4.437 7.5ZM3 19a1 1 0 1 1 2 0 1 1 0 0 1-2 0Z" clip-rule="evenodd"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-error-diamond-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12.002 1c.702 0 1.375.279 1.871.775l8.35 8.353a2.646 2.646 0 0 1 .001 3.744l-8.353 8.353a2.646 2.646 0 0 1-3.742 0l-8.353-8.353a2.646 2.646 0 0 1 0-3.744l8.353-8.353.156-.142c.424-.362.952-.58 1.507-.625l.21-.008Zm0 2a.646.646 0 0 0-.38.123l-.093.08-8.34 8.34a.646.646 0 0 0-.18.355L3 12c0 .171.068.336.19.457l8.353 8.354a.646.646 0 0 0 .914 0l8.354-8.354a.646.646 0 0 0-.001-.914l-8.351-8.354A.646.646 0 0 0 12.002 3ZM12 14.5a1.5 1.5 0 0 1 .144 2.993L12 17.5a1.5 1.5 0 0 1 0-3ZM12 6a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v5a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V7a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-error-filled-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12.002 1c.702 0 1.375.279 1.871.775l8.35 8.353a2.646 2.646 0 0 1 .001 3.744l-8.353 8.353a2.646 2.646 0 0 1-3.742 0l-8.353-8.353a2.646 2.646 0 0 1 0-3.744l8.353-8.353.156-.142c.424-.362.952-.58 1.507-.625l.21-.008ZM12 14.5a1.5 1.5 0 0 0 0 3l.144-.007A1.5 1.5 0 0 0 12 14.5ZM12 6a1 1 0 0 0-1 1v5a1 1 0 0 0 2 0V7a1 1 0 0 0-1-1Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-external-link-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M9 2a1 1 0 1 1 0 2H4.6c-.371 0-.6.209-.6.5v15c0 .291.229.5.6.5h14.8c.371 0 .6-.209.6-.5V15a1 1 0 0 1 2 0v4.5c0 1.438-1.162 2.5-2.6 2.5H4.6C3.162 22 2 20.938 2 19.5v-15C2 3.062 3.162 2 4.6 2H9Zm6 0h6l.075.003.126.017.111.03.111.044.098.052.096.067.09.08c.036.035.068.073.097.112l.071.11.054.114.035.105.03.148L22 3v6a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V5.414l-6.693 6.693a1 1 0 0 1-1.414-1.414L18.584 4H15a1 1 0 0 1-.993-.883L14 3a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-external-link-small" viewBox="0 0 16 16"><path d="M5 1a1 1 0 1 1 0 2l-2-.001V13L13 13v-2a1 1 0 0 1 2 0v2c0 1.15-.93 2-2.067 2H3.067C1.93 15 1 14.15 1 13V3c0-1.15.93-2 2.067-2H5Zm4 0h5l.075.003.126.017.111.03.111.044.098.052.096.067.09.08.044.047.073.093.051.083.054.113.035.105.03.148L15 2v5a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V4.414L9.107 8.307a1 1 0 0 1-1.414-1.414L11.584 3H9a1 1 0 0 1-.993-.883L8 2a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-file-download-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M14.5 1a1 1 0 0 1 .707.293l5.5 5.5A1 1 0 0 1 21 7.5v12.962A2.542 2.542 0 0 1 18.455 23H5.545A2.542 2.542 0 0 1 3 20.462V3.538A2.542 2.542 0 0 1 5.545 1H14.5Zm-.415 2h-8.54A.542.542 0 0 0 5 3.538v16.924c0 .296.243.538.545.538h12.91a.542.542 0 0 0 .545-.538V7.915L14.085 3ZM12 7a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v6.585l2.293-2.292a1 1 0 0 1 1.32-.083l.094.083a1 1 0 0 1 0 1.414l-4 4a1.008 1.008 0 0 1-.112.097l-.11.071-.114.054-.105.035-.149.03L12 18l-.075-.003-.126-.017-.111-.03-.111-.044-.098-.052-.096-.067-.09-.08-4-4a1 1 0 0 1 1.414-1.414L11 14.585V8a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-file-report-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M14.5 1a1 1 0 0 1 .707.293l5.5 5.5A1 1 0 0 1 21 7.5v12.962c0 .674-.269 1.32-.747 1.796a2.549 2.549 0 0 1-1.798.742H5.545c-.674 0-1.32-.267-1.798-.742A2.535 2.535 0 0 1 3 20.462V3.538A2.542 2.542 0 0 1 5.545 1H14.5Zm-.415 2h-8.54A.542.542 0 0 0 5 3.538v16.924c0 .142.057.278.158.379.102.102.242.159.387.159h12.91a.549.549 0 0 0 .387-.16.535.535 0 0 0 .158-.378V7.915L14.085 3ZM16 17a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H8a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h8Zm0-3a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H8a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h8Zm-4.793-6.207L13 9.585l1.793-1.792a1 1 0 0 1 1.32-.083l.094.083a1 1 0 0 1 0 1.414l-2.5 2.5a1 1 0 0 1-1.414 0L10.5 9.915l-1.793 1.792a1 1 0 0 1-1.32.083l-.094-.083a1 1 0 0 1 0-1.414l2.5-2.5a1 1 0 0 1 1.414 0Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-file-text-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M14.5 1a1 1 0 0 1 .707.293l5.5 5.5A1 1 0 0 1 21 7.5v12.962A2.542 2.542 0 0 1 18.455 23H5.545A2.542 2.542 0 0 1 3 20.462V3.538A2.542 2.542 0 0 1 5.545 1H14.5Zm-.415 2h-8.54A.542.542 0 0 0 5 3.538v16.924c0 .296.243.538.545.538h12.91a.542.542 0 0 0 .545-.538V7.915L14.085 3ZM16 15a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H8a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h8Zm0-4a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H8a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h8Zm-5-4a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H8a1 1 0 1 1 0-2h3Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-file-upload-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M14.5 1a1 1 0 0 1 .707.293l5.5 5.5A1 1 0 0 1 21 7.5v12.962A2.542 2.542 0 0 1 18.455 23H5.545A2.542 2.542 0 0 1 3 20.462V3.538A2.542 2.542 0 0 1 5.545 1H14.5Zm-.415 2h-8.54A.542.542 0 0 0 5 3.538v16.924c0 .296.243.538.545.538h12.91a.542.542 0 0 0 .545-.538V7.915L14.085 3Zm-2.233 4.011.058-.007L12 7l.075.003.126.017.111.03.111.044.098.052.104.074.082.073 4 4a1 1 0 0 1 0 1.414l-.094.083a1 1 0 0 1-1.32-.083L13 10.415V17a1 1 0 0 1-2 0v-6.585l-2.293 2.292a1 1 0 0 1-1.32.083l-.094-.083a1 1 0 0 1 0-1.414l4-4 .112-.097.11-.071.114-.054.105-.035.118-.025Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-filter-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M21 2a1 1 0 0 1 .82 1.573L15 13.314V18a1 1 0 0 1-.31.724l-.09.076-4 3A1 1 0 0 1 9 21v-7.684L2.18 3.573a1 1 0 0 1 .707-1.567L3 2h18Zm-1.921 2H4.92l5.9 8.427a1 1 0 0 1 .172.45L11 13v6l2-1.5V13a1 1 0 0 1 .117-.469l.064-.104L19.079 4Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-funding-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M23 8A7 7 0 1 0 9 8a7 7 0 0 0 14 0ZM9.006 12.225A4.07 4.07 0 0 0 6.12 11.02H2a.979.979 0 1 0 0 1.958h4.12c.558 0 1.094.222 1.489.617l2.207 2.288c.27.27.27.687.012.944a.656.656 0 0 1-.928 0L7.744 15.67a.98.98 0 0 0-1.386 1.384l1.157 1.158c.535.536 1.244.791 1.946.765l.041.002h6.922c.874 0 1.597.748 1.597 1.688 0 .203-.146.354-.309.354H7.755c-.487 0-.96-.178-1.339-.504L2.64 17.259a.979.979 0 0 0-1.28 1.482L5.137 22c.733.631 1.66.979 2.618.979h9.957c1.26 0 2.267-1.043 2.267-2.312 0-2.006-1.584-3.646-3.555-3.646h-4.529a2.617 2.617 0 0 0-.681-2.509l-2.208-2.287ZM16 3a5 5 0 1 0 0 10 5 5 0 0 0 0-10Zm.979 3.5a.979.979 0 1 0-1.958 0v3a.979.979 0 1 0 1.958 0v-3Z" clip-rule="evenodd"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-hashtag-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 1c6.075 0 11 4.925 11 11s-4.925 11-11 11S1 18.075 1 12 5.925 1 12 1Zm0 2a9 9 0 1 0 0 18 9 9 0 0 0 0-18ZM9.52 18.189a1 1 0 1 1-1.964-.378l.437-2.274H6a1 1 0 1 1 0-2h2.378l.592-3.076H6a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h3.354l.51-2.65a1 1 0 1 1 1.964.378l-.437 2.272h3.04l.51-2.65a1 1 0 1 1 1.964.378l-.438 2.272H18a1 1 0 0 1 0 2h-1.917l-.592 3.076H18a1 1 0 0 1 0 2h-2.893l-.51 2.652a1 1 0 1 1-1.964-.378l.437-2.274h-3.04l-.51 2.652Zm.895-4.652h3.04l.591-3.076h-3.04l-.591 3.076Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-home-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M5 22a1 1 0 0 1-1-1v-8.586l-1.293 1.293a1 1 0 0 1-1.32.083l-.094-.083a1 1 0 0 1 0-1.414l10-10a1 1 0 0 1 1.414 0l10 10a1 1 0 0 1-1.414 1.414L20 12.415V21a1 1 0 0 1-1 1H5Zm7-17.585-6 5.999V20h5v-4a1 1 0 0 1 2 0v4h5v-9.585l-6-6Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-image-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M19.615 2A2.385 2.385 0 0 1 22 4.385v15.23A2.385 2.385 0 0 1 19.615 22H4.385A2.385 2.385 0 0 1 2 19.615V4.385A2.385 2.385 0 0 1 4.385 2h15.23Zm0 2H4.385A.385.385 0 0 0 4 4.385v15.23c0 .213.172.385.385.385h1.244l10.228-8.76a1 1 0 0 1 1.254-.037L20 13.392V4.385A.385.385 0 0 0 19.615 4Zm-3.07 9.283L8.703 20h10.912a.385.385 0 0 0 .385-.385v-3.713l-3.455-2.619ZM9.5 6a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 0 7 3.5 3.5 0 0 1 0-7Zm0 2a1.5 1.5 0 1 0 0 3 1.5 1.5 0 0 0 0-3Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-impact-factor-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M16.49 2.672c.74.694.986 1.765.632 2.712l-.04.1-1.549 3.54h1.477a2.496 2.496 0 0 1 2.485 2.34l.005.163c0 .618-.23 1.21-.642 1.675l-7.147 7.961a2.48 2.48 0 0 1-3.554.165 2.512 2.512 0 0 1-.633-2.712l.042-.103L9.108 15H7.46c-1.393 0-2.379-1.11-2.455-2.369L5 12.473c0-.593.142-1.145.628-1.692l7.307-7.944a2.48 2.48 0 0 1 3.555-.165ZM14.43 4.164l-7.33 7.97c-.083.093-.101.214-.101.34 0 .277.19.526.46.526h4.163l.097-.009c.015 0 .03.003.046.009.181.078.264.32.186.5l-2.554 5.817a.512.512 0 0 0 .127.552.48.48 0 0 0 .69-.033l7.155-7.97a.513.513 0 0 0 .13-.34.497.497 0 0 0-.49-.502h-3.988a.355.355 0 0 1-.328-.497l2.555-5.844a.512.512 0 0 0-.127-.552.48.48 0 0 0-.69.033Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-info-circle-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 1c6.075 0 11 4.925 11 11s-4.925 11-11 11S1 18.075 1 12 5.925 1 12 1Zm0 2a9 9 0 1 0 0 18 9 9 0 0 0 0-18Zm0 7a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v5h1.5a1 1 0 0 1 0 2h-5a1 1 0 0 1 0-2H11v-4h-.5a1 1 0 0 1-.993-.883L9.5 11a1 1 0 0 1 1-1H12Zm0-4.5a1.5 1.5 0 0 1 .144 2.993L12 8.5a1.5 1.5 0 0 1 0-3Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-info-filled-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 1c6.075 0 11 4.925 11 11s-4.925 11-11 11S1 18.075 1 12 5.925 1 12 1Zm0 9h-1.5a1 1 0 0 0-1 1l.007.117A1 1 0 0 0 10.5 12h.5v4H9.5a1 1 0 0 0 0 2h5a1 1 0 0 0 0-2H13v-5a1 1 0 0 0-1-1Zm0-4.5a1.5 1.5 0 0 0 0 3l.144-.007A1.5 1.5 0 0 0 12 5.5Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-journal-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M18.5 1A2.5 2.5 0 0 1 21 3.5v14a2.5 2.5 0 0 1-2.5 2.5h-13a.5.5 0 1 0 0 1H20a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H5.5A2.5 2.5 0 0 1 3 20.5v-17A2.5 2.5 0 0 1 5.5 1h13ZM7 3H5.5a.5.5 0 0 0-.5.5v14.549l.016-.002c.104-.02.211-.035.32-.042L5.5 18H7V3Zm11.5 0H9v15h9.5a.5.5 0 0 0 .5-.5v-14a.5.5 0 0 0-.5-.5ZM16 5a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v4a1 1 0 0 1-1 1h-5a1 1 0 0 1-1-1V6a1 1 0 0 1 1-1h5Zm-1 2h-3v2h3V7Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-mail-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M20.462 3C21.875 3 23 4.184 23 5.619v12.762C23 19.816 21.875 21 20.462 21H3.538C2.125 21 1 19.816 1 18.381V5.619C1 4.184 2.125 3 3.538 3h16.924ZM21 8.158l-7.378 6.258a2.549 2.549 0 0 1-3.253-.008L3 8.16v10.222c0 .353.253.619.538.619h16.924c.285 0 .538-.266.538-.619V8.158ZM20.462 5H3.538c-.264 0-.5.228-.534.542l8.65 7.334c.2.165.492.165.684.007l8.656-7.342-.001-.025c-.044-.3-.274-.516-.531-.516Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-mail-send-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M20.444 5a2.562 2.562 0 0 1 2.548 2.37l.007.078.001.123v7.858A2.564 2.564 0 0 1 20.444 18H9.556A2.564 2.564 0 0 1 7 15.429l.001-7.977.007-.082A2.561 2.561 0 0 1 9.556 5h10.888ZM21 9.331l-5.46 3.51a1 1 0 0 1-1.08 0L9 9.332v6.097c0 .317.251.571.556.571h10.888a.564.564 0 0 0 .556-.571V9.33ZM20.444 7H9.556a.543.543 0 0 0-.32.105l5.763 3.706 5.766-3.706a.543.543 0 0 0-.32-.105ZM4.308 5a1 1 0 1 1 0 2H2a1 1 0 1 1 0-2h2.308Zm0 5.5a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H2a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h2.308Zm0 5.5a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H2a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h2.308Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-mentions-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="m9.452 1.293 5.92 5.92 2.92-2.92a1 1 0 0 1 1.415 1.414l-2.92 2.92 5.92 5.92a1 1 0 0 1 0 1.415 10.371 10.371 0 0 1-10.378 2.584l.652 3.258A1 1 0 0 1 12 23H2a1 1 0 0 1-.874-1.486l4.789-8.62C4.194 9.074 4.9 4.43 8.038 1.292a1 1 0 0 1 1.414 0Zm-2.355 13.59L3.699 21h7.081l-.689-3.442a10.392 10.392 0 0 1-2.775-2.396l-.22-.28Zm1.69-11.427-.07.09a8.374 8.374 0 0 0 11.737 11.737l.089-.071L8.787 3.456Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-menu-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M21 4a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H3a1 1 0 1 1 0-2h18Zm-4 7a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H3a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h14Zm4 7a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H3a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h18Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-metrics-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M3 22a1 1 0 0 1-1-1V3a1 1 0 0 1 1-1h6a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v7h4V8a1 1 0 0 1 1-1h6a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v13a1 1 0 0 1-.883.993L21 22H3Zm17-2V9h-4v11h4Zm-6-8h-4v8h4v-8ZM8 4H4v16h4V4Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-news-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M17.384 3c.975 0 1.77.787 1.77 1.762v13.333c0 .462.354.846.815.899l.107.006.109-.006a.915.915 0 0 0 .809-.794l.006-.105V8.19a1 1 0 0 1 2 0v9.905A2.914 2.914 0 0 1 20.077 21H3.538a2.547 2.547 0 0 1-1.644-.601l-.147-.135A2.516 2.516 0 0 1 1 18.476V4.762C1 3.787 1.794 3 2.77 3h14.614Zm-.231 2H3v13.476c0 .11.035.216.1.304l.054.063c.101.1.24.157.384.157l13.761-.001-.026-.078a2.88 2.88 0 0 1-.115-.655l-.004-.17L17.153 5ZM14 15.021a.979.979 0 1 1 0 1.958H6a.979.979 0 1 1 0-1.958h8Zm0-8c.54 0 .979.438.979.979v4c0 .54-.438.979-.979.979H6A.979.979 0 0 1 5.021 12V8c0-.54.438-.979.979-.979h8Zm-.98 1.958H6.979v2.041h6.041V8.979Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-newsletter-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M21 10a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v9.5a2.5 2.5 0 0 1-2.5 2.5h-15A2.5 2.5 0 0 1 2 20.5V11a1 1 0 0 1 2 0v.439l8 4.888 8-4.889V11a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Zm-1 3.783-7.479 4.57a1 1 0 0 1-1.042 0l-7.48-4.57V20.5a.5.5 0 0 0 .501.5h15a.5.5 0 0 0 .5-.5v-6.717ZM15 9a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H9a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h6Zm2.5-8A2.5 2.5 0 0 1 20 3.5V9a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V3.5a.5.5 0 0 0-.5-.5h-11a.5.5 0 0 0-.5.5V9a1 1 0 1 1-2 0V3.5A2.5 2.5 0 0 1 6.5 1h11ZM15 5a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H9a1 1 0 1 1 0-2h6Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-notifcation-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M14 20a1 1 0 0 1 0 2h-4a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h4ZM3 18l-.133-.007c-1.156-.124-1.156-1.862 0-1.986l.3-.012C4.32 15.923 5 15.107 5 14V9.5C5 5.368 8.014 2 12 2s7 3.368 7 7.5V14c0 1.107.68 1.923 1.832 1.995l.301.012c1.156.124 1.156 1.862 0 1.986L21 18H3Zm9-14C9.17 4 7 6.426 7 9.5V14c0 .671-.146 1.303-.416 1.858L6.51 16h10.979l-.073-.142a4.192 4.192 0 0 1-.412-1.658L17 14V9.5C17 6.426 14.83 4 12 4Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-publish-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><g><path d="M16.296 1.291A1 1 0 0 0 15.591 1H5.545A2.542 2.542 0 0 0 3 3.538V13a1 1 0 1 0 2 0V3.538l.007-.087A.543.543 0 0 1 5.545 3h9.633L20 7.8v12.662a.534.534 0 0 1-.158.379.548.548 0 0 1-.387.159H11a1 1 0 1 0 0 2h8.455c.674 0 1.32-.267 1.798-.742A2.534 2.534 0 0 0 22 20.462V7.385a1 1 0 0 0-.294-.709l-5.41-5.385Z"/><path d="M10.762 16.647a1 1 0 0 0-1.525-1.294l-4.472 5.271-2.153-1.665a1 1 0 1 0-1.224 1.582l2.91 2.25a1 1 0 0 0 1.374-.144l5.09-6ZM16 10a1 1 0 1 1 0 2H8a1 1 0 1 1 0-2h8ZM12 7a1 1 0 0 0-1-1H8a1 1 0 1 0 0 2h3a1 1 0 0 0 1-1Z"/></g></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-refresh-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><g><path d="M7.831 5.636H6.032A8.76 8.76 0 0 1 9 3.631 8.549 8.549 0 0 1 12.232 3c.603 0 1.192.063 1.76.182C17.979 4.017 21 7.632 21 12a1 1 0 1 0 2 0c0-5.296-3.674-9.746-8.591-10.776A10.61 10.61 0 0 0 5 3.851V2.805a1 1 0 0 0-.987-1H4a1 1 0 0 0-1 1v3.831a1 1 0 0 0 1 1h3.831a1 1 0 0 0 .013-2h-.013ZM17.968 18.364c-1.59 1.632-3.784 2.636-6.2 2.636C6.948 21 3 16.993 3 12a1 1 0 1 0-2 0c0 6.053 4.799 11 10.768 11 2.788 0 5.324-1.082 7.232-2.85v1.045a1 1 0 1 0 2 0v-3.831a1 1 0 0 0-1-1h-3.831a1 1 0 0 0 0 2h1.799Z"/></g></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-search-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M11 1c5.523 0 10 4.477 10 10 0 2.4-.846 4.604-2.256 6.328l3.963 3.965a1 1 0 0 1-1.414 1.414l-3.965-3.963A9.959 9.959 0 0 1 11 21C5.477 21 1 16.523 1 11S5.477 1 11 1Zm0 2a8 8 0 1 0 0 16 8 8 0 0 0 0-16Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-settings-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M11.382 1h1.24a2.508 2.508 0 0 1 2.334 1.63l.523 1.378 1.59.933 1.444-.224c.954-.132 1.89.3 2.422 1.101l.095.155.598 1.066a2.56 2.56 0 0 1-.195 2.848l-.894 1.161v1.896l.92 1.163c.6.768.707 1.812.295 2.674l-.09.17-.606 1.08a2.504 2.504 0 0 1-2.531 1.25l-1.428-.223-1.589.932-.523 1.378a2.512 2.512 0 0 1-2.155 1.625L12.65 23h-1.27a2.508 2.508 0 0 1-2.334-1.63l-.524-1.379-1.59-.933-1.443.225c-.954.132-1.89-.3-2.422-1.101l-.095-.155-.598-1.066a2.56 2.56 0 0 1 .195-2.847l.891-1.161v-1.898l-.919-1.162a2.562 2.562 0 0 1-.295-2.674l.09-.17.606-1.08a2.504 2.504 0 0 1 2.531-1.25l1.43.223 1.618-.938.524-1.375.07-.167A2.507 2.507 0 0 1 11.382 1Zm.003 2a.509.509 0 0 0-.47.338l-.65 1.71a1 1 0 0 1-.434.51L7.6 6.85a1 1 0 0 1-.655.123l-1.762-.275a.497.497 0 0 0-.498.252l-.61 1.088a.562.562 0 0 0 .04.619l1.13 1.43a1 1 0 0 1 .216.62v2.585a1 1 0 0 1-.207.61L4.15 15.339a.568.568 0 0 0-.036.634l.601 1.072a.494.494 0 0 0 .484.26l1.78-.278a1 1 0 0 1 .66.126l2.2 1.292a1 1 0 0 1 .43.507l.648 1.71a.508.508 0 0 0 .467.338h1.263a.51.51 0 0 0 .47-.34l.65-1.708a1 1 0 0 1 .428-.507l2.201-1.292a1 1 0 0 1 .66-.126l1.763.275a.497.497 0 0 0 .498-.252l.61-1.088a.562.562 0 0 0-.04-.619l-1.13-1.43a1 1 0 0 1-.216-.62v-2.585a1 1 0 0 1 .207-.61l1.105-1.437a.568.568 0 0 0 .037-.634l-.601-1.072a.494.494 0 0 0-.484-.26l-1.78.278a1 1 0 0 1-.66-.126l-2.2-1.292a1 1 0 0 1-.43-.507l-.649-1.71A.508.508 0 0 0 12.62 3h-1.234ZM12 8a4 4 0 1 1 0 8 4 4 0 0 1 0-8Zm0 2a2 2 0 1 0 0 4 2 2 0 0 0 0-4Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-shipping-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M16.515 2c1.406 0 2.706.728 3.352 1.902l2.02 3.635.02.042.036.089.031.105.012.058.01.073.004.075v11.577c0 .64-.244 1.255-.683 1.713a2.356 2.356 0 0 1-1.701.731H4.386a2.356 2.356 0 0 1-1.702-.731 2.476 2.476 0 0 1-.683-1.713V7.948c.01-.217.083-.43.22-.6L4.2 3.905C4.833 2.755 6.089 2.032 7.486 2h9.029ZM20 9H4v10.556a.49.49 0 0 0 .075.26l.053.07a.356.356 0 0 0 .257.114h15.23c.094 0 .186-.04.258-.115a.477.477 0 0 0 .127-.33V9Zm-2 7.5a1 1 0 0 1 0 2h-4a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h4ZM16.514 4H13v3h6.3l-1.183-2.13c-.288-.522-.908-.87-1.603-.87ZM11 3.999H7.51c-.679.017-1.277.36-1.566.887L4.728 7H11V3.999Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-step-guide-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M11.394 9.447a1 1 0 1 0-1.788-.894l-.88 1.759-.019-.02a1 1 0 1 0-1.414 1.415l1 1a1 1 0 0 0 1.601-.26l1.5-3ZM12 11a1 1 0 0 1 1-1h3a1 1 0 1 1 0 2h-3a1 1 0 0 1-1-1ZM12 17a1 1 0 0 1 1-1h3a1 1 0 1 1 0 2h-3a1 1 0 0 1-1-1ZM10.947 14.105a1 1 0 0 1 .447 1.342l-1.5 3a1 1 0 0 1-1.601.26l-1-1a1 1 0 1 1 1.414-1.414l.02.019.879-1.76a1 1 0 0 1 1.341-.447Z"/><path d="M5.545 1A2.542 2.542 0 0 0 3 3.538v16.924A2.542 2.542 0 0 0 5.545 23h12.91A2.542 2.542 0 0 0 21 20.462V7.5a1 1 0 0 0-.293-.707l-5.5-5.5A1 1 0 0 0 14.5 1H5.545ZM5 3.538C5 3.245 5.24 3 5.545 3h8.54L19 7.914v12.547c0 .294-.24.539-.546.539H5.545A.542.542 0 0 1 5 20.462V3.538Z" clip-rule="evenodd"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-submission-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><g><path d="M5 3.538C5 3.245 5.24 3 5.545 3h9.633L20 7.8v12.662a.535.535 0 0 1-.158.379.549.549 0 0 1-.387.159H6a1 1 0 0 1-1-1v-2.5a1 1 0 1 0-2 0V20a3 3 0 0 0 3 3h13.455c.673 0 1.32-.266 1.798-.742A2.535 2.535 0 0 0 22 20.462V7.385a1 1 0 0 0-.294-.709l-5.41-5.385A1 1 0 0 0 15.591 1H5.545A2.542 2.542 0 0 0 3 3.538V7a1 1 0 0 0 2 0V3.538Z"/><path d="m13.707 13.707-4 4a1 1 0 0 1-1.414 0l-.083-.094a1 1 0 0 1 .083-1.32L10.585 14 2 14a1 1 0 1 1 0-2l8.583.001-2.29-2.294a1 1 0 0 1 1.414-1.414l4.037 4.04.043.05.043.06.059.098.03.063.031.085.03.113.017.122L14 13l-.004.087-.017.118-.013.056-.034.104-.049.105-.048.081-.07.093-.058.063Z"/></g></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-table-1-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M4.385 22a2.56 2.56 0 0 1-1.14-.279C2.485 21.341 2 20.614 2 19.615V4.385c0-.315.067-.716.279-1.14C2.659 2.485 3.386 2 4.385 2h15.23c.315 0 .716.067 1.14.279.76.38 1.245 1.107 1.245 2.106v15.23c0 .315-.067.716-.279 1.14-.38.76-1.107 1.245-2.106 1.245H4.385ZM4 19.615c0 .213.034.265.14.317a.71.71 0 0 0 .245.068H8v-4H4v3.615ZM20 16H10v4h9.615c.213 0 .265-.034.317-.14a.71.71 0 0 0 .068-.245V16Zm0-2v-4H10v4h10ZM4 14h4v-4H4v4ZM19.615 4H10v4h10V4.385c0-.213-.034-.265-.14-.317A.71.71 0 0 0 19.615 4ZM8 4H4.385l-.082.002c-.146.01-.19.047-.235.138A.71.71 0 0 0 4 4.385V8h4V4Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-table-2-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M4.384 22A2.384 2.384 0 0 1 2 19.616V4.384A2.384 2.384 0 0 1 4.384 2h15.232A2.384 2.384 0 0 1 22 4.384v15.232A2.384 2.384 0 0 1 19.616 22H4.384ZM10 15H4v4.616c0 .212.172.384.384.384H10v-5Zm5 0h-3v5h3v-5Zm5 0h-3v5h2.616a.384.384 0 0 0 .384-.384V15ZM10 9H4v4h6V9Zm5 0h-3v4h3V9Zm5 0h-3v4h3V9Zm-.384-5H4.384A.384.384 0 0 0 4 4.384V7h16V4.384A.384.384 0 0 0 19.616 4Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-tag-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="m12.621 1.998.127.004L20.496 2a1.5 1.5 0 0 1 1.497 1.355L22 3.5l-.005 7.669c.038.456-.133.905-.447 1.206l-9.02 9.018a2.075 2.075 0 0 1-2.932 0l-6.99-6.99a2.075 2.075 0 0 1 .001-2.933L11.61 2.47c.246-.258.573-.418.881-.46l.131-.011Zm.286 