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id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_concept" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_concept"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>General concept</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_concept-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Design_constraints" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Design_constraints"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Design constraints</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Design_constraints-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Design constraints subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Design_constraints-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Oxygen_rebreathers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oxygen_rebreathers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Oxygen rebreathers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oxygen_rebreathers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mixed_gas_rebreathers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mixed_gas_rebreathers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Mixed gas rebreathers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mixed_gas_rebreathers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recreational_rebreathers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recreational_rebreathers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Recreational rebreathers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recreational_rebreathers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Atmospheric_diving_suits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atmospheric_diving_suits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Atmospheric diving suits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atmospheric_diving_suits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Architecture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Architecture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Essential_components" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Essential_components"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Essential components</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Essential_components-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Breathing_gas_passage_configuration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Breathing_gas_passage_configuration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Breathing gas passage configuration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Breathing_gas_passage_configuration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Counterlung_configuration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Counterlung_configuration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Counterlung configuration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Counterlung_configuration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_arrangement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_arrangement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>General arrangement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_arrangement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Back-mounted_rebreathers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Back-mounted_rebreathers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.1</span> <span>Back-mounted rebreathers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Back-mounted_rebreathers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chest-mounted_rebreathers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chest-mounted_rebreathers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.2</span> <span>Chest-mounted rebreathers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chest-mounted_rebreathers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Side-mounted_rebreathers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Side-mounted_rebreathers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.3</span> <span>Side-mounted rebreathers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Side-mounted_rebreathers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-System_variants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#System_variants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>System variants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-System_variants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mixed_gas_rebreathers_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mixed_gas_rebreathers_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Mixed gas rebreathers</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mixed_gas_rebreathers_2-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Mixed gas rebreathers subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Mixed_gas_rebreathers_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Semi-closed_circuit_rebreathers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Semi-closed_circuit_rebreathers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Semi-closed circuit rebreathers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Semi-closed_circuit_rebreathers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Passive_addition_semi-closed_circuit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Passive_addition_semi-closed_circuit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.1</span> <span>Passive addition semi-closed circuit</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Passive_addition_semi-closed_circuit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Active_addition_semi-closed_circuit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Active_addition_semi-closed_circuit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.2</span> <span>Active addition semi-closed circuit</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Active_addition_semi-closed_circuit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Constant_mass_flow_gas_addition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constant_mass_flow_gas_addition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.2.1</span> <span>Constant mass flow gas addition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constant_mass_flow_gas_addition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demand_controlled_gas_addition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demand_controlled_gas_addition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.2.2</span> <span>Demand controlled gas addition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demand_controlled_gas_addition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Closed_circuit_rebreathers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Closed_circuit_rebreathers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Closed circuit rebreathers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Closed_circuit_rebreathers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Oxygen_rebreathers_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oxygen_rebreathers_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.1</span> <span>Oxygen rebreathers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oxygen_rebreathers_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Oxygen_feed_options" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oxygen_feed_options"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.1.1</span> <span>Oxygen feed options</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oxygen_feed_options-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Closed_circuit_mixed_gas_rebreathers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Closed_circuit_mixed_gas_rebreathers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.2</span> <span>Closed circuit mixed gas rebreathers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Closed_circuit_mixed_gas_rebreathers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Standard_diving_dress_rebreathers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Standard_diving_dress_rebreathers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Standard diving dress rebreathers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Standard_diving_dress_rebreathers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rebreathers_using_an_absorbent_that_releases_oxygen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rebreathers_using_an_absorbent_that_releases_oxygen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Rebreathers using an absorbent that releases oxygen</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rebreathers_using_an_absorbent_that_releases_oxygen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rebreathers_which_use_liquid_oxygen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rebreathers_which_use_liquid_oxygen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Rebreathers which use liquid oxygen</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rebreathers_which_use_liquid_oxygen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cryogenic_rebreather" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cryogenic_rebreather"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5.1</span> <span>Cryogenic rebreather</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cryogenic_rebreather-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Components_and_subsystems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Components_and_subsystems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Components and subsystems</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Components_and_subsystems-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Components and subsystems subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Components_and_subsystems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-User_respiratory_interface" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#User_respiratory_interface"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>User respiratory interface</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-User_respiratory_interface-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dive/surface_valve" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dive/surface_valve"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.1</span> <span>Dive/surface valve</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dive/surface_valve-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bailout_valve" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bailout_valve"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.2</span> <span>Bailout valve</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bailout_valve-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mouthpiece_retaining_strap" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mouthpiece_retaining_strap"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.3</span> <span>Mouthpiece retaining strap</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mouthpiece_retaining_strap-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Breathing_hoses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Breathing_hoses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Breathing hoses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Breathing_hoses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Counterlungs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Counterlungs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Counterlungs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Counterlungs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Concentric_bellows_counterlungs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concentric_bellows_counterlungs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3.1</span> <span>Concentric bellows counterlungs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Concentric_bellows_counterlungs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carbon_dioxide_scrubber" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carbon_dioxide_scrubber"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Carbon dioxide scrubber</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carbon_dioxide_scrubber-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Scrubber_design_and_size" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scrubber_design_and_size"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4.1</span> <span>Scrubber design and size</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scrubber_design_and_size-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Single_or_multiple_scrubbers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Single_or_multiple_scrubbers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4.1.1</span> <span>Single or multiple scrubbers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Single_or_multiple_scrubbers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Axial_or_radial_flow" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Axial_or_radial_flow"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4.1.2</span> <span>Axial or radial flow</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Axial_or_radial_flow-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grain_size_and_size_distribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grain_size_and_size_distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4.1.3</span> <span>Grain size and size distribution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grain_size_and_size_distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effect_of_temperature_on_scrubber_endurance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effect_of_temperature_on_scrubber_endurance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4.1.4</span> <span>Effect of temperature on scrubber endurance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effect_of_temperature_on_scrubber_endurance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gas_venting_–_Overpressure_valve_and_diffuser" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gas_venting_–_Overpressure_valve_and_diffuser"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.5</span> <span>Gas venting – Overpressure valve and diffuser</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gas_venting_–_Overpressure_valve_and_diffuser-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loop_drainage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loop_drainage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.6</span> <span>Loop drainage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loop_drainage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gas_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gas_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.7</span> <span>Gas sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gas_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Diluent_gas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diluent_gas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.7.1</span> <span>Diluent gas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diluent_gas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gas_addition_valves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gas_addition_valves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.7.2</span> <span>Gas addition valves</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gas_addition_valves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Automatic_diluent_valve_(ADV)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Automatic_diluent_valve_(ADV)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.7.2.1</span> <span>Automatic diluent valve (ADV)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Automatic_diluent_valve_(ADV)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manual_addition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manual_addition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.7.2.2</span> <span>Manual addition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Manual_addition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constant_mass_flow" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constant_mass_flow"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.7.2.3</span> <span>Constant mass flow</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constant_mass_flow-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Passive_addition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Passive_addition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.7.2.4</span> <span>Passive addition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Passive_addition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electronically_controlled_(solenoid_valves)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electronically_controlled_(solenoid_valves)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.7.2.5</span> <span>Electronically controlled (solenoid valves)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electronically_controlled_(solenoid_valves)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Off-board_gas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Off-board_gas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.7.3</span> <span>Off-board gas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Off-board_gas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bailout_gas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bailout_gas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.7.4</span> <span>Bailout gas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bailout_gas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Control_of_the_breathing_gas_mix" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Control_of_the_breathing_gas_mix"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.8</span> <span>Control of the breathing gas mix</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Control_of_the_breathing_gas_mix-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Instrumentation_and_displays" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Instrumentation_and_displays"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.9</span> <span>Instrumentation and displays</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Instrumentation_and_displays-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Alarms_for_malfunctions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alarms_for_malfunctions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.9.1</span> <span>Alarms for malfunctions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alarms_for_malfunctions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Work_of_breathing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Work_of_breathing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Work of breathing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Work_of_breathing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Safety" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Safety"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Safety</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Safety-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Safety subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Safety-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hazards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hazards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Hazards</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hazards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hypoxia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hypoxia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1.1</span> <span>Hypoxia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hypoxia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hyperoxia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hyperoxia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1.2</span> <span>Hyperoxia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hyperoxia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carbon_dioxide_buildup" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carbon_dioxide_buildup"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1.3</span> <span>Carbon dioxide buildup</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carbon_dioxide_buildup-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Excessive_work_of_breathing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Excessive_work_of_breathing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1.4</span> <span>Excessive work of breathing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Excessive_work_of_breathing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fire_hazards_of_high_concentration_of_oxygen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fire_hazards_of_high_concentration_of_oxygen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1.5</span> <span>Fire hazards of high concentration of oxygen</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fire_hazards_of_high_concentration_of_oxygen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Caustic_cocktail" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caustic_cocktail"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1.6</span> <span>Caustic cocktail</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caustic_cocktail-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Failure_modes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Failure_modes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Failure modes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Failure_modes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Scrubber_failure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scrubber_failure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2.1</span> <span>Scrubber failure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scrubber_failure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flooding_of_the_loop" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flooding_of_the_loop"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2.2</span> <span>Flooding of the loop</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flooding_of_the_loop-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gas_leakage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gas_leakage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2.3</span> <span>Gas leakage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gas_leakage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oxygen_monitoring_failure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oxygen_monitoring_failure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2.4</span> <span>Oxygen monitoring failure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oxygen_monitoring_failure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gas_injection_system_failure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gas_injection_system_failure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2.5</span> <span>Gas