2-8.885 8.886a.075.075 0 0 0 0 .106l6.987 6.988c.03.03.077.03.106 0l8.883-8.883L19.999 4l-7.092-.002ZM16 6.5a1.5 1.5 0 0 1 .144 2.993L16 9.5a1.5 1.5 0 0 1 0-3Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-trash-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 1c2.717 0 4.913 2.232 4.997 5H21a1 1 0 0 1 0 2h-1v12.5c0 1.389-1.152 2.5-2.556 2.5H6.556C5.152 23 4 21.889 4 20.5V8H3a1 1 0 1 1 0-2h4.003l.001-.051C7.114 3.205 9.3 1 12 1Zm6 7H6v12.5c0 .238.19.448.454.492l.102.008h10.888c.315 0 .556-.232.556-.5V8Zm-4 3a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v6.005a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V12a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Zm-4 0a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v6a1 1 0 0 1-2 0v-6a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Zm2-8c-1.595 0-2.914 1.32-2.996 3h5.991v-.02C14.903 4.31 13.589 3 12 3Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-user-account-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 1c6.075 0 11 4.925 11 11s-4.925 11-11 11S1 18.075 1 12 5.925 1 12 1Zm0 16c-1.806 0-3.52.994-4.664 2.698A8.947 8.947 0 0 0 12 21a8.958 8.958 0 0 0 4.664-1.301C15.52 17.994 13.806 17 12 17Zm0-14a9 9 0 0 0-6.25 15.476C7.253 16.304 9.54 15 12 15s4.747 1.304 6.25 3.475A9 9 0 0 0 12 3Zm0 3a4 4 0 1 1 0 8 4 4 0 0 1 0-8Zm0 2a2 2 0 1 0 0 4 2 2 0 0 0 0-4Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-user-add-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M9 1a5 5 0 1 1 0 10A5 5 0 0 1 9 1Zm0 2a3 3 0 1 0 0 6 3 3 0 0 0 0-6Zm9 10a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v3h3a1 1 0 0 1 0 2h-3v3a1 1 0 0 1-2 0v-3h-3a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h3v-3a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Zm-5.545-.15a1 1 0 1 1-.91 1.78 5.713 5.713 0 0 0-5.705.282c-1.67 1.068-2.728 2.927-2.832 4.956L3.004 20 11.5 20a1 1 0 0 1 .993.883L12.5 21a1 1 0 0 1-1 1H2a1 1 0 0 1-1-1v-.876c.028-2.812 1.446-5.416 3.763-6.897a7.713 7.713 0 0 1 7.692-.378Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-user-assign-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M16.226 13.298a1 1 0 0 1 1.414-.01l.084.093a1 1 0 0 1-.073 1.32L15.39 17H22a1 1 0 0 1 0 2h-6.611l2.262 2.298a1 1 0 0 1-1.425 1.404l-3.939-4a1 1 0 0 1 0-1.404l3.94-4Zm-3.771-.449a1 1 0 1 1-.91 1.781 5.713 5.713 0 0 0-5.705.282c-1.67 1.068-2.728 2.927-2.832 4.956L3.004 20 10.5 20a1 1 0 0 1 .993.883L11.5 21a1 1 0 0 1-1 1H2a1 1 0 0 1-1-1v-.876c.028-2.812 1.446-5.416 3.763-6.897a7.713 7.713 0 0 1 7.692-.378ZM9 1a5 5 0 1 1 0 10A5 5 0 0 1 9 1Zm0 2a3 3 0 1 0 0 6 3 3 0 0 0 0-6Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-user-block-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M9 1a5 5 0 1 1 0 10A5 5 0 0 1 9 1Zm0 2a3 3 0 1 0 0 6 3 3 0 0 0 0-6Zm9 10a5 5 0 1 1 0 10 5 5 0 0 1 0-10Zm-5.545-.15a1 1 0 1 1-.91 1.78 5.713 5.713 0 0 0-5.705.282c-1.67 1.068-2.728 2.927-2.832 4.956L3.004 20 11.5 20a1 1 0 0 1 .993.883L12.5 21a1 1 0 0 1-1 1H2a1 1 0 0 1-1-1v-.876c.028-2.812 1.446-5.416 3.763-6.897a7.713 7.713 0 0 1 7.692-.378ZM15 18a3 3 0 0 0 4.294 2.707l-4.001-4c-.188.391-.293.83-.293 1.293Zm3-3c-.463 0-.902.105-1.294.293l4.001 4A3 3 0 0 0 18 15Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-user-check-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M9 1a5 5 0 1 1 0 10A5 5 0 0 1 9 1Zm0 2a3 3 0 1 0 0 6 3 3 0 0 0 0-6Zm13.647 12.237a1 1 0 0 1 .116 1.41l-5.091 6a1 1 0 0 1-1.375.144l-2.909-2.25a1 1 0 1 1 1.224-1.582l2.153 1.665 4.472-5.271a1 1 0 0 1 1.41-.116Zm-8.139-.977c.22.214.428.44.622.678a1 1 0 1 1-1.548 1.266 6.025 6.025 0 0 0-1.795-1.49.86.86 0 0 1-.163-.048l-.079-.036a5.721 5.721 0 0 0-2.62-.63l-.194.006c-2.76.134-5.022 2.177-5.592 4.864l-.035.175-.035.213c-.03.201-.05.405-.06.61L3.003 20 10 20a1 1 0 0 1 .993.883L11 21a1 1 0 0 1-1 1H2a1 1 0 0 1-1-1v-.876l.005-.223.02-.356.02-.222.03-.248.022-.15c.02-.133.044-.265.071-.397.44-2.178 1.725-4.105 3.595-5.301a7.75 7.75 0 0 1 3.755-1.215l.12-.004a7.908 7.908 0 0 1 5.87 2.252Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-user-delete-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M9 1a5 5 0 1 1 0 10A5 5 0 0 1 9 1Zm0 2a3 3 0 1 0 0 6 3 3 0 0 0 0-6ZM4.763 13.227a7.713 7.713 0 0 1 7.692-.378 1 1 0 1 1-.91 1.781 5.713 5.713 0 0 0-5.705.282c-1.67 1.068-2.728 2.927-2.832 4.956L3.004 20H11.5a1 1 0 0 1 .993.883L12.5 21a1 1 0 0 1-1 1H2a1 1 0 0 1-1-1v-.876c.028-2.812 1.446-5.416 3.763-6.897Zm11.421 1.543 2.554 2.553 2.555-2.553a1 1 0 0 1 1.414 1.414l-2.554 2.554 2.554 2.555a1 1 0 0 1-1.414 1.414l-2.555-2.554-2.554 2.554a1 1 0 0 1-1.414-1.414l2.553-2.555-2.553-2.554a1 1 0 0 1 1.414-1.414Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-user-edit-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="m19.876 10.77 2.831 2.83a1 1 0 0 1 0 1.415l-7.246 7.246a1 1 0 0 1-.572.284l-3.277.446a1 1 0 0 1-1.125-1.13l.461-3.277a1 1 0 0 1 .283-.567l7.23-7.246a1 1 0 0 1 1.415-.001Zm-7.421 2.08a1 1 0 1 1-.91 1.78 5.713 5.713 0 0 0-5.705.282c-1.67 1.068-2.728 2.927-2.832 4.956L3.004 20 7.5 20a1 1 0 0 1 .993.883L8.5 21a1 1 0 0 1-1 1H2a1 1 0 0 1-1-1v-.876c.028-2.812 1.446-5.416 3.763-6.897a7.713 7.713 0 0 1 7.692-.378Zm6.715.042-6.29 6.3-.23 1.639 1.633-.222 6.302-6.302-1.415-1.415ZM9 1a5 5 0 1 1 0 10A5 5 0 0 1 9 1Zm0 2a3 3 0 1 0 0 6 3 3 0 0 0 0-6Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-user-linked-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M15.65 6c.31 0 .706.066 1.122.274C17.522 6.65 18 7.366 18 8.35v12.3c0 .31-.066.706-.274 1.122-.375.75-1.092 1.228-2.076 1.228H3.35a2.52 2.52 0 0 1-1.122-.274C1.478 22.35 1 21.634 1 20.65V8.35c0-.31.066-.706.274-1.122C1.65 6.478 2.366 6 3.35 6h12.3Zm0 2-12.376.002c-.134.007-.17.04-.21.12A.672.672 0 0 0 3 8.35v12.3c0 .198.028.24.122.287.09.044.2.063.228.063h.887c.788-2.269 2.814-3.5 5.263-3.5 2.45 0 4.475 1.231 5.263 3.5h.887c.198 0 .24-.028.287-.122.044-.09.063-.2.063-.228V8.35c0-.198-.028-.24-.122-.287A.672.672 0 0 0 15.65 8ZM9.5 19.5c-1.36 0-2.447.51-3.06 1.5h6.12c-.613-.99-1.7-1.5-3.06-1.5ZM20.65 1A2.35 2.35 0 0 1 23 3.348V15.65A2.35 2.35 0 0 1 20.65 18H20a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h.65a.35.35 0 0 0 .35-.35V3.348A.35.35 0 0 0 20.65 3H8.35a.35.35 0 0 0-.35.348V4a1 1 0 1 1-2 0v-.652A2.35 2.35 0 0 1 8.35 1h12.3ZM9.5 10a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 0 7 3.5 3.5 0 0 1 0-7Zm0 2a1.5 1.5 0 1 0 0 3 1.5 1.5 0 0 0 0-3Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-user-multiple-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M9 1a5 5 0 1 1 0 10A5 5 0 0 1 9 1Zm6 0a5 5 0 0 1 0 10 1 1 0 0 1-.117-1.993L15 9a3 3 0 0 0 0-6 1 1 0 0 1 0-2ZM9 3a3 3 0 1 0 0 6 3 3 0 0 0 0-6Zm8.857 9.545a7.99 7.99 0 0 1 2.651 1.715A8.31 8.31 0 0 1 23 20.134V21a1 1 0 0 1-1 1h-3a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h1.995l-.005-.153a6.307 6.307 0 0 0-1.673-3.945l-.204-.209a5.99 5.99 0 0 0-1.988-1.287 1 1 0 1 1 .732-1.861Zm-3.349 1.715A8.31 8.31 0 0 1 17 20.134V21a1 1 0 0 1-1 1H2a1 1 0 0 1-1-1v-.877c.044-4.343 3.387-7.908 7.638-8.115a7.908 7.908 0 0 1 5.87 2.252ZM9.016 14l-.285.006c-3.104.15-5.58 2.718-5.725 5.9L3.004 20h11.991l-.005-.153a6.307 6.307 0 0 0-1.673-3.945l-.204-.209A5.924 5.924 0 0 0 9.3 14.008L9.016 14Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-user-notify-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M9 1a5 5 0 1 1 0 10A5 5 0 0 1 9 1Zm0 2a3 3 0 1 0 0 6 3 3 0 0 0 0-6Zm10 18v1a1 1 0 0 1-2 0v-1h-3a1 1 0 0 1 0-2v-2.818C14 13.885 15.777 12 18 12s4 1.885 4 4.182V19a1 1 0 0 1 0 2h-3Zm-6.545-8.15a1 1 0 1 1-.91 1.78 5.713 5.713 0 0 0-5.705.282c-1.67 1.068-2.728 2.927-2.832 4.956L3.004 20 11.5 20a1 1 0 0 1 .993.883L12.5 21a1 1 0 0 1-1 1H2a1 1 0 0 1-1-1v-.876c.028-2.812 1.446-5.416 3.763-6.897a7.713 7.713 0 0 1 7.692-.378ZM18 14c-1.091 0-2 .964-2 2.182V19h4v-2.818c0-1.165-.832-2.098-1.859-2.177L18 14Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-user-remove-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M9 1a5 5 0 1 1 0 10A5 5 0 0 1 9 1Zm0 2a3 3 0 1 0 0 6 3 3 0 0 0 0-6Zm3.455 9.85a1 1 0 1 1-.91 1.78 5.713 5.713 0 0 0-5.705.282c-1.67 1.068-2.728 2.927-2.832 4.956L3.004 20 11.5 20a1 1 0 0 1 .993.883L12.5 21a1 1 0 0 1-1 1H2a1 1 0 0 1-1-1v-.876c.028-2.812 1.446-5.416 3.763-6.897a7.713 7.713 0 0 1 7.692-.378ZM22 17a1 1 0 0 1 0 2h-8a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h8Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-user-single-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 1a5 5 0 1 1 0 10 5 5 0 0 1 0-10Zm0 2a3 3 0 1 0 0 6 3 3 0 0 0 0-6Zm-.406 9.008a8.965 8.965 0 0 1 6.596 2.494A9.161 9.161 0 0 1 21 21.025V22a1 1 0 0 1-1 1H4a1 1 0 0 1-1-1v-.985c.05-4.825 3.815-8.777 8.594-9.007Zm.39 1.992-.299.006c-3.63.175-6.518 3.127-6.678 6.775L5 21h13.998l-.009-.268a7.157 7.157 0 0 0-1.97-4.573l-.214-.213A6.967 6.967 0 0 0 11.984 14Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-warning-circle-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 1c6.075 0 11 4.925 11 11s-4.925 11-11 11S1 18.075 1 12 5.925 1 12 1Zm0 2a9 9 0 1 0 0 18 9 9 0 0 0 0-18Zm0 11.5a1.5 1.5 0 0 1 .144 2.993L12 17.5a1.5 1.5 0 0 1 0-3ZM12 6a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v5a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V7a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-warning-filled-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 1c6.075 0 11 4.925 11 11s-4.925 11-11 11S1 18.075 1 12 5.925 1 12 1Zm0 13.5a1.5 1.5 0 0 0 0 3l.144-.007A1.5 1.5 0 0 0 12 14.5ZM12 6a1 1 0 0 0-1 1v5a1 1 0 0 0 2 0V7a1 1 0 0 0-1-1Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-chevron-left-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M15.7194 3.3054C15.3358 2.90809 14.7027 2.89699 14.3054 3.28061L6.54342 10.7757C6.19804 11.09 6 11.5335 6 12C6 12.4665 6.19804 12.91 6.5218 13.204L14.3054 20.7194C14.7027 21.103 15.3358 21.0919 15.7194 20.6946C16.103 20.2973 16.0919 19.6642 15.6946 19.2806L8.155 12L15.6946 4.71939C16.0614 4.36528 16.099 3.79863 15.8009 3.40105L15.7194 3.3054Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-chevron-right-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M8.28061 3.3054C8.66423 2.90809 9.29729 2.89699 9.6946 3.28061L17.4566 10.7757C17.802 11.09 18 11.5335 18 12C18 12.4665 17.802 12.91 17.4782 13.204L9.6946 20.7194C9.29729 21.103 8.66423 21.0919 8.28061 20.6946C7.89699 20.2973 7.90809 19.6642 8.3054 19.2806L15.845 12L8.3054 4.71939C7.93865 4.36528 7.90098 3.79863 8.19908 3.40105L8.28061 3.3054Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-alerts" viewBox="0 0 32 32"><path d="M28 12.667c.736 0 1.333.597 1.333 1.333v13.333A3.333 3.333 0 0 1 26 30.667H6a3.333 3.333 0 0 1-3.333-3.334V14a1.333 1.333 0 1 1 2.666 0v1.252L16 21.769l10.667-6.518V14c0-.736.597-1.333 1.333-1.333Zm-1.333 5.71-9.972 6.094c-.427.26-.963.26-1.39 0l-9.972-6.094v8.956c0 .368.299.667.667.667h20a.667.667 0 0 0 .667-.667v-8.956ZM19.333 12a1.333 1.333 0 1 1 0 2.667h-6.666a1.333 1.333 0 1 1 0-2.667h6.666Zm4-10.667a3.333 3.333 0 0 1 3.334 3.334v6.666a1.333 1.333 0 1 1-2.667 0V4.667A.667.667 0 0 0 23.333 4H8.667A.667.667 0 0 0 8 4.667v6.666a1.333 1.333 0 1 1-2.667 0V4.667a3.333 3.333 0 0 1 3.334-3.334h14.666Zm-4 5.334a1.333 1.333 0 0 1 0 2.666h-6.666a1.333 1.333 0 1 1 0-2.666h6.666Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-arrow-up" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path fill-rule="evenodd" d="m13.002 7.408 4.88 4.88a.99.99 0 0 0 1.32.08l.09-.08c.39-.39.39-1.03 0-1.42l-6.58-6.58a1.01 1.01 0 0 0-1.42 0l-6.58 6.58a1 1 0 0 0-.09 1.32l.08.1a1 1 0 0 0 1.42-.01l4.88-4.87v11.59a.99.99 0 0 0 .88.99l.12.01c.55 0 1-.45 1-1V7.408z" class="layer"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-checklist" viewBox="0 0 32 32"><path d="M19.2 1.333a3.468 3.468 0 0 1 3.381 2.699L24.667 4C26.515 4 28 5.52 28 7.38v19.906c0 1.86-1.485 3.38-3.333 3.38H7.333c-1.848 0-3.333-1.52-3.333-3.38V7.38C4 5.52 5.485 4 7.333 4h2.093A3.468 3.468 0 0 1 12.8 1.333h6.4ZM9.426 6.667H7.333c-.36 0-.666.312-.666.713v19.906c0 .401.305.714.666.714h17.334c.36 0 .666-.313.666-.714V7.38c0-.4-.305-.713-.646-.714l-2.121.033A3.468 3.468 0 0 1 19.2 9.333h-6.4a3.468 3.468 0 0 1-3.374-2.666Zm12.715 5.606c.586.446.7 1.283.253 1.868l-7.111 9.334a1.333 1.333 0 0 1-1.792.306l-3.556-2.333a1.333 1.333 0 1 1 1.463-2.23l2.517 1.651 6.358-8.344a1.333 1.333 0 0 1 1.868-.252ZM19.2 4h-6.4a.8.8 0 0 0-.8.8v1.067a.8.8 0 0 0 .8.8h6.4a.8.8 0 0 0 .8-.8V4.8a.8.8 0 0 0-.8-.8Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-citation" viewBox="0 0 36 36"><path d="M23.25 1.5a1.5 1.5 0 0 1 1.06.44l8.25 8.25a1.5 1.5 0 0 1 .44 1.06v19.5c0 2.105-1.645 3.75-3.75 3.75H18a1.5 1.5 0 0 1 0-3h11.25c.448 0 .75-.302.75-.75V11.873L22.628 4.5H8.31a.811.811 0 0 0-.8.68l-.011.13V16.5a1.5 1.5 0 0 1-3 0V5.31A3.81 3.81 0 0 1 8.31 1.5h14.94ZM8.223 20.358a.984.984 0 0 1-.192 1.378l-.048.034c-.54.36-.942.676-1.206.951-.59.614-.885 1.395-.885 2.343.115-.028.288-.042.518-.042.662 0 1.26.237 1.791.711.533.474.799 1.074.799 1.799 0 .753-.259 1.352-.777 1.799-.518.446-1.151.669-1.9.669-1.006 0-1.812-.293-2.417-.878C3.302 28.536 3 27.657 3 26.486c0-1.115.165-2.085.496-2.907.331-.823.734-1.513 1.209-2.071.475-.558.971-.997 1.49-1.318a6.01 6.01 0 0 1 .347-.2 1.321 1.321 0 0 1 1.681.368Zm7.5 0a.984.984 0 0 1-.192 1.378l-.048.034c-.54.36-.942.676-1.206.951-.59.614-.885 1.395-.885 2.343.115-.028.288-.042.518-.042.662 0 1.26.237 1.791.711.533.474.799 1.074.799 1.799 0 .753-.259 1.352-.777 1.799-.518.446-1.151.669-1.9.669-1.006 0-1.812-.293-2.417-.878-.604-.586-.906-1.465-.906-2.636 0-1.115.165-2.085.496-2.907.331-.823.734-1.513 1.209-2.071.475-.558.971-.997 1.49-1.318a6.01 6.01 0 0 1 .347-.2 1.321 1.321 0 0 1 1.681.368Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-access-indicator" viewBox="0 0 16 16"><circle cx="4.5" cy="11.5" r="3.5" style="fill:currentColor"/><path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M4 3v3a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V2.923C2 1.875 2.84 1 3.909 1h5.909a1 1 0 0 1 .713.298l3.181 3.231a1 1 0 0 1 .288.702v7.846c0 .505-.197.993-.554 1.354a1.902 1.902 0 0 1-1.355.569H10a1 1 0 1 1 0-2h2V5.64L9.4 3H4Z" clip-rule="evenodd" style="fill:#222"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-github-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M 11.964844 0 C 5.347656 0 0 5.269531 0 11.792969 C 0 17.003906 3.425781 21.417969 8.179688 22.976562 C 8.773438 23.09375 8.992188 22.722656 8.992188 22.410156 C 8.992188 22.136719 8.972656 21.203125 8.972656 20.226562 C 5.644531 20.929688 4.953125 18.820312 4.953125 18.820312 C 4.417969 17.453125 3.625 17.101562 3.625 17.101562 C 2.535156 16.378906 3.703125 16.378906 3.703125 16.378906 C 4.914062 16.457031 5.546875 17.589844 5.546875 17.589844 C 6.617188 19.386719 8.339844 18.878906 9.03125 18.566406 C 9.132812 17.804688 9.449219 17.277344 9.785156 16.984375 C 7.132812 16.710938 4.339844 15.695312 4.339844 11.167969 C 4.339844 9.878906 4.8125 8.824219 5.566406 8.003906 C 5.445312 7.710938 5.03125 6.5 5.683594 4.878906 C 5.683594 4.878906 6.695312 4.566406 8.972656 6.089844 C 9.949219 5.832031 10.953125 5.703125 11.964844 5.699219 C 12.972656 5.699219 14.003906 5.835938 14.957031 6.089844 C 17.234375 4.566406 18.242188 4.878906 18.242188 4.878906 C 18.898438 6.5 18.480469 7.710938 18.363281 8.003906 C 19.136719 8.824219 19.589844 9.878906 19.589844 11.167969 C 19.589844 15.695312 16.796875 16.691406 14.125 16.984375 C 14.558594 17.355469 14.933594 18.058594 14.933594 19.171875 C 14.933594 20.753906 14.914062 22.019531 14.914062 22.410156 C 14.914062 22.722656 15.132812 23.09375 15.726562 22.976562 C 20.480469 21.414062 23.910156 17.003906 23.910156 11.792969 C 23.929688 5.269531 18.558594 0 11.964844 0 Z M 11.964844 0 "/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-limited-access" viewBox="0 0 16 16"><path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M4 3v3a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V2.923C2 1.875 2.84 1 3.909 1h5.909a1 1 0 0 1 .713.298l3.181 3.231a1 1 0 0 1 .288.702V6a1 1 0 1 1-2 0v-.36L9.4 3H4ZM3 8a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v1a1 1 0 1 1-2 0V9a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Zm10 0a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v1a1 1 0 1 1-2 0V9a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Zm-3.5 6a1 1 0 0 1-1 1h-1a1 1 0 1 1 0-2h1a1 1 0 0 1 1 1Zm2.441-1a1 1 0 0 1 2 0c0 .73-.246 1.306-.706 1.664a1.61 1.61 0 0 1-.876.334l-.032.002H11.5a1 1 0 1 1 0-2h.441ZM4 13a1 1 0 0 0-2 0c0 .73.247 1.306.706 1.664a1.609 1.609 0 0 0 .876.334l.032.002H4.5a1 1 0 1 0 0-2H4Z" clip-rule="evenodd"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-subjects-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><g id="icon-subjects-copy" stroke="none" stroke-width="1" fill-rule="evenodd"><path d="M13.3846154,2 C14.7015971,2 15.7692308,3.06762994 15.7692308,4.38461538 L15.7692308,7.15384615 C15.7692308,8.47082629 14.7015955,9.53846154 13.3846154,9.53846154 L13.1038388,9.53925278 C13.2061091,9.85347965 13.3815528,10.1423885 13.6195822,10.3804178 C13.9722182,10.7330539 14.436524,10.9483278 14.9293854,10.9918129 L15.1153846,11 C16.2068332,11 17.2535347,11.433562 18.0254647,12.2054189 C18.6411944,12.8212361 19.0416785,13.6120766 19.1784166,14.4609738 L19.6153846,14.4615385 C20.932386,14.4615385 22,15.5291672 22,16.8461538 L22,19.6153846 C22,20.9323924 20.9323924,22 19.6153846,22 L16.8461538,22 C15.5291672,22 14.4615385,20.932386 14.4615385,19.6153846 L14.4615385,16.8461538 C14.4615385,15.5291737 15.5291737,14.4615385 16.8461538,14.4615385 L17.126925,14.460779 C17.0246537,14.1465537 16.8492179,13.857633 16.6112344,13.6196157 C16.2144418,13.2228606 15.6764136,13 15.1153846,13 C14.0239122,13 12.9771569,12.5664197 12.2053686,11.7946314 C12.1335167,11.7227795 12.0645962,11.6485444 11.9986839,11.5721119 C11.9354038,11.6485444 11.8664833,11.7227795 11.7946314,11.7946314 C11.0228431,12.5664197 9.97608778,13 8.88461538,13 C8.323576,13 7.78552852,13.2228666 7.38881294,13.6195822 C7.15078359,13.8576115 6.97533988,14.1465203 6.8730696,14.4607472 L7.15384615,14.4615385 C8.47082629,14.4615385 9.53846154,15.5291737 9.53846154,16.8461538 L9.53846154,19.6153846 C9.53846154,20.932386 8.47083276,22 7.15384615,22 L4.38461538,22 C3.06762347,22 2,20.9323876 2,19.6153846 L2,16.8461538 C2,15.5291721 3.06762994,14.4615385 4.38461538,14.4615385 L4.8215823,14.4609378 C4.95831893,13.6120029 5.3588057,12.8211623 5.97459937,12.2053686 C6.69125996,11.488708 7.64500941,11.0636656 8.6514968,11.0066017 L8.88461538,11 C9.44565477,11 9.98370225,10.7771334 10.3804178,10.3804178 C10.6184472,10.1423885 10.7938909,9.85347965 10.8961612,9.53925278 L10.6153846,9.53846154 C9.29840448,9.53846154 8.23076923,8.47082629 8.23076923,7.15384615 L8.23076923,4.38461538 C8.23076923,3.06762994 9.29840286,2 10.6153846,2 L13.3846154,2 Z M7.15384615,16.4615385 L4.38461538,16.4615385 C4.17220099,16.4615385 4,16.63374 4,16.8461538 L4,19.6153846 C4,19.8278134 4.17218833,20 4.38461538,20 L7.15384615,20 C7.36626945,20 7.53846154,19.8278103 7.53846154,19.6153846 L7.53846154,16.8461538 C7.53846154,16.6337432 7.36625679,16.4615385 7.15384615,16.4615385 Z M19.6153846,16.4615385 L16.8461538,16.4615385 C16.6337432,16.4615385 16.4615385,16.6337432 16.4615385,16.8461538 L16.4615385,19.6153846 C16.4615385,19.8278103 16.6337306,20 16.8461538,20 L19.6153846,20 C19.8278229,20 20,19.8278229 20,19.6153846 L20,16.8461538 C20,16.6337306 19.8278103,16.4615385 19.6153846,16.4615385 Z M13.3846154,4 L10.6153846,4 C10.4029708,4 10.2307692,4.17220099 10.2307692,4.38461538 L10.2307692,7.15384615 C10.2307692,7.36625679 10.402974,7.53846154 10.6153846,7.53846154 L13.3846154,7.53846154 C13.597026,7.53846154 13.7692308,7.36625679 13.7692308,7.15384615 L13.7692308,4.38461538 C13.7692308,4.17220099 13.5970292,4 13.3846154,4 Z" id="Shape" fill-rule="nonzero"/></g></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-small-arrow-left" viewBox="0 0 16 17"><path stroke="currentColor" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" stroke-width="2" d="M14 8.092H2m0 0L8 2M2 8.092l6 6.035"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-small-arrow-right" viewBox="0 0 16 16"><g fill-rule="evenodd" stroke="currentColor" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" stroke-width="2"><path d="M2 8.092h12M8 2l6 6.092M8 14.127l6-6.035"/></g></symbol><symbol id="icon-orcid-logo" viewBox="0 0 40 40"><path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M12.281 10.453c.875 0 1.578-.719 1.578-1.578 0-.86-.703-1.578-1.578-1.578-.875 0-1.578.703-1.578 1.578 0 .86.703 1.578 1.578 1.578Zm-1.203 18.641h2.406V12.359h-2.406v16.735Z"/><path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M17.016 12.36h6.5c6.187 0 8.906 4.421 8.906 8.374 0 4.297-3.36 8.375-8.875 8.375h-6.531V12.36Zm6.234 14.578h-3.828V14.53h3.703c4.688 0 6.828 2.844 6.828 6.203 0 2.063-1.25 6.203-6.703 6.203Z" clip-rule="evenodd"/></symbol></svg> </div> <a class="c-skip-link" href="#main">Skip to main content</a> <header class="eds-c-header" data-eds-c-header> <div class="eds-c-header__container" data-eds-c-header-expander-anchor> <div class="eds-c-header__brand"> <a href="https://link.springer.com" data-test=springerlink-logo data-track="click_imprint_logo" data-track-context="unified header" data-track-action="click logo link" data-track-category="unified header" data-track-label="link" > <img src="/oscar-static/images/darwin/header/img/logo-springer-nature-link-3149409f62.svg" alt="Springer Nature Link"> </a> </div> <a class="c-header__link eds-c-header__link" id="identity-account-widget" href='https://idp.springer.com/auth/personal/springernature?redirect_uri=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0?'><span class="eds-c-header__widget-fragment-title">Log in</span></a> </div> <nav class="eds-c-header__nav" aria-label="header navigation"> <div class="eds-c-header__nav-container"> <div class="eds-c-header__item eds-c-header__item--menu"> <a href="#eds-c-header-nav" class="eds-c-header__link" data-eds-c-header-expander> <svg class="eds-c-header__icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-menu-medium"></use> </svg><span>Menu</span> </a> </div> <div class="eds-c-header__item eds-c-header__item--inline-links"> <a class="eds-c-header__link" href="https://link.springer.com/journals/" data-track="nav_find_a_journal" data-track-context="unified header" data-track-action="click find a journal" data-track-category="unified header" data-track-label="link" > Find a journal </a> <a class="eds-c-header__link" href="https://www.springernature.com/gp/authors" data-track="nav_how_to_publish" data-track-context="unified header" data-track-action="click publish with us link" data-track-category="unified header" data-track-label="link" > Publish with us </a> <a class="eds-c-header__link" href="https://link.springernature.com/home/" data-track="nav_track_your_research" data-track-context="unified header" data-track-action="click track your research" data-track-category="unified header" data-track-label="link" > Track your research </a> </div> <div class="eds-c-header__link-container"> <div class="eds-c-header__item eds-c-header__item--divider"> <a href="#eds-c-header-popup-search" class="eds-c-header__link" data-eds-c-header-expander data-eds-c-header-test-search-btn> <svg class="eds-c-header__icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-search-medium"></use> </svg><span>Search</span> </a> </div> <div id="ecommerce-header-cart-icon-link" class="eds-c-header__item ecommerce-cart" style="display:inline-block"> <a class="eds-c-header__link" href="https://order.springer.com/public/cart" style="appearance:none;border:none;background:none;color:inherit;position:relative"> <svg id="eds-i-cart" class="eds-c-header__icon" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" height="24" width="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <path fill="currentColor" fill-rule="nonzero" d="M2 1a1 1 0 0 0 0 2l1.659.001 2.257 12.808a2.599 2.599 0 0 0 2.435 2.185l.167.004 9.976-.001a2.613 2.613 0 0 0 2.61-1.748l.03-.106 1.755-7.82.032-.107a2.546 2.546 0 0 0-.311-1.986l-.108-.157a2.604 2.604 0 0 0-2.197-1.076L6.042 5l-.56-3.17a1 1 0 0 0-.864-.82l-.12-.007L2.001 1ZM20.35 6.996a.63.63 0 0 1 .54.26.55.55 0 0 1 .082.505l-.028.1L19.2 15.63l-.022.05c-.094.177-.282.299-.526.317l-10.145.002a.61.61 0 0 1-.618-.515L6.394 6.999l13.955-.003ZM18 19a2 2 0 1 0 0 4 2 2 0 0 0 0-4ZM8 19a2 2 0 1 0 0 4 2 2 0 0 0 0-4Z"></path> </svg><span>Cart</span><span class="cart-info" style="display:none;position:absolute;top:10px;right:45px;background-color:#C65301;color:#fff;width:18px;height:18px;font-size:11px;border-radius:50%;line-height:17.5px;text-align:center"></span></a> <script>(function () { var exports = {}; if (window.fetch) { "use strict"; Object.defineProperty(exports, "__esModule", { value: true }); exports.headerWidgetClientInit = void 0; var headerWidgetClientInit = function (getCartInfo) { document.body.addEventListener("updatedCart", function () { updateCartIcon(); }, false); return updateCartIcon(); function updateCartIcon() { return getCartInfo() .then(function (res) { return res.json(); }) .then(refreshCartState) .catch(function (_) { }); } function refreshCartState(json) { var indicator = document.querySelector("#ecommerce-header-cart-icon-link .cart-info"); /* istanbul ignore else */ if (indicator && json.itemCount) { indicator.style.display = 'block'; indicator.textContent = json.itemCount > 9 ? '9+' : json.itemCount.toString(); var moreThanOneItem = json.itemCount > 1; indicator.setAttribute('title', "there ".concat(moreThanOneItem ? "are" : "is", " ").concat(json.itemCount, " item").concat(moreThanOneItem ? "s" : "", " in your cart")); } return json; } }; exports.headerWidgetClientInit = headerWidgetClientInit; headerWidgetClientInit( function () { return window.fetch("https://cart.springer.com/cart-info", { credentials: "include", headers: { Accept: "application/json" } }) } ) }})()</script> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </header> <article lang="en" id="main" class="app-masthead__colour-19"> <section class="app-masthead " aria-label="article masthead"> <div class="app-masthead__container"> <div class="app-article-masthead u-sans-serif js-context-bar-sticky-point-masthead" data-track-component="article" data-test="masthead-component"> <div class="app-article-masthead__info"> <nav aria-label="breadcrumbs" data-test="breadcrumbs"> <ol class="c-breadcrumbs c-breadcrumbs--contrast" itemscope itemtype="https://schema.org/BreadcrumbList"> <li class="c-breadcrumbs__item" id="breadcrumb0" itemprop="itemListElement" itemscope="" itemtype="https://schema.org/ListItem"> <a href="/" class="c-breadcrumbs__link" itemprop="item" data-track="click_breadcrumb" data-track-context="article page" data-track-category="article" data-track-action="breadcrumbs" data-track-label="breadcrumb1"><span itemprop="name">Home</span></a><meta itemprop="position" content="1"> <svg class="c-breadcrumbs__chevron" role="img" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" width="10" height="10" viewBox="0 0 10 10"> <path d="m5.96738168 4.70639573 2.39518594-2.41447274c.37913917-.38219212.98637524-.38972225 1.35419292-.01894278.37750606.38054586.37784436.99719163-.00013556 1.37821513l-4.03074001 4.06319683c-.37758093.38062133-.98937525.38100976-1.367372-.00003075l-4.03091981-4.06337806c-.37759778-.38063832-.38381821-.99150444-.01600053-1.3622839.37750607-.38054587.98772445-.38240057 1.37006824.00302197l2.39538588 2.4146743.96295325.98624457z" fill-rule="evenodd" transform="matrix(0 -1 1 0 0 10)"/> </svg> </li> <li class="c-breadcrumbs__item" id="breadcrumb1" itemprop="itemListElement" itemscope="" itemtype="https://schema.org/ListItem"> <a href="/journal/12103" class="c-breadcrumbs__link" itemprop="item" data-track="click_breadcrumb" data-track-context="article page" data-track-category="article" data-track-action="breadcrumbs" data-track-label="breadcrumb2"><span itemprop="name">American Journal of Criminal Justice</span></a><meta itemprop="position" content="2"> <svg class="c-breadcrumbs__chevron" role="img" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" width="10" height="10" viewBox="0 0 10 10"> <path d="m5.96738168 4.70639573 2.39518594-2.41447274c.37913917-.38219212.98637524-.38972225 1.35419292-.01894278.37750606.38054586.37784436.99719163-.00013556 1.37821513l-4.03074001 4.06319683c-.37758093.38062133-.98937525.38100976-1.367372-.00003075l-4.03091981-4.06337806c-.37759778-.38063832-.38381821-.99150444-.01600053-1.3622839.37750607-.38054587.98772445-.38240057 1.37006824.00302197l2.39538588 2.4146743.96295325.98624457z" fill-rule="evenodd" transform="matrix(0 -1 1 0 0 10)"/> </svg> </li> <li class="c-breadcrumbs__item" id="breadcrumb2" itemprop="itemListElement" itemscope="" itemtype="https://schema.org/ListItem"> <span itemprop="name">Article</span><meta itemprop="position" content="3"> </li> </ol> </nav> <h1 class="c-article-title" data-test="article-title" data-article-title="">Policing a Pandemic: Stay-at-Home Orders and What they Mean for the Police</h1> <ul class="c-article-identifiers"> <li class="c-article-identifiers__item"> Published: <time datetime="2020-06-09">09 June 2020</time> </li> </ul> <ul class="c-article-identifiers c-article-identifiers--cite-list"> <li class="c-article-identifiers__item"> <span data-test="journal-volume">Volume 45</span>, pages 702–717, (<span data-test="article-publication-year">2020</span>) </li> <li class="c-article-identifiers__item c-article-identifiers__item--cite"> <a href="#citeas" data-track="click" data-track-action="cite this article" data-track-category="article body" data-track-label="link">Cite this article</a> </li> </ul> <div class="app-article-masthead__buttons" data-test="download-article-link-wrapper" data-track-context="masthead"> <div class="c-pdf-container"> <div class="c-pdf-download u-clear-both u-mb-16"> <a href="/content/pdf/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0.pdf" class="u-button u-button--full-width u-button--primary u-justify-content-space-between c-pdf-download__link" data-article-pdf="true" data-readcube-pdf-url="true" data-test="pdf-link" data-draft-ignore="true" data-track="content_download" data-track-type="article pdf download" data-track-action="download pdf" data-track-label="button" data-track-external download> <span class="c-pdf-download__text">Download PDF</span> <svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" width="16" height="16" class="u-icon"><use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"/></svg> </a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="app-article-masthead__brand"> <a href="/journal/12103" class="app-article-masthead__journal-link" data-track="click_journal_home" data-track-action="journal homepage" data-track-context="article page" data-track-label="link"> <picture> <source type="image/webp" media="(min-width: 768px)" width="120" height="159" srcset="https://media.springernature.com/w120/springer-static/cover-hires/journal/12103?as=webp, https://media.springernature.com/w316/springer-static/cover-hires/journal/12103?as=webp 2x"> <img width="72" height="95" src="https://media.springernature.com/w72/springer-static/cover-hires/journal/12103?as=webp" srcset="https://media.springernature.com/w144/springer-static/cover-hires/journal/12103?as=webp 2x" alt=""> </picture> <span class="app-article-masthead__journal-title">American Journal of Criminal Justice</span> </a> <a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/12103/aims-and-scope" class="app-article-masthead__submission-link" data-track="click_aims_and_scope" data-track-action="aims and scope" data-track-context="article page" data-track-label="link"> Aims and scope <svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-arrow-right-medium"></use></svg> </a> <a href="https://www.editorialmanager.com/ajcj/" class="app-article-masthead__submission-link" data-track="click_submit_manuscript" data-track-context="article masthead on springerlink article page" data-track-action="submit manuscript" data-track-label="link"> Submit manuscript <svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-arrow-right-medium"></use></svg> </a> </div> </div> </div> </section> <div class="c-article-main u-container u-mt-24 u-mb-32 l-with-sidebar" id="main-content" data-component="article-container"> <main class="u-serif js-main-column" data-track-component="article body"> <div class="c-context-bar u-hide" data-test="context-bar" data-context-bar aria-hidden="true"> <div class="c-context-bar__container u-container"> <div class="c-context-bar__title"> Policing a Pandemic: Stay-at-Home Orders and What they Mean for the Police </div> <div data-test="inCoD" data-track-context="sticky banner"> <div class="c-pdf-container"> <div class="c-pdf-download u-clear-both u-mb-16"> <a href="/content/pdf/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0.pdf" class="u-button u-button--full-width u-button--primary u-justify-content-space-between c-pdf-download__link" data-article-pdf="true" data-readcube-pdf-url="true" data-test="pdf-link" data-draft-ignore="true" data-track="content_download" data-track-type="article pdf download" data-track-action="download pdf" data-track-label="button" data-track-external download> <span class="c-pdf-download__text">Download PDF</span> <svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" width="16" height="16" class="u-icon"><use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"/></svg> </a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="c-article-header"> <header> <ul class="c-article-author-list c-article-author-list--short" data-test="authors-list" data-component-authors-activator="authors-list"><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Michael_D_-White-Aff1" data-author-popup="auth-Michael_D_-White-Aff1" data-author-search="White, Michael D." data-corresp-id="c1">Michael D. White<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-mail-medium"></use></svg></a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a></sup> & </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Henry_F_-Fradella-Aff1" data-author-popup="auth-Henry_F_-Fradella-Aff1" data-author-search="Fradella, Henry F.">Henry F. Fradella</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a></sup> </li></ul> <div data-test="article-metrics"> <ul class="app-article-metrics-bar u-list-reset"> <li class="app-article-metrics-bar__item"> <p class="app-article-metrics-bar__count"><svg class="u-icon app-article-metrics-bar__icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-accesses-medium"></use> </svg>8359 <span class="app-article-metrics-bar__label">Accesses</span></p> </li> <li class="app-article-metrics-bar__item"> <p class="app-article-metrics-bar__count"><svg class="u-icon app-article-metrics-bar__icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-altmetric-medium"></use> </svg>8 <span class="app-article-metrics-bar__label">Altmetric</span></p> </li> <li class="app-article-metrics-bar__item"> <p class="app-article-metrics-bar__count"><svg class="u-icon app-article-metrics-bar__icon app-article-metrics-bar__icon--mentions" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-mentions-medium"></use> </svg>1 <span class="app-article-metrics-bar__label">Mention</span></p> </li> <li class="app-article-metrics-bar__item app-article-metrics-bar__item--metrics"> <p class="app-article-metrics-bar__details"><a href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0/metrics" data-track="click" data-track-action="view metrics" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Explore all metrics <svg class="u-icon app-article-metrics-bar__arrow-icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-arrow-right-medium"></use> </svg></a></p> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="u-mt-32"> </div> </header> </div> <div data-article-body="true" data-track-component="article body" class="c-article-body"> <section aria-labelledby="Abs1" data-title="Abstract" lang="en"><div class="c-article-section" id="Abs1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Abs1">Abstract</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Abs1-content"><p>The COVID-19 pandemic has dramatically altered life globally during the first 4 months of 2020. Many countries, including the United States, responded to the pandemic by issuing stay-at-home orders/shelter-in-place orders (SaHOs/SiPOs) to their citizens. By April 2020, more than 90% of the U.S. population was subject to an order. SaHOs/SiPOs raise a number of complex issues for the police, ranging from concerns about infringement of constitutional rights to potential sanctions for violations of an order. This article delves into the issues surrounding SaHOs/SiPOs and highlights their complexity for the police. First, we examine the “why the police?” question, and point to key features of their role which make enforcement of SaHOs/SiPOs the proper business of the police. Second, we examine the relevant legal doctrines that can serve as the basis for police actions against violators of orders, most notably the <i>special needs doctrine</i>. Last, we offer police legitimacy as a lens for viewing the appropriateness of police responses to violators of SaHOs/SiPOs.</p></div></div></section> <div data-test="cobranding-download"> </div> <section aria-labelledby="inline-recommendations" data-title="Inline Recommendations" class="c-article-recommendations" data-track-component="inline-recommendations"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-title" id="inline-recommendations">Similar content being viewed by others</h3> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list__item"> <article class="c-article-recommendations-card" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__img"><img src="https://media.springernature.com/w215h120/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1057%2Fs41271-020-00257-8/MediaObjects/41271_2020_257_Fig1_HTML.png" loading="lazy" alt=""></div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__main"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-card__heading" itemprop="name headline"> <a class="c-article-recommendations-card__link" itemprop="url" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1057/s41271-020-00257-8?fromPaywallRec=false" data-track="select_recommendations_1" data-track-context="inline recommendations" data-track-action="click recommendations inline - 1" data-track-label="10.1057/s41271-020-00257-8">Application of state law in the public health emergency response to COVID-19: an example from Delaware in the United States </a> </h3> <div class="c-article-meta-recommendations" data-test="recommendation-info"> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__item-type">Article</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__date">28 September 2020</span> </div> </div> </article> </div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list__item"> <article class="c-article-recommendations-card" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__img"><img src="https://media.springernature.com/w92h120/springer-static/cover-hires/book/978-3-031-15335-8?as=webp" loading="lazy" alt=""></div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__main"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-card__heading" itemprop="name headline"> <a class="c-article-recommendations-card__link" itemprop="url" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-15335-8_2?fromPaywallRec=false" data-track="select_recommendations_2" data-track-context="inline recommendations" data-track-action="click recommendations inline - 2" data-track-label="10.1007/978-3-031-15335-8_2">Austria </a> </h3> <div class="c-article-meta-recommendations" data-test="recommendation-info"> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__item-type">Chapter</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__date">© 2023</span> </div> </div> </article> </div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list__item"> <article class="c-article-recommendations-card" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__img"><img src="https://media.springernature.com/w215h120/springer-static/image/art%3Aplaceholder%2Fimages/placeholder-figure-springernature.png" loading="lazy" alt=""></div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__main"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-card__heading" itemprop="name headline"> <a class="c-article-recommendations-card__link" itemprop="url" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s41134-021-00174-0?fromPaywallRec=false" data-track="select_recommendations_3" data-track-context="inline recommendations" data-track-action="click recommendations inline - 3" data-track-label="10.1007/s41134-021-00174-0">Impoverishment of the Poor and Derogation of Human Rights During the Covid-19 Pandemic in Indonesia: Testing the Emergency Measure and Siracusa Principles in Large-Scale Social Restriction </a> </h3> <div class="c-article-meta-recommendations" data-test="recommendation-info"> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__item-type">Article</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__date">13 July 2021</span> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> </section> <script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; window.dataLayer.push({ recommendations: { recommender: 'semantic', model: 'specter', policy_id: 'NA', timestamp: 1732713817, embedded_user: 'null' } }); </script> <div class="app-card-service" data-test="article-checklist-banner"> <div> <a class="app-card-service__link" data-track="click_presubmission_checklist" data-track-context="article page top of reading companion" data-track-category="pre-submission-checklist" data-track-action="clicked article page checklist banner test 2 old version" data-track-label="link" href="https://beta.springernature.com/pre-submission?journalId=12103" data-test="article-checklist-banner-link"> <span class="app-card-service__link-text">Use our pre-submission checklist</span> <svg class="app-card-service__link-icon" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"><use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-arrow-right-small"></use></svg> </a> <p class="app-card-service__description">Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.</p> </div> <div class="app-card-service__icon-container"> <svg class="app-card-service__icon" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-clipboard-check-medium"></use> </svg> </div> </div> <div class="main-content"> <section data-title="Introduction"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec1">Introduction</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec1-content"><p>These are unprecedented times. On December 31, 2019, Chinese officials notified the World Health Organization (WHO) about a group of more than 40 citizens sickened with an unknown illness in the Huanan province (Secon, Woodward, & Mosher, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2002" title="Secon, H., Woodward, A., & Mosher, D. (2002). Business Insider. A comprehensive timeline of the new coronavirus pandemic, from China’s first COVID-19 case to the present. Business Insider. Business Insider. Retrieved from 
https://www.businessinsider.com/coronavirus-pandemic-timeline-history-major-events-2020-3