injection system failure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gas_injection_system_failure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scrubber_monitoring" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scrubber_monitoring"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>Scrubber monitoring</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scrubber_monitoring-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fault_tolerant_design" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fault_tolerant_design"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.4</span> <span>Fault tolerant design</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fault_tolerant_design-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Operation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Operation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Operation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Operation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technological_innovations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technological_innovations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Technological innovations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Technological_innovations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Technological innovations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Technological_innovations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Active_and_passive_oxygen_sensor_validation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Active_and_passive_oxygen_sensor_validation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Active and passive oxygen sensor validation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Active_and_passive_oxygen_sensor_validation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hyperoxic_linearity_test" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hyperoxic_linearity_test"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Hyperoxic linearity test</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hyperoxic_linearity_test-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carbon_dioxide_monitoring" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carbon_dioxide_monitoring"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.3</span> <span>Carbon dioxide monitoring</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carbon_dioxide_monitoring-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Automated_pre-dive_checklists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Automated_pre-dive_checklists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.4</span> <span>Automated pre-dive checklists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Automated_pre-dive_checklists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Head-up_displays" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Head-up_displays"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.5</span> <span>Head-up displays</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Head-up_displays-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Closed_circuit_bailout" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Closed_circuit_bailout"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.6</span> <span>Closed circuit bailout</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Closed_circuit_bailout-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Data_logging" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Data_logging"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.7</span> <span>Data logging</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Data_logging-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manufacturers_and_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manufacturers_and_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Manufacturers and models</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Manufacturers_and_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.1</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Closed or semi-closed circuit scuba</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the equipment. For the activity and procedures, see <a href="/wiki/Rebreather_diving" title="Rebreather diving">Rebreather diving</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Diving rebreather</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Plongee-RecycleurInspiration_20040221-153656.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Plongee-RecycleurInspiration_20040221-153656.jpg/220px-Plongee-RecycleurInspiration_20040221-153656.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="352" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Plongee-RecycleurInspiration_20040221-153656.jpg/330px-Plongee-RecycleurInspiration_20040221-153656.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Plongee-RecycleurInspiration_20040221-153656.jpg/440px-Plongee-RecycleurInspiration_20040221-153656.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1280" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">A fully closed circuit electronic rebreather (<a href="/wiki/AP_Diving" title="AP Diving">AP Diving</a> Inspiration)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Acronym</th><td class="infobox-data">CCUBA (closed circuit underwater breathing apparatus); CCR (closed circuit rebreather), SCR (semi-closed rebreather)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Uses</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Scuba_set" title="Scuba set">Breathing set</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Related items</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Rebreather" title="Rebreather">Rebreather</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A <b>Diving rebreather</b> is an <a href="/wiki/Underwater_breathing_apparatus" title="Underwater breathing apparatus">underwater breathing apparatus</a> that absorbs the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> of a diver's <a href="/wiki/Breathing" title="Breathing">exhaled breath</a> to permit the rebreathing (recycling) of the substantially unused <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> content, and unused inert content when present, of each breath. Oxygen is added to replenish the amount metabolised by the diver. This differs from open-circuit breathing apparatus, where the exhaled gas is discharged directly into the environment. The purpose is to extend the breathing endurance of a limited gas supply, and, for covert military use by <a href="/wiki/Frogmen" class="mw-redirect" title="Frogmen">frogmen</a> or observation of underwater life, to eliminate the bubbles produced by an open circuit system. A diving rebreather is generally understood to be a portable unit carried by the user, and is therefore a type of <a href="/wiki/Self-contained_underwater_breathing_apparatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-contained underwater breathing apparatus">self-contained underwater breathing apparatus</a> (scuba). A semi-closed rebreather carried by the diver may also be known as a <b>gas extender</b>. The same technology on a <a href="/wiki/Submersible" title="Submersible">submersible</a> or surface installation is more likely to be referred to as a <a href="/wiki/Life-support_system" title="Life-support system">life-support system</a>. </p><p>Diving rebreather technology may be used where <a href="/wiki/Breathing_gas" title="Breathing gas">breathing gas</a> supply is limited, or where the breathing gas is specially enriched or contains expensive components, such as <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a> diluent. Diving rebreathers have applications for primary and emergency gas supply. Similar technology is used in <a href="/wiki/Life-support_system" title="Life-support system">life-support systems</a> in submarines, submersibles, underwater and surface saturation habitats, and in <a href="/wiki/Gas_reclaim_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas reclaim system">gas reclaim systems</a> used to recover the large volumes of helium used in <a href="/wiki/Saturation_diving" title="Saturation diving">saturation diving</a>. </p><p>The recycling of breathing gas comes at the cost of technological complexity and additional hazards, which depend on the specific application and type of rebreather used. Mass and bulk may be greater or less than equivalent open circuit scuba depending on circumstances. Electronically controlled diving rebreathers may <a href="/wiki/Control_system" title="Control system">automatically maintain</a> a <a href="/wiki/Partial_pressure" title="Partial pressure">partial pressure</a> of oxygen between programmable upper and lower limits, or set points, and be integrated with <a href="/wiki/Decompression_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression computer">decompression computers</a> to monitor the <a href="/wiki/Decompression_status" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression status">decompression status</a> of the diver and record the <a href="/wiki/Dive_profile" title="Dive profile">dive profile</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rebreather_diving" title="Rebreather diving">Rebreather diving</a></div> <p>Diving rebreathers are generally used for <a href="/wiki/Scuba_diving" title="Scuba diving">scuba applications</a>, where the amount of breathing gas carried by the diver is limited, but are also occasionally used as gas extenders for <a href="/wiki/Surface-supplied_diving" title="Surface-supplied diving">surface-supplied diving</a> and as <a href="/wiki/Bailout_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bailout (diving)">bailout</a> systems for scuba or surface-supplied diving.<sup id="cite_ref-JFD_Cobra_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JFD_Cobra-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gas_reclaim_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas reclaim system">Gas reclaim systems</a> used for deep heliox diving use similar technology to rebreathers, as do <a href="/wiki/Saturation_diving" title="Saturation diving">saturation diving</a> <a href="/wiki/Life_support_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Life support system">life support systems</a>, but in these applications the gas recycling equipment is not carried by the diver.<sup id="cite_ref-Crawford_2016_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crawford_2016-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_diving_suit" title="Atmospheric diving suit">Atmospheric diving suits</a> also carry rebreather technology to recycle breathing gas as part of the life-support system.<sup id="cite_ref-Thornton_2000_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thornton_2000-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rebreathers are usually more complex to use than open circuit scuba, and have more potential <a href="/wiki/Point_of_failure" class="mw-redirect" title="Point of failure">points of failure</a>, so acceptably safe use requires a greater level of skill, attention and situational awareness, which is usually derived from understanding the systems, diligent maintenance and overlearning the practical skills of operation and <a href="/wiki/Fault_recovery" class="mw-redirect" title="Fault recovery">fault recovery</a>. Fault tolerant design can make a rebreather less likely to fail in a way that immediately endangers the user, and reduces the task loading on the diver which in turn may lower the risk of operator error.<sup id="cite_ref-Sieber_et_al_2013_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sieber_et_al_2013-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Simanek_2021_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simanek_2021-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Semi-closed rebreather technology is also used in diver carried surface supplied gas extenders, mainly to reduce helium use. Some units also function as an emergency gas supply using on-board bailout cylinders: The <a href="/w/index.php?title=US_Navy_MK29_rebreather&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="US Navy MK29 rebreather (page does not exist)">US Navy MK29 rebreather</a> can extend the duration of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Flyaway_Mixed_Gas_System&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flyaway Mixed Gas System (page does not exist)">Flyaway Mixed Gas System</a> diving operations by five times while retaining the original mixed-gas storage footprint on the support ship.<sup id="cite_ref-DON_Innovation_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DON_Innovation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Soviet IDA-72 semi-closed rebreather has a scrubber endurance of 4 hours on surface supply, and bailout endurance at 200m of 40 minutes on <a href="/wiki/On-board_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="On-board gas">on-board gas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rebreathersite_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rebreathersite-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The US Navy Mark V Mod 1 heliox mixed gas helmet has a scrubber canister mounted on the back of the helmet and an inlet gas injection system which recirculates the breathing gas through the scrubber to remove carbon dioxide and thereby conserve helium.<sup id="cite_ref-DESCO_29019_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DESCO_29019-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The injector nozzle would blow 11 times the volume of the injected gas through the scrubber.<sup id="cite_ref-USNDM_R1_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USNDM_R1-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Rebreather#History" title="Rebreather">Rebreather § History</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_underwater_diving" title="History of underwater diving">History of underwater diving</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_diving_technology" title="Timeline of diving technology">Timeline of diving technology</a></div> <p>The first attempts at making practical rebreathers were simple oxygen rebreathers, when advances in industrial metalworking made high-pressure gas storage cylinders possible. From 1878 on they were used for work in unbreathable atmospheres in industry and firefighting, at high altitude, for escape from submarines; and occasionally for swimming underwater; but the usual way to work underwater was in <a href="/wiki/Standard_diving_dress" title="Standard diving dress">standard diving dress</a>, breathing open circuit surface-supplied air. </p><p>(Draeger and Mark V Helium helmet) </p><p>The Italian <a href="/wiki/Decima_Flottiglia_MAS" title="Decima Flottiglia MAS">Decima Flottiglia MAS</a>, the first unit of combat frogmen, was founded in 1938 and went into action in 1940. <a href="/wiki/WWII" class="mw-redirect" title="WWII">WWII</a> saw a great expansion of military-related use of rebreather diving. During and after <a href="/wiki/WWII" class="mw-redirect" title="WWII">WWII</a>, needs arose in the armed forces to dive deeper than allowed by pure oxygen. That prompted, at least in Britain, design of simple constant-flow "mixture rebreather" variants of some of their diving oxygen rebreathers (= what is now called "<a href="/wiki/Nitrox" title="Nitrox">nitrox</a>"): SCMBA from the SCBA (<a href="/wiki/Swimmer_Canoeist%27s_Breathing_Apparatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Swimmer Canoeist's Breathing Apparatus">Swimmer Canoeist's Breathing Apparatus</a>), and CDMBA from the <a href="/wiki/Siebe_Gorman_CDBA" title="Siebe Gorman CDBA">Siebe Gorman CDBA</a>, by adding an extra gas supply cylinder. Before a dive with such a set, the diver had to know the maximum or working depth of his dive, and how fast his body used his oxygen supply, and from those to calculate what to set his rebreather's gas flow rate to.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>During this long period before the modern age of automatic sport nitrox rebreathers, there were some sport oxygen diving clubs, mostly in the USA.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (October 2022)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Eventually the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> ended and in 1989 the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Bloc" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist Bloc">Communist Bloc</a> <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Communism" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of Communism">collapsed</a>, and as a result the perceived risk of sabotage attacks by <a href="/wiki/Frogman" title="Frogman">combat divers</a> dwindled, and Western armed forces had less reason to requisition civilian rebreather <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patents</a>, and automatic and semi-automatic recreational diving rebreathers with <a href="/wiki/PpO2_sensor" class="mw-redirect" title="PpO2 sensor">ppO2 sensors</a> started to appear.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2022</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_concept">General concept</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: General concept"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As a person breathes, the body consumes <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> and produces <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>. <a href="/wiki/Basal_metabolic_rate" title="Basal metabolic rate">Base metabolism</a> requires about 0.25 L/min of oxygen from a <a href="/wiki/Breathing_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Breathing rate">breathing rate</a> of about 6 L/min, and a fit person working hard may ventilate at a rate of 95 L/min but will only metabolise about 4 L/min of oxygen<sup id="cite_ref-NOAA_4th_Ed_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOAA_4th_Ed-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oxygen metabolised is generally about 4% to 5% of the inspired volume at normal <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure" title="Atmospheric pressure">atmospheric pressure</a>, or about 20% of the available oxygen in the <a href="/wiki/Air" class="mw-redirect" title="Air">air</a> at <a href="/wiki/Standard_sea_level" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard sea level">sea level</a>. Exhaled air at sea level contains roughly 13.5% to 16% oxygen.<sup id="cite_ref-biotext_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-biotext-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The situation is even more wasteful of oxygen when the <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_underwater_diving_terminology#gas_fraction" title="Glossary of underwater diving terminology">oxygen fraction</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Breathing_gas" title="Breathing gas">breathing gas</a> is higher, and in underwater diving, the <a href="/wiki/Boyle%27s_law" title="Boyle's law">compression</a> of breathing gas due to depth makes the recirculation of exhaled gas even more desirable, as an even larger proportion of open circuit gas is wasted. Continued rebreathing of the same gas will deplete the oxygen to a level which will no longer support consciousness, and eventually life, so gas containing oxygen must be added to the recycled breathing gas to maintain the required concentration of oxygen.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUS_Navy_Diving_Manual2016Chapter_15_-_Electronically_Controlled_Closed-Circuit_Underwater_Breathing_Apparatus_(EC-UBA)_Diving,_Section_15-2_Principles_of_operation_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUS_Navy_Diving_Manual2016Chapter_15_-_Electronically_Controlled_Closed-Circuit_Underwater_Breathing_Apparatus_(EC-UBA)_Diving,_Section_15-2_Principles_of_operation-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Walker_and_Murphy-Lavoie_2021_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walker_and_Murphy-Lavoie_2021-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, if this is done without removing the carbon dioxide, it will rapidly build up in the recycled gas, resulting almost immediately in mild respiratory distress, and rapidly developing into further stages of <a href="/wiki/Hypercapnia" title="Hypercapnia">hypercapnia</a>, or carbon dioxide toxicity. A high ventilation rate is usually necessary to eliminate the metabolic product carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>). The <a href="/wiki/Control_of_respiration#Determinants_of_ventilatory_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Control of respiration">breathing reflex</a> is triggered by carbon dioxide concentration in the blood, not by the oxygen concentration, so even a small buildup of carbon dioxide in the inhaled gas quickly becomes intolerable; if a person tries to directly rebreathe their exhaled breathing gas, they will soon feel an acute sense of <a href="/wiki/Suffocation" class="mw-redirect" title="Suffocation">suffocation</a>, so rebreathers must chemically remove the carbon dioxide in a component known as a <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_scrubber" title="Carbon dioxide scrubber">carbon dioxide scrubber</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUS_Navy_Diving_Manual2016Chapter_15_-_Electronically_Controlled_Closed-Circuit_Underwater_Breathing_Apparatus_(EC-UBA)_Diving,_Section_15-2_Principles_of_operation_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUS_Navy_Diving_Manual2016Chapter_15_-_Electronically_Controlled_Closed-Circuit_Underwater_Breathing_Apparatus_(EC-UBA)_Diving,_Section_15-2_Principles_of_operation-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Walker_and_Murphy-Lavoie_2021_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walker_and_Murphy-Lavoie_2021-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By adding sufficient oxygen to compensate for the metabolic usage, removing the carbon dioxide, and rebreathing the gas, most of the volume is conserved. There will still be minor losses when gas must be vented as it expands during ascent, and additional gas will be needed to make up volume as the gas is compressed during descent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUS_Navy_Diving_Manual2016Chapter_15_-_Electronically_Controlled_Closed-Circuit_Underwater_Breathing_Apparatus_(EC-UBA)_Diving,_Section_15-2_Principles_of_operation_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUS_Navy_Diving_Manual2016Chapter_15_-_Electronically_Controlled_Closed-Circuit_Underwater_Breathing_Apparatus_(EC-UBA)_Diving,_Section_15-2_Principles_of_operation-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Physiological_effects_of_carbon_dioxide_concentration_and_exposure_period.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Physiological_effects_of_carbon_dioxide_concentration_and_exposure_period.png/290px-Physiological_effects_of_carbon_dioxide_concentration_and_exposure_period.