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR66" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e377">2002</a>). China recorded its first COVID-19 death on January 11, 2020, and the United States documented its first case 9 days later in the state of Washington (Secon et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2002" title="Secon, H., Woodward, A., & Mosher, D. (2002). Business Insider. A comprehensive timeline of the new coronavirus pandemic, from China’s first COVID-19 case to the present. Business Insider. Business Insider. Retrieved from 
https://www.businessinsider.com/coronavirus-pandemic-timeline-history-major-events-2020-3


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR66" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e380">2002</a>). On January 30— one month after the initial notification by China, the WHO declared a global public-health emergency (Kennedy, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Kennedy, M. (2020). WHO declares coronavirus outbreak a global health emergency. NPR. Retrieved from 
https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2020/01/30/798894428/who-declares-coronavirus-outbreak-a-global-health-emergency


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR40" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e383">2020</a>). Over the next 3 months, the spread of the virus has been shocking and the pandemic has redefined life globally. By April 15th, there were more than 2 million infections worldwide with 130,528 deaths (Johns Hopkins University & Medicine, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Johns Hopkins University & Medicine. (2020). COVID-19 dashboard. Coronavirus resource Center. Retrieved April 15, 2020 from 
https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/map.html


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR36" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e386">2020</a>).</p><p>Many countries, including the United States, responded to the pandemic by restricting international air travel, closing borders to foreigners, and issuing stay-at-home orders/shelter-in-place orders (SaHOs/SiPOs) to their citizens. SaHOs/SiPOs came very quickly in parts of the United States. The Office of the Mayor in San Francisco (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Office of the Mayor, City and County of San Francisco (2020). Shelter in place order. 
https://www.sfdph.org/dph/alerts/files/HealthOrderC19-07-%20Shelter-in-Place.pdf


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR54" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e392">2020</a>) issued the first U.S. COVID-19 order on March 16 for all city and county residents and, three days later, the Governor of California extended the order to all 40 million residents in the state. Over the next several weeks, more than 40 other states followed suit (Lee, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Lee, A. (2020). These states have implemented stay-at-home orders. Here’s what that means for you. CNN. Retrieved from 
https://www.cnn.com/2020/03/23/us/coronavirus-which-states-stay-at-home-order-trnd/index.html


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR43" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e395">2020</a>). By April 7, 2020, 95% of the U.S. population across 42 states was subject to a SaHO/SiPO (Secon et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2002" title="Secon, H., Woodward, A., & Mosher, D. (2002). Business Insider. A comprehensive timeline of the new coronavirus pandemic, from China’s first COVID-19 case to the present. Business Insider. Business Insider. Retrieved from 
https://www.businessinsider.com/coronavirus-pandemic-timeline-history-major-events-2020-3


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR66" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e398">2002</a>). Though the specifics of these public heath orders vary by state, they generally prohibit travel outside of the home except for essential services, including healthcare workers and first-responders, and a pre-set list of essential activities that includes purchasing food or medicine, checking on a relative, and traveling for health care (see, e.g., California Executive Order N-33-20, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="California Executive Order N-33-20. (2020). Retrieved from 
https://covid19.ca.gov/img/Executive-Order-N-33-20.pdf


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e401">2020</a>).</p><p>There are a host of complex issues associated with COVID-19 SaHOs/SiPOs, ranging from concerns about infringement of constitutional rights to potential sanctions for violations of an order. For example, states vary on whether attending religious services is considered an essential service, which implicates the First Amendment. The San Francisco order prohibits attending religious services (Office of the Mayor, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Office of the Mayor, City and County of San Francisco (2020). Shelter in place order. 
https://www.sfdph.org/dph/alerts/files/HealthOrderC19-07-%20Shelter-in-Place.pdf


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR54" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e407">2020</a>), but the orders in Florida and Alabama permit such activity with restrictions on attendance (Lee, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Lee, A. (2020). These states have implemented stay-at-home orders. Here’s what that means for you. CNN. Retrieved from 
https://www.cnn.com/2020/03/23/us/coronavirus-which-states-stay-at-home-order-trnd/index.html


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR43" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e410">2020</a>). Moreover, a handful of states have set up border checkpoints to stop cars with out-of-state license plates, in some cases, prohibiting inter-state travel (Lazo & Shaver, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Lazo, L. & Shaver, K. (2020). Covid-10 checkpoints targeting out-of-state residents draw complaints and legal scrutiny. Washington Post. Retrieved from 
https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/us/covid-19-checkpoints-targeting-out-of-state-residents-draw-complaints-and-legal-scrutiny/ar-BB12CWYu?fbclid=IwAR3OosGK-N5U30IH0sZSRMU0CU_kc8amkNROKC-QFisSip-W8EjRlritfbo


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e413">2020</a>; Povich, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Povich, E. S. (2020). Border checkpoints discourage travelers between states. Pew. Retrieved from 
https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/blogs/stateline/2020/04/08/border-checkpoints-discourage-travelers-between-states


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e416">2020</a>). These stops may be occurring without reasonable suspicion or probable cause, implicating the Fourth Amendment.</p><p>The appropriate response for violation of a SaHO/SiPO is an equally complex question. Should this be a police issue? Many orders state that violations are a criminal offense with potential sanctions that range from fines to jail time, and there are numerous cases where police have taken formal action against violators (Cave & Dahir, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Cave, D., & Dahir, A. L. (2020). How far should police go in enforcing coronavirus lockdowns? New York Times. Retrieved from 
https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/02/world/australia/coronavirus-police-lockdowns.html


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e422">2020</a>).<sup><a href="#Fn1"><span class="u-visually-hidden">Footnote </span>1</a></sup> Police in Florida arrested a pastor for holding church services with more than 10 people present (Johnson & Wolf, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Johnson, K., & Wolf, R. (2020). Enforcing the shutdown: Law enforcement grapples with policing stay-at-home orders, social distancing, quarantines. USA Today. Retrieved from 
https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2020/04/02/coronavirus-police-fines-jail-breaking-stay-home-orders/5104704002/


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR37" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e431">2020</a>). Businesses and citizens have been assessed fines in cities across the nation for violating SaHOs/SiPOs. Alternatively, police in many jurisdictions have been reluctant to take formal action against violators of SaHOs/SiPOs. Chief Chris Magnus of the Tucson Police Department, for example, stated, “We see this as a health issue, not a criminal justice or legal issue. Our goal is not to go out there and cite a bunch of people” (Lau, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Lau, K. (2020). Tucson police chief on enforcing stay-at-home order. Arizona Public Media. Retrieved from 
https://news.azpm.org/p/news-articles/2020/4/3/169212-tucson-police-chief-on-enforcing-stay-at-home-order/


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR41" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e434">2020</a>, p. 1).</p><p>This article delves into the issues surrounding COVID-19 SaHOs/SiPOs and highlights their complexity for the police. First, we examine the “why the police?” question, with a specific focus on their unique authority to use force, their “impossible mandate” (Manning, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1978" title="Manning, P. K. (1978). The police: Mandate, strategies, and appearances. In P. K. Manning & J. Van Maanen (Eds.), Policing: A view from the street. New York: Random House." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR45" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e441">1978</a>), and their primary mission to protect life (Fyfe, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1993" title="Fyfe, J. J. (1993). “Good” policing. In B. Forst (Ed.), The socio-economics of crime and justice. M.E. Sharpe: New York." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR27" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e444">1993</a>; Skolnick & Fyfe, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1993" title="Skolnick, J. H., & Fyfe, J. J. (1993). Above the law: Police and the excessive use of force. New York: The Free Press." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR67" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e447">1993</a>). Second, we examine the relevant legal doctrines that can serve as the basis for police actions against violators of orders. Last, given the aforementioned sociological and legal discussions, we conclude that enforcement of SaHOs/SiPOs is the proper business of the police, and we offer police legitimacy as an important lens for viewing the appropriateness of those responses.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Why the Police?"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec2-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec2">Why the Police?</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec2-content"><p>Why should we expect the police to enforce COVID-19 SaHOs/SiPOs? In some cases, the answer is quite simple. SaHOs/SiPOs often deem violations as a criminal offense with fines, arrest, and even jail as potential sanctions. For example, the state of Maryland order indicates that violations are a misdemeanor offense punishable with a fine of up to $5000, a year in jail, or both (Cummings, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Cummings, W. (2020). ‘We’re not playing around’: Md. Gov. Hogan says arrest for coronavirus offense sends ‘great message.’ USA Today. Retrieved from 
https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2020/03/30/gov-larry-hogan-arrest-breaking-coronavirus-rule-sends-message/5088364002/


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR20" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e458">2020</a>).<sup><a href="#Fn2"><span class="u-visually-hidden">Footnote </span>2</a></sup> Clearly, activities that are deemed criminal become the business of the police, and public officials in some jurisdictions have been adamant about enforcement of COVID-19 SaHOs/SiPOs. Maryland Governor Hogan stated the recent arrest of a violator sent a “great message” regarding his intent to enforce the order (Cummings, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Cummings, W. (2020). ‘We’re not playing around’: Md. Gov. Hogan says arrest for coronavirus offense sends ‘great message.’ USA Today. Retrieved from 
https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2020/03/30/gov-larry-hogan-arrest-breaking-coronavirus-rule-sends-message/5088364002/


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR20" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e467">2020</a>, para. 6). Police in Santa Cruz recently issued $1000 fines to seven non-residents who entered the city for “essential drinks” (Moshtaghian & Croft, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Moshtaghian, A., & Croft, J. (2020). That's an expensive round of 'essential drinks.' Seven people fined $1,000 each for violating stay-at-home order. CNN. Retrieved from 
https://www.cnn.com/2020/04/12/us/santa-cruz-fine-drinks-stay-home-order-trnd/index.html


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR50" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e470">2020</a>, para. 3). Police in some states have begun to restrict inter-state travel. Povich (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Povich, E. S. (2020). Border checkpoints discourage travelers between states. Pew. Retrieved from 
https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/blogs/stateline/2020/04/08/border-checkpoints-discourage-travelers-between-states


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e473">2020</a>) notes police in “Texas, Delaware, Florida and Rhode Island are stopping drivers with out-of-state license plates and ordering them to quarantine for two weeks, if they intend to stay in the state” (para. 2) On March 20, state officials in North Carolina began prohibiting out-of-state residents from visiting their second homes in the Outer Banks, resulting in the filing of a federal lawsuit (Aitken, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Aitken, P. (2020). Homeowners sue over restricted access to Outer Banks second homes due to coronavirus. Fox News. Retrieved from 
https://www.foxnews.com/us/homeowners-sue-outerbanks-access-second-home-coronavirus


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e477">2020</a>).</p><p>Most police leaders agree that widespread enforcement of SaHOs/SiPOs is not the best use of police resources and it may even be counter-productive. Houston Police Chief Art Acevedo said “It’s in everybody’s best interest to get voluntary compliance…we should only use the hammer (arrests or citations) as a measure of last resort” (Johnson & Wolf, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Johnson, K., & Wolf, R. (2020). Enforcing the shutdown: Law enforcement grapples with policing stay-at-home orders, social distancing, quarantines. USA Today. Retrieved from 
https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2020/04/02/coronavirus-police-fines-jail-breaking-stay-home-orders/5104704002/


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR37" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e483">2020</a>, para. 14). Moreover, in many places a violation of a SaHO/SiPO is not criminal. So, why the police? The answer is tied to several key features of the police role.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec3">Force as the Core of the Police Role</h3><p>We look to police to enforce SaHOs/SiPOs because of their unique authority to use force against citizens. Bittner (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1970" title="Bittner, E. (1970). The functions of the police in modern society. Bethesda, MD: National Institute of Mental Health." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e493">1970</a>) argued force is the core of the police role, noting that “the police are nothing else than a mechanism for the distribution of situationally justified force in society” (p. 36; see also Manning, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1978" title="Manning, P. K. (1978). The police: Mandate, strategies, and appearances. In P. K. Manning & J. Van Maanen (Eds.), Policing: A view from the street. New York: Random House." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR45" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e496">1978</a>). This authority to use force originates in the social contract between police and the community, whereby citizens surrendered their right to use physical force (except in limited circumstances) and gave that right to the police in order to protect the community (Reiman, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1985" title="Reiman, J. (1985). The social contract and the police use of deadly force. In F. A. Ellison & M. Feldberg (Eds.), Moral issues in police work. Savage, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e499">1985</a>). Bittner (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1970" title="Bittner, E. (1970). The functions of the police in modern society. Bethesda, MD: National Institute of Mental Health." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e502">1970</a>) argues the threat to use force defines every single police-citizen encounter:</p><blockquote class="c-blockquote"><div class="c-blockquote__body"> <p>whatever the substance of the task at hand, whether it involves protection against an undesired imposition, caring for those who cannot care for themselves, attempting to solve a crime, helping to save a life, abating a nuisance, or settling an explosive dispute, police intervention means above all making use of the capacity and authority to overpower resistance … every conceivable police intervention projects the message that force may be, and may have to be, used to achieve a desired objective. (p. 40)</p> </div></blockquote><p>We ask police to enforce SaHOs/SiPOs because they have the authority to use force to overcome the resistance of violators. Police can force violators to disperse. Police can issue tickets or fines, and they can even deprive violators of their liberty through arrest.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec4">The Impossible Mandate</h3><p>This responsibility also falls to the police because of what Manning (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1978" title="Manning, P. K. (1978). The police: Mandate, strategies, and appearances. In P. K. Manning & J. Van Maanen (Eds.), Policing: A view from the street. New York: Random House." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR45" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e519">1978</a>) called their impossible mandate. The police are available around the clock every day of the year. Manning (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1978" title="Manning, P. K. (1978). The police: Mandate, strategies, and appearances. In P. K. Manning & J. Van Maanen (Eds.), Policing: A view from the street. New York: Random House." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR45" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e522">1978</a>) argues that although the police have “staked out a mandate” (p. 8) centered on crime control, this mandate is impossible because most of their business does not involve crime (Reiss, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1971" title="Reiss, A. J. (1971). The police and the public. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR63" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e525">1971</a>). Wilson (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1968" title="Wilson, J. Q. (1968). Varieties of police behavior: The management of law and order in eight communities. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR87" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e528">1968</a>), for example, reported that just 10% of a police officer’s time was devoted to crime-related activities (see also Mastrofski, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1983" title="Mastrofski, S. D. (1983). The police and noncrime services. In G. P. Whitaker & C. Phillips (Eds.), Evaluating the performance of criminal justice agencies. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR46" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e531">1983</a>; Scott, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1981" title="Scott, E. J. (1981). Calls for service: Citizen demand and initial police response. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR65" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e535">1981</a>). Because of their constant availability and their authority to use force, citizens call upon police to handle all sorts of noncriminal issues, from peacekeeping and managing disputes to maintaining public order and other service-related tasks. As Bittner (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1974" title="Bittner, E. (1974). Florence nightingale in pursuit of Willie Sutton: A theory of the police. In H. Jacob (Ed.), Potential for reform of criminal justice (pp. 17–44). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR4" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e538">1974</a>) eloquently stated, it’s not just that the police handle a “mind-boggling variety” of tasks, but rather that “no human problem exists, or is imaginable, about which it could be said with finality that this certainly could not become the proper business of the police” (p. 244). Enforcement of SaHOs/SiPOs clearly meets Bittner’s conception of a “human problem” where the resolution may require the use of force.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec5">The Mission to Protect Life</h3><p>Skolnick and Fyfe (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1993" title="Skolnick, J. H., & Fyfe, J. J. (1993). Above the law: Police and the excessive use of force. New York: The Free Press." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR67" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e550">1993</a>) philosophized that the mission of police is to protect life. They argued that this definition provides police with a clear benchmark for evaluating both the means and ends (or outcomes) of police decisions. In other words, the “protect life” mission provides a lens from which to view all police decisions: is the decision made by an officer consistent with the mission of protecting life (Kane & White, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="Kane, R. J., & White, M. D. (2013). Jammed up: An examination of career-ending police misconduct. New York: NYU Press." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR38" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e553">2013</a>)? The President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing. (2015). Final report of the President’s task force on 21st century policing. Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR60" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e556">2015</a>) recently recommended a clearly stated “sanctity of life” philosophy be on the forefront of every officer’s mind, and at the core of all departments’ missions (p. 19; see also Police Executive Research Forum, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Police Executive Research Forum. (2016). Use of force: Taking policing to a higher standard: 30 guiding principles (critical issues in policing). Washington, DC: Author." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e559">2016</a>, p. 1).</p><p>The enforcement of SaHOs/SiPOs epitomizes the “protect life” mission of the police. Violators may spread the deadly disease, thereby threatening the lives of citizens. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ([CDC] <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020b" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2020b). CDC, Washington State report first COVID-19 death. Retrieved from 
https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2020/s0229-COVID-19-first-death.html


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR13" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e565">2020b</a>, February 29) reported the first COVID-19 death in the United States on February 29, 2020. Just 6 weeks later, more than 22,000 deaths had occurred, with projections of final U.S. death counts ranging from 60,000 to 200,000 (CDC, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020c" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2020c). Cases in the U.S. Retrieved from 
https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/cases-updates/cases-in-us.html


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR14" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e568">2020c</a>, April 14). The “protect life” mission for COVID-19 is a tragic double-edged sword for the police, however; simply carrying out this mission increases exposure risk for the police and threatens their own lives. By April 3, 2020, more than 1500 officers in the New York City Police Department tested positive for COVID-19 (Southall, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Southall, A. (2020). Virus’s toll on N.Y. police: 1 in 6 officers is out sick. New York Times. 
https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/03/nyregion/coronavirus-nypd.html


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR70" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e571">2020</a>). During the same week, the Detroit Chief of Police tested positive and 20% of the police force was in quarantine (Guillen & Kaufman, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Guillen, J., & Kaufman, G. (2020). How the coronavirus spread through the Detroit Police Department. Detroit Free Press. 
https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/detroit/2020/03/28/coronavirus-detroit-police-pancake-breakfast/2931224001/


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e574">2020</a>). By April 14, more than 30 law enforcement officers have died from COVID-19 (PoliceOne, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="PoliceOne. (2020). COVID-19: Law enforcement deaths. Retrieved April 15, 2020 from 
https://www.policeone.com/coronavirus-covid-19/articles/covid-19-law-enforcement-deaths-3ftkdPnVffq55iHU/


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e577">2020</a>). In response to the threat to officers’ own lives, some police departments have altered staffing patterns, limited officers’ self-initiated activity, and have even begun using drones to issue verbal warnings to violators of SaHOs/SiPOs (Fedschun, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Fedschun, T. (2020). Coronvirus spurs police to deploy ‘talking’ drones in Florida, New Jersey to enforce social distancing. Fox News. Retrieved from 
https://www.foxnews.com/us/coronavirus-talking-drone-florida-new-jersey-police-social-distancing-enforcement


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR23" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e581">2020</a>; Lum, Maupin, & Stoltz, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Lum, C., Maupin, C., & Stoltz, M. (2020). The impact of COVID-19 on law enforcement agencies (wave 1). A joint report of the International Association of Chiefs of Police and the Center for Evidence-Based Crime Policy, George Mason University. Retrieved from 
https://www.theiacp.org/sites/default/files/IACP-GMU%20Survey.pdf


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR44" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e584">2020</a>).</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Constitutional Questions Concerning Public Health Orders"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec6-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec6">Constitutional Questions Concerning Public Health Orders</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec6-content"><p>The steps that the federal and state governments take to protect people from epidemics must comply with the U.S. Constitution, especially since some of the more comprehensive public health measures restrict the exercise of personal freedoms. The U.S. Supreme Court has only rarely addressed the extent to which the police power of the state outweighs individual rights and liberties to stop the spread of infectious diseases. The most instructive case, <i>Jacobson v. Massachusetts</i> (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1905" title="Jacobson v. Massachusetts, 197 U.S. 11 (1905)." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR35" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e599">1905</a>), dates back to the smallpox epidemic at the dawn of the twentieth century. In overruling a pastor’s claim that a mandatory smallpox vaccination violated his constitutional rights, the Court carefully stated that individual liberties “may at times, under the pressure of great dangers, be subjected to [restraints]. .. by reasonable regulations, as the safety of the general public may demand” (p. 29). This precedent, now 115 years old, predates federal and state laws aimed at maximizing religious freedoms under which the outcome in <i>Jacobson</i> might differ today. But whether religious freedoms may be significantly curtailed during a pandemic under public health orders designed to save human lives is not the only open question from a constitutional perspective. For example, to what degree does due process restrain the power of the state to quarantine people merely suspected of being infected with the disease (see Ulrich & Mariner, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Ulrich, M. R., & Mariner, W. K. (2018). Quarantine and the federal role in epidemics. Southern Methodist University Law Review, 71, 391–444." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e605">2018</a>)? To what extent may the government conduct surveillance for “contact tracing” purposes (such as tracking movements via cell phones) and, in doing so, invade people’s privacy (see Chandler, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Chandler, S. (2020). Coronavirus could infect privacy and civil liberties forever. Forbes. Retrieved from 
https://www.forbes.com/sites/simonchandler/2020/03/23/coronavirus-could-infect-privacy-and-civil-liberties-forever/#71aa2b64365d


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR15" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e608">2020</a>)? Does the power of eminent domain allow the government to seize private facilities for quarantine purposes and, if so, must compensation be provided (see Tucker & Bragg, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2001" title="Tucker, D. G., & Bragg, A. O., III. (2001). Florida’s law of storms: Emergency management, local government, and the police power. Stetson Law Review, 30, 837–873." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR79" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e612">2001</a>)? And, most relevant for the police, to what extent does the Fourth Amendment restrain the power of law enforcement to enforce various orders designed to protect public health and welfare during a pandemic?</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec7">Sources of Authority for Public Health Orders</h3><p>Article 1, Section 8, Clause 3 of the U.S. Constitution, known as the Commerce Clause, grants the federal government limited legal authority to take measures to prevent the spread of diseases from foreign countries and between states (Cole, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="Cole, J. P. (2014). Federal and state quarantine and isolation authority. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service Retrieved from 
https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL33201.pdf

." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR19" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e622">2014</a>). Pursuant to that constitutional provision, Congress enacted the Public Health Service Act in <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1944" title="Public Health Service Act, July 1, 1944, c. 373, Title III, § 361, 58 Stat. 703 (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. § 264 et seq.)." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR61" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e625">1944</a> (42 U.S.C. §§ 264–272, 2002) and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, which houses the CDC, has enacted and periodically amended various regulations under the authority of that legislation (see 42 C.F.R. §§ 70–71). Collectively, these federal laws permit the U.S. government to issue isolation and quarantine orders to persons arriving in the United States and traveling between states.<sup><a href="#Fn3"><span class="u-visually-hidden">Footnote </span>3</a></sup> Thus, federal authority is somewhat limited in this arena. By contrast, the police powers of the states—the authority to impose restrictions on private rights for the sake of public welfare, order, and security, which is enshrined in state constitutions under the authority reserved to the states by the Tenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution—vests primary authority to state and local governments to order people into isolation or quarantine for public health purposes (Cole, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="Cole, J. P. (2014). Federal and state quarantine and isolation authority. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service Retrieved from 
https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL33201.pdf

." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR19" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e642">2014</a>; <i>Gibbons v. Ogden</i>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1824" title="Gibbons v. Ogden, 22 U.S. (9 Wheat.) 1 (1824)." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR28" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e649">1824</a>).<sup><a href="#Fn4"><span class="u-visually-hidden">Footnote </span>4</a></sup></p><p>Although state laws governing the exercise of police powers for health emergencies vary significantly, most states’ laws vest public health directors or similar officials the authority to issue public health orders designed to stop the spread of contagious diseases, but only under limited circumstances that involve certain types of danger to public health and that could not be controlled through less restrictive alternatives (Cole, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="Cole, J. P. (2014). Federal and state quarantine and isolation authority. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service Retrieved from 
https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL33201.pdf

." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR19" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e669">2014</a>; NNCSL, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="National Conference of State Legislatures. (2020). State quarantine and isolation statutes. Retrieved from 
https://www.ncsl.org/research/health/state-quarantine-and-isolation-statutes.aspx


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR51" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e672">2020</a>). SaHOs/SiPOs can be considered as variations of state isolation and quarantine authority to stop the spread of disease. Alternatively, SaHOs/SiPOs may be viewed as stemming from broader executive powers during emergencies,<sup><a href="#Fn5"><span class="u-visually-hidden">Footnote </span>5</a></sup> especially in the more than 40 states that have adopted some variation of the Model State Emergency Health Powers Act, drafted by the CDC in <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2001" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2001). Model state emergency health powers act. Retrieved from 
https://www.aapsonline.org/legis/msehpa2.pdf


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e687">2001</a> after the September 11th attacks (see Gostin, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2003" title="Gostin, L. O. (2003). The model state emergency health powers act: Public health and civil liberties in a time of terrorism. Health Matrix, 13(1), 3–32." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR29" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e690">2003</a>). Either way, the “en masse” lockdowns attendant to SaHOs/SiPOs impinge on so many constitutional rights that they will likely be challenged on a variety of grounds, although most experts agree most such challenges will fail (see Weiss, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Weiss, D. C. (2020). Lawsuits over coronavirus quarantines are unlikely to succeed, experts say. ABA Journal. Retrieved from 
https://www.abajournal.com/news/article/suits-over-coronavirus-quarantines-unlikely-to-succeed-experts-say


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR84" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e694">2020</a>).<sup><a href="#Fn6"><span class="u-visually-hidden">Footnote </span>6</a></sup></p><p>State laws provide either civil or criminal punishments for violation of public health orders that range from fines to terms of imprisonment (NCSL, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="National Conference of State Legislatures. (2020). State quarantine and isolation statutes. Retrieved from 
https://www.ncsl.org/research/health/state-quarantine-and-isolation-statutes.aspx


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR51" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e711">2020</a>). Most jurisdictions, however, use criminal penalties only as a last resort. As a spokesperson for the San Francisco Police Department states, “We are not interested in using a criminal justice approach for a public health challenge.... This is about educating the public about voluntary compliance” (Pearl, Hunter, Lo & Chung, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Pearl, B., Hunter, L., Lo, K., & Chung, E. (2020). The enforcement of COVID-19 stay-at-home orders. Retrieved from 
https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/criminal-justice/news/2020/04/02/482558/enforcement-covid-19-stay-home-orders/


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR55" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e714">2020</a>, para. 5). Nonetheless, when people flout SaHOs/SiPOs, police have little choice but to exercise their law enforcement authority.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec8">Police Enforcement of Public Health Orders</h3><p>Public health orders such as SaHOs/SiPOs are incredibly tricky to enforce. This is especially true in the United States during the COVID-19 pandemic for two reasons. First and foremost, some jurisdictions have not issued legally-binding orders to stay inside. Rather some state and local governments have issued guidelines that rely on the public’s voluntary cooperation (Ansari & Abbot, 2020). In such locales, formal legal orders are not issued “unless a person breaks that initial request” (Ansari & Abbot, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Ansari, T., & Abbott, B. (2020). U.S. considers how to enforce coronavirus quarantines. Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from 
https://www.wsj.com/articles/us-considers-how-to-enforce-coronavirus-quarantines-11583963653


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR2" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e725">2020</a>, p. 5). But even when legally-enforceable orders are in place, enforcement of these orders often falls on “the honor system” (Ansari & Abbott, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Ansari, T., & Abbott, B. (2020). U.S. considers how to enforce coronavirus quarantines. Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from 
https://www.wsj.com/articles/us-considers-how-to-enforce-coronavirus-quarantines-11583963653


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR2" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e728">2020</a>, p. 6). Second, unlike in other countries where police can respond to emergency legislation that empowers them to enforce lockdown orders aggressively (see Cave & Dahir, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Cave, D., & Dahir, A. L. (2020). How far should police go in enforcing coronavirus lockdowns? New York Times. Retrieved from 
https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/02/world/australia/coronavirus-police-lockdowns.html


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e731">2020</a>), enforcement of public health orders in the United States is complicated by the Fourth Amendment since that constitutional provision limits police authority to stop, question, frisk, or arrest people absent certain quanta of proof (White & Fradella, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="White, M. D., & Fradella, H. F. (2016). Stop and frisk: The use and abuse of a controversial police tactic. New York: New York University Press." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR86" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e734">2016</a>).</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec9">The Fourth Amendment</h3><p>The Fourth Amendment prohibits “unreasonable searches and seizures.” There is no formula for determining reasonableness; rather, reasonableness is an inherently flexible standard that takes into account all of the circumstances surrounding the actions of law enforcement officials. Generally, absent abusive conduct or behavior that “shocks the conscience” (<i>Rochin v. California,</i><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1952" title="Rochin v. California, 342 U.S. 165 (1952)." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR64" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e747">1952</a>, p. 172), the reasonableness of search or seizure will turn on three factors: (1) whether law enforcement officers trespassed against a defendant’s property rights (<i>United States v. Jones</i>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="United States v. Jones, 565 U.S. 400 (2012)." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR82" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e753">2012</a>); (2) whether law enforcement officers violated the defendant’s reasonable expectations of privacy (<i>Katz v. United States</i>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1967" title="Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347 (1967)." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR39" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e759">1967</a>); and (3) whether the actions of law enforcement were supported by probable cause and otherwise complied with the requirements of the Warrants Clause (see, e.g., <i>Illinois v. Gates</i>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1983" title="Illinois v. Gates, 462 U.S. 213 (1983)." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR33" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e766">1983</a>). But the Supreme Court has recognized numerous exceptions to requirements of probable cause and warrants on the grounds of the “reasonableness” of police actions, usually by “weighing the utility of a particular kind of search or seizure in serving some ‘special law enforcement interest’ against the degree of intrusiveness entailed in the particular technique” (Colb, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1998" title="Colb, S. F. (1998). The qualitative dimension of Fourth Amendment “reasonableness”. Columbia Law Review, 98(7), 1642–1725." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR18" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e769">1998</a>, p. 1648).</p><p>When people voluntarily consent to isolation, monitoring, and treatment, the usual strictures of the Fourth Amendment are not implicated (see <i>Illinois v. Rodriguez</i>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1990" title="Illinois v. Rodriguez, 497 U.S. 177 (1990)." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR34" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e778">1990</a>).</p><p>But when people do not comply with public health orders, or if there are bona-fide questions as to whether they are in compliance with the exceptions to such orders, police are called upon to act in ways that are designed to stop the spread of contagious diseases. In such circumstances, law enforcement officers may need to stop and question people in ways that would otherwise be impermissible under the Fourth Amendment—namely without any individualized suspicion. Given the compelling governmental interest in limiting the spread of COVID-19, reasonable police actions to enforce SaHOs/SiPOs are likely constitutional under several theories, but only one of which likely adequately safeguards civil liberties after the pandemic ends.</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec10"><b><i>Terry</i></b> and Reasonable Suspicion in Light of Asymptomatic Persons</h4><p>Although probable cause is usually necessary to conduct a search, seize evidence, or make an arrest, the Supreme Court has created several notable exceptions to this rule. The one most relevant to the enforcement of SaHOs/SiPOs allows police to <i>stop</i> people based on <i>reasonable suspicion</i> of criminal activity—a lower standard of proof than probable cause (<i>Terry v. Ohio</i>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1968" title="Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1 (1968)." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR72" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e803">1968</a>). <i>Stops</i> are not the same as arrests; they are brief, limited investigative detentions that do not ordinarily involve any intention to arrest a person, whereas formal arrests require that law enforcement officers intend to take someone into custody. Still, to comply with the requirements of <i>Terry v. Ohio</i>, law enforcement should have reasonable suspicion that someone is violating a public health order.</p><p>Relying on various studies or statements from public health officials, news sources typically report that between 25% and 50% of people who contract COVID-19 are asymptomatic and, therefore, might have no idea that they are spreading the disease (see, e.g., Plater, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Plater, R. (2020). As many as 50 percent of people with Covid-19 aren’t aware they have the virus. Healthline. Retrieved from 
https://www.healthline.com/health-news/50-percent-of-people-with-covid19-not-aware-have-virus


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR56" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e816">2020</a>; Woodward, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Woodward, A. (2020). It's estimated 1 in 4 coronavirus carriers could be asymptomatic. Here's what we know. Science Alert. Retrieved from 
https://www.sciencealert.com/here-s-what-we-know-so-far-about-those-who-can-pass-corona-without-symptoms


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR88" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e819">2020</a>). A review of 21 research reports conducted by The Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine at Oxford University reported that although “between 5% and 80% of people testing positive” for COVID-19 may be asymptomatic, there is “not a single reliable study to determine the number of asymptotics” (Heneghan, Brassey, & Jefferson, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Heneghan, C., Brassey, J., & Jefferson, T. (2020). Covid-19: What Proportion Are Asymptomatic? Retrieved from 
https://www.cebm.net/covid-19/covid-19-what-proportion-are-asymptomatic/


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR31" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e822">2020</a>, paras. 4–5).</p><p>Given that so many people may be infected with the novel coronavirus and be completely asymptomatic, it may be “reasonable” to assume that everyone could be infected with it. Indeed, public health officials like Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation President Stephen Prescott have warned people to “[a]ssume you’re contagious, even if you feel fine” (as quoted in Butcher, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Butcher, K. (2020). “Assume you’re contagious, even if you feel fine,” health experts urging Oklahomans to be cautious for sake of others. Retrieved from 
https://kfor.com/health/coronavirus/assume-youre-contagious-even-if-you-feel-fine-health-experts-urging-oklahomans-to-be-cautious-for-sake-of-others/


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e828">2020</a>). Put differently, there might be reasonable suspicion to justify stops of all persons who are outside their homes when SaHOs/SiPOs are in effect. Such an approach is arguably consistent with <i>Terry v. Ohio</i>, provided that the stop is brief and limited in scope to investigating whether a person is in transit for a permitted purpose. Admittedly, this interpretation of <i>Terry</i> would expand law enforcement authority in ways that significantly encroach on Fourth Amendment liberties. To prevent what economist Robert Higgs (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2009" title="Higgs, R. (2009). The political economy of crisis opportunism. Mercatus policy series. Arlington, VA: Mercatus Center at George Mason University Retrieved from 
https://www.mercatus.org/system/files/Mercatus_Policy_Series-HIGGS.pdf

." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR32" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e837">2009</a>) refers to as a “ratchet effect” to explain expanding governmental authority during crises in ways that not only exceed preexisting norms, but also tend to remain as the “new normal” after the crisis subsides (see Damato, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Damato, D. S. (2020). Civil liberties under attack during Covid-19. The Hill. 
https://thehill.com/opinion/civil-rights/491731-civil-liberties-under-attack-during-covid-19


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR21" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e840">2020</a>; French, Nott, Rosen, & McDermott, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="French, D., Nott, L., Rosen, J., & McDermott, J. (2020). Civil liberties and COVID-19 [Audio podcast]. 
https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/podcast/civil-liberties-and-covid-19


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR26" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e844">2020</a>), we recommend that SaHOs/SiPOs be justified using Fourth Amendment doctrines other than trying to fit such enforcement within the <i>Terry</i> framework. Indeed, there are a number of doctrines that may justify suspicionless stops from a constitutional perspective.</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec11">Exigent Circumstances</h4><p>A narrow range of circumstances permit warrantless searches and seizures for criminal investigatory purposes, such as to prevent the imminent destruction of evidence (Ferdico, Fradella, & Totten, 2015; see also <i>Welsh v. Wisconsin</i>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1984" title="Welsh v. Wisconsin, 466 U.S. 470 (1984)." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR85" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e862">1984</a>). But true emergencies can also justify actions that would otherwise violate the Fourth Amendment in response to threats to safety. For example, first responders are permitted to enter a burning building to fight the fire and rescue persons who may be trapped inside (<i>Michigan v. Tyler</i>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1978" title="Michigan Department of State Police v. Sitz, 496 U.S. 444 (1990)." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR48" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e868">1978</a>). Police may forcibly enter a private home without a warrant in response to situations “when they reasonably believe that a person within is in need of immediate aid” (<i>Mincey v. Arizona</i>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1978" title="Mincey v. Arizona, 437 U.S. 385 (1978)." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR49" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e875">1978</a>, p. 392). And although the U.S. Supreme Court held that administrative searches by municipal health and safety inspectors constitute significant intrusions upon interests protected by Fourth Amendment and, therefore, require a warrant, the Court was careful to say that exigent circumstances such as the seizure of tainted food, preventing exposure to smallpox, and destroying tubercular cattle would allow warrantless entry for an emergency inspection (<i>Camara v. Municipal Court of San Francisco</i>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1967" title="Camara v. Municipal Court of San Francisco, 387 U.S. 523 (1967)." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR9" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e881">1967</a>, p. 539).</p><p>Lower courts have expanded the exigent circumstances exception to include responding to calls for emergency medical treatment, searching for missing persons, responding to gunfire, and responding to information concerning the whereabouts of an explosive device or volatile chemicals (for a review, see Decker, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1999" title="Decker, J. F. (1999). Emergency circumstances, police responses, and fourth amendment restrictions. Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, 89(2), 433–533." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR22" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e887">1999</a>). In such contexts, aiding people in objectively reasonable emergency situations distinguishes such actions from warrantless stops, entries, and searches conducted for investigatory purposes.</p><p>The COVID-19 pandemic no doubt presents exigent circumstances on a social level. But whether people being outside their home after the issuance of SaHOs/SiPOs qualifies as an exigent circumstance for Fourth Amendment purposes is doubtful. It is unlikely that courts would find the exigent circumstances exception applicable in the contagious disease context for at least three reasons. First, courts tend to interpret the exigent circumstances exception to the Fourth Amendment quite narrowly (see Decker, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1999" title="Decker, J. F. (1999). Emergency circumstances, police responses, and fourth amendment restrictions. Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, 89(2), 433–533." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR22" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e893">1999</a>; Ferdico et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Ferdico, J. N., Fradella, H. F., & Totten, C. D. (2015). Criminal procedure for the criminal justice professional (12th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Cengage." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR24" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e896">2015</a>). Second, other than situations involving calls for emergency medical treatment, courts require police to have probable cause that some underlying criminal activity is transpiring when applying the exigent circumstances doctrine (<i>Welsh v. Wisconsin</i>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1984" title="Welsh v. Wisconsin, 466 U.S. 470 (1984)." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR85" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e902">1984</a>, p. 750). Thus, whether the doctrine would ultimately be held to justify stops made without any particularized suspicion seems dubious. Finally, even when violations of SaHOs/SiPOs constitute criminal offenses and, therefore, being out of the home might arguably establish reasonable suspicion or probable cause, the prevention of viral transmission presents a more speculative type of harm than those presented by burning buildings, active gunfire, or assaults in progress. Accordingly, another doctrine might be better suited to underpin the constitutionality of police stops to enforce SaHOs/SiPOs during the COVID-19 pandemic.</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec12">Individuals in Transit</h4><p>A strong argument can be made that law enforcement officers are permitted to stop travelers in order to enforce public health orders. The clearest example of such authority is at international borders. “Border searches are not only a part of maintaining the sovereignty of the country by controlling the flow of both people and articles into or out of the country but also play a vital role in maintaining national security” (Ferdico et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Ferdico, J. N., Fradella, H. F., & Totten, C. D. (2015). Criminal procedure for the criminal justice professional (12th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Cengage." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR24" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e913">2015</a>, p. 232). As a result, “routine searches of the persons and effects of entrants are not subject to any requirement of reasonable suspicion…” (<i>United States v. Flores-Montano</i>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2004" title="United States v. Flores-Montano, 541 U.S. 149 (2004)." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR81" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e919">2004</a>, p. 152).</p><p>Of course, the reasons supporting suspicionless searches at international borders are not directly applicable to when police stop persons on foot, bicycles, or in cars already within the United States. Federal regulations specifically authorize the “apprehension” of people if the “individual is reasonably believed to be infected with a quarantinable communicable disease” when such person is moving between states (42 C.F.R. § 70.6, 2017). But just because someone is moving across state lines does not give law enforcement reasonable grounds to believe that the person is infected. Thus, a different legal doctrine that is not dependent on particularized, reasonable suspicion may be needed to justify such actions when people are engaged in interstate travel. Moreover, that doctrine would also need to apply to stops of persons engaged travel within a state or locality. The <i>special needs doctrine</i> seems best suited for such circumstances.</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec13">Special Needs</h4><p>There are certain types of searches that, when conducted for a special need unrelated to the detection of criminal activity, not only excuse the usual requirement of a warrant, but also can occur without probable cause. Under the <i>special needs doctrine</i>, such searches are evaluated under the reasonableness standard of the Fourth Amendment. The applicability of this exception to normal Fourth Amendment standards depends on whether there is a “special need that involves a real and significant problem ‘beyond the normal need for law enforcement’ to detect crime” (Ferdico, et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Ferdico, J. N., Fradella, H. F., & Totten, C. D. (2015). Criminal procedure for the criminal justice professional (12th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Cengage." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR24" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e939">2015</a>, p. 218; see also <i>Chandler v. Miller</i>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1997" title="Chandler v. Miller, 520 U.S. 305 (1997)." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR16" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e945">1997</a>, p. 313). Under this doctrine, the U.S. Supreme Court has sanctioned searches of public employees’ workspaces by their supervisors to detect work-related misconduct (<i>O’Connor v. Ortega</i>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1987" title="O’Connor v. Ortega, 480 U.S. 709 (1987)." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR53" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e952">1987</a>; <i>City of Ontario v. Quon</i>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2010" title="City of Ontario v. Quon, 560 U.S. 746 (2010)." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e958">2010</a>); random drug testing of certain types of governmental employees to promote public safety (<i>National Treasury Employees Union v. Von Raab</i>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1989" title="National Treasury Employees Union v. Von Raab, 489 U.S. 656 (1989)." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e964">1989</a>; <i>Skinner v. Railway Labor Executives’ Association</i>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1989" title="Skinner v. Railway Labor Executives’ Association, 489 U.S. 602 (1989)." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR68" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e971">1989</a>); and searches of persons entering correctional institutions to prevent the entry of contraband (<i>Florence v. Board of Chosen Freeholders of County of Burlington</i>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Florence v. Board of Chosen Freeholders of County of Burlington, 566 U.S. 318 (2012)." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR25" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e977">2012</a>).</p><p>Importantly, the Supreme Court has even relied on the special needs doctrine to allow searches and seizures that are not supported by reasonable suspicion. For example, in <i>Michigan Department of State Police v. Sitz</i> (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1990" title="Michigan Department of State Police v. Sitz, 496 U.S. 444 (1990)." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR48" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e986">1990</a>), the Court upheld a program that established roadside sobriety checkpoints without a warrant or any particularized suspicion. The Court also upheld mandatory drug testing of student athletes in <i>Vernonia School District 47 J v. Acton</i> (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1995" title="Vernonia School District 47J v. Acton, 515 U.S. 646 (1995)." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR83" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e992">1995</a>), finding no violation of students’ Fourth Amendment rights because it served the goal of preventing teenage drug use. The Court even extended this line of reasoning in <i>Board of Education of Independent School District No. 92 v. Earls</i> (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2002" title="Board of Education of Independent School District No. 92 v. Earls, 536 U.S. 822 (2002)." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR5" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e999">2002</a>) to permit the random, suspicionless drug testing of all students who engaged extracurricular after-school activities.</p><p>The U.S. Supreme Court has never confronted the issue of police authority to conduct suspicionless stops in the context of disease prevention. But in light of the aforementioned rulings applying the special needs doctrine, it is highly likely that the public health goal of preventing the spread of a potentially lethal contagious disease would qualify as a special need justifying warrantless and suspicionless stops of people who are “out and about” when SaHOs/SiPOs are in effect. Still, to comply with the Fourth Amendment, law enforcement officers need to execute such stops reasonably.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Conclusion"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec14-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec14">Conclusion</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec14-content"><p>Enforcement of SaHOs/SiPOs is the proper business of the police. The responsibility may require the authority to use force, which is a central and unique feature of their role. The responsibility falls to the police because of their constant availability and their impossibly vague mandate that encompasses every imaginable human problem. Enforcement of SaHOs/SiPOs also fits with their mission to protect life. COVID-19 has taken police into uncharted territory with regard to these enforcement efforts, and their activities raise significant constitutional questions, particularly with regard to the Fourth Amendment. If the actions of officers are reasonable, the <i>special needs doctrine</i> represents the most logical legal justification of SaHOs/SiPOs enforcement, including warrantless and suspicionless stops.</p><p>Police have vast discretion in carrying out their mission, especially with regard to offenses like violations of SaHOs/SiPOs. What is the appropriate response to a violation? The answer depends greatly on the specific circumstances at hand. Most police leaders argue that formal action (fines, citations, arrests) should be used sparingly or as a last resort (Johnson & Wolf, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Johnson, K., & Wolf, R. (2020). Enforcing the shutdown: Law enforcement grapples with policing stay-at-home orders, social distancing, quarantines. USA Today. Retrieved from 
https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2020/04/02/coronavirus-police-fines-jail-breaking-stay-home-orders/5104704002/