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Physiological_effects_of_carbon_dioxide_concentration_and_exposure_period.png/435px-Physiological_effects_of_carbon_dioxide_concentration_and_exposure_period.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Physiological_effects_of_carbon_dioxide_concentration_and_exposure_period.png/580px-Physiological_effects_of_carbon_dioxide_concentration_and_exposure_period.png 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2325" /></a><figcaption>Relation of physiological effects to carbon dioxide concentration and exposure period.<sup id="cite_ref-Fig2.4_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fig2.4-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <table border="1" class="wikitable"> <caption>Effects of different levels of oxygen partial pressure<sup id="cite_ref-NOAA_4th_Ed_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOAA_4th_Ed-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>PO<sub>2</sub><br />(bar) </th> <th>Application and effect </th></tr> <tr> <td><0.08</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Coma" title="Coma">Coma</a> ultimately leading to death </td></tr> <tr> <td>0.08-0.10</td> <td>Unconsciousness in most people </td></tr> <tr> <td>0.09-0.10</td> <td>Serious signs/symptoms of <a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypoxia (medical)">hypoxia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>0.14-0.16</td> <td>Initial signs/symptoms of hypoxia (normal environment oxygen in some very <a href="/wiki/High_altitude" class="mw-redirect" title="High altitude">high altitude</a> areas) </td></tr> <tr> <td>0.21</td> <td>Normal environment oxygen (sea level air) </td></tr> <tr> <td>0.35–0.40</td> <td>Normal <a href="/wiki/Saturation_diving" title="Saturation diving">saturation dive</a> PO<sub>2</sub> level </td></tr> <tr> <td>0.50</td> <td>Threshold for <a href="/wiki/Oxygen_toxicity#Pulmonary_toxicity" title="Oxygen toxicity">whole-body effects</a>; maximum saturation dive exposure </td></tr> <tr> <td>1.0–1.20</td> <td>Common range for <a href="/wiki/Recreational_diving" title="Recreational diving">recreational</a> closed circuit set point </td></tr> <tr> <td>1.40</td> <td>Recommended limit for recreational open circuit bottom sector </td></tr> <tr> <td>1.60</td> <td><a href="/wiki/NOAA" class="mw-redirect" title="NOAA">NOAA</a> limit for maximum exposure for a working diver<br />Recreational/technical limit for decompression </td></tr> <tr> <td>2.20</td> <td>Commercial/military "Sur-D" chamber <a href="/wiki/Decompression_practice#Surface_decompression" title="Decompression practice">surface decompression</a> on 100% O<sub>2</sub> at 12 msw </td></tr> <tr> <td>2.40</td> <td>40% O<sub>2</sub> nitrox <a href="/wiki/Decompression_sickness#Treatment" title="Decompression sickness">recompression treatment</a> gas for use in the <a href="/wiki/Diving_chamber#Recompression_chamber" title="Diving chamber">chamber</a> at 50 msw (meters of sea water) </td></tr> <tr> <td>2.80</td> <td>100% O<sub>2</sub> recompression treatment gas for use in the chamber at 18 msw </td></tr> <tr> <td>3.00</td> <td>50% O<sub>2</sub> nitrox recompression treatment gas for use in the chamber at 50 msw </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Design_constraints">Design constraints</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Design constraints"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Human_factors_in_diving_equipment_design#Rebreathers" title="Human factors in diving equipment design">Human factors in diving equipment design § Rebreathers</a></div> <p>The widest variety of rebreather types is used in diving, as the physical and physiological consequences of breathing under pressure complicate the requirements, and a large range of engineering options are available depending on the specific application and available budget. A diving rebreather is <a href="/wiki/Safety-critical" class="mw-redirect" title="Safety-critical">safety-critical</a> <a href="/wiki/Life-support_equipment" class="mw-redirect" title="Life-support equipment">life-support equipment</a> – some <a href="/wiki/Mode_of_failure" class="mw-redirect" title="Mode of failure">modes of failure</a> can kill the diver without warning, others can require immediate appropriate response for survival. </p><p>General operational requirements include: </p> <ul><li>waterproof and corrosion resistant construction</li> <li>reasonably close to neutrally buoyant after ballasting</li> <li>acceptably streamlined, to minimize added swimming resistance</li> <li>low work of breathing in all diver attitudes and over the full operating depth range</li> <li>the unit should not adversely affect the diver's trim and balance</li> <li>easy and quick release of harness and unaided removal of the unit from the diver</li> <li>accessibility of control and adjustment components</li> <li>unambiguous feedback to the diver of critical information</li> <li>no critical single-point failure modes – The user should be able to deal with any single reasonably foreseeable failure without outside help</li></ul> <p>Special applications may also require: </p> <ul><li>low noise signal</li> <li>low emission of bubbles/small bubbles</li> <li>low electromagnetic signature</li> <li>rugged construction</li> <li>light weight in air</li> <li>minimal additional task-loading for normal operation</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oxygen_rebreathers">Oxygen rebreathers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Oxygen rebreathers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As <a href="/wiki/Oxygen_toxicity" title="Oxygen toxicity">pure oxygen is toxic</a> when inhaled at pressure, recreational diver certification agencies limit oxygen decompression to a maximum depth of 6 metres (20 ft) and this restriction has been extended to oxygen rebreathers;<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In the past they have been used deeper (up to 20 metres (66 ft))<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> but such dives were more risky than what is now considered acceptable. Oxygen rebreathers are also sometimes used when <a href="/wiki/Decompression_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression stop">decompressing</a> from a deep open-circuit dive,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> as breathing pure oxygen helps the nitrogen diffuse out of the body tissues more rapidly, and the use of a rebreather may be more convenient for long decompression stops. </p><p>US Navy restrictions on oxygen rebreather use:<sup id="cite_ref-usn_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usn-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Normal working limit 25 feet (7.6 m) for 240 minutes. (P<sub>O<sub>2</sub></sub> = 1.76 bar)</li> <li>Maximum working limit 50 feet (15 m) for 10 minutes. (P<sub>O<sub>2</sub></sub> = 2.5 bar)</li></ul> <p>Oxygen rebreathers are no longer commonly used in recreational diving because of the depth limit imposed by oxygen toxicity, but are extensively used for military attack swimmer applications where greater depth is not required, due to their simplicity, light weight and compact size. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mixed_gas_rebreathers">Mixed gas rebreathers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Mixed gas rebreathers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Semi-closed circuit rebreathers (SCRs) used for diving may use active or passive gas addition, and the gas addition systems may be depth compensated. They use a mixed supply gas with a higher oxygen fraction than the steady state loop gas mixture. Usually only one gas mixture is used, but it is possible to switch gas mixtures during a dive to extend the available depth range of some SCRs.<sup id="cite_ref-Walker_and_Murphy-Lavoie_2021_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walker_and_Murphy-Lavoie_2021-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Operational scope and restrictions of SCRs: </p> <ul><li>Non-depth compensated passive addition SCRs reduce the safe range of operating depths in inverse proportion to gas endurance extension. This can be compensated by gas switching, at the expense of complexity and increased number of potential failure points.</li> <li>Constant mass flow SCRs provide a gas mixture which is not consistent over variation in diver exertion. This also limits safe operating depth range unless gas composition is monitored, also at the expense of increased complexity and additional potential failure points.</li> <li>Demand controlled active gas addition provides reliable gas mixtures throughout the potential operating depth range, and do not require oxygen monitoring, but at the cost of more mechanical complexity.</li> <li>Depth compensated passive addition provides reliable gas mixture over the potential operating depth range, which is only slightly reduced from the open circuit operational range for the gas in use at the cost of more mechanical complexity.</li></ul> <p>Closed circuit diving rebreathers may be manually or electronically controlled, and use both pure oxygen and a breathable mixed gas diluent.<sup id="cite_ref-ap_vision_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ap_vision-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Operational scope and restrictions of CCRs: Closed circuit rebreathers are mainly restricted by physiological limitations on the diver, such as maximum operating depth of the diluent mix while remaining breathable up to the surface, though this can be worked around by switching diluent. Work of breathing at depth can be a constraint, as there is a point where the breathing effort required to counter metabolic carbon dioxide production rate exceeds the work capacity of the diver, after which hypercapnia increases and distress followed by loss of consciousness and death is inevitable. Work of breathing is affected by gas density, so use of a low density helium rich diluent can increase depth range at acceptable work of breathing for a given configuration. WoB is also increased by <a href="/wiki/Turbulent_flow" class="mw-redirect" title="Turbulent flow">turbulent flow</a>, which is affected by flow velocity (<a href="/wiki/Reynolds_number" title="Reynolds number">Reynolds number</a>). To some extent work of breathing can be reduced or limited by breathing circuit design, but there are physiological limits too, and the work of circulating the gas through the breathing loop and scrubber can be a large part of the total work of breathing.<sup id="cite_ref-Mitchell_et_al_2007_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mitchell_et_al_2007-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Heinerth_2019_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heinerth_2019-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recreational_rebreathers">Recreational rebreathers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Recreational rebreathers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some recreational diver certification agencies distinguish a class of rebreather which they deem suitable for recreational diving. These rebreathers are unsuitable for decompression diving, and when electronically controlled, will not allow the diver to do dives with obligatory decompression, thereby allowing an immediate ascent at any point of the planned dive without undue risk of developing symptomatic decompression sickness. This limitation reduces the necessity to carry offboard bailout gas, and the need for the skills to bail out with a staged decompression obligation. This class of rebreather diving provides an opportunity to sell training and certification which omits a large part of the more complex and difficult skills, and reduces the amount of equipment that the diver needs to carry. <a href="/wiki/PADI" class="mw-redirect" title="PADI">PADI</a> criteria for "R" class rebreathers include electronic prompts for pre-dive checks, automatic setpoint control, status warnings, a heads up display for warnings, a bailout valve, pre-packed scrubber canisters and a system for estimating scrubber duration.<sup id="cite_ref-PADI_rebreather_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PADI_rebreather-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Odom_et_al_1995_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Odom_et_al_1995-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Menduno_2014_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Menduno_2014-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While these constraints do make the recreational class of rebreather inherently less hazardous, they do not reduce the risk to the same level as open circuit equipment for the same dive profile.<sup id="cite_ref-Douglas_2014_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Douglas_2014-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atmospheric_diving_suits">Atmospheric diving suits</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Atmospheric diving suits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_diving_suit" title="Atmospheric diving suit">Atmospheric diving suit</a></div> <p>An atmospheric diving suit is a small one-man articulated submersible of roughly anthropomorphic form, with limb joints which allow articulation under external pressure while maintaining an internal pressure of one atmosphere. Breathing gas supply could be surface supplied by umbilical, but would then have to be exhausted back to the surface to maintain internal pressure below the external ambient pressure, which is possible but presents pressure-hull breach hazards if the umbilical hoses are damaged, or from a rebreather system built into the suit. As there is a similar problem in venting excess gas, the simple and efficient solution is to make up oxygen as it is consumed and scrub out the carbon dioxide, with no change to the inert gas component, which simply recirculates. In effect, a simple closed circuit oxygen rebreather arrangement used as a <a href="/wiki/Life-support_system" title="Life-support system">life-support system</a>. Since there is usually an adequate power supply for other services, powered circulation through the scrubber should not normally be an issue for normal service, and is more comfortable for the operator, as it keeps the face area clear and facilitates voice communication. As the internal pressure is maintained at one atmosphere, there is no risk of acute oxygen toxicity. Endurance depends on the scrubber capacity and oxygen supply. Circulation through the scrubber could be powered by the diver's breathing, and this is an option for an emergency backup rebreather, which may also be fitted to the suit. A breathing driven system requires reduction of <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_dead_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical dead space">mechanical dead space</a> by using a mouthpiece and counterlung to form a closed loop. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Architecture">Architecture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rebr_rn_parts_labelled.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Rebr_rn_parts_labelled.jpg/220px-Rebr_rn_parts_labelled.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Rebr_rn_parts_labelled.jpg/330px-Rebr_rn_parts_labelled.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Rebr_rn_parts_labelled.jpg/440px-Rebr_rn_parts_labelled.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>A simple naval-type diving oxygen rebreather with the parts labelled</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Inspiration_back.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Inspiration_back.JPG/220px-Inspiration_back.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Inspiration_back.JPG/330px-Inspiration_back.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Inspiration_back.JPG/440px-Inspiration_back.JPG 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="667" /></a><figcaption>Back view of an electronically controlled closed circuit technical recreational rebreather, with the casing opened</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Essential_components">Essential components</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Essential components"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Rebreather#Components" title="Rebreather">Rebreather § Components</a></div> <p>Although there are several design variations of diving rebreather, all types have a gas-tight reservoir to contain the breathing gas at ambient pressure that the diver inhales from and exhales into. The breathing gas reservoir consists of several components connected together by water- and airtight joints. The diver breathes through a mouthpiece or a <a href="/wiki/Full-face_diving_mask" title="Full-face diving mask">full-face diving mask</a> with a shut-off valve, the dive/surface valve, which is closed when the diver is not breathing from the unit to prevent flooding if the set is in the water. This is connected to one or two breathing hoses ducting inhaled and exhaled gas between the diver and a counterlung or breathing bag, which expands to accommodate gas when it is not in the diver's lungs. The reservoir also includes a scrubber containing absorbent material to remove the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> exhaled by the diver. There will also be at least one valve allowing addition of gas, such as oxygen, and often a diluent gas, from a gas storage container, into the reservoir.<sup id="cite_ref-ap_vision_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ap_vision-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There may be valves allowing venting of gas, sensors to measure partial pressure of oxygen and possibly carbon dioxide, and a monitoring and control system. Critical components may be duplicated for engineering redundancy.<sup id="cite_ref-ap_vision_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ap_vision-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Breathing_gas_passage_configuration">Breathing gas passage configuration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Breathing gas passage configuration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are two basic gas passage configurations: The loop and the pendulum. </p><p>The loop configuration uses a one directional circulation of the breathing gas which on exhalation leaves the mouthpiece, passes through a non-return valve into the exhalation hose, and then through the counterlung and scrubber, to return to the mouthpiece through the inhalation hose and another non-return valve when the diver inhales.<sup id="cite_ref-ap_vision_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ap_vision-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The pendulum configuration uses a two-directional flow. Exhaled gas flows from the mouthpiece through a single hose to the scrubber, into the counterlung, and on inhalation the gas is drawn back through the scrubber and the same hose back to the mouthpiece. The pendulum system is structurally simpler, but inherently contains a larger <a href="/wiki/Dead_space_(physiology)" title="Dead space (physiology)">dead space</a> of unscrubbed gas in the combined exhalation and inhalation tube, which is rebreathed. There are conflicting requirements for minimising the volume of dead space while minimising the flow resistance of the breathing passages. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Counterlung_configuration">Counterlung configuration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Counterlung configuration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A pendulum rebreather only has one counterlung, on the far side of the scrubber from the single breathing hose. The diver blows exhaled gas through the scrubber, then sucks it back during inhalation. Gas flow rate through the scrubber is forced by the breathing rate of the diver. </p><p>A single counterlung in a loop rebreather can be an exhalation or inhalation counterlung, or fitted between split scrubber canisters.<sup id="cite_ref-sidewinder_b_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sidewinder_b-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If it is an exhalation counterlung it is inflated on exhalation, but no gas flows through the scrubber until inhalation starts, at which point the diver sucks the gas through at a rate forced by inhalation rate. If it is an inhalation counterlung, the diver must blow gas through the scrubber during exhalation, but inhales from the full inhalation counterlung, with no further flow through the scrubber. If it is between split scrubbers the diver must blow the gas through the exhalation scrubber during exhalation, and suck it through the inhalation scrubber. In all these cases there is no buffer, and peak flow rates are relatively high, which means peak flow resistance is relatively high and may be in one half of the breathing cycle or split between both halves, analogous to the pendulum configuration, but without the large dead space.<sup id="cite_ref-sidewinder_b_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sidewinder_b-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A twin counterlung rebreather has two breathing bags, so the exhaled gas inflates the exhalation counterlung while starting to pass through the scrubber and starting to inflate the inhalation counterlung. By the time the diver starts to inhale, the inhalation counterlung has built up a volume buffer, so there is less flow resistance as the gas continues to flow through the scrubber during inhalation at a slower rate than if there were only one counterlung. This decreases work of breathing, and also increases <a href="/wiki/Dwell_time_(filtration)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dwell time (filtration)">dwell time</a> of the gas in the scrubber, as it flows through the scrubber during both exhalation and inhalation. Most mixed gas diving rebreathers use this arrangement.<sup id="cite_ref-Odom_et_al_1995_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Odom_et_al_1995-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b> with: diagram of twin scrubber single counterlung arrangement from <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?sca_esv=986cfd32cb66a37f&q=How+does+the+kiss+sidewinder+work%3F#fpstate=ive&vld=cid:b647add8,vid:lelpTfGSYeE,st:0">"A digital tour of the KISS Spirit and Sidewinder rebreathers"</a>. Divetech Grand Cayman·. 13 June 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2024</span> – via YouTube.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+digital+tour+of+the+KISS+Spirit+and+Sidewinder+rebreathers&rft.pub=Divetech+Grand+Cayman%C2%B7&rft.date=2020-06-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fsearch%3Fsca_esv%3D986cfd32cb66a37f%26q%3DHow%2Bdoes%2Bthe%2Bkiss%2Bsidewinder%2Bwork%253F%23fpstate%3Dive%26vld%3Dcid%3Ab647add8%2Cvid%3AlelpTfGSYeE%2Cst%3A0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiving+rebreather" class="Z3988"></span>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2024</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_arrangement">General arrangement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: General arrangement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many rebreathers have their main components in a hard casing for support, protection and/or streamlining. This casing must be sufficiently vented and drained to let surrounding water or air in and out freely to allow for volume changes as the counterlung inflates and deflates, and to prevent trapping large volumes of buoyant air as the diver submerges, and of water as the diver emerges into air.<sup id="cite_ref-ap_vision_16-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ap_vision-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The components may be mounted on a frame or inside a casing to hold them together. Sometimes the structure of the scrubber canister forms part of the framework, particularly in side-mount configuration. Position of most parts is not critical to function, but the counterlungs must be positioned so that their centroid of volume is at a similar depth to the centroid of the diver's lungs at most times while underwater, and the breathing tubes to the mouthpiece should not encumber the diver more than necessary, and allow free movement of the head as much as possible.<sup id="cite_ref-ap_vision_16-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ap_vision-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early oxygen rebreathers were often built without frame or casing, and relied on the harness and a strong counterlung to hold the components together. </p><p>The parts of a diving rebreather (counterlung, absorbent canister, gas cylinder(s), tubes and hoses linking them), can be arranged on the wearer's body in four basic ways, with the position of the counterlung having a major effect on work of breathing. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Back-mounted_rebreathers">Back-mounted rebreathers</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Back-mounted rebreathers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Back mount is common on the more bulky and heavier units. This is good for support of the weight out of the water, and keeps the front of the diver clear for working underwater. Back mount usually uses back or over the shoulder counterlungs, which have a centroid above the lung in most common orientations of the diver, resulting in slight <a href="/wiki/Negative_pressure_breathing" class="mw-redirect" title="Negative pressure breathing">negative pressure breathing</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Chest-mounted_rebreathers">Chest-mounted rebreathers</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Chest-mounted rebreathers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:160724-N-IK388-012_Exercise_RIMPAC_16_Clearance_Diver.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/160724-N-IK388-012_Exercise_RIMPAC_16_Clearance_Diver.jpg/220px-160724-N-IK388-012_Exercise_RIMPAC_16_Clearance_Diver.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/160724-N-IK388-012_Exercise_RIMPAC_16_Clearance_Diver.jpg/330px-160724-N-IK388-012_Exercise_RIMPAC_16_Clearance_Diver.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/160724-N-IK388-012_Exercise_RIMPAC_16_Clearance_Diver.jpg/440px-160724-N-IK388-012_Exercise_RIMPAC_16_Clearance_Diver.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3280" /></a><figcaption>Diver with chest-mounted rebreather</figcaption></figure> <p>Chest mount is fairly common for military oxygen rebreathers, which are usually relatively compact and light. It allows easy reach of the components underwater, and leaves the back free for other equipment for amphibious operations. The rebreather can be unclipped from a common harness without disturbing the load on the back. Front mounted counterlungs have a centroid which is generally slightly below the lung centroid, and result in slight <a href="/wiki/Positive_pressure_breathing" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive pressure breathing">positive pressure breathing</a> for most common orientations of the diver. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Side-mounted_rebreathers">Side-mounted rebreathers</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Side-mounted rebreathers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Petr_Chmel_s_Liberty_rebreather._Foto_-_Miloslav_Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1%C4%8Dek.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Petr_Chmel_s_Liberty_rebreather._Foto_-_Miloslav_Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1%C4%8Dek.jpg/220px-Petr_Chmel_s_Liberty_rebreather._Foto_-_Miloslav_Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1%C4%8Dek.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Petr_Chmel_s_Liberty_rebreather._Foto_-_Miloslav_Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1%C4%8Dek.jpg/330px-Petr_Chmel_s_Liberty_rebreather._Foto_-_Miloslav_Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1%C4%8Dek.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Petr_Chmel_s_Liberty_rebreather._Foto_-_Miloslav_Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1%C4%8Dek.jpg/440px-Petr_Chmel_s_Liberty_rebreather._Foto_-_Miloslav_Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1%C4%8Dek.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Liberty sidemount rebreather for low profile cave diving</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sidemount_diving" title="Sidemount diving">Sidemount diving</a></div> <p>Sidemount allows a low profile to penetrate tight restrictions in cave and wreck diving, and is convenient for carrying a bailout rebreather. A sidemount rebreather as the main breathing apparatus can be mounted on one side of the diver's body and can be balanced weight-wise and hydrodynamically by a large bailout cylinder side mounted on the other side. Sidemount rebreathers are sensitive to diver orientation, which can change hydrostatic work of breathing over a larger range than for back or chest mount, and the resisistive work of breathing is also relatively large due to the long breathing hoses and multiple bends necessary to fit the components into a long narrow format. As of 2019, no sidemount rebreather had passed the CE test for work of breathing. Sidemount rebreathers may also be more susceptible to major loop flooding due to lack of a convenient exhalation counterlung position to form a water trap.<sup id="cite_ref-Heinerth_2019_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heinerth_2019-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sidemount rebreathers usually use a form factor equivalent to a single sidemount open circuit cylinder, which mimics the streamlining of a sidemount cylinder, but has hydrostatic work of breathing variability issues if the unit isn't perfectly rigged and mounted. The work of breathing is only optimised when the diver is trimmed correctly.<sup id="cite_ref-sidewinder_b_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sidewinder_b-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The KISS Sidewinder is a sidemount MCCR that reduces this problem by mounting the two relatively small scrubber canisters on both sides of the diver, connected by a single 8-litre counterlung across the diver's back, and worn with a regular sidemount harness. This configuration is claimed to provide good work of breathing in most diver orientations. A small butt-mounted transverse oxygen cylinder and standard sidemount diluent/bailout cylinders (usually two) are carried.<sup id="cite_ref-sidewinder_b_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sidewinder_b-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="System_variants">System variants</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: System variants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rebreathers can be primarily categorised as diving rebreathers, intended for hyperbaric use, and other rebreathers used at pressures from slightly more than normal atmospheric pressure at sea level to significantly lower ambient pressure at high altitudes and in space. Diving rebreathers must often deal with the complications of avoiding hyperbaric oxygen toxicity, while normobaric and hypobaric applications can use the relatively trivially simple oxygen rebreather technology, where there is no requirement to monitor oxygen partial pressure during use providing the ambient pressure is sufficient. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mixed_gas_rebreathers_2">Mixed gas rebreathers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Mixed gas rebreathers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>All rebreathers other than oxygen rebreathers may be considered mixed gas rebreathers. These can be divided into semi-closed circuit, where the supply gas is a breathable mixture containing oxygen and inert diluents, usually nitrogen and helium, and which is replenished by adding more of the mixture as the oxygen is used up, sufficient to maintain a breathable partial pressure of oxygen in the loop, and closed circuit rebreathers, where two parallel gas supplies are used: the diluent, to provide the bulk of the gas, and which is recycled, and oxygen, which is metabolically expended.<sup id="cite_ref-Walker_and_Murphy-Lavoie_2021_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walker_and_Murphy-Lavoie_2021-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Semi-closed_circuit_rebreathers">Semi-closed circuit rebreathers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Semi-closed circuit rebreathers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>These are almost exclusively used for underwater diving, as they are bulkier, heavier, and more complex than closed circuit oxygen rebreathers. Military and recreational divers use these because they provide better underwater duration than open circuit, have a deeper <a href="/wiki/Maximum_operating_depth" title="Maximum operating depth">maximum operating depth</a> than oxygen rebreathers and can be fairly simple and cheap. They do not rely on electronics for control of gas composition, but may use electronic monitoring for improved safety and more efficient decompression. An alternative term for this technology is "gas extender". </p><p>Semi-closed circuit equipment generally supplies one breathing gas such as air, <a href="/wiki/Nitrox" title="Nitrox">nitrox</a> or <a href="/wiki/Trimix_(breathing_gas)" title="Trimix (breathing gas)">trimix</a> at a time. The gas is injected into the loop at a constant rate to replenish oxygen consumed from the loop by the diver. Excess gas must be constantly vented from the loop in small volumes to make space for fresh, oxygen-rich gas. As the oxygen in the vented gas cannot be separated from the inert gas, semi-closed circuit is wasteful of both oxygen and inert components.<sup id="cite_ref-palautz97_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-palautz97-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A gas mix which has a maximum operating depth that is safe for the depth of the dive being planned, and which will provide a breathable mixture at the surface must be used, or it will be necessary to change mixtures during the dive.<sup id="cite_ref-ap_vision_16-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ap_vision-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the amount of oxygen required by the diver increases with work rate, the gas injection rate must be carefully chosen and controlled to prevent <a href="/wiki/Unconsciousness" title="Unconsciousness">unconsciousness</a> in the diver due to <a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypoxia (medical)">hypoxia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Elliott_1997_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elliott_1997-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A higher gas addition rate reduces the likelihood of hypoxia but wastes more gas. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Passive_addition_semi-closed_circuit">Passive addition semi-closed circuit</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Passive addition semi-closed circuit"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Passive_addition_SCR_loop_schematic.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Passive_addition_SCR_loop_schematic.png/290px-Passive_addition_SCR_loop_schematic.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="356" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Passive_addition_SCR_loop_schematic.png/435px-Passive_addition_SCR_loop_schematic.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Passive_addition_SCR_loop_schematic.png/580px-Passive_addition_SCR_loop_schematic.png 2x" data-file-width="2441" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Schematic diagram of the breathing gas circuit of a passive addition semi-closed circuit rebreather.<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>1 Dive/surface valve with loop non-return valves</li><li>2 Exhalation hose</li><li>3 Counterlung fore-chamber</li><li>4 Non-return valve to discharge bellows</li><li>5 Discharge bellows</li><li>6 Overpressure valve</li><li>7 Main counterlung bellows</li><li>8 Addition valve</li><li>9 Scrubber (axial flow)</li><li>10 Inhalation hose</li><li>11 Breathing gas storage cylinder</li><li>12 Cylinder valve</li><li>13 Regulator first stage</li><li>14 Submersible pressure gauge</li><li>15 Bailout demand valve</li></ul></div></figcaption></figure> <p><span class="anchor" id="Discharge_ratio"></span>This type of rebreather works on the principle of adding fresh gas to compensate for reduced volume in the breathing circuit. A portion of the respired gas is discharged that is in some way proportional to oxygen consumption. Generally it is a fixed volumetric fraction of the respiratory flow, but more complex systems have been developed which exhaust a close approximation of a ratio to the surface respiratory flow rate. These are described as depth compensated or partially depth compensated systems. Gas addition is triggered by low counterlung volume which activates a demand valve. </p><p>The simple case of a fixed ratio discharge can be achieved by concentric <a href="/wiki/Bellows" title="Bellows">bellows</a> counterlungs, where the exhaled gas expands both the counterlungs, and while the larger volume outer bellows discharges back to the loop when the diver inhales the next breath, the inner bellows discharges its contents to the surroundings, using non return valves to ensure a one-directional flow. The amount processed during each breath depends on the tidal volume of that breath. </p><p>Towards the end of inhalation the bellows bottoms out and activates an addition valve, in much the way that a regulator diaphragm activates the <a href="/wiki/Diving_regulator#Demand_valve" title="Diving regulator">demand valve</a>, to make up the gas discharged by the inner bellows. This type of rebreather therefore tends to operate at a minimal volume. </p><p>The fixed ratio systems usually discharge between 10% (1/10) and 25% (1/4) of the volume of each breath overboard. As a result, gas endurance is from 10 times to four times that of open circuit, and depends on breathing rate and depth in the same way as for open circuit. Oxygen fraction in the loop depends on the discharge ratio, and to a lesser extent on the breathing rate and work rate of the diver. As some gas is recycled after breathing, the oxygen fraction will always be lower than that of the make-up gas, but can closely approximate the make-up gas after a loop flush, so the gas is generally chosen to be breathable at maximum depth, which allows it to be used for open circuit bailout. The loop gas oxygen fraction will increase with depth, as the mass rate of metabolic oxygen use remains almost constant with a change in depth. This is the opposite tendency of what is done in a closed circuit rebreather, where the oxygen partial pressure is controlled to be more or less the same within limits throughout the dive. The fixed ratio system has been used in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=DC55&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="DC55 (page does not exist)">DC55</a> and <a href="/wiki/Halcyon_RB80" title="Halcyon RB80">Halcyon RB80</a> rebreathers. Passive addition rebreathers with small discharge ratios may become hypoxic near the surface when moderate or low oxygen fraction supply gas is used, making it necessary to switch gases between deep and shallow diving.<sup id="cite_ref-DC55_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DC55-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The depth compensating systems discharge a portion of the diver's tidal volume which varies in inverse proportion to the absolute pressure. At the surface they generally discharge between 20% (1/5) and 33% (1/3) of each breath, but that decreases with depth, to keep the oxygen fraction in the loop approximately constant and reduce gas consumption. A fully depth compensated system will discharge a volume of gas, inversely proportional to pressure, so that the volume discharged at 90m depth (10 bar absolute pressure) will be 10% of the surface discharge. This system will provide an approximately fixed oxygen fraction regardless of depth, when used with the same make-up gas, because the effective mass discharge remains constant. </p><p>Partially depth compensating systems are part way between the fixed ratio and the depth compensating systems. They provide a high discharge ratio near the surface, but the discharge ratio is not fixed either as a proportion of respired volume or mass. Gas oxygen fraction is more difficult to calculate, but will be somewhere between the limiting values for fixed ratio and fully compensated systems. The <a href="/wiki/Halcyon_PVR-BASC" title="Halcyon PVR-BASC">Halcyon PVR-BASC</a> uses a variable volume inner bellows system to compensate for depth. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Active_addition_semi-closed_circuit">Active addition semi-closed circuit</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Active addition semi-closed circuit"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CMF_SCR_loop_schematic.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/CMF_SCR_loop_schematic.png/290px-CMF_SCR_loop_schematic.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/CMF_SCR_loop_schematic.png/435px-CMF_SCR_loop_schematic.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/CMF_SCR_loop_schematic.png/580px-CMF_SCR_loop_schematic.png 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2881" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of the loop in a constant mass flow semi-closed circuit rebreather<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>1 Dive/surface valve with loop non-return valves</li><li>2 Exhaust hose</li><li>3 Scrubber canister (axial flow)</li><li>4 Counterlung</li><li>5 Loop overpressure valve</li><li>6 Inhalation valve</li><li>7 Breathing gas supply cylinder</li><li>8 Cylinder valve</li><li>9 Absolute pressure regulator</li><li>10 Submersible pressure gauge</li><li>11 Automatic Diluent Valve</li><li>12 Constant Mass Flow metering orifice</li><li>13 Manual bypass valve</li><li>14 Bailout demand valve</li></ul></div> </figcaption></figure> <p>An active addition system adds feed gas to the breathing circuit and excess gas is dumped to the environment. These rebreathers tend to operate near maximum volume. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Constant_mass_flow_gas_addition">Constant mass flow gas addition</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Constant mass flow gas addition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The most common system of active addition of make-up gas in semi-closed rebreathers is by use of a constant mass flow injector, also known as <a href="/wiki/Choked_flow" title="Choked flow">choked flow</a>. This is easily achieved by using a sonic orifice, as provided the pressure drop over the orifice is sufficient to ensure sonic flow, the mass flow for a specific gas will be independent of the downstream pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-Daucherty_and_Franzini_1997_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daucherty_and_Franzini_1997-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mass flow through a sonic orifice is a function of the upstream pressure and the gas mixture, so the upstream pressure must remain constant for the working depth range of the rebreather to provide a reliably predictable mixture in the breathing circuit, and a modified regulator is used which is not affected by changes in ambient pressure. Gas addition is independent of oxygen use, and the gas fraction in the loop is strongly dependent on exertion of the diver – it is possible to dangerously deplete the oxygen by excessive physical exertion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Demand_controlled_gas_addition">Demand controlled gas addition</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Demand controlled gas addition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Interspiro_DCSC_loop_schematic.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Interspiro_DCSC_loop_schematic.png/290px-Interspiro_DCSC_loop_schematic.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Interspiro_DCSC_loop_schematic.png/435px-Interspiro_DCSC_loop_schematic.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Interspiro_DCSC_loop_schematic.png/580px-Interspiro_DCSC_loop_schematic.png 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2393" /></a><figcaption>Schematic diagram of the breathing loop of the Interspiro DCSC semi-closed circuit rebreather <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>1 Nitrox feed gas cylinder</li><li>2 Cylinder valve</li><li>3 Pressure gauge</li><li>4 Feed gas first stage regulator</li><li>5 Dosage chamber</li><li>6 Dosage mechanism with control linkage from bellows cover</li><li>7 Hinged bellows counterlung</li><li>8 Bellows weight</li><li>9 Exhaust valve with control linkage from bellows cover</li><li>10 Radial flow scrubber</li><li>11 Exhalation hose</li><li>12 Mouthpiece with dive/surface valve and loop non-return valves</li><li>13 Inhalation hose</li><li>14 Manual bypass valve</li><li>15 Low gas warning valve</li></ul></div> </figcaption></figure> <p>Only one model using this gas mixture control principle has been marketed. This is the <a href="/wiki/Interspiro_DCSC" title="Interspiro DCSC">Interspiro DCSC</a>. The principle of operation is to add a mass of oxygen that is proportional to the volume of each breath. This approach is based on the assumption that the volumetric breathing rate of a diver is directly proportional to metabolic oxygen consumption, which experimental evidence indicates is close enough to work.