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR37" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e1021">2020</a>). Certainly, any actions taken must be reasonable and consistent with relevant legal doctrine. Beyond this legal assessment, there is another important lens for considering the appropriateness of police actions against potential SaHOs/SiPOs violators: police legitimacy.</p><p>The police have legitimacy when citizens feel the agency and individual officers deserve to be respected, trusted, and obeyed (Sunshine & Tyler, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2003" title="Sunshine, J., & Tyler, T. R. (2003). The role of procedural justice and legitimacy in shaping public support for policing. Law & Society Review, 37(3), 513–548. 
https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-5893.3703002

." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR71" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e1027">2003</a>). When citizens view the police as legitimate, they are more likely to comply with the law and cooperate with authority figures (Mastrofski, Snipes, & Supina, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1996" title="Mastrofski, S. D., Snipes, J. B., & Supina, A. E. (1996). Compliance on demand: The public's response to specific police requests. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 33(3), 269–305. 
https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427896033003001

." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR47" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e1030">1996</a>; Tyler, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1990" title="Tyler, T. R. (1990). Why people obey the law. New Haven: Yale University Press." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR74" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e1033">1990</a>; Tyler & Fagan, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2008" title="Tyler, T. R., & Fagan, J. (2008). Legitimacy and cooperation: Why do people help the police fight crime in their communities? Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law, 6, 231–275." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR77" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e1036">2008</a>). In terms of the current pandemic, citizens who view the police (and the government, more generally) as legitimate will be more likely to obey SaHOs/SiPOs (i.e., citizens won’t go outside), and when asked by police to abide by the order (i.e., citizens have gone outside and violated the order), they will comply (i.e., they will go home). Citizens who do not view the police as legitimate are more likely to violate the order and disobey police when asked to disperse.</p><p>The most important factor in achieving police legitimacy is citizens’ evaluation of the fairness of the processes used by police in the exercise of their authority—otherwise known as procedural justice (Sunshine & Tyler, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2003" title="Sunshine, J., & Tyler, T. R. (2003). The role of procedural justice and legitimacy in shaping public support for policing. Law & Society Review, 37(3), 513–548. 
https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-5893.3703002

." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR71" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e1042">2003</a>; Tankebe, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="Tankebe, J. (2013). Viewing things differently: The dimensions of public perceptions of police legitimacy. Criminology, 51(1), 103–136. 
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2012.00291.x

." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR73" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e1045">2013</a>; Tyler, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1990" title="Tyler, T. R. (1990). Why people obey the law. New Haven: Yale University Press." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR74" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e1048">1990</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2003" title="Tyler, T. R. (2003). Procedural justice, legitimacy, and the effective rule of law. Crime and Justice, 30, 283–357. 
https://doi.org/10.1086/652233

." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR75" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e1051">2003</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2004" title="Tyler, T. R. (2004). Enhancing police legitimacy. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 593, 593–608." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR76" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e1054">2004</a>; Tyler & Huo, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2002" title="Tyler, T. R., & Huo, Y. J. (2002). Trust in the law, encouraging public cooperation with the police and courts. New York: Russell Sage Foundation." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR78" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e1058">2002</a>). Procedural justice is based on a citizen’s evaluation of four criteria during an interaction with a police officer: fairness, respect, trustworthiness, and whether the citizen is given a voice in the decision-making process (Tyler, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2003" title="Tyler, T. R. (2003). Procedural justice, legitimacy, and the effective rule of law. Crime and Justice, 30, 283–357. 
https://doi.org/10.1086/652233

." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR75" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e1061">2003</a>; Tyler & Fagan, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2008" title="Tyler, T. R., & Fagan, J. (2008). Legitimacy and cooperation: Why do people help the police fight crime in their communities? Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law, 6, 231–275." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR77" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e1064">2008</a>; Tyler & Huo, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2002" title="Tyler, T. R., & Huo, Y. J. (2002). Trust in the law, encouraging public cooperation with the police and courts. New York: Russell Sage Foundation." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR78" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e1067">2002</a>). In a police-citizen encounter involving a potential violation of a SaHO/SiPO, did the officer treat the citizen with fairness and respect? Did the officer convey trustworthy motives? Did the officer give the citizen a chance to explain themselves? Procedurally just treatment is more likely to generate citizen compliance with the police (e.g., an order to disperse) during that specific encounter, and on a larger scale, procedural justice will lead to greater levels of police legitimacy which will produce fewer violations of the order.</p><p>Legitimacy goes beyond the police and has particular relevance for governmental actions during a public health emergency. In the wake of concerns about the Ebola virus, the United States took steps to update many public health protocols, especially those concerning isolation and quarantine. In reviewing the concerns raised by these laws and regulations, Ulrich and Mariner (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Ulrich, M. R., & Mariner, W. K. (2018). Quarantine and the federal role in epidemics. Southern Methodist University Law Review, 71, 391–444." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e1074">2018</a>) wrote the following:</p><blockquote class="c-blockquote"><div class="c-blockquote__body"> <p>There is no evidence that the public is reluctant to cooperate with public health officials, especially in the midst of an outbreak, as long as the public has confidence in official recommendations. But public officials must earn that trust. This requires public health officials to obtain accurate information, communicate honestly with the public, and ensure that the public has the resources necessary to cooperate with reasonable recommendations. (p. 429)</p> </div></blockquote><p>Sadly, citizens’ views of governmental legitimacy during the COVID-19 pandemic may be justifiably low in light of the conflicting information that citizens have received from public health officials, who sounded the alarm over the novel coronavirus, and government officials, who repeatedly downplayed the severity of the outbreak (Brooks, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Brooks, B. (2020). Like the flu? Trump's coronavirus messaging confuses public, pandemic researchers say. Reuters Health News. Retrieved from 
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-mixed-messages/like-the-flu-trumps-coronavirus-messaging-confuses-public-pandemic-researchers-say-idUSKBN2102GY


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e1085">2020</a>; Soufan Center, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="The Soufan Center. (2020). Intelbrief: Covid-19 exposes fault lines in U.S. public trust and government. Retrieved from 
https://thesoufancenter.org/intelbrief-covid-19-exposes-fault-lines-in-u-s-public-trust-and-government/


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR69" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e1088">2020</a>). The confusion that results from such mixed messages compounds the difficulties that police face as first responders during an international health emergency. Thus, in addition to citizens voluntarily cooperating with SaHOs/SiPOs for their own good and that of their families and community members, it is essential that the messaging from federal authorities, ranging from the CDC to the White House, communicate accurate information. Accurate information will build trust and legitimacy. Legitimacy leads to greater cooperation and compliance with the law. In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, compliance with the law will slow the spread of the disease and will save lives.</p></div></div></section> </div> <section data-title="Notes"><div class="c-article-section" id="notes-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="notes">Notes</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="notes-content"><ol class="c-article-footnote c-article-footnote--listed"><li class="c-article-footnote--listed__item" id="Fn1" data-counter="1."><div class="c-article-footnote--listed__content"><p>There are reports of violent police responses in other countries. This article focuses on SaHOs/SiPOs and their enforcement in the United States only.</p></div></li><li class="c-article-footnote--listed__item" id="Fn2" data-counter="2."><div class="c-article-footnote--listed__content"><p>For a list of state laws that often include criminal enforcement provisions, see the website of National Conference of State Legislatures (NCSL, 2020).</p></div></li><li class="c-article-footnote--listed__item" id="Fn3" data-counter="3."><div class="c-article-footnote--listed__content"><p><i>Isolation</i> “separates sick people with a quarantinable communicable disease from people who are not sick,” whereas <i>quarantine</i> “separates and restricts the movement of people who were exposed to a contagious disease to see if they become sick” (CDC, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020a" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020a). Legal authorities for isolation and quarantine. Retrieved from 
https://www.cdc.gov/quarantine/aboutlawsregulationsquarantineisolation.html


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR12" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e637">2020a</a>).</p></div></li><li class="c-article-footnote--listed__item" id="Fn4" data-counter="4."><div class="c-article-footnote--listed__content"><p>States “have a deep reservoir of public health powers, conceiving of state police powers as an ‘immense mass of legislation in which inspection laws, quarantine laws, and health laws of every description …, are components of this mass” (Gostin, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2003" title="Gostin, L. O. (2003). The model state emergency health powers act: Public health and civil liberties in a time of terrorism. Health Matrix, 13(1), 3–32." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR29" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e656">2003</a>, p. 24, quoting <i>Gibbons v. Odgen</i>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1824" title="Gibbons v. Ogden, 22 U.S. (9 Wheat.) 1 (1824)." href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR28" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e662">1824</a>, p. 78, internal alterations omitted).</p></div></li><li class="c-article-footnote--listed__item" id="Fn5" data-counter="5."><div class="c-article-footnote--listed__content"><p>The emergency management statute in Tennessee grants the governor the authority to suspend state business; order evacuations; set quarantine areas; limit the sale of certain goods; use the national guard to distribute “supplies, equipment, and materials”; “commandeer . . . private property . . . necessary to cope with the emergency”; and “take measures concerning the conduct of civilians, the movement and cessation of movement of pedestrian and vehicular traffic . . . [and] the calling of public meetings and gatherings . . . .” (T<span class="u-small-caps">enn</span>. C<span class="u-small-caps">ode</span> § 58-2-107, 2020).</p></div></li><li class="c-article-footnote--listed__item" id="Fn6" data-counter="6."><div class="c-article-footnote--listed__content"><p>Arizona State University law professor James Hodge opined that in light of the broad governmental authority during a public health crisis, such challenges would only succeed as applied to some “truly egregious practice” (Weiss, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Weiss, D. C. (2020). Lawsuits over coronavirus quarantines are unlikely to succeed, experts say. ABA Journal. Retrieved from 
https://www.abajournal.com/news/article/suits-over-coronavirus-quarantines-unlikely-to-succeed-experts-say


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR84" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e701">2020</a>, para. 3). But Georgetown University law professor Lawrence Gostin cautioned that there are dramatic distinctions between isolation and quarantine of infected and suspected infected persons and widespread SaHOs/SiPOs (Weiss, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Weiss, D. C. (2020). Lawsuits over coronavirus quarantines are unlikely to succeed, experts say. ABA Journal. Retrieved from 
https://www.abajournal.com/news/article/suits-over-coronavirus-quarantines-unlikely-to-succeed-experts-say