<sup id="cite_ref-Larsson_2000_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Larsson_2000-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The fresh gas addition is made by controlling the pressure in a dosage chamber proportional to the counterlung bellows volume. The dosage chamber is filled with fresh gas to a pressure proportional to bellows volume, with the highest pressure when the bellows is in the empty position. When the bellows fills during exhalation, the gas is released from the dosage chamber into the breathing circuit, proportional to the volume in the bellows during exhalation, and is fully released when the bellows is full. Excess gas is dumped to the environment through the overpressure valve after the bellows is full.<sup id="cite_ref-Larsson_2000_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Larsson_2000-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The result is the addition of a mass of gas proportional to ventilation volume, and the oxygen fraction is stable over the normal range of exertion. </p><p>The volume of the dosage chamber is matched to a specific supply gas mixture, and is changed when the gas is changed. The DCSC uses two standard mixtures of nitrox: 28% and 46%.<sup id="cite_ref-Larsson_2000_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Larsson_2000-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Closed_circuit_rebreathers">Closed circuit rebreathers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Closed circuit rebreathers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="CCR"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Oxygen_rebreathers_2">Oxygen rebreathers</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Oxygen rebreathers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oxygen_CCR_pendulum_schematic.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Oxygen_CCR_pendulum_schematic.png/290px-Oxygen_CCR_pendulum_schematic.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Oxygen_CCR_pendulum_schematic.png/435px-Oxygen_CCR_pendulum_schematic.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Oxygen_CCR_pendulum_schematic.png/580px-Oxygen_CCR_pendulum_schematic.png 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2881" /></a><figcaption>Schematic diagram of a closed circuit oxygen rebreather with a pendulum configuration and radial flow scrubber<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>1 Dive/surface valve</li><li>2 Two way breathing hose</li><li>3 Scrubber (radial flow)</li><li>4 Counterlung</li><li>5 Automatic make-up valve</li><li>6 Manual bypass valve</li><li>7 Breathing gas storage cylinder</li><li>8 Cylinder valve</li><li>9 Regulator first stage</li><li>10 Submersible pressure gauge</li><li>11 Overpressure valve</li></ul></div></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oxygen_CCR_loop_schematic.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Oxygen_CCR_loop_schematic.png/290px-Oxygen_CCR_loop_schematic.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Oxygen_CCR_loop_schematic.png/435px-Oxygen_CCR_loop_schematic.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Oxygen_CCR_loop_schematic.png/580px-Oxygen_CCR_loop_schematic.png 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2881" /></a><figcaption>Schematic diagram of a closed circuit oxygen rebreather with a loop configuration and axial flow scrubber<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>1 Dive/surface valve with loop non return valves</li><li>2 Exhaust hose</li><li>3 Scrubber (axial flow)</li><li>4 Counterlung</li><li>5 Overpressure valve</li><li>6 Inhalation hose</li><li>7 Breathing gas storage cylinder</li><li>8 Cylinder valve</li><li>9 Regulator first stage</li><li>10 Submersible pressure gauge</li><li>11 Automatic make-up valve</li><li>12 Manual bypass valve</li></ul></div></figcaption></figure> <p>This is the earliest type of rebreather and was commonly used by <a href="/wiki/Navy" title="Navy">navies</a> and for <a href="/wiki/Mine_rescue" title="Mine rescue">mine rescue</a> from the early twentieth century. Oxygen rebreathers can be remarkably simple designs, and they were invented before open-circuit scuba. They only supply oxygen, so there is no requirement to control the gas mixture other than purging before use and removing the carbon dioxide.<sup id="cite_ref-older_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-older-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Oxygen_feed_options">Oxygen feed options</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Oxygen feed options"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In some rebreathers, e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Siebe_Gorman_Salvus" title="Siebe Gorman Salvus">Siebe Gorman Salvus</a>, the oxygen cylinder has two oxygen supply mechanisms in parallel. One is <a href="/wiki/Diving_regulator#Constant_flow" title="Diving regulator">constant flow</a>, and the other is a manual on-off valve called a bypass valve. Both feed into the <a href="/wiki/Counterlung" class="mw-redirect" title="Counterlung">counterlung</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-davis1955_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davis1955-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is no necessity for a second stage and the gas can be turned on and off at the cylinder valve. </p><p>Others, such as the USN Mk25 UBA, are supplied automatically via a demand valve on the counterlung, which will add gas at any time that the counterlung is emptied and the diver continues to inhale. Oxygen can also be added manually by a button which activates the demand valve, equivalent to the purge button on an open-circuit demand valve.<sup id="cite_ref-usn_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usn-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some simple oxygen rebreathers had no automatic supply system, only the manual feed valve, and the diver had to operate the valve at intervals to refill the breathing bag as the volume of oxygen decreased below a comfortable level. This is task loading, but the diver cannot remain unaware of the need to top up. Control of the volume in the loop would also control buoyancy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Closed_circuit_mixed_gas_rebreathers">Closed circuit mixed gas rebreathers</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Closed circuit mixed gas rebreathers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mixed_gas_CCR_loop_schematic.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Mixed_gas_CCR_loop_schematic.png/290px-Mixed_gas_CCR_loop_schematic.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="338" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Mixed_gas_CCR_loop_schematic.png/435px-Mixed_gas_CCR_loop_schematic.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Mixed_gas_CCR_loop_schematic.png/580px-Mixed_gas_CCR_loop_schematic.png 2x" data-file-width="2573" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Schematic diagram of electronically controlled closed circuit mixed gas rebreather.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>1 Dive/surface valve and loop non-return valves</li><li>2 Exhaust hose</li><li>3 Scrubber (axial flow)</li><li>4 Counterlung</li><li>5 Overpressure valve</li><li>6 Inhalation valve</li><li>7 Oxygen cylinder</li><li>8 Oxygen cylinder valve</li><li>9 Absolute pressure oxygen regulator</li><li>10 Oxygen submersible pressure gauge</li><li>11 Oxygen manual bypass valve</li><li>12 Oxygen constant mass flow metering orifice</li><li>13 Electronically controlled solenoid operated oxygen injection valve</li><li>14 Diluent cylinder</li><li>15 Diluent cylinder valve</li><li>16 Diluent regulator</li><li>17 Diluent submersible pressure gauge</li><li>18 Bailout demand valve</li><li>19 Manual diluent bypass valve</li><li>20 Automatic diluent valve</li><li>21 Oxygen sensor cells</li><li>22 Electronic control and monitoring circuits</li><li>23 Primary and secondary display units</li></ul></div></figcaption></figure> <p>Military, photographic, and recreational divers use closed circuit rebreathers because they allow long dives and produce no bubbles.<sup id="cite_ref-shreeves_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shreeves-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Closed circuit rebreathers supply two breathing gases to the loop: one is pure oxygen and the other is a diluent or diluting gas such as air, nitrox, heliox or trimix.<sup id="cite_ref-apdiving_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-apdiving-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A major function of the closed circuit rebreather is to control the oxygen <a href="/wiki/Partial_pressure" title="Partial pressure">partial pressure</a> in the loop and to warn the diver if it becomes dangerously low or high. Too low a concentration of oxygen results in hypoxia leading to unconsciousness and ultimately death. Too high a concentration of oxygen results in hyperoxia, leading to <a href="/wiki/Oxygen_toxicity" title="Oxygen toxicity">oxygen toxicity</a>, a condition causing convulsions which can make the diver lose the mouthpiece when they occur underwater, and can lead to <a href="/wiki/Drowning" title="Drowning">drowning</a>. The monitoring system uses oxygen-sensitive <a href="/wiki/Electro-galvanic_oxygen_sensor" title="Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor">electro-galvanic fuel cells</a> to measure the partial pressure of oxygen in the loop. The partial pressure of oxygen in the loop can generally be controlled within reasonable tolerance of a fixed value. This set point is chosen to provide an acceptable risk of both long-term and acute oxygen toxicity, while minimizing the decompression requirements for the planned dive profile.<sup id="cite_ref-apdiving_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-apdiving-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The gas mixture is controlled by the diver in manually controlled closed circuit rebreathers. The diver can manually control the mixture by adding diluent gas or oxygen. Adding diluent can prevent the loop gas mixture becoming too oxygen rich, and adding oxygen is done to increase oxygen concentration. </p><p>In fully automatic closed-circuit systems, an electronically controlled solenoid valve injects oxygen into the loop when the control system detects that the partial pressure of oxygen in the loop has fallen below the required level. Electronically controlled CCRs can be switched to manual control in the event of some control system failures.<sup id="cite_ref-apdiving_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-apdiving-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Addition of gas to compensate for compression during descent is usually done by an automatic diluent valve.<sup id="cite_ref-ap_vision_16-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ap_vision-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Standard_diving_dress_rebreathers">Standard diving dress rebreathers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Standard diving dress rebreathers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Standard_diving_dress#Variations" title="Standard diving dress">Standard diving dress § Variations</a></div> <p>In 1912 the German firm <a href="/wiki/Dr%C3%A4gerwerk" class="mw-redirect" title="Drägerwerk">Drägerwerk</a> of Lübeck introduced a version of standard diving dress using a gas supply from an oxygen rebreather and no surface supply. The system used a copper diving helmet and standard heavy diving suit with a back-mounted set of cylinders and scrubber. The breathing gas was circulated by using an injector system in the loop powered by the added gas. This was developed further with the <i>Modell 1915 "Bubikopf"</i> helmet and the DM20 oxygen rebreather system for depths up to 20 m, and the DM40 mixed gas rebreather which used an oxygen cylinder and an air cylinder for the gas supply, producing a nitrox mixture, for depths up to 40 m.<sup id="cite_ref-Dekker_Modell_1912_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dekker_Modell_1912-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The US Navy developed a variant of the <a href="/wiki/Standard_diving_dress#Mixed_gas_systems" title="Standard diving dress">Mark V system</a> for heliox diving. These were successfully used during the <a href="/wiki/USS_Sailfish_(SS-192)#Sinking_of_Squalus_and_recommissioning_as_Sailfish" title="USS Sailfish (SS-192)">rescue of the crew and salvage of the USS Squalus</a> in 1939. The US Navy Mark V Mod 1 heliox mixed gas helmet is based on the standard Mark V Helmet, with a scrubber canister mounted on the back of the helmet and an inlet gas injection system which recirculates the breathing gas through the scrubber to remove carbon dioxide and thereby conserve helium. The helium helmet uses the same breastplate as a standard Mark V except that the locking mechanism is relocated to the front, there is no spitcock, there is an additional electrical connection for heated underwear, and on later versions a two or three-stage exhaust valve was fitted to reduce the risk of flooding the scrubber.<sup id="cite_ref-DESCO_29019_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DESCO_29019-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The gas supply at the diver was controlled by two valves. The "Hoke valve" controlled flow through the injector to the "aspirator" which circulated gas from the helmet through the scrubber, and the main control valve used for bailout to open circuit, flushing the helmet, and for extra gas when working hard or descending. Flow rate of the injector nozzle was nominally 0.5 cubic foot per minute at 100 psi above ambient pressure, which would blow 11 times the volume of the injected gas through the scrubber.<sup id="cite_ref-USNDM_R1_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USNDM_R1-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Both these systems were semi-closed and did not monitor partial pressures of oxygen. They both used an injector system to recirculate the breathing gas and did not increase work of breathing. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rebreathers_using_an_absorbent_that_releases_oxygen">Rebreathers using an absorbent that releases oxygen</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Rebreathers using an absorbent that releases oxygen"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There have been a few rebreather designs (e.g. the Oxylite) which had an absorbent canister filled with <a href="/wiki/Potassium_superoxide" title="Potassium superoxide">potassium superoxide</a>, which gives off oxygen as it absorbs carbon dioxide: 4KO<sub>2</sub> + 2CO<sub>2</sub> = 2K<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> + 3O<sub>2</sub>; it had a very small oxygen cylinder to fill the loop at the start of the dive.<sup id="cite_ref-superoxide_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-superoxide-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This system is dangerous because of the explosively hot reaction that happens if water gets on the potassium superoxide. The <a href="/wiki/Russian_IDA71_military_and_naval_rebreather" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian IDA71 military and naval rebreather">Russian IDA71 military and naval rebreather</a> was designed to be run in this mode or as an ordinary rebreather. </p><p>Tests on the <a href="/wiki/IDA71" title="IDA71">IDA71</a> at the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy_Experimental_Diving_Unit" title="United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit">United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit</a> in <a href="/wiki/Panama_City,_Florida" title="Panama City, Florida">Panama City, Florida</a> showed that the IDA71 could give significantly longer dive time with superoxide in one of the canisters than without.<sup id="cite_ref-superoxide_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-superoxide-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This technology may be applied to both oxygen and mixed gas rebreathers, and can be used for diving and other applications. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rebreathers_which_use_liquid_oxygen">Rebreathers which use liquid oxygen</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Rebreathers which use liquid oxygen"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A liquid oxygen supply can be used for oxygen or mixed gas rebreathers. If used underwater, the liquid-oxygen container must be well insulated against heat transfer from the water. Industrial sets of this type may not be suitable for diving, and diving sets of this type may not be suitable for use out of water due to conflicting heat transfer requirements. The set's liquid oxygen tank must be filled immediately before use. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cryogenic_rebreather">Cryogenic rebreather</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Cryogenic rebreather"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A cryogenic rebreather removes the carbon dioxide by freezing it out in a "snow box" by the low temperature produced as liquid oxygen evaporates to replace the oxygen used. </p><p>A cryogenic rebreather prototype called the S-1000 was built by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sub-Marine_Systems_Corporation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sub-Marine Systems Corporation (page does not exist)">Sub-Marine Systems Corporation</a>. It had a duration of 6 hours and a maximum dive depth of 200 metres (660 ft). Its ppO<sub>2</sub> could be set to anything from 0.2 to 2 bars (3 to 30 psi) without electronics, by controlling the temperature of the liquid oxygen, thus controlling the equilibrium pressure of oxygen gas above the liquid. The diluent could be either nitrogen or helium depending on the depth of the dive. The partial pressure of oxygen was controlled by temperature, which was controlled by controlling the pressure at which liquid nitrogen was allowed to boil, which was controlled by an adjustable pressure relief valve. No control valves other than the nitrogen pressure relief valve were required. Low temperature was also used to freeze out up to 230 grams of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> per hour from the loop, corresponding to an oxygen consumption of 2 litres per minute as carbon dioxide will freeze out of the gaseous state at -43.3 °C or below. If oxygen was consumed faster due to a high workload, a regular scrubber was needed. No electronics were needed as everything followed the setting of the nitrogen release pressure from the cooling unit, and the refrigeration by evaporation of liquid nitrogen maintained a steady temperature until the liquid nitrogen was exhausted. The loop gas flow was passed through a counterflow heat exchanger, which re-heated the gas returning to the diver by chilling the gas headed for the snow box (the cryogenic scrubber). The first prototype, the S-600G, was completed and shallow-water tested in October 1967. The S1000 was announced in 1969,<sup id="cite_ref-Fischel_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fischel-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cushman_1969_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cushman_1969-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the systems were never marketed.<sup id="cite_ref-Rebreather_site_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rebreather_site-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cryogenic rebreathers were widely used in Soviet <a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">oceanography</a> in the period 1980 to 1990.<sup id="cite_ref-Rebreather_site_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rebreather_site-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Popularmechanics_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Popularmechanics-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sportsmen_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sportsmen-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Components_and_subsystems">Components and subsystems</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Components and subsystems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="User_respiratory_interface">User respiratory interface</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: User respiratory interface"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Draeger_Ray_DSV_P5167634.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Draeger_Ray_DSV_P5167634.JPG/220px-Draeger_Ray_DSV_P5167634.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Draeger_Ray_DSV_P5167634.JPG/330px-Draeger_Ray_DSV_P5167634.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Draeger_Ray_DSV_P5167634.JPG/440px-Draeger_Ray_DSV_P5167634.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>Mouthpiece with dive/surface valve of a Draeger Ray semi closed rebreather</figcaption></figure> <p>The diver breathes from the rebreather circuit through a bite-grip mouthpiece or an <a href="/wiki/Oro-nasal_mask" class="mw-redirect" title="Oro-nasal mask">oro-nasal mask</a> which may be part of a <a href="/wiki/Full-face_mask" class="mw-redirect" title="Full-face mask">full-face mask</a> or <a href="/wiki/Diving_helmet" title="Diving helmet">diving helmet</a>. The mouthpiece is connected to the rest of the rebreather by flexible breathing hoses. The mouthpiece of a diving rebreather will usually include a shutoff valve, and may incorporate a dive/surface valve or a bailout valve or both. On loop-configured rebreathers, the mouthpiece is usually the place where the <a href="/wiki/Non-return_valve" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-return valve">non-return valves</a> for the loop are fitted.<sup id="cite_ref-ap_vision_16-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ap_vision-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dive/surface_valve"><span id="Dive.2Fsurface_valve"></span>Dive/surface valve</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Dive/surface valve"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The dive/surface valve (DSV) is a valve on the mouthpiece which can switch between the loop and ambient surroundings. It is used to close the loop at the surface to allow the diver to breathe atmospheric air, and may also be used underwater to isolate the loop so that it will not flood if the mouthpiece is taken out of the mouth.<sup id="cite_ref-ap_vision_16-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ap_vision-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bailout_valve">Bailout valve</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Bailout valve"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JJ_Rebreather_at_Blue_Rock_Quarry_PC290152.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/JJ_Rebreather_at_Blue_Rock_Quarry_PC290152.jpg/220px-JJ_Rebreather_at_Blue_Rock_Quarry_PC290152.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/JJ_Rebreather_at_Blue_Rock_Quarry_PC290152.jpg/330px-JJ_Rebreather_at_Blue_Rock_Quarry_PC290152.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/JJ_Rebreather_at_Blue_Rock_Quarry_PC290152.jpg/440px-JJ_Rebreather_at_Blue_Rock_Quarry_PC290152.