" href="/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0#ref-CR84" id="ref-link-section-d55977448e704">2020</a>).</p></div></li></ol></div></div></section><div id="MagazineFulltextArticleBodySuffix"><section aria-labelledby="Bib1" data-title="References"><div class="c-article-section" id="Bib1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Bib1">References</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Bib1-content"><div data-container-section="references"><ul class="c-article-references" data-track-component="outbound reference" data-track-context="references section"><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR1">Aitken, P. (2020). Homeowners sue over restricted access to Outer Banks second homes due to coronavirus. Fox News. Retrieved from <a href="https://www.foxnews.com/us/homeowners-sue-outerbanks-access-second-home-coronavirus" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://www.foxnews.com/us/homeowners-sue-outerbanks-access-second-home-coronavirus">https://www.foxnews.com/us/homeowners-sue-outerbanks-access-second-home-coronavirus</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR2">Ansari, T., & Abbott, B. (2020). U.S. considers how to enforce coronavirus quarantines. Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/us-considers-how-to-enforce-coronavirus-quarantines-11583963653" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://www.wsj.com/articles/us-considers-how-to-enforce-coronavirus-quarantines-11583963653">https://www.wsj.com/articles/us-considers-how-to-enforce-coronavirus-quarantines-11583963653</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR3">Bittner, E. (1970). <i>The functions of the police in modern society</i>. Bethesda, MD: National Institute of Mental Health.</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 3" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=The%20functions%20of%20the%20police%20in%20modern%20society&publication_year=1970&author=Bittner%2CE"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR4">Bittner, E. (1974). Florence nightingale in pursuit of Willie Sutton: A theory of the police. In H. Jacob (Ed.), <i>Potential for reform of criminal justice</i> (pp. 17–44). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 4" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Florence%20nightingale%20in%20pursuit%20of%20Willie%20Sutton%3A%20A%20theory%20of%20the%20police&pages=17-44&publication_year=1974&author=Bittner%2CE"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR5"><i>Board of Education of Independent School District No. 92 v. Earls</i>, 536 U.S. 822 (2002).</p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR6">Brooks, B. (2020). Like the flu? Trump's coronavirus messaging confuses public, pandemic researchers say. Reuters Health News<i>.</i> Retrieved from <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-mixed-messages/like-the-flu-trumps-coronavirus-messaging-confuses-public-pandemic-researchers-say-idUSKBN2102GY" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-mixed-messages/like-the-flu-trumps-coronavirus-messaging-confuses-public-pandemic-researchers-say-idUSKBN2102GY">https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-mixed-messages/like-the-flu-trumps-coronavirus-messaging-confuses-public-pandemic-researchers-say-idUSKBN2102GY</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR7">Butcher, K. (2020). “Assume you’re contagious, even if you feel fine,” health experts urging Oklahomans to be cautious for sake of others. Retrieved from <a href="https://kfor.com/health/coronavirus/assume-youre-contagious-even-if-you-feel-fine-health-experts-urging-oklahomans-to-be-cautious-for-sake-of-others/" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://kfor.com/health/coronavirus/assume-youre-contagious-even-if-you-feel-fine-health-experts-urging-oklahomans-to-be-cautious-for-sake-of-others/">https://kfor.com/health/coronavirus/assume-youre-contagious-even-if-you-feel-fine-health-experts-urging-oklahomans-to-be-cautious-for-sake-of-others/</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR8">California Executive Order N-33-20. (2020). Retrieved from <a href="https://covid19.ca.gov/img/Executive-Order-N-33-20.pdf" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://covid19.ca.gov/img/Executive-Order-N-33-20.pdf">https://covid19.ca.gov/img/Executive-Order-N-33-20.pdf</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR9"><i>Camara v. Municipal Court of San Francisco</i>, 387 U.S. 523 (1967).</p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR10">Cave, D., & Dahir, A. L. (2020). How far should police go in enforcing coronavirus lockdowns? New York Times. Retrieved from <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/02/world/australia/coronavirus-police-lockdowns.html" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/02/world/australia/coronavirus-police-lockdowns.html">https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/02/world/australia/coronavirus-police-lockdowns.html</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR11">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2001). Model state emergency health powers act. Retrieved from <a href="https://www.aapsonline.org/legis/msehpa2.pdf" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://www.aapsonline.org/legis/msehpa2.pdf">https://www.aapsonline.org/legis/msehpa2.pdf</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR12">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020a). <i>Legal authorities for isolation and quarantine</i>. Retrieved from <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/quarantine/aboutlawsregulationsquarantineisolation.html" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://www.cdc.gov/quarantine/aboutlawsregulationsquarantineisolation.html">https://www.cdc.gov/quarantine/aboutlawsregulationsquarantineisolation.html</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR13">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2020b). <i>CDC, Washington State report first COVID-19 death.</i> Retrieved from <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2020/s0229-COVID-19-first-death.html" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2020/s0229-COVID-19-first-death.html">https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2020/s0229-COVID-19-first-death.html</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR14">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2020c). <i>Cases in the U.S.</i> Retrieved from <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/cases-updates/cases-in-us.html" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/cases-updates/cases-in-us.html">https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/cases-updates/cases-in-us.html</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR15">Chandler, S. (2020). Coronavirus could infect privacy and civil liberties forever. Forbes. Retrieved from <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/simonchandler/2020/03/23/coronavirus-could-infect-privacy-and-civil-liberties-forever/#71aa2b64365d" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://www.forbes.com/sites/simonchandler/2020/03/23/coronavirus-could-infect-privacy-and-civil-liberties-forever/#71aa2b64365d">https://www.forbes.com/sites/simonchandler/2020/03/23/coronavirus-could-infect-privacy-and-civil-liberties-forever/#71aa2b64365d</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR16"><i>Chandler v. Miller</i>, 520 U.S. 305 (1997).</p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR17"><i>City of Ontario v. Quon</i>, 560 U.S. 746 (2010).</p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR18">Colb, S. F. (1998). The qualitative dimension of Fourth Amendment “reasonableness”. <i>Columbia Law Review, 98</i>(7), 1642–1725.</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.2307/1123463" data-track-item_id="10.2307/1123463" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1123463" aria-label="Article reference 18" data-doi="10.2307/1123463">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 18" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=The%20qualitative%20dimension%20of%20Fourth%20Amendment%20%E2%80%9Creasonableness%E2%80%9D&journal=Columbia%20Law%20Review&doi=10.2307%2F1123463&volume=98&issue=7&pages=1642-1725&publication_year=1998&author=Colb%2CSF"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR19">Cole, J. P. (2014). <i>Federal and state quarantine and isolation authority</i>. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service Retrieved from <a href="https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL33201.pdf" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL33201.pdf">https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL33201.pdf</a>.</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 19" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Federal%20and%20state%20quarantine%20and%20isolation%20authority&publication_year=2014&author=Cole%2CJP"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR20">Cummings, W. (2020). ‘We’re not playing around’: Md. Gov. Hogan says arrest for coronavirus offense sends ‘great message.’ USA Today. Retrieved from <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2020/03/30/gov-larry-hogan-arrest-breaking-coronavirus-rule-sends-message/5088364002/" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2020/03/30/gov-larry-hogan-arrest-breaking-coronavirus-rule-sends-message/5088364002/">https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2020/03/30/gov-larry-hogan-arrest-breaking-coronavirus-rule-sends-message/5088364002/</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR21">Damato, D. S. (2020). Civil liberties under attack during Covid-19. <i>The Hill</i>. <a href="https://thehill.com/opinion/civil-rights/491731-civil-liberties-under-attack-during-covid-19" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://thehill.com/opinion/civil-rights/491731-civil-liberties-under-attack-during-covid-19">https://thehill.com/opinion/civil-rights/491731-civil-liberties-under-attack-during-covid-19</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR22">Decker, J. F. (1999). Emergency circumstances, police responses, and fourth amendment restrictions. <i>Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, 89</i>(2), 433–533.</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.2307/1144137" data-track-item_id="10.2307/1144137" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1144137" aria-label="Article reference 22" data-doi="10.2307/1144137">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 22" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Emergency%20circumstances%2C%20police%20responses%2C%20and%20fourth%20amendment%20restrictions&journal=Journal%20of%20Criminal%20Law%20%26%20Criminology&doi=10.2307%2F1144137&volume=89&issue=2&pages=433-533&publication_year=1999&author=Decker%2CJF"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR23">Fedschun, T. (2020). Coronvirus spurs police to deploy ‘talking’ drones in Florida, New Jersey to enforce social distancing. Fox News. Retrieved from <a href="https://www.foxnews.com/us/coronavirus-talking-drone-florida-new-jersey-police-social-distancing-enforcement" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://www.foxnews.com/us/coronavirus-talking-drone-florida-new-jersey-police-social-distancing-enforcement">https://www.foxnews.com/us/coronavirus-talking-drone-florida-new-jersey-police-social-distancing-enforcement</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR24">Ferdico, J. N., Fradella, H. F., & Totten, C. D. (2015). <i>Criminal procedure for the criminal justice professional</i> (12th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Cengage.</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 24" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Criminal%20procedure%20for%20the%20criminal%20justice%20professional&publication_year=2015&author=Ferdico%2CJN&author=Fradella%2CHF&author=Totten%2CCD"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR25"><i>Florence v. Board of Chosen Freeholders of County of Burlington</i>, 566 U.S. 318 (2012).</p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR26">French, D., Nott, L., Rosen, J., & McDermott, J. (2020). Civil liberties and COVID-19 [Audio podcast]. <a href="https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/podcast/civil-liberties-and-covid-19" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/podcast/civil-liberties-and-covid-19">https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/podcast/civil-liberties-and-covid-19</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR27">Fyfe, J. J. (1993). “Good” policing. In B. Forst (Ed.), <i>The socio-economics of crime and justice</i>. M.E. Sharpe: New York.</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 27" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=%E2%80%9CGood%E2%80%9D%20policing&publication_year=1993&author=Fyfe%2CJJ"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR28"><i>Gibbons v. Ogden</i>, 22 U.S. (9 Wheat.) 1 (1824).</p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR29">Gostin, L. O. (2003). The model state emergency health powers act: Public health and civil liberties in a time of terrorism. <i>Health Matrix, 13</i>(1), 3–32.</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 29" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=The%20model%20state%20emergency%20health%20powers%20act%3A%20Public%20health%20and%20civil%20liberties%20in%20a%20time%20of%20terrorism&journal=Health%20Matrix&volume=13&issue=1&pages=3-32&publication_year=2003&author=Gostin%2CLO"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR30">Guillen, J., & Kaufman, G. (2020). How the coronavirus spread through the Detroit Police Department. Detroit Free Press. <a href="https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/detroit/2020/03/28/coronavirus-detroit-police-pancake-breakfast/2931224001/" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/detroit/2020/03/28/coronavirus-detroit-police-pancake-breakfast/2931224001/">https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/detroit/2020/03/28/coronavirus-detroit-police-pancake-breakfast/2931224001/</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR31">Heneghan, C., Brassey, J., & Jefferson, T. (2020). <i>Covid-19: What Proportion Are Asymptomatic?</i> Retrieved from <a href="https://www.cebm.net/covid-19/covid-19-what-proportion-are-asymptomatic/" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://www.cebm.net/covid-19/covid-19-what-proportion-are-asymptomatic/">https://www.cebm.net/covid-19/covid-19-what-proportion-are-asymptomatic/</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR32">Higgs, R. (2009). <i>The political economy of crisis opportunism. Mercatus policy series</i>. Arlington, VA: Mercatus Center at George Mason University Retrieved from <a href="https://www.mercatus.org/system/files/Mercatus_Policy_Series-HIGGS.pdf" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://www.mercatus.org/system/files/Mercatus_Policy_Series-HIGGS.pdf">https://www.mercatus.org/system/files/Mercatus_Policy_Series-HIGGS.pdf</a>.</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 32" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=The%20political%20economy%20of%20crisis%20opportunism.%20Mercatus%20policy%20series&publication_year=2009&author=Higgs%2CR"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR33"><i>Illinois v. Gates</i>, 462 U.S. 213 (1983).</p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR34"><i>Illinois v. Rodriguez</i>, 497 U.S. 177 (1990).</p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR35"><i>Jacobson v. Massachusetts</i>, 197 U.S. 11 (1905).</p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR36">Johns Hopkins University & Medicine. (2020). <i>COVID-19 dashboard</i>. Coronavirus resource Center. Retrieved April 15, 2020 from <a href="https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/map.html" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/map.html">https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/map.html</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR37">Johnson, K., & Wolf, R. (2020). Enforcing the shutdown: Law enforcement grapples with policing stay-at-home orders, social distancing, quarantines. USA Today. Retrieved from <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2020/04/02/coronavirus-police-fines-jail-breaking-stay-home-orders/5104704002/" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2020/04/02/coronavirus-police-fines-jail-breaking-stay-home-orders/5104704002/">https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2020/04/02/coronavirus-police-fines-jail-breaking-stay-home-orders/5104704002/</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR38">Kane, R. J., & White, M. D. (2013). <i>Jammed up: An examination of career-ending police misconduct</i>. New York: NYU Press.</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 38" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Jammed%20up%3A%20An%20examination%20of%20career-ending%20police%20misconduct&publication_year=2013&author=Kane%2CRJ&author=White%2CMD"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR39"><i>Katz v. United States</i>, 389 U.S. 347 (1967).</p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR40">Kennedy, M. (2020). WHO declares coronavirus outbreak a global health emergency. NPR<i>.</i> Retrieved from <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2020/01/30/798894428/who-declares-coronavirus-outbreak-a-global-health-emergency" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2020/01/30/798894428/who-declares-coronavirus-outbreak-a-global-health-emergency">https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2020/01/30/798894428/who-declares-coronavirus-outbreak-a-global-health-emergency</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR41">Lau, K. (2020). Tucson police chief on enforcing stay-at-home order. Arizona Public Media. Retrieved from <a href="https://news.azpm.org/p/news-articles/2020/4/3/169212-tucson-police-chief-on-enforcing-stay-at-home-order/" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://news.azpm.org/p/news-articles/2020/4/3/169212-tucson-police-chief-on-enforcing-stay-at-home-order/">https://news.azpm.org/p/news-articles/2020/4/3/169212-tucson-police-chief-on-enforcing-stay-at-home-order/</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR42">Lazo, L. & Shaver, K. (2020). Covid-10 checkpoints targeting out-of-state residents draw complaints and legal scrutiny. Washington Post. Retrieved from <a href="https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/us/covid-19-checkpoints-targeting-out-of-state-residents-draw-complaints-and-legal-scrutiny/ar-BB12CWYu?fbclid=IwAR3OosGK-N5U30IH0sZSRMU0CU_kc8amkNROKC-QFisSip-W8EjRlritfbo" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/us/covid-19-checkpoints-targeting-out-of-state-residents-draw-complaints-and-legal-scrutiny/ar-BB12CWYu?fbclid=IwAR3OosGK-N5U30IH0sZSRMU0CU_kc8amkNROKC-QFisSip-W8EjRlritfbo">https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/us/covid-19-checkpoints-targeting-out-of-state-residents-draw-complaints-and-legal-scrutiny/ar-BB12CWYu?fbclid=IwAR3OosGK-N5U30IH0sZSRMU0CU_kc8amkNROKC-QFisSip-W8EjRlritfbo</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR43">Lee, A. (2020). These states have implemented stay-at-home orders. Here’s what that means for you. CNN<i>.</i> Retrieved from <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2020/03/23/us/coronavirus-which-states-stay-at-home-order-trnd/index.html" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://www.cnn.com/2020/03/23/us/coronavirus-which-states-stay-at-home-order-trnd/index.html">https://www.cnn.com/2020/03/23/us/coronavirus-which-states-stay-at-home-order-trnd/index.html</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR44">Lum, C., Maupin, C., & Stoltz, M. (2020). The impact of COVID-19 on law enforcement agencies (wave 1)<i>.</i> A joint report of the International Association of Chiefs of Police and the Center for Evidence-Based Crime Policy, George Mason University. Retrieved from <a href="https://www.theiacp.org/sites/default/files/IACP-GMU%20Survey.pdf" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://www.theiacp.org/sites/default/files/IACP-GMU%20Survey.pdf">https://www.theiacp.org/sites/default/files/IACP-GMU%20Survey.pdf</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR45">Manning, P. K. (1978). The police: Mandate, strategies, and appearances. In P. K. Manning & J. Van Maanen (Eds.), <i>Policing: A view from the street</i>. New York: Random House.</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 45" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=The%20police%3A%20Mandate%2C%20strategies%2C%20and%20appearances&publication_year=1978&author=Manning%2CPK"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR46">Mastrofski, S. D. (1983). The police and noncrime services. In G. P. Whitaker & C. Phillips (Eds.), <i>Evaluating the performance of criminal justice agencies</i>. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 46" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=The%20police%20and%20noncrime%20services&publication_year=1983&author=Mastrofski%2CSD"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR47">Mastrofski, S. D., Snipes, J. B., & Supina, A. E. (1996). Compliance on demand: The public's response to specific police requests. <i>Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 33</i>(3), 269–305. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427896033003001" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="10.1177/0022427896033003001">https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427896033003001</a>.</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1177/0022427896033003001" data-track-item_id="10.1177/0022427896033003001" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022427896033003001" aria-label="Article reference 47" data-doi="10.1177/0022427896033003001">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 47" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Compliance%20on%20demand%3A%20The%20public%27s%20response%20to%20specific%20police%20requests&journal=Journal%20of%20Research%20in%20Crime%20and%20Delinquency&doi=10.1177%2F0022427896033003001&volume=33&issue=3&pages=269-305&publication_year=1996&author=Mastrofski%2CSD&author=Snipes%2CJB&author=Supina%2CAE"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR48"><i>Michigan Department of State Police v. Sitz</i>, 496 U.S. 444 (1990).</p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR49"><i>Mincey v. Arizona</i>, 437 U.S. 385 (1978).</p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR50">Moshtaghian, A., & Croft, J. (2020). That's an expensive round of 'essential drinks.' Seven people fined $1,000 each for violating stay-at-home order. <i>CNN</i>. Retrieved from <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2020/04/12/us/santa-cruz-fine-drinks-stay-home-order-trnd/index.html" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://www.cnn.com/2020/04/12/us/santa-cruz-fine-drinks-stay-home-order-trnd/index.html">https://www.cnn.com/2020/04/12/us/santa-cruz-fine-drinks-stay-home-order-trnd/index.html</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR51">National Conference of State Legislatures. (2020). State quarantine and isolation statutes. Retrieved from <a href="https://www.ncsl.org/research/health/state-quarantine-and-isolation-statutes.aspx" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://www.ncsl.org/research/health/state-quarantine-and-isolation-statutes.aspx">https://www.ncsl.org/research/health/state-quarantine-and-isolation-statutes.aspx</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR52"><i>National Treasury Employees Union v. Von Raab</i>, 489 U.S. 656 (1989).</p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR53"><i>O’Connor v. Ortega</i>, 480 U.S. 709 (1987).</p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR54">Office of the Mayor, City and County of San Francisco (2020). <i>Shelter in place order</i>. <a href="https://www.sfdph.org/dph/alerts/files/HealthOrderC19-07-%20Shelter-in-Place.pdf" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://www.sfdph.org/dph/alerts/files/HealthOrderC19-07-%20Shelter-in-Place.pdf">https://www.sfdph.org/dph/alerts/files/HealthOrderC19-07-%20Shelter-in-Place.pdf</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR55">Pearl, B., Hunter, L., Lo, K., & Chung, E. (2020). The enforcement of COVID-19 stay-at-home orders. Retrieved from <a href="https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/criminal-justice/news/2020/04/02/482558/enforcement-covid-19-stay-home-orders/" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/criminal-justice/news/2020/04/02/482558/enforcement-covid-19-stay-home-orders/">https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/criminal-justice/news/2020/04/02/482558/enforcement-covid-19-stay-home-orders/</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR56">Plater, R. (2020). As many as 50 percent of people with Covid-19 aren’t aware they have the virus. Healthline. Retrieved from <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health-news/50-percent-of-people-with-covid19-not-aware-have-virus" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://www.healthline.com/health-news/50-percent-of-people-with-covid19-not-aware-have-virus">https://www.healthline.com/health-news/50-percent-of-people-with-covid19-not-aware-have-virus</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR57">Police Executive Research Forum. (2016). <i>Use of force: Taking policing to a higher standard: 30 guiding principles (critical issues in policing)</i>. Washington, DC: Author.</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 57" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Use%20of%20force%3A%20Taking%20policing%20to%20a%20higher%20standard%3A%2030%20guiding%20principles%20%28critical%20issues%20in%20policing%29&publication_year=2016"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR58">PoliceOne. (2020). <i>COVID-19: Law enforcement deaths</i>. Retrieved April 15, 2020 from <a href="https://www.policeone.com/coronavirus-covid-19/articles/covid-19-law-enforcement-deaths-3ftkdPnVffq55iHU/" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://www.policeone.com/coronavirus-covid-19/articles/covid-19-law-enforcement-deaths-3ftkdPnVffq55iHU/">https://www.policeone.com/coronavirus-covid-19/articles/covid-19-law-enforcement-deaths-3ftkdPnVffq55iHU/</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR59">Povich, E. S. (2020). Border checkpoints discourage travelers between states. Pew. Retrieved from <a href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/blogs/stateline/2020/04/08/border-checkpoints-discourage-travelers-between-states" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/blogs/stateline/2020/04/08/border-checkpoints-discourage-travelers-between-states">https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/blogs/stateline/2020/04/08/border-checkpoints-discourage-travelers-between-states</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR60">President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing. (2015). <i>Final report of the President’s task force on 21st century policing</i>. Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services.</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 60" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Final%20report%20of%20the%20President%E2%80%99s%20task%20force%20on%2021st%20century%20policing&publication_year=2015"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR61">Public Health Service Act, July 1, 1944, c. 373, Title III, § 361, 58 Stat. 703 (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. § 264 <i>et seq</i>.).</p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR62">Reiman, J. (1985). The social contract and the police use of deadly force. In F. A. Ellison & M. Feldberg (Eds.), <i>Moral issues in police work</i>. Savage, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 62" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=The%20social%20contract%20and%20the%20police%20use%20of%20deadly%20force&publication_year=1985&author=Reiman%2CJ"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR63">Reiss, A. J. (1971). <i>The police and the public</i>. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 63" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=The%20police%20and%20the%20public&publication_year=1971&author=Reiss%2CAJ"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR64"><i>Rochin v. California</i>, 342 U.S. 165 (1952).</p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR65">Scott, E. J. (1981). <i>Calls for service: Citizen demand and initial police response</i>. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 65" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Calls%20for%20service%3A%20Citizen%20demand%20and%20initial%20police%20response&publication_year=1981&author=Scott%2CEJ"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR66">Secon, H., Woodward, A., & Mosher, D. (2002). Business Insider. A comprehensive timeline of the new coronavirus pandemic, from China’s first COVID-19 case to the present. Business Insider. Business Insider<i>.</i> Retrieved from <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/coronavirus-pandemic-timeline-history-major-events-2020-3" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://www.businessinsider.com/coronavirus-pandemic-timeline-history-major-events-2020-3">https://www.businessinsider.com/coronavirus-pandemic-timeline-history-major-events-2020-3</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR67">Skolnick, J. H., & Fyfe, J. J. (1993). <i>Above the law: Police and the excessive use of force</i>. New York: The Free Press.</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 67" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Above%20the%20law%3A%20Police%20and%20the%20excessive%20use%20of%20force&publication_year=1993&author=Skolnick%2CJH&author=Fyfe%2CJJ"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR68"><i>Skinner v. Railway Labor Executives’ Association</i>, 489 U.S. 602 (1989).</p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR69">The Soufan Center. (2020). Intelbrief: Covid-19 exposes fault lines in U.S. public trust and government. Retrieved from <a href="https://thesoufancenter.org/intelbrief-covid-19-exposes-fault-lines-in-u-s-public-trust-and-government/" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://thesoufancenter.org/intelbrief-covid-19-exposes-fault-lines-in-u-s-public-trust-and-government/">https://thesoufancenter.org/intelbrief-covid-19-exposes-fault-lines-in-u-s-public-trust-and-government/</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR70">Southall, A. (2020). Virus’s toll on N.Y. police: 1 in 6 officers is out sick. <i>New York Times</i>. <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/03/nyregion/coronavirus-nypd.html" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/03/nyregion/coronavirus-nypd.html">https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/03/nyregion/coronavirus-nypd.html</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR71">Sunshine, J., & Tyler, T. R. (2003). The role of procedural justice and legitimacy in shaping public support for policing. <i>Law & Society Review, 37</i>(3), 513–548. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-5893.3703002" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="10.1111/1540-5893.3703002">https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-5893.3703002</a>.</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1111/1540-5893.3703002" data-track-item_id="10.1111/1540-5893.3703002" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1540-5893.3703002" aria-label="Article reference 71" data-doi="10.1111/1540-5893.3703002">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 71" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=The%20role%20of%20procedural%20justice%20and%20legitimacy%20in%20shaping%20public%20support%20for%20policing&journal=Law%20%26%20Society%20Review&doi=10.1111%2F1540-5893.3703002&volume=37&issue=3&pages=513-548&publication_year=2003&author=Sunshine%2CJ&author=Tyler%2CTR"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR72"><i>Terry v. Ohio</i>, 392 U.S. 1 (1968).</p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR73">Tankebe, J. (2013). Viewing things differently: The dimensions of public perceptions of police legitimacy. <i>Criminology, 51</i>(1), 103–136. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2012.00291.x" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="10.1111/j.1745-9125.2012.00291.x">https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2012.00291.x</a>.</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1111/j.1745-9125.2012.00291.x" data-track-item_id="10.1111/j.1745-9125.2012.00291.x" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1745-9125.2012.00291.x" aria-label="Article reference 73" data-doi="10.1111/j.1745-9125.2012.00291.x">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 73" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Viewing%20things%20differently%3A%20The%20dimensions%20of%20public%20perceptions%20of%20police%20legitimacy&journal=Criminology&doi=10.1111%2Fj.1745-9125.2012.00291.x&volume=51&issue=1&pages=103-136&publication_year=2013&author=Tankebe%2CJ"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR74">Tyler, T. R. (1990). <i>Why people obey the law</i>. New Haven: Yale University Press.</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 74" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Why%20people%20obey%20the%20law&publication_year=1990&author=Tyler%2CTR"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR75">Tyler, T. R. (2003). Procedural justice, legitimacy, and the effective rule of law. <i>Crime and Justice, 30</i>, 283–357. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1086/652233" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="10.1086/652233">https://doi.org/10.1086/652233</a>.</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1086/652233" data-track-item_id="10.1086/652233" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F652233" aria-label="Article reference 75" data-doi="10.1086/652233">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 75" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Procedural%20justice%2C%20legitimacy%2C%20and%20the%20effective%20rule%20of%20law&journal=Crime%20and%20Justice&doi=10.1086%2F652233&volume=30&pages=283-357&publication_year=2003&author=Tyler%2CTR"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR76">Tyler, T. R. (2004). Enhancing police legitimacy. <i>The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 593</i>, 593–608.</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1177/0002716203262627" data-track-item_id="10.1177/0002716203262627" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0002716203262627" aria-label="Article reference 76" data-doi="10.1177/0002716203262627">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 76" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Enhancing%20police%20legitimacy&journal=The%20Annals%20of%20the%20American%20Academy%20of%20Political%20and%20Social%20Science&doi=10.1177%2F0002716203262627&volume=593&pages=593-608&publication_year=2004&author=Tyler%2CTR"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR77">Tyler, T. R., & Fagan, J. (2008). Legitimacy and cooperation: Why do people help the police fight crime in their communities? <i>Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law, 6</i>, 231–275.</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 77" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Legitimacy%20and%20cooperation%3A%20Why%20do%20people%20help%20the%20police%20fight%20crime%20in%20their%20communities%3F&journal=Ohio%20State%20Journal%20of%20Criminal%20Law&volume=6&pages=231-275&publication_year=2008&author=Tyler%2CTR&author=Fagan%2CJ"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR78">Tyler, T. R., & Huo, Y. J. (2002). <i>Trust in the law, encouraging public cooperation with the police and courts</i>. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 78" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Trust%20in%20the%20law%2C%20encouraging%20public%20cooperation%20with%20the%20police%20and%20courts&publication_year=2002&author=Tyler%2CTR&author=Huo%2CYJ"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR79">Tucker, D. G., & Bragg, A. O., III. (2001). Florida’s law of storms: Emergency management, local government, and the police power. <i>Stetson Law Review, 30</i>, 837–873.</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 79" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Florida%E2%80%99s%20law%20of%20storms%3A%20Emergency%20management%2C%20local%20government%2C%20and%20the%20police%20power&journal=Stetson%20Law%20Review&volume=30&pages=837-873&publication_year=2001&author=Tucker%2CDG&author=Bragg%2CAO"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR80">Ulrich, M. R., & Mariner, W. K. (2018). Quarantine and the federal role in epidemics. <i>Southern Methodist University Law Review, 71</i>, 391–444.</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 80" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Quarantine%20and%20the%20federal%20role%20in%20epidemics&journal=Southern%20Methodist%20University%20Law%20Review&volume=71&pages=391-444&publication_year=2018&author=Ulrich%2CMR&author=Mariner%2CWK"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR81"><i>United States v. Flores-Montano</i>, 541 U.S. 149 (2004).</p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR82"><i>United States v. Jones</i>, 565 U.S. 400 (2012).</p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR83"><i>Vernonia School District 47J v. Acton</i>, 515 U.S. 646 (1995).</p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR84">Weiss, D. C. (2020). Lawsuits over coronavirus quarantines are unlikely to succeed, experts say. ABA Journal. Retrieved from <a href="https://www.abajournal.com/news/article/suits-over-coronavirus-quarantines-unlikely-to-succeed-experts-say" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://www.abajournal.com/news/article/suits-over-coronavirus-quarantines-unlikely-to-succeed-experts-say">https://www.abajournal.com/news/article/suits-over-coronavirus-quarantines-unlikely-to-succeed-experts-say</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR85"><i>Welsh v. Wisconsin</i>, 466 U.S. 470 (1984).</p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR86">White, M. D., & Fradella, H. F. (2016). <i>Stop and frisk: The use and abuse of a controversial police tactic</i>. New York: New York University Press.</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 86" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Stop%20and%20frisk%3A%20The%20use%20and%20abuse%20of%20a%20controversial%20police%20tactic&publication_year=2016&author=White%2CMD&author=Fradella%2CHF"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR87">Wilson, J. Q. (1968). <i>Varieties of police behavior: The management of law and order in eight communities</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 87" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Varieties%20of%20police%20behavior%3A%20The%20management%20of%20law%20and%20order%20in%20eight%20communities&publication_year=1968&author=Wilson%2CJQ"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR88">Woodward, A. (2020). It's estimated 1 in 4 coronavirus carriers could be asymptomatic. Here's what we know. Science Alert. Retrieved from <a href="https://www.sciencealert.com/here-s-what-we-know-so-far-about-those-who-can-pass-corona-without-symptoms" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="https://www.sciencealert.com/here-s-what-we-know-so-far-about-those-who-can-pass-corona-without-symptoms">https://www.sciencealert.com/here-s-what-we-know-so-far-about-those-who-can-pass-corona-without-symptoms</a> </p></li></ul><p class="c-article-references__download u-hide-print"><a data-track="click" data-track-action="download citation references" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow" href="https://citation-needed.springer.com/v2/references/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0?format=refman&flavour=references">Download references<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"></use></svg></a></p></div></div></div></section></div><section aria-labelledby="author-information" data-title="Author information"><div class="c-article-section" id="author-information-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="author-information">Author information</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="author-information-content"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="affiliations">Authors and Affiliations</h3><ol class="c-article-author-affiliation__list"><li id="Aff1"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">School of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Arizona State University, 411 North Central Ave, Suite 600, Phoenix, AZ, 85004, USA</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Michael D. White & Henry F. Fradella</p></li></ol><div class="u-js-hide u-hide-print" data-test="author-info"><span class="c-article__sub-heading">Authors</span><ol class="c-article-authors-search u-list-reset"><li id="auth-Michael_D_-White-Aff1"><span class="c-article-authors-search__title u-h3 js-search-name">Michael D. White</span><div class="c-article-authors-search__list"><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--left"><a href="/search?dc.creator=Michael%20D.%20White" class="c-article-button" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - publication" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">View author publications</a></div><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--right"><p class="search-in-title-js c-article-authors-search__text">You can also search for this author in <span class="c-article-identifiers"><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=search&term=Michael%20D.%20White" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - pubmed" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">PubMed</a><span class="u-hide"> </span><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Search+Scholar&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_occt=any&as_sauthors=%22Michael%20D.%20White%22&as_publication=&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&as_allsubj=all&hl=en" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - scholar" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Google Scholar</a></span></p></div></div></li><li id="auth-Henry_F_-Fradella-Aff1"><span class="c-article-authors-search__title u-h3 js-search-name">Henry F. Fradella</span><div class="c-article-authors-search__list"><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--left"><a href="/search?dc.creator=Henry%20F.%20Fradella" class="c-article-button" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - publication" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">View author publications</a></div><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--right"><p class="search-in-title-js c-article-authors-search__text">You can also search for this author in <span class="c-article-identifiers"><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=search&term=Henry%20F.%20Fradella" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - pubmed" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">PubMed</a><span class="u-hide"> </span><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Search+Scholar&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_occt=any&as_sauthors=%22Henry%20F.%20Fradella%22&as_publication=&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&as_allsubj=all&hl=en" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - scholar" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Google Scholar</a></span></p></div></div></li></ol></div><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="corresponding-author">Corresponding author</h3><p id="corresponding-author-list">Correspondence to <a id="corresp-c1" href="mailto:mdwhite1@asu.edu">Michael D. White</a>.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Additional information"><div class="c-article-section" id="additional-information-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="additional-information">Additional information</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="additional-information-content"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading">Publisher’s Note</h3><p>Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Rights and permissions"><div class="c-article-section" id="rightslink-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="rightslink">Rights and permissions</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="rightslink-content"><p class="c-article-rights"><a data-track="click" data-track-action="view rights and permissions" data-track-label="link" href="https://s100.copyright.com/AppDispatchServlet?title=Policing%20a%20Pandemic%3A%20Stay-at-Home%20Orders%20and%20What%20they%20Mean%20for%20the%20Police&author=Michael%20D.%20White%20et%20al&contentID=10.1007%2Fs12103-020-09538-0&copyright=Southern%20Criminal%20Justice%20Association&publication=1066-2316&publicationDate=2020-06-09&publisherName=SpringerNature&orderBeanReset=true">Reprints and permissions</a></p></div></div></section><section aria-labelledby="article-info" data-title="About this article"><div class="c-article-section" id="article-info-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="article-info">About this article</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="article-info-content"><div class="c-bibliographic-information"><div class="u-hide-print c-bibliographic-information__column c-bibliographic-information__column--border"><a data-crossmark="10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0" target="_blank" rel="noopener" href="https://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0" data-track="click" data-track-action="Click Crossmark" data-track-label="link" data-test="crossmark"><img loading="lazy" width="57" height="81" alt="Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark" src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,<svg height="81" width="57" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g fill="none" fill-rule="evenodd"><path d="m17.35 35.45 21.3-14.2v-17.03h-21.3" fill="#989898"/><path d="m38.65 35.45-21.3-14.2v-17.03h21.3" fill="#747474"/><path d="m28 .5c-12.98 0-23.5 10.52-23.5 23.5s10.52 23.5 23.5 23.5 23.5-10.52 23.5-23.5c0-6.23-2.48-12.21-6.88-16.62-4.41-4.4-10.39-6.88-16.62-6.88zm0 41.25c-9.8 0-17.75-7.95-17.75-17.75s7.95-17.75 17.75-17.75 17.75 7.95 17.75 17.75c0 4.71-1.87 9.22-5.2 12.55s-7.84 5.2-12.55 5.2z" fill="#535353"/><path d="m41 36c-5.81 6.23-15.23 7.45-22.43 2.9-7.21-4.55-10.16-13.57-7.03-21.5l-4.92-3.11c-4.95 10.7-1.19 23.42 8.78 29.71 9.97 6.3 23.07 4.22 30.6-4.86z" fill="#9c9c9c"/><path d="m.2 58.45c0-.75.11-1.42.33-2.01s.52-1.09.91-1.5c.38-.41.83-.73 1.34-.94.51-.22 1.06-.32 1.65-.32.56 0 1.06.11 1.51.35.44.23.81.5 1.1.81l-.91 1.01c-.24-.24-.49-.42-.75-.56-.27-.13-.58-.2-.93-.2-.39 0-.73.08-1.05.23-.31.16-.58.37-.81.66-.23.28-.41.63-.53 1.04-.13.41-.19.88-.19 1.39 0 1.04.23 1.86.68 2.46.45.59 1.06.88 1.84.88.41 0 .77-.07 1.07-.23s.59-.39.85-.68l.91 1c-.38.43-.8.76-1.28.99-.47.22-1 .34-1.58.34-.59 0-1.13-.1-1.64-.31-.5-.2-.94-.51-1.31-.91-.38-.4-.67-.9-.88-1.48-.22-.59-.33-1.26-.33-2.02zm8.4-5.33h1.61v2.54l-.05 1.33c.29-.27.61-.51.96-.72s.76-.31 1.24-.31c.73 0 1.27.23 1.61.71.33.47.5 1.14.5 2.02v4.31h-1.61v-4.1c0-.57-.08-.97-.25-1.21-.17-.23-.45-.35-.83-.35-.3 0-.56.08-.79.22-.23.15-.49.36-.78.64v4.8h-1.61zm7.37 6.45c0-.56.09-1.06.26-1.51.18-.45.42-.83.71-1.14.29-.3.63-.54 1.01-.71.39-.17.78-.25 1.18-.25.47 0 .88.08 1.23.24.36.16.65.38.89.67s.42.63.54 1.03c.12.41.18.84.18 1.32 0 .32-.02.57-.07.76h-4.36c.07.62.29 1.1.65 1.44.36.33.82.5 1.38.5.29 0 .57-.04.83-.13s.51-.21.76-.37l.55 1.01c-.33.21-.69.39-1.09.53-.41.14-.83.21-1.26.21-.48 0-.92-.08-1.34-.25-.41-.16-.76-.4-1.07-.7-.31-.31-.55-.69-.72-1.13-.18-.44-.26-.95-.26-1.52zm4.6-.62c0-.55-.11-.98-.34-1.28-.23-.31-.58-.47-1.06-.47-.41 0-.77.15-1.07.45-.31.29-.5.73-.58 1.3zm2.5.62c0-.57.09-1.08.28-1.53.18-.44.43-.82.75-1.13s.69-.54 1.1-.71c.42-.16.85-.24 1.31-.24.45 0 .84.08 1.17.23s.61.34.85.57l-.77 1.02c-.19-.16-.38-.28-.56-.37-.19-.09-.39-.14-.61-.14-.56 0-1.01.21-1.35.63-.35.41-.52.97-.52 1.67 0 .69.17 1.24.51 1.66.34.41.78.62 1.32.62.28 0 .54-.06.78-.17.24-.12.45-.26.64-.42l.67 1.03c-.33.29-.69.51-1.08.65-.39.15-.78.23-1.18.23-.46 0-.9-.08-1.31-.24-.4-.16-.75-.39-1.05-.7s-.53-.69-.7-1.13c-.17-.45-.25-.96-.25-1.53zm6.91-6.45h1.58v6.17h.05l2.54-3.16h1.77l-2.35 2.8 2.59 4.07h-1.75l-1.77-2.98-1.08 1.23v1.75h-1.58zm13.69 1.27c-.25-.11-.5-.17-.75-.17-.58 0-.87.39-.87 1.16v.75h1.34v1.27h-1.34v5.6h-1.61v-5.6h-.92v-1.2l.92-.07v-.72c0-.35.04-.68.13-.98.08-.31.21-.57.4-.79s.42-.39.71-.51c.28-.12.63-.18 1.04-.18.24 0 .48.02.69.07.22.05.41.1.57.17zm.48 5.18c0-.57.09-1.08.27-1.53.17-.44.41-.82.72-1.13.3-.31.65-.54 1.04-.71.39-.16.8-.24 1.23-.24s.84.08 1.24.24c.4.17.74.4 1.04.71s.54.69.72 1.13c.19.45.28.96.28 1.53s-.09 1.08-.28 1.53c-.18.44-.42.82-.72 1.13s-.64.54-1.04.7-.81.24-1.24.24-.84-.08-1.23-.24-.74-.39-1.04-.7c-.31-.31-.55-.69-.72-1.13-.18-.45-.27-.96-.27-1.53zm1.65 0c0 .69.14 1.24.43 1.66.28.41.68.62 1.18.62.51 0 .9-.21 1.19-.62.29-.42.44-.97.44-1.66 0-.7-.15-1.26-.44-1.67-.29-.42-.68-.63-1.19-.63-.5 0-.9.21-1.18.63-.29.41-.43.97-.43 1.67zm6.48-3.44h1.33l.12 1.21h.05c.24-.44.54-.79.88-1.02.35-.24.7-.36 1.07-.36.32 0 .59.05.78.14l-.28 1.4-.33-.09c-.11-.01-.23-.02-.38-.02-.27 0-.56.1-.86.31s-.55.58-.77 1.1v4.2h-1.61zm-47.87 15h1.61v4.1c0 .57.08.97.25 1.2.17.24.44.35.81.35.3 0 .57-.07.8-.22.22-.15.47-.39.73-.73v-4.7h1.61v6.87h-1.32l-.12-1.01h-.04c-.3.36-.63.64-.98.86-.35.21-.76.32-1.24.32-.73 0-1.27-.24-1.61-.71-.33-.47-.5-1.14-.5-2.02zm9.46 7.43v2.16h-1.61v-9.59h1.33l.12.72h.05c.29-.24.61-.45.97-.63.35-.17.72-.26 1.1-.26.43 0 .81.08 1.15.24.33.17.61.4.84.71.24.31.41.68.53 1.11.13.42.19.91.19 1.44 0 .59-.09 1.11-.25 1.57-.16.47-.38.85-.65 1.16-.27.32-.58.56-.94.73-.35.16-.72.25-1.1.25-.3 0-.6-.07-.9-.2s-.59-.31-.87-.56zm0-2.3c.26.22.5.37.73.45.24.09.46.13.66.13.46 0 .84-.2 1.15-.6.31-.39.46-.98.46-1.77 0-.69-.12-1.22-.35-1.61-.23-.38-.61-.57-1.13-.57-.49 0-.99.26-1.52.77zm5.87-1.69c0-.56.08-1.06.25-1.51.16-.45.37-.83.65-1.14.27-.3.58-.54.93-.71s.71-.25 1.08-.25c.39 0 .73.07 1 .2.27.14.54.32.81.55l-.06-1.1v-2.49h1.61v9.88h-1.33l-.11-.74h-.06c-.25.25-.54.46-.88.64-.33.18-.69.27-1.06.27-.87 0-1.56-.32-2.07-.95s-.76-1.51-.76-2.65zm1.67-.01c0 .74.13 1.31.4 1.7.26.38.65.58 1.15.58.51 0 .99-.26 1.44-.77v-3.21c-.24-.21-.48-.36-.7-.45-.23-.08-.46-.12-.7-.12-.45 0-.82.19-1.13.59-.31.39-.46.95-.46 1.68zm6.35 1.59c0-.73.32-1.3.97-1.71.64-.4 1.67-.68 3.08-.84 0-.17-.02-.34-.07-.51-.05-.16-.12-.3-.22-.43s-.22-.22-.38-.3c-.15-.06-.34-.1-.58-.1-.34 0-.68.07-1 .2s-.63.29-.93.47l-.59-1.08c.39-.24.81-.45 1.28-.63.47-.17.99-.26 1.54-.26.86 0 1.51.25 1.93.76s.63 1.25.63 2.21v4.07h-1.32l-.12-.76h-.05c-.3.27-.63.48-.98.66s-.73.27-1.14.27c-.61 0-1.1-.19-1.48-.56-.38-.36-.57-.85-.57-1.46zm1.57-.12c0 .3.09.53.27.67.19.14.42.21.71.21.28 0 .54-.07.77-.2s.48-.31.73-.56v-1.54c-.47.06-.86.13-1.18.23-.31.09-.57.19-.76.31s-.33.25-.41.4c-.09.15-.13.31-.13.48zm6.29-3.63h-.98v-1.2l1.06-.07.2-1.88h1.34v1.88h1.75v1.27h-1.75v3.28c0 .8.32 1.2.97 1.2.12 0 .24-.01.37-.04.12-.03.24-.07.34-.11l.28 1.19c-.19.06-.4.12-.64.17-.23.05-.49.08-.76.08-.4 0-.74-.06-1.02-.18-.27-.13-.49-.3-.67-.52-.17-.21-.3-.48-.37-.78-.08-.3-.12-.64-.12-1.01zm4.36 2.17c0-.56.09-1.06.27-1.51s.41-.83.71-1.14c.29-.3.63-.54 1.01-.71.39-.17.78-.25 1.18-.25.47 0 .88.08 1.23.24.36.16.65.38.89.67s.42.63.54 1.03c.12.41.18.84.18 1.32 0 .32-.02.57-.07.76h-4.37c.08.62.29 1.1.65 1.44.36.33.82.5 1.38.5.3 0 .58-.04.84-.13.25-.09.51-.21.76-.37l.54 1.01c-.32.21-.69.39-1.09.53s-.82.21-1.26.21c-.47 0-.92-.08-1.33-.25-.41-.16-.77-.4-1.08-.7-.3-.31-.54-.69-.72-1.13-.17-.44-.26-.95-.26-1.52zm4.61-.62c0-.55-.11-.98-.34-1.28-.23-.31-.58-.47-1.06-.47-.41 0-.77.15-1.08.45-.31.29-.5.73-.57 1.3zm3.01 2.23c.31.24.61.43.92.57.3.13.63.2.98.2.38 0 .65-.08.83-.23s.27-.35.27-.6c0-.14-.05-.26-.13-.37-.08-.1-.2-.2-.34-.28-.14-.09-.29-.16-.47-.23l-.53-.22c-.23-.09-.46-.18-.69-.3-.23-.11-.44-.24-.62-.4s-.33-.35-.45-.55c-.12-.21-.18-.46-.18-.75 0-.61.23-1.1.68-1.49.44-.38 1.06-.57 1.83-.57.48 0 .91.08 1.29.25s.71.36.99.57l-.74.98c-.24-.17-.49-.32-.73-.42-.25-.11-.51-.16-.78-.16-.35 0-.6.07-.76.21-.17.15-.25.33-.25.54 0 .14.04.26.12.36s.18.18.31.26c.14.07.29.14.46.21l.54.19c.23.09.47.18.7.29s.44.24.64.4c.19.16.34.35.46.58.11.23.17.5.17.82 0 .3-.06.58-.17.83-.12.26-.29.48-.51.68-.23.19-.51.34-.84.45-.34.11-.72.17-1.15.17-.48 0-.95-.09-1.41-.27-.46-.19-.86-.41-1.2-.68z" fill="#535353"/></g></svg>"></a></div><div class="c-bibliographic-information__column"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="citeas">Cite this article</h3><p class="c-bibliographic-information__citation">White, M.D., Fradella, H.F. Policing a Pandemic: Stay-at-Home Orders and What they Mean for the Police. <i>Am J Crim Just</i> <b>45</b>, 702–717 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0</p><p class="c-bibliographic-information__download-citation u-hide-print"><a data-test="citation-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="download article citation" data-track-label="link" data-track-external="" rel="nofollow" href="https://citation-needed.springer.com/v2/references/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0?format=refman&flavour=citation">Download citation<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"></use></svg></a></p><ul class="c-bibliographic-information__list" data-test="publication-history"><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item"><p>Received<span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value"><time datetime="2020-04-15">15 April 2020</time></span></p></li><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item"><p>Accepted<span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value"><time datetime="2020-05-29">29 May 2020</time></span></p></li><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item"><p>Published<span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value"><time datetime="2020-06-09">09 June 2020</time></span></p></li><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item"><p>Issue Date<span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value"><time datetime="2020-08">August 2020</time></span></p></li><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item c-bibliographic-information__list-item--full-width"><p><abbr title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</abbr><span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value">https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-020-09538-0</span></p></li></ul><div data-component="share-box"><div class="c-article-share-box u-display-none" hidden=""><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading">Share this article</h3><p class="c-article-share-box__description">Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:</p><button class="js-get-share-url c-article-share-box__button" type="button" id="get-share-url" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-external="" data-track-action="get shareable link">Get shareable link</button><div class="js-no-share-url-container u-display-none" hidden=""><p class="js-c-article-share-box__no-sharelink-info c-article-share-box__no-sharelink-info">Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.</p></div><div class="js-share-url-container u-display-none" hidden=""><p class="js-share-url c-article-share-box__only-read-input" id="share-url" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="select share url"></p><button class="js-copy-share-url c-article-share-box__button--link-like" type="button" id="copy-share-url" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="copy share url" data-track-external="">Copy to clipboard</button></div><p class="js-c-article-share-box__additional-info c-article-share-box__additional-info"> Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative </p></div></div><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading">Keywords</h3><ul class="c-article-subject-list"><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=COVID-19&facet-discipline="Criminology%20and%20Criminal%20Justice"" data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">COVID-19</a></span></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=Police%20and%20pandemic&facet-discipline="Criminology%20and%20Criminal%20Justice"" data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">Police and pandemic</a></span></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=Stay-at-home%20order&facet-discipline="Criminology%20and%20Criminal%20Justice"" data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">Stay-at-home order</a></span></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=Shelter-in-place%20order&facet-discipline="Criminology%20and%20Criminal%20Justice"" data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">Shelter-in-place order</a></span></li></ul><div data-component="article-info-list"></div></div></div></div></div></section> </div> </main> <div class="c-article-sidebar u-text-sm u-hide-print l-with-sidebar__sidebar" id="sidebar" data-container-type="reading-companion" data-track-component="reading companion"> <aside> <div class="app-card-service" data-test="article-checklist-banner"> <div> <a class="app-card-service__link" data-track="click_presubmission_checklist" data-track-context="article page top of reading companion" data-track-category="pre-submission-checklist" data-track-action="clicked article page checklist banner test 2 old version" data-track-label="link" href="https://beta.springernature.com/pre-submission?journalId=12103" data-test="article-checklist-banner-link"> <span class="app-card-service__link-text">Use our pre-submission checklist</span> <svg class="app-card-service__link-icon" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"><use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-arrow-right-small"></use></svg> </a> <p class="app-card-service__description">Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.</p> </div> <div class="app-card-service__icon-container"> <svg class="app-card-service__icon" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-clipboard-check-medium"></use> </svg> </div> </div> <div data-test="collections"> </div> <div data-test="editorial-summary"> </div> <div class="c-reading-companion"> <div class="c-reading-companion__sticky" data-component="reading-companion-sticky" data-test="reading-companion-sticky"> <div class="c-reading-companion__panel c-reading-companion__sections c-reading-companion__panel--active" id="tabpanel-sections"> <div class="u-lazy-ad-wrapper u-mt-16 u-hide" data-component-mpu><div class="c-ad c-ad--300x250"> <div class="c-ad__inner"> <p class="c-ad__label">Advertisement</p> <div id="div-gpt-ad-MPU1" class="div-gpt-ad grade-c-hide" data-pa11y-ignore data-gpt data-gpt-unitpath="/270604982/springerlink/12103/article" data-gpt-sizes="300x250" data-test="MPU1-ad" data-gpt-targeting="pos=MPU1;articleid=s12103-020-09538-0;"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="c-reading-companion__panel c-reading-companion__figures c-reading-companion__panel--full-width" id="tabpanel-figures"></div> <div class="c-reading-companion__panel c-reading-companion__references c-reading-companion__panel--full-width" id="tabpanel-references"></div> </div> </div> </aside> </div> </div> </article> <div class="app-elements"> <div class="eds-c-header__expander eds-c-header__expander--search" id="eds-c-header-popup-search"> <h2 class="eds-c-header__heading">Search</h2> <div class="u-container"> <search class="eds-c-header__search" role="search" aria-label="Search from the header"> <form method="GET" action="//link.springer.com/search" data-test="header-search" data-track="search" data-track-context="search from header" data-track-action="submit search form" data-track-category="unified header" data-track-label="form" > <label for="eds-c-header-search" class="eds-c-header__search-label">Search by keyword or author</label> <div class="eds-c-header__search-container"> <input id="eds-c-header-search" class="eds-c-header__search-input" autocomplete="off" name="query" type="search" value="" required> <button class="eds-c-header__search-button" type="submit"> <svg class="eds-c-header__icon" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-search-medium"></use> </svg> <span class="u-visually-hidden">Search</span> </button> </div> </form> </search> </div> </div> <div class="eds-c-header__expander eds-c-header__expander--menu" id="eds-c-header-nav"> <h2 class="eds-c-header__heading">Navigation</h2> <ul class="eds-c-header__list"> <li class="eds-c-header__list-item"> <a class="eds-c-header__link" href="https://link.springer.com/journals/" data-track="nav_find_a_journal" data-track-context="unified header" data-track-action="click find a journal" data-track-category="unified header" data-track-label="link" > Find a journal </a> </li> <li class="eds-c-header__list-item"> <a class="eds-c-header__link" href="https://www.springernature.com/gp/authors" data-track="nav_how_to_publish" data-track-context="unified header" data-track-action="click publish with us link" data-track-category="unified header" data-track-label="link" > Publish with us </a> </li> <li class="eds-c-header__list-item"> <a class="eds-c-header__link" href="https://link.springernature.com/home/" data-track="nav_track_your_research" data-track-context="unified header" data-track-action="click track your research" data-track-category="unified header" data-track-label="link" > Track your research </a> </li> </ul> </div> <footer > <div class="eds-c-footer" > <div class="eds-c-footer__container"> <div class="eds-c-footer__grid eds-c-footer__group--separator"> <div class="eds-c-footer__group"> <h3 class="eds-c-footer__heading">Discover content</h3> <ul class="eds-c-footer__list"> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"><a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://link.springer.com/journals/a/1" data-track="nav_journals_a_z" data-track-action="journals a-z" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Journals A-Z</a></li> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"><a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://link.springer.com/books/a/1" data-track="nav_books_a_z" data-track-action="books a-z" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Books A-Z</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="eds-c-footer__group"> <h3 class="eds-c-footer__heading">Publish with us</h3> <ul class="eds-c-footer__list"> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"><a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://link.springer.com/journals" data-track="nav_journal_finder" data-track-action="journal finder" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Journal finder</a></li> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"><a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://www.springernature.com/gp/authors" data-track="nav_publish_your_research" data-track-action="publish your research" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Publish your research</a></li> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"><a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://www.springernature.com/gp/open-research/about/the-fundamentals-of-open-access-and-open-research" data-track="nav_open_access_publishing" data-track-action="open access publishing" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Open access publishing</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="eds-c-footer__group"> <h3 class="eds-c-footer__heading">Products and services</h3> <ul class="eds-c-footer__list"> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"><a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://www.springernature.com/gp/products" data-track="nav_our_products" data-track-action="our products" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Our products</a></li> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"><a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://www.springernature.com/gp/librarians" data-track="nav_librarians" data-track-action="librarians" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Librarians</a></li> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"><a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://www.springernature.com/gp/societies" data-track="nav_societies" data-track-action="societies" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Societies</a></li> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"><a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://www.springernature.com/gp/partners" data-track="nav_partners_and_advertisers" data-track-action="partners and advertisers" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Partners and advertisers</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="eds-c-footer__group"> <h3 class="eds-c-footer__heading">Our imprints</h3> <ul class="eds-c-footer__list"> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"><a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://www.springer.com/" data-track="nav_imprint_Springer" data-track-action="Springer" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Springer</a></li> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"><a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://www.nature.com/" data-track="nav_imprint_Nature_Portfolio" data-track-action="Nature Portfolio" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Nature Portfolio</a></li> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"><a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://www.biomedcentral.com/" data-track="nav_imprint_BMC" data-track-action="BMC" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">BMC</a></li> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"><a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://www.palgrave.com/" data-track="nav_imprint_Palgrave_Macmillan" data-track-action="Palgrave Macmillan" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Palgrave Macmillan</a></li> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"><a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://www.apress.com/" data-track="nav_imprint_Apress" data-track-action="Apress" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Apress</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div class="eds-c-footer__container"> <nav aria-label="footer navigation"> <ul class="eds-c-footer__links"> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"> <button class="eds-c-footer__link" data-cc-action="preferences" data-track="dialog_manage_cookies" data-track-action="Manage cookies" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link"><span class="eds-c-footer__button-text">Your privacy choices/Manage cookies</span></button> </li> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"> <a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://www.springernature.com/gp/legal/ccpa" data-track="nav_california_privacy_statement" data-track-action="california privacy statement" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Your US state privacy rights</a> </li> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"> <a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://www.springernature.com/gp/info/accessibility" data-track="nav_accessibility_statement" data-track-action="accessibility statement" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Accessibility statement</a> </li> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"> <a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://link.springer.com/termsandconditions" data-track="nav_terms_and_conditions" data-track-action="terms and conditions" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Terms and conditions</a> </li> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"> <a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://link.springer.com/privacystatement" data-track="nav_privacy_policy" data-track-action="privacy policy" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Privacy policy</a> </li> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"> <a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://support.springernature.com/en/support/home" data-track="nav_help_and_support" data-track-action="help and support" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Help and support</a> </li> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"> <a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://support.springernature.com/en/support/solutions/articles/6000255911-subscription-cancellations" data-track-action="cancel contracts here">Cancel contracts here</a> </li> </ul> </nav> <div class="eds-c-footer__user"> <p class="eds-c-footer__user-info"> <span data-test="footer-user-ip">8.222.208.146</span> </p> <p class="eds-c-footer__user-info" data-test="footer-business-partners">Not affiliated</p> </div> <a href="https://www.springernature.com/" class="eds-c-footer__link"> <img src="/oscar-static/images/logo-springernature-white-19dd4ba190.svg" alt="Springer Nature" loading="lazy" width="200" height="20"/> </a> <p class="eds-c-footer__legal" data-test="copyright">© 2024 Springer Nature</p> </div> </div> </footer> </div> </body> </html>