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Mouthpiece with bailout valve and head-up display </figcaption></figure> <p>A dive/surface valve which can be switched to close the loop and simultaneously open a connection to an open circuit demand valve is known as a bailout valve (BOV), as its function is to switch over to open circuit bailout without having to remove the mouthpiece. An important safety device when <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon dioxide poisoning">carbon dioxide poisoning</a> occurs.<sup id="cite_ref-BOV_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BOV-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mouthpiece_retaining_strap">Mouthpiece retaining strap</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Mouthpiece retaining strap"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Mouthpiece_retaining_strap" class="mw-redirect" title="Mouthpiece retaining strap">mouthpiece retaining strap</a> (MRS) is an item of safety equipment which is a mandatory design feature for rebreathers sold in the EU and UK, following European rebreather standard EN14143:2013. Mouthpiece retaining straps have been shown in navy experience over several years to be effective at protecting the airway in an unconscious rebreather diver as an alternative to a full-face mask. The arrangement is required to be adjustable or self adjusting, to hold the mouthpiece firmly and comfortably in the user's mouth, and to maintain a seal. The MRS also reduces stress on the jaw during the dive.<sup id="cite_ref-RTC_MRS_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RTC_MRS-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Breathing_hoses">Breathing hoses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Breathing hoses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Draeger_Ray_DSV_and_breathing_hoses_P5167633.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Draeger_Ray_DSV_and_breathing_hoses_P5167633.JPG/220px-Draeger_Ray_DSV_and_breathing_hoses_P5167633.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Draeger_Ray_DSV_and_breathing_hoses_P5167633.JPG/330px-Draeger_Ray_DSV_and_breathing_hoses_P5167633.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Draeger_Ray_DSV_and_breathing_hoses_P5167633.JPG/440px-Draeger_Ray_DSV_and_breathing_hoses_P5167633.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>Dive-surface valve and breathing hoses of a Draeger Ray semi closed rebreather. Two hose weights are shown</figcaption></figure> <p>Flexible corrugated synthetic rubber hoses are used to connect the mouthpiece to the rest of the breathing circuit, as these allow free movement of the diver's head. These hoses are corrugated to allow greater flexibility while retaining a high resistance to collapse. The hoses are designed to provide low resistance to flow of the breathing gas. A single breathing hose is used for pendulum (push-pull) configuration, and two hoses for a one-way loop configuration.<sup id="cite_ref-ap_vision_16-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ap_vision-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hose weights may be used to reduce excessive buoyancy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Counterlungs">Counterlungs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Counterlungs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The counterlung is a part of the loop which is designed to change in volume by the same amount as the user's <a href="/wiki/Tidal_volume" title="Tidal volume">tidal volume</a> when breathing. This lets the loop expand and contract when the user breathes, letting the total volume of gas in the lungs and the loop remain constant throughout the breathing cycle. The volume of the counterlung should allow for the maximum likely breath volume of a user, but does not generally need to match the <a href="/wiki/Vital_capacity" title="Vital capacity">vital capacity</a> of all possible users.<sup id="cite_ref-Back_mounted_counterlungs_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Back_mounted_counterlungs-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ap_vision_16-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ap_vision-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Underwater, the position of the counterlung – on the chest, over the shoulders, or on the back – has an effect on the hydrostatic <a href="/wiki/Work_of_breathing" title="Work of breathing">work of breathing</a>. This is due to the pressure difference between the counterlung and the diver's lung caused by the vertical distance between the two.<sup id="cite_ref-Back_mounted_counterlungs_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Back_mounted_counterlungs-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recreational, technical and many professional divers will spend most of their time underwater swimming face down and trimmed horizontally. Counterlungs should function well with low work of breathing in this position, and with the diver upright. </p> <ul><li>Front mounted: When horizontal they are under greater hydrostatic pressure than the diver's lungs. Easier to inhale, harder to exhale.</li> <li>Back mounted: When horizontal they are under less hydrostatic pressure than the diver's lungs. The amount varies, as some are closer to the back than others. Harder to inhale, easier to exhale.<sup id="cite_ref-ap_vision_16-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ap_vision-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Over the shoulder: The hydrostatic pressure will vary depending on how much gas is in the counterlungs, and increases as the volume increases and the lowest part of the gas space moves downward. The resistive work of breathing often negates the gains of good positioning close to the lung centroid.<sup id="cite_ref-ap_vision_16-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ap_vision-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The design of the counterlungs can also affect the swimming diver's <a href="/wiki/Streamline_(swimming)" title="Streamline (swimming)">streamlining</a> due to location and shape of the counterlungs, if they are not in a casing. </p><p>A rebreather which uses <a href="/wiki/Rubber" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubber">rubber</a> counterlungs which are not in an enclosed casing should be sheltered from <a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a> when not in use, to prevent the rubber from <a href="/wiki/Vulcanization#Reason_for_vulcanizing" title="Vulcanization">perishing</a> due to <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet light">ultraviolet light</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Concentric_bellows_counterlungs">Concentric bellows counterlungs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Concentric bellows counterlungs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most passive addition semi-closed diving rebreathers control the gas mixture by removing a fixed volumetric proportion of the exhaled gas, and replacing it with fresh feed gas from a demand valve, which is triggered by low volume of the counterlung. </p><p>This is done by using concentric bellows counterlungs – the counterlung is configured as a bellows with a rigid top and bottom, and has a flexible corrugated membrane forming the side walls. There is a second, smaller bellows inside, also connected to the rigid top and bottom surfaces of the counterlung, so that as the rigid surfaces move towards and away from each other, the volumes of the inner and outer bellows change in the same proportion. </p><p>The exhaled gas expands the counterlungs, and some of it flows into the inner bellows. On inhalation, the diver only breathes from the outer counterlung – return flow from the inner bellows is blocked by a non-return valve. The inner bellows also connects to another non-return valve opening to the outside environment, and thus the gas from the inner bellows is dumped from the circuit in a fixed proportion of the volume of the inhaled breath. If the counterlung volume is reduced sufficiently for the rigid cover to activate the feed gas demand valve, gas will be added until the diver finishes that inhalation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carbon_dioxide_scrubber">Carbon dioxide scrubber</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Carbon dioxide scrubber"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_scrubber" title="Carbon dioxide scrubber">Carbon dioxide scrubber</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plongee-RecycleurInspiration_20030221-160219_CartoucheFiltrante.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Plongee-RecycleurInspiration_20030221-160219_CartoucheFiltrante.jpg/220px-Plongee-RecycleurInspiration_20030221-160219_CartoucheFiltrante.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Plongee-RecycleurInspiration_20030221-160219_CartoucheFiltrante.jpg/330px-Plongee-RecycleurInspiration_20030221-160219_CartoucheFiltrante.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Plongee-RecycleurInspiration_20030221-160219_CartoucheFiltrante.jpg/440px-Plongee-RecycleurInspiration_20030221-160219_CartoucheFiltrante.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Inspiration scrubber canister</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Draeger_Ray_scrubber_canister_P5167636.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Draeger_Ray_scrubber_canister_P5167636.JPG/220px-Draeger_Ray_scrubber_canister_P5167636.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Draeger_Ray_scrubber_canister_P5167636.JPG/330px-Draeger_Ray_scrubber_canister_P5167636.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Draeger_Ray_scrubber_canister_P5167636.JPG/440px-Draeger_Ray_scrubber_canister_P5167636.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>Scrubber canister of a Draeger Ray semi closed rebreather</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Draeger_Ray_scrubber_interior_P5167640.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Draeger_Ray_scrubber_interior_P5167640.JPG/220px-Draeger_Ray_scrubber_interior_P5167640.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Draeger_Ray_scrubber_interior_P5167640.JPG/330px-Draeger_Ray_scrubber_interior_P5167640.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Draeger_Ray_scrubber_interior_P5167640.JPG/440px-Draeger_Ray_scrubber_interior_P5167640.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>Interior of scrubber canister of a Draeger Ray semi closed rebreather</figcaption></figure> <p>The exhaled gases are directed through the chemical scrubber, a canister full of a suitable carbon dioxide absorbent such as a form of <a href="/wiki/Soda_lime" title="Soda lime">soda lime</a>, which removes the carbon dioxide from the gas mixture and leaves the oxygen and other gases available for re-breathing.<sup id="cite_ref-popmech-dec06-58_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-popmech-dec06-58-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some of the absorbent chemicals are produced in granular format for diving applications, such as Atrasorb Dive, <a href="/wiki/Sofnolime" class="mw-redirect" title="Sofnolime">Sofnolime</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dr%C3%A4ger_(company)" title="Dräger (company)">Dragersorb</a>, or Sodasorb. Other systems use a prepackaged <a href="/w/index.php?title=Reactive_Plastic_Curtain&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Reactive Plastic Curtain (page does not exist)">Reactive Plastic Curtain</a> (RPC) based cartridge:<sup id="cite_ref-Norfleet_and_Horn_2003_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norfleet_and_Horn_2003-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term Reactive Plastic Curtain was originally used to describe Micropore's absorbent curtains for emergency submarine use by the US Navy, and more recently RPC has been used to refer to their Reactive Plastic Cartridges, which are claimed to provide better and more reliable performance than the same volume of granular absorbent material.<sup id="cite_ref-extendair_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-extendair-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> passing through the scrubber absorbent is removed when it reacts with the absorbent in the canister; this <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">chemical reaction</a> is <a href="/wiki/Exothermic" class="mw-redirect" title="Exothermic">exothermic</a>. Most of this reaction occurs along a "front" which is a region across the flow of gas through the soda-lime in the canister. This front moves through the scrubber canister, from the gas input end to the gas output end, as the reaction consumes the active ingredients. This front would be a zone with a thickness depending on the grain size, reactivity, and gas flow velocity because the carbon dioxide in the gas going through the canister needs time to reach the surface of a grain of absorbent, and then time to penetrate to the interior of each grain of absorbent as the outside of the grain becomes exhausted. Eventually gas with remaining carbon dioxide will reach the far end of the canister and "breakthrough" will occur. After this the carbon dioxide content of the scrubbed gas will tend to rise as the effectiveness of the scrubber falls until it becomes noticeable to the user, then unbreathable.<sup id="cite_ref-ap_vision_16-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ap_vision-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In rebreather diving, the typical effective endurance of the scrubber will be half an hour to several hours of breathing, depending on the grain size distribution and composition of the absorbent, the ambient temperature, the size of the canister, the dwell time of the gas in the absorbent material, and the production of carbon dioxide by the diver. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scrubber_design_and_size">Scrubber design and size</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Scrubber design and size"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Human_factors_in_diving_equipment_design" title="Human factors in diving equipment design">Human factors in diving equipment design</a></div> <p>Scrubber design and size is a compromise between bulk, cost of consumables, and work of breathing. Bulk affects the size of the unit and the amount of ballast weight needed, which affect the logistics of the dive. Work of breathing can be safety critical at greater depths, where it can become a significant part of the available <a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerobic_work_capacity&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aerobic work capacity (page does not exist)">aerobic work capacity</a> of the diver, and can be overwhelming when it exceeds the diver's limit. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Single_or_multiple_scrubbers">Single or multiple scrubbers</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Single or multiple scrubbers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The usual arrangement is a single scrubber, but configurations with two scrubbers have been used, such as the <a href="/wiki/IDA71" title="IDA71">IDA71</a>, which has the scrubbers mounted in parallel (for some applications one of them may be filled with a superoxide type absorbent, which generates oxygen to replace the carbon dioxide) and the KISS Sidewinder, which has the scrubbers in series, with a single back mounted counterlung between the scrubbers so that transverse buoyancy shifts do not occur during the breathing cycle.<sup id="cite_ref-Sidewinder_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sidewinder-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Axial_or_radial_flow">Axial or radial flow</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Axial or radial flow"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The scrubber gas flow path may be axial, where the gas flows in at one end and out at the other, or radial, where the gas flows from the centre of the scrubber to the periphery (usually) or vice versa.<sup id="cite_ref-Clark_2023_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clark_2023-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The flow path should be of consistent length to minimise early breakthrough of some parts of the scrubber, which constrains radial designs to circular cylinders of variable length to diameter ratio, and axial scrubbers to approximately constant sectional shape along the flow (length) axis. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Grain_size_and_size_distribution">Grain size and size distribution</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Grain size and size distribution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The distribution of grain sizes of the sorb affects the porosity of the packed canister. a wider distribution of grain size gives a low porosity. Porosity ranges from about 32% for uniformly sized (well sorted) approximately spherical grains down to less than 12% for a poorly sorted grain sizes with a large standard deviation, where the smaller granules occupy much of the space between the larger granules. A low porosity requires higher flow velocity for the same volume flow rate in the same scrubber canister. High flow rate produces high frictional resistance and low residence time (dwell time). The high resistance causes high work of breathing, and the low residence time makes breakthrough of carbon dioxide from the far side of the sorb occur sooner, i.e; shorter canister duration.<sup id="cite_ref-Clark_2023_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clark_2023-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Effect_of_temperature_on_scrubber_endurance">Effect of temperature on scrubber endurance</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Effect of temperature on scrubber endurance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The scrubber absorbent (sorb) reaction rate is reduced at lower temperatures due to lower kinetic energy of gas molecules reducing the mean time before contact with the reactive material (<a href="/wiki/Arrhenius_equation" title="Arrhenius equation">Arrhenius equation</a>). The sorb reaction releases heat, and cold water surroundings absorb heat through the canister walls, so the reaction front moves from the inlet end to outlet end, heating the sorb, and the heat is lost through the walls, which are around the sides in axial flow canisters. Carbon dioxide gets further through the colder parts of the sorb before it is absorbed, so tends to break through along the walls first. Breakthrough occurs in practice at about 50% of the theoretical canister endurance in 1.7°C water. This effect can be reduced by insulating the canister walls where they are in contact with absorbent material<sup id="cite_ref-Clark_2023_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clark_2023-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gas_venting_–_Overpressure_valve_and_diffuser"><span id="Gas_venting_.E2.80.93_Overpressure_valve_and_diffuser"></span>Gas venting – Overpressure valve and diffuser</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Gas venting – Overpressure valve and diffuser"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During ascent the gas in the breathing circuit will expand, and must have some way of escape before the pressure difference causes injury to the diver or damage to the loop. The simplest way to do this is for the diver to allow excess gas to escape around the mouthpiece or through the nose, but a simple overpressure valve is reliable and can be adjusted to control the permitted overpressure. The overpressure valve is typically mounted on the counterlung and in military diving rebreathers it may be fitted with a diffuser, which helps to conceal the diver's presence by masking the release of bubbles, by breaking them up to sizes which are less easily detected. A diffuser also reduces bubble noise.<sup id="cite_ref-CUMA_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CUMA-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Back_mounted_counterlungs_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Back_mounted_counterlungs-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Loop_drainage">Loop drainage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Loop drainage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many rebreathers have "water traps" in the counterlungs or scrubber casing, to stop large volumes of water from entering the scrubber media if the diver removes the mouthpiece underwater without closing the valve, or if the diver's lips get slack and let water leak in.<sup id="cite_ref-Back_mounted_counterlungs_42-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Back_mounted_counterlungs-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some rebreathers have manual pumps to remove water from the water traps, and a few of the passive addition SCRs automatically pump water out along with the gas during the exhaust stroke of the bellows counterlung.<sup id="cite_ref-Larsson_2000_28-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Larsson_2000-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SF2_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SF2-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others use internal pressure to expel water through the manually overridden dump valve when it is in a low position.<sup id="cite_ref-Flex2_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flex2-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gas_sources">Gas sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Gas sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Draeger_Ray_Gas_supply_system_P5167641.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Draeger_Ray_Gas_supply_system_P5167641.JPG/220px-Draeger_Ray_Gas_supply_system_P5167641.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Draeger_Ray_Gas_supply_system_P5167641.JPG/330px-Draeger_Ray_Gas_supply_system_P5167641.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Draeger_Ray_Gas_supply_system_P5167641.JPG/440px-Draeger_Ray_Gas_supply_system_P5167641.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>Regulator, bailout DV, CMF dosage and ADV, SPG and hoses from a Draeger Ray semi-closed rebreather</figcaption></figure> <p>A rebreather must have a source of oxygen to replenish that which is consumed by the diver. Depending on the rebreather design variant, the oxygen source will either be pure oxygen or a <a href="/wiki/Breathing_gas" title="Breathing gas">breathing gas</a> mixture, which is almost always stored in a <a href="/wiki/Gas_cylinder" title="Gas cylinder">gas cylinder</a>. In a few cases oxygen is supplied as liquid oxygen or from a chemical reaction.<sup id="cite_ref-ap_vision_16-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ap_vision-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Diluent_gas">Diluent gas</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Diluent gas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pure oxygen is not considered to be safe for recreational diving deeper than 6 meters, so closed circuit rebreathers for deeper use also have a cylinder of <a href="/wiki/Diluent#Breathing_gas" title="Diluent">diluent</a> gas. This diluent cylinder may be filled with compressed air or another diving gas mix such as <a href="/wiki/Nitrox" title="Nitrox">nitrox</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trimix_(breathing_gas)" title="Trimix (breathing gas)">trimix</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Heliox" title="Heliox">heliox</a>. The diluent reduces the percentage of oxygen breathed and increases the <a href="/wiki/Maximum_operating_depth" title="Maximum operating depth">maximum operating depth</a> of the rebreather. The diluent is not normally an oxygen-free gas, such as pure nitrogen or helium, and is breathable so it may be used in an emergency either to flush the loop with breathable gas of a known composition or as a <a href="#Bailout_gas">bailout gas</a>. Diluent gas is commonly referred to as diluent, dilutant, or just "dil" by divers.<sup id="cite_ref-ap_vision_16-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ap_vision-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Diluent gas composition also affects gas density, and thereby the work of breathing at depth.<sup id="cite_ref-Mitchell_et_al_2007_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mitchell_et_al_2007-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gas_addition_valves">Gas addition valves</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Gas addition valves"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gas must be added to the breathing loop if the volume gets too small or if it is necessary to change the gas composition.<sup id="cite_ref-ap_vision_16-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ap_vision-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Automatic_diluent_valve_(ADV)"><span id="Automatic_diluent_valve_.28ADV.29"></span>Automatic diluent valve (ADV)</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Automatic diluent valve (ADV)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Internal_view_of_a_Draeger_Ray_ADV_and_CMF_dosage_valve_P5167649.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Internal_view_of_a_Draeger_Ray_ADV_and_CMF_dosage_valve_P5167649.JPG/220px-Internal_view_of_a_Draeger_Ray_ADV_and_CMF_dosage_valve_P5167649.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Internal_view_of_a_Draeger_Ray_ADV_and_CMF_dosage_valve_P5167649.JPG/330px-Internal_view_of_a_Draeger_Ray_ADV_and_CMF_dosage_valve_P5167649.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Internal_view_of_a_Draeger_Ray_ADV_and_CMF_dosage_valve_P5167649.JPG/440px-Internal_view_of_a_Draeger_Ray_ADV_and_CMF_dosage_valve_P5167649.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>Internal view of a constant mass flow orifice and automatic diluent valve from a Draeger Ray semi-closed rebreather</figcaption></figure> <p>This has a similar function to an open circuit demand valve., and in many cases uses the mechanism from a commonly available open circuit demand valve. It adds gas to the circuit if the volume in the circuit is too low. The mechanism is either operated by a dedicated diaphragm like in a scuba second stage, or may be operated by the top of a bellows type counterlung reaching the bottom of its travel.<sup id="cite_ref-Back_mounted_counterlungs_42-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Back_mounted_counterlungs-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Manual_addition">Manual addition</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Manual addition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Closed circuit rebreathers usually allow the diver to add gas manually. In oxygen rebreathers this is just oxygen, but mixed gas rebreathers usually have a separate manual addition valve for oxygen and diluent, as either might be required to correct the composition of the <span title="See entry on this page at § loop mixture" class="glossary-link-internal" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed #86a1ff; color:initial;"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_underwater_diving_terminology:_H%E2%80%93O#loop_mixture" title="Glossary of underwater diving terminology: H–O">loop mixture</a></span>, either as the standard operating method for manually controlled CCRs, or as a backup system on electronically controlled CCRs.<sup id="cite_ref-Back_mounted_counterlungs_42-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Back_mounted_counterlungs-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The manual diluent addition is sometimes by a purge button on the ADV. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Constant_mass_flow">Constant mass flow</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Constant mass flow"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Choked_flow" title="Choked flow">Choked flow</a></div> <p>Constant mass flow gas addition is used on active addition semi-closed rebreathers, where it is the normal method of addition at constant depth, and in many closed circuit rebreathers, where it is the primary method of oxygen addition, at a rate less than metabolically required by the diver at rest, and the rest is made up by the control system through a solenoid valve, or manually by the diver. </p><p>Constant mass flow is achieved by sonic flow through an orifice. The flow of a compressible fluid through an orifice is limited to the flow at sonic velocity in the orifice. This can be controlled by the upstream pressure and the orifice size and shape, but once the flow reached the speed of sound in the orifice, any further reduction of downstream pressure has no influence on the flow rate. This requires a gas source at a fixed pressure, and it only works at depths which have a low enough ambient pressure to provide sonic flow in the orifice. </p><p>Regulators which have their control components isolated from the ambient pressure are used to supply gas at a pressure independent of the depth. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Passive_addition">Passive addition</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Passive addition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In passive addition semi-closed rebreathers, gas is usually added by a demand type valve actuated by the bellows counterlung when the bellows is empty. This is the same actuation condition as the automatic diluent valve of any rebreather, but the actual trigger mechanism is slightly different. A passive addition rebreather of this type does not need a separate ADV as the passive addition valve already serves this function, though for engineering redundancy two such demand valves may be fitted, which operate simultaneously.<sup id="cite_ref-RB80_design_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RB80_design-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rhea_2021_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhea_2021-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Electronically_controlled_(solenoid_valves)"><span id="Electronically_controlled_.28solenoid_valves.29"></span>Electronically controlled (solenoid valves)</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Electronically controlled (solenoid valves)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Electronically controlled closed circuit mixed gas rebreathers may have part of the oxygen feed provided by a constant mass flow orifice, but the fine control of partial pressure is done by solenoid operated valves actuated by the control circuits. Timed opening of the solenoid valve will be triggered when the oxygen partial pressure in the loop mix drops below the lower set-point. </p><p>If the constant mass flow orifice is compromised and does not deliver the correct flow, the control circuit will compensate by firing the solenoid valve more often. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Off-board_gas">Off-board gas</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Off-board gas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JJ_Rebreather_at_Blue_Rock_Quarry_PC290160.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/JJ_Rebreather_at_Blue_Rock_Quarry_PC290160.jpg/220px-JJ_Rebreather_at_Blue_Rock_Quarry_PC290160.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/JJ_Rebreather_at_Blue_Rock_Quarry_PC290160.jpg/330px-JJ_Rebreather_at_Blue_Rock_Quarry_PC290160.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/JJ_Rebreather_at_Blue_Rock_Quarry_PC290160.jpg/440px-JJ_Rebreather_at_Blue_Rock_Quarry_PC290160.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Off-board gas carried in a side mounted cylinder plumbed in to the rebreather bailout valve using wet-connectable couplers. </figcaption></figure> <p>On some technical diving rebreathers it is possible to connect an alternative gas supply into the rebreather, usually using a wet quick-connect system. This is usually a feature of bailout rebreathers and other side-mounted rebreathers, where the rebreather unit is intentionally kept as compact as possible, and the gas supply may be slung on the other side of the diver for convenience and balance. This facility also allows all of the gas carried by a diver to be potentially supplied via a rebreather.<sup id="cite_ref-Rubicon_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rubicon-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bailout_gas">Bailout gas</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Bailout gas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Rebreather_diving#Emergency_procedures" title="Rebreather diving">Rebreather diving § Emergency procedures</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bailout_cylinder" class="mw-redirect" title="Bailout cylinder">Bailout cylinder</a></div> <p>Bailout gas and bailout procedure are closely linked. The procedure must be appropriate for the gas supply configuration. Initial bailout to open circuit is often the first step, even when a bailout rebreather is carried, as it is simple and robust, and some time is needed to get the bailout rebreather ready for use.<sup id="cite_ref-Simanek_Bailout_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simanek_Bailout-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bailout gas supply must be sufficient for safe return to the surface from any point in the planned dive, including any required decompression, so it is not unusual for two bailout cylinders to be carried, and the diluent cylinder to be used as the first bailout to get to a depth where the other gas can be used. On a deep dive, or a long penetration, open circuit bailout can easily be heavier and more bulky than the rebreather, and for some dives a bailout rebreather is a more practical option.<sup id="cite_ref-Mitchell_2015_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mitchell_2015-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Control_of_the_breathing_gas_mix">Control of the breathing gas mix</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Control of the breathing gas mix"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Frame"><a href="/wiki/File:Deepursuit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/ac/Deepursuit.jpg" decoding="async" width="221" height="233" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="221" data-file-height="233" /></a><figcaption>Narked at 90 Ltd – Deep Pursuit Advanced electronic rebreather controller</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oxygen_cells_P4260436.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Oxygen_cells_P4260436.jpg/220px-Oxygen_cells_P4260436.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Oxygen_cells_P4260436.jpg/330px-Oxygen_cells_P4260436.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Oxygen_cells_P4260436.jpg/440px-Oxygen_cells_P4260436.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Oxygen sensor cells</figcaption></figure> <p>The fundamental requirements for the control of the gas mixture in the breathing circuit for any rebreather application are that the carbon dioxide is removed, and kept at a tolerable level, and that the partial pressure of oxygen is kept within safe limits. For rebreathers which are used at normobaric or hypobaric pressures, this only requires that there is sufficient oxygen, which is easily achieved in an oxygen rebreather. Hyperbaric applications, as in diving, also require that the maximum partial pressure of oxygen is limited, to avoid <a href="/wiki/Oxygen_toxicity" title="Oxygen toxicity">oxygen toxicity</a>, which is technically a more complex process, and may require dilution of the oxygen with metabolically inert gas. </p><p>If not enough oxygen is added, the concentration of oxygen in the loop may be too low to support life. In humans, the urge to breathe is normally caused by a build-up of carbon dioxide in the blood, rather than lack of oxygen. Hypoxia can cause blackout with little or no warning, followed by death.<sup id="cite_ref-ap_vision_16-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ap_vision-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The method used for controlling the range of oxygen partial pressure in the breathing loop depends on the type of rebreather. </p> <ul><li>In an oxygen rebreather, once the loop has been thoroughly flushed, the mixture is effectively static at 100% oxygen, and the partial pressure is a function only of ambient pressure.</li> <li>In a semi-closed rebreather the loop mix depends on a combination of factors:</li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li>the type of gas addition system and its setting, combined with the gas mixture in use, which control the rate of oxygen added.</li> <li>work rate, and therefore the oxygen consumption rate, which controls the rate of oxygen depletion, and therefore the resulting oxygen fraction.</li> <li>ambient pressure, as partial pressure varies in proportion to ambient pressure and oxygen fraction.</li></ul></dd></dl> <ul><li>In manually controlled closed circuit rebreathers (MCCCR), also known as diver-controlled closed-circuit rebreathers (DCCCR), the diver monitors the loop mix using one or more oxygen sensors, and controls the gas mixture and volume in the loop by injecting the appropriate available gases to the loop and by venting the loop. In this application the diver needs to know the partial pressure of oxygen in the loop and correct it as it drifts away from the set point. A common method for increasing the time between corrections is to use a constant mass flow orifice set to the diver's relaxed diving metabolic oxygen consumption rate to add oxygen at a rate that is unlikely to increase the partial pressure at a constant depth.</li> <li>Most electronically controlled closed-circuit rebreathers (ECCCR) have <a href="/wiki/Electro-galvanic_oxygen_sensor" title="Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor">electro-galvanic oxygen sensors</a> and electronic control circuits, which monitor the ppO<sub>2</sub>, injecting more oxygen if necessary and issuing an audible, visual and/or vibratory warning to the diver if the ppO<sub>2</sub> reaches dangerously high or low levels.<sup id="cite_ref-ap_vision_16-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ap_vision-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The volume in the loop is usually controlled by a pressure or volume triggered automatic diluent valve, and an overpressure relief valve. The automatic diluent valve works on the same principle as a demand valve to add diluent when the pressure in the loop is reduced below ambient pressure, such as during descent or if gas is lost from the loop. The set may also have a manual addition valve, sometimes called a bypass. In some early oxygen rebreathers the user had to manually open and close the valve to the oxygen cylinder to refill the counterlung each time the volume got low.<sup id="cite_ref-ap_vision_16-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ap_vision-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Instrumentation_and_displays">Instrumentation and displays</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Instrumentation and displays"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JJ_Rebreather_at_Blue_Rock_Quarry_PC290151.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/JJ_Rebreather_at_Blue_Rock_Quarry_PC290151.jpg/220px-JJ_Rebreather_at_Blue_Rock_Quarry_PC290151.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/JJ_Rebreather_at_Blue_Rock_Quarry_PC290151.jpg/330px-JJ_Rebreather_at_Blue_Rock_Quarry_PC290151.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/JJ_Rebreather_at_Blue_Rock_Quarry_PC290151.jpg/440px-JJ_Rebreather_at_Blue_Rock_Quarry_PC290151.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Integrated oxygen sensor displays on a dive computer showing oxygen partial pressure of three sensors in the centre row. </figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Human_factors_in_diving_equipment_design#Instrumentation_and_displays" title="Human factors in diving equipment design">Human factors in diving equipment design § Instrumentation and displays</a></div> <p>Instrumentation may vary from the minimal depth, time and remaining gas pressure necessary for a closed circuit oxygen rebreather or semi-closed nitrox rebreather to redundant electronic controllers with multiple oxygen sensors, redundant integrated decompression computers, carbon dioxide monitoring sensors and a head-up display of warning and alarm lights with a sound and vibration alarm. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Alarms_for_malfunctions">Alarms for malfunctions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Alarms for malfunctions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Alarms may be provided for a few malfunctions. The alarms are electronically controlled and may rely on input from a sensor and processing by the control circuitry. These may include:<sup id="cite_ref-ap_vision_16-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ap_vision-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Failure of the control system.</li> <li>Failure of one or more sensors.</li> <li>Low partial pressure of oxygen in the loop.</li> <li>High partial pressure of oxygen in the loop.</li> <li>Gas other than pure oxygen in the oxygen supply system. (unusual)</li> <li>High carbon dioxide levels in the loop. (unusual)</li> <li>Impending scrubber breakthrough (unusual)</li></ul> <p>Alarm displays:<sup id="cite_ref-ap_vision_16-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ap_vision-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Visible (digital screen displays, flashing LEDs)</li> <li>Audible (buzzer or tone generator)</li> <li>Tactile (Vibrations)</li> <li>Control panel displays (usually with digital readout of the value and status of the measured parameter, often with blinking or flashing display)</li> <li>Head-up displays (usually a colour coded LED display, sometimes providing more information by the rate of flashing.)</li></ul> <p>If a rebreather alarm goes off there is a high probability that the gas mixture is deviating from the set mixture. There is a high risk that the gas in the rebreather loop will soon be unsuitable to support consciousness. A good general response is to add diluent gas to the loop as this is known to be breathable. This will also reduce carbon dioxide concentration if that is high.<sup id="cite_ref-ap_vision_16-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ap_vision-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Ascending while breathing off the loop without identifying the problem may increase risk of a hypoxia blackout.</li> <li>If the partial pressure of oxygen is not known the rebreather can not be trusted to be breathable, and the diver should immediately bailout to open circuit to reduce the risk of losing consciousness without warning<sup id="cite_ref-Deep_Life_Accident_Review_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Deep_Life_Accident_Review-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Work_of_breathing">Work of breathing</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Work of breathing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Work_of_breathing" title="Work of breathing">Work of breathing</a> is the effort required to breathe. Part of the work of breathing is due to inherent physiological factors, part is due to the mechanics of the external breathing apparatus, and part is due to the characteristics of the breathing gas. A high work of breathing may result in <a href="/wiki/Hypocapnia" title="Hypocapnia">carbon dioxide buildup</a> in the diver, and reduces the diver's ability to produce useful physical effort. In extreme cases work of breathing may exceed the aerobic work capacity of the diver, with fatal consequences.<sup id="cite_ref-Mitchell_et_al_2007_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mitchell_et_al_2007-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Work of breathing of a rebreather has two main components: Resistive work of breathing is due to the flow restriction of the gas passages causing resistance to flow of the breathing gas, and exists in all applications where there is no externally powered ventilation. Hydrostatic work of breathing is only applicable to diving applications, and is due to difference in pressure between the lungs of the diver and the counterlungs of the rebreather. This pressure difference is generally due to a difference in hydrostatic pressure caused by a difference in depth between lung and counterlung, but can be modified by ballasting the moving side of a bellows counterlung.<sup id="cite_ref-Larsson_2000_28-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Larsson_2000-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Resistive work of breathing is the sum of all the restrictions to flow due to bends, corrugations, changes of flow direction, valve cracking pressures, flow through scrubber media, etc., and the resistance to flow of the gas, due to inertia and viscosity, which are influenced by density, which is a function of molecular weight and pressure. Rebreather design can limit the mechanical aspects of flow resistance, particularly by the design of the scrubber, counterlungs and breathing hoses. Diving rebreathers are influenced by the variations of work of breathing due to gas mixture choice and depth. Helium content reduces work of breathing, and increased depth increases work of breathing. Work of breathing can also be increased by excessive wetness of the scrubber media, usually a consequence of a leak in the breathing loop, or by using a grain size of absorbent that is too small.<sup id="cite_ref-Mitchell_et_al_2007_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mitchell_et_al_2007-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The semi-closed rebreather systems developed by <a href="/wiki/Dr%C3%A4gerwerk" class="mw-redirect" title="Drägerwerk">Drägerwerk</a> in the early 20th century as a scuba gas supply for <a href="/wiki/Standard_diving_dress" title="Standard diving dress">Standard diving dress</a>, using oxygen or nitrox, and the US Navy Mark V Heliox helmet developed in the 1930s for deep diving, circulated the breathing gas through the helmet and scrubber by using an <a href="/wiki/Injector" title="Injector">injector</a> system where the added gas entrained the loop gas and produced a stream of scrubbed gas past the diver inside the helmet, which eliminated external dead space and resistive work of breathing, but was not suitable for high breathing rates.<sup id="cite_ref-Diving_heritage_Deep_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diving_heritage_Deep-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Safety">Safety</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Safety"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Rebreather_diving#Safety" title="Rebreather diving">Rebreather diving § Safety</a></div> <p>There are safety issues specific to rebreather equipment, and these tend to be more severe in diving rebreathers. Methods of addressing these issues can be categorised as engineering and operational approaches. Development of engineering solutions to these issues is ongoing and has been relatively rapid, but depends on the affordable availability of suitable technology, and some of the engineering problems, such as reliability of oxygen partial pressure measurement, have been relatively intractable.<sup id="cite_ref-Raymaekers_2010_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raymaekers_2010-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other problems, such as scrubber breakthrough monitoring and automated control of gas mixture have advanced considerably in the 21st century, but remain relatively expensive. Work of breathing is another issue that has room for improvement, and is a severe limitation on acceptable maximum depth of operation, as the circulation of gas through the scrubber is almost always powered by the lungs of the diver. Fault tolerant design can help with making failures survivable.<sup id="cite_ref-Simanek_2021_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simanek_2021-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hazards">Hazards</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: Hazards"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some of the hazards are due to the way the equipment works, while others are related to the environment in which the equipment is used. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hypoxia">Hypoxia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: Hypoxia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Hypoxia can occur in any rebreather which contains enough inert gas to allow breathing without triggering automatic gas addition. </p><p>In an oxygen rebreather this can occur if the loop is not sufficiently purged at the start of use. Purging should be done while breathing off the unit so that the inert gas from the user's lungs is also removed from the system. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hyperoxia">Hyperoxia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: Hyperoxia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A dangerously high partial pressure of oxygen can occur in the breathing loop for several reasons: </p> <ul><li>Descent below the maximum operating depth with an oxygen rebreather or a semi-closed rebreather.</li> <li>Failure to correctly maintain the loop mixture within tolerance of the set point. This may be due to: <ul><li>Oxygen sensor malfunction: If the cell fails <a href="/wiki/Electro-galvanic_oxygen_sensor#Failure_modes" title="Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor">current limited</a>, it will register a partial pressure lower than reality, and the control system may attempt to correct by continuous injection of oxygen.</li> <li>Voting logic error Where there are three of more oxygen cells, in the system, the voting logic will assume that the two with most similar outputs are correct. This may not be the case – there have been cases where two cells with almost identical history have failed in the same way at the same time, and the voting logic has dismissed the one remaining correctly functioning cell, with fatal consequences.<sup id="cite_ref-Mitchell_2015_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mitchell_2015-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Power supply malfunction</li> <li>Use of a diluent with too high oxygen fraction for the planned depth in a CCR. In this case a diluent flush will not produce a breathable gas in the loop.</li></ul></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Carbon_dioxide_buildup">Carbon dioxide buildup</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: Carbon dioxide buildup"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Carbon dioxide buildup will occur if the scrubber medium is absent, badly packed, inadequate or exhausted. The normal human body is fairly sensitive to carbon dioxide partial pressure, and a buildup will be noticed by the user. However, there is not often much that can be done to rectify the problem except changing to another breathing gas supply until the scrubber can be repacked. Continued use of a rebreather with an ineffective scrubber is not possible for very long, as the levels will become toxic and the user will experience extreme respiratory distress, followed by loss of consciousness and death. The rate at which these problems develop depends on the volume of the circuit and the metabolic rate of the user. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Excessive_work_of_breathing">Excessive work of breathing</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: Excessive work of breathing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Carbon dioxide buildup can also occur when a combination of exertion and <a href="/wiki/Work_of_breathing" title="Work of breathing">work of breathing</a> exceeds the capacity of the user. If this occurs where the user cannot reduce exertion sufficiently, it may be impossible to correct. In this case it is not the scrubber that fails to remove carbon dioxide, but the inability of the diver to circulate gas efficiently through the scrubber against the frictional resistance of the circuit causing the problem. This is more likely to occur with diving rebreathers at depths where the density of the breathing gas is severely elevated, or when water in the scrubber obstructs gas flow.<sup id="cite_ref-Mitchell_et_al_2007_17-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mitchell_et_al_2007-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fire_hazards_of_high_concentration_of_oxygen">Fire hazards of high concentration of oxygen</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: Fire hazards of high concentration of oxygen"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>High partial pressures of oxygen greatly increase fire hazard, and many materials which are self-extinguishing in atmospheric air will burn continuously in a high oxygen concentration. This is more of a risk for terrestrial applications such as rescue and firefighting than for diving, where the ignition risk is relatively low. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Caustic_cocktail">Caustic cocktail</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: Caustic cocktail"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Loop flooding that reaches the scrubber can cause a "caustic cocktail" when the alkaline components of carbon dioxide absorbent materials are mixed with the water. This mixture is <a href="/wiki/Chemical_burn" title="Chemical burn">caustic</a> and can cause chemical burns to the <a href="/wiki/Mucosa" class="mw-redirect" title="Mucosa">mucosa</a> and skin. The mixture is generally a liquid or watery slurry with a chalky and bitter taste, which should prompt the diver to switch to an alternative source of breathing gas and immediately rinse their mouth out well with water. Some modern diving rebreather absorbents are designed not to produce "caustic cocktail" if they get wet.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Failure_modes">Failure modes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=70" title="Edit section: Failure modes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Diving rebreathers are susceptible to some failure modes which cannot occur in other breathing apparatus. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scrubber_failure">Scrubber failure</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=71" title="Edit section: Scrubber failure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term "breakthrough" means the failure of the scrubber to continue removing sufficient carbon dioxide from the gas circulating in the loop. This will inevitably happen if the scrubber is used too long, but can happen prematurely in some circumstances. There are several ways that the scrubber may fail or become less efficient: </p> <ul><li>Complete consumption of the active ingredient in a "general breakthrough". Depending on scrubber design and diver workload, this may be gradual, allowing the diver to become aware of the problem in time to make a controlled bailout to open circuit, or relatively sudden, triggering an urgent or emergency response.</li> <li>Bypassing the absorbent. The absorbent granules must be packed closely so that all exhaled gas comes into contact with the surface of soda lime and the canister is designed to avoid any spaces or gaps between the absorbent granules or between the granules and the canister walls that would let gas bypass contact with the absorbent. If any of the seals, such as <a href="/wiki/O-ring" title="O-ring">O-rings</a>, or spacers that prevent bypassing of the scrubber, are not present or not fitted properly, or if the scrubber canister has been incorrectly packed or fitted, it may allow the exhaled gas to bypass the absorbent, and the scrubber will be less effective. This failure mode is also called "tunneling" when absorbent settles to form void spaces inside the canister. Bypass will cause an unexpected early breakthrough.</li> <li>When the gas mix is under pressure at depth, the gas molecules are more densely packed, and the carbon dioxide molecules' mean path between collisions is shorter, so they are not so free to move around to reach the absorbent surface, and require a longer <a href="/wiki/Dwell_time_(filtration)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dwell time (filtration)">dwell time</a>. Because of this effect, the scrubber must be bigger for deep diving than is needed for a shallow-water, industrial or high altitude rebreather.</li> <li>Carbon dioxide absorbent when mixed with water from a leak, can produce a caustic cocktail. The excessive wetting of the sorb also reduces the rate of carbon dioxide removal and can cause premature breakthrough even if no caustic liquid reaches the diver. Work of breathing may also increase. Many modern diving rebreather absorbents are designed not to produce this caustic fluid if they get wet.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (May 2021)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>In below-freezing surface conditions while preparing for diving, wet scrubber chemicals can freeze while there is a pause in the exothermic reaction of taking up the carbon dioxide, thus preventing carbon dioxide from reaching the scrubber material, and slowing the reaction when used again.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Flooding_of_the_loop">Flooding of the loop</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=72" title="Edit section: Flooding of the loop"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Flooding of the breathing loop can occur due to a leak at a low point in the loop where internal gas pressure is less than the external water pressure. One of the more common ways this can happen is if the mouthpiece is dislodged or removed from the diver's mouth without first closing the dive/surface valve or switching to bailout. This can happen due to accidental impact or through momentary inattention. Depending on the layout of the loop and the attitude of the rebreather in the water, the amount of water ingress can vary, as can the distance it travels into the air passages of the breathing loop. In some models of rebreather a moderate amount of water will be trapped at a low point in a counterlung or the scrubber housing, and prevented from reaching the absorbent in the scrubber. Some rebreathers have a system to expel water trapped in this way, either automatically through the vent valve, such as in the <a href="/wiki/Halcyon_RB80" title="Halcyon RB80">Halcyon RB80</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Interspiro_DCSC" title="Interspiro DCSC">Interspiro DCSC</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Larsson_2000_28-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Larsson_2000-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or manually by using a small pump. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gas_leakage">Gas leakage</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=73" title="Edit section: Gas leakage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are several places on a rebreather where gas leakage can cause problems. Leakage can occur from the high and intermediate pressure components, and from the loop, at pressure slightly above ambient. The effects on system integrity depend on severity of the leak. If only small volumes of gas are lost the leak may be tolerable for the rest of the dive, but a leak may become more severe, depending on the cause, and may in some cases deteriorate catastrophically. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Oxygen_monitoring_failure">Oxygen monitoring failure</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=74" title="Edit section: Oxygen monitoring failure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Failure of <a href="/wiki/Electro-galvanic_oxygen_sensor" title="Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor">electro-galvanic oxygen sensors</a>.</li> <li>Failure of <a href="/wiki/Redundancy_(engineering)#Voting_logic" title="Redundancy (engineering)">voting logic</a></li> <li>Failure of display</li></ul> <p>Oxygen monitoring failure can lead to incorrect partial pressure of oxygen in the breathing gas. The consequences can include hypoxia, hyperoxia, and incorrect decompression information, all three of which are potentially life-threatening. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gas_injection_system_failure">Gas injection system failure</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=75" title="Edit section: Gas injection system failure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Constant mass flow orifice blockage:– In a CCR, blockage of a CMF oxygen injection orifice will increase the frequency of manual or solenoid valve injection, which is an inconvenience rather than an emergency. In active addition SCRs the unnoticed failure of gas injection will lead to the mix becoming hypoxic. If there is instrumentation monitoring the partial pressure of oxygen in the loop, the diver can compensate by manual injection or forcing automatic injection via the ADV by dumping gas into the environment by exhaling through the nose.</li> <li>Injector control circuit malfunction:– If the control circuit for oxygen injection fails, the usual mode of failure results in the oxygen injection valves being closed. Unless action is taken, the breathing gas will become hypoxic with potentially fatal consequences. An alternative mode of failure is one in which the injection valves are kept open, resulting in an increasingly hyperoxic gas mix in the loop, which may pose the danger of <a href="/wiki/Oxygen_toxicity" title="Oxygen toxicity">oxygen toxicity</a>. Two basic approaches for preventing loss of availability are possible. Either a redundant independent control system may be used, or the risk of the single system failing may be accepted, and the diver takes the responsibility for manual gas mixture control in the event of failure. Both methods depend on continued reliable oxygen monitoring. Most (possibly all) electronically controlled CCRs have manual injection override. If the electronic injection fails, the user can take manual control of the gas mixture provided that the oxygen monitoring is still reliably functioning. Alarms are usually provided to warn the diver of failure.</li> <li>Automatic diluent valve malfunction:– The ADV is the same technology as an open circuit demand valve, and as such is generally very reliable if maintained correctly. Two failure modes are possible, Free flow, where the valve sticks open, and the less likely failure of the valve to open. As diluent is usually chosen to be breathable at all or most depths of the planned dive, this is not usually immediately dangerous, but a free flow will use up the diluent rapidly and unless rectified soon the diver will have to abort the dive and bail out. There may be a manual diluent valve which the diver can use to add gas if the valve fails closed.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scrubber_monitoring">Scrubber monitoring</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=76" title="Edit section: Scrubber monitoring"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The methods available for monitoring the condition of the scrubber and predicting and identifying imminent breakthrough include: </p> <ul><li>Dive planning and scheduled replacement. Divers are trained to monitor and plan the exposure time of the absorbent material in the scrubber and replace it within the recommended time limit. This method is necessarily very conservative, as actual carbon dioxide produced during a dive is not accurately predictable and is not measured. Manufacturers recommendations for replacement periods tend to allow for worst cases to reduce risk, and this is relatively uneconomical in absorbent usage.</li> <li>An indicator <a href="/wiki/Dye" title="Dye">dye</a> that changes colour when the active ingredient is consumed may be included in the absorbent. For example, a rebreather absorbent called "Protosorb" supplied by <a href="/wiki/Siebe_Gorman" title="Siebe Gorman">Siebe Gorman</a> had a red indicator dye, which was said to go white when the absorbent was exhausted. With a transparent canister, this may show the position of the reaction front. This is useful where the canister is visible to the user, which is seldom possible on diving equipment, where the canister is often inside the counterlung or a back mounted casing. Colour indicating dye was removed from <a href="/wiki/US_Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="US Navy">US Navy</a> fleet use in 1996 when it was suspected of releasing chemicals into the circuit.<sup id="cite_ref-Lillo_et_al_1996_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lillo_et_al_1996-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Temperature monitoring. As the reaction between carbon dioxide and soda lime is exothermic, temperature sensors along the length of the scrubber can be used to measure the position of the reaction front and therefore the estimated remaining life of the scrubber.<sup id="cite_ref-Warkander_2007_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Warkander_2007-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-scrubber_monitor_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scrubber_monitor-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>While carbon dioxide gas sensors exist, they are not useful as a tool for predicting remaining scrubber endurance as they measure the carbon dioxide in the scrubbed gas, and the onset of scrubber break through generally occurs quite rapidly. Such systems are fitted as a safety device to warn divers to bail off the loop immediately.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fault_tolerant_design">Fault tolerant design</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=77" title="Edit section: Fault tolerant design"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Fault_tolerance" title="Fault tolerance">Fault tolerance</a></div> <p>Fault tolerance is the property that enables a <a href="/wiki/System" title="System">system</a> to continue operating properly in the event of the failure of some of its components. If its operating quality decreases at all, the decrease is proportional to the severity of the failure, as compared to a naively designed system, in which even a small failure can cause total breakdown. Fault tolerance is particularly important in <a href="/wiki/High_availability" title="High availability">high availability</a> or <a href="/wiki/Safety-critical_system" title="Safety-critical system">safety-critical systems</a>. The ability to maintain functionality when portions of a system break down is referred to as graceful degradation.<sup id="cite_ref-Gonzalez_et_al_1997_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gonzalez_et_al_1997-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The basic closed circuit oxygen rebreather is a very simple and mechanically reliable device, but it has severe operational limitations due to oxygen toxicity. The approaches to safely extending the depth range necessitate a variable breathing gas mixture. Semi-closed rebreathers tend to be inefficient for decompression, and not entirely predictable for gas composition in comparison with a precisely controlled closed circuit rebreather. Monitoring the gas composition in the breathing loop can only be done by electrical sensors, bringing the underwater reliability of the electronic sensing system into the safety critical component category.<sup id="cite_ref-Simanek_2021_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simanek_2021-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are no formal statistics on underwater electronics failure rates, but it is likely that human error is more frequent than the error rate of electronic dive computers, which are the basic component of rebreather control electronics, which process information from multiple sources and have an algorithm for controlling the oxygen injection solenoid. The sealed dive computer package has been around for long enough for the better quality models to have become reliable and robust in design and construction.<sup id="cite_ref-Simanek_2021_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simanek_2021-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An electronically controlled rebreather is a complex system. The control unit receives input from several sensors, evaluates the data, calculates the appropriate next action or actions, updates the system status and displays, and performs the actions, in some cases using real-time feedback to adapt the control signal.<sup id="cite_ref-Simanek_2021_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simanek_2021-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The inputs include signals from one or more of pressure, oxygen and temperature sensors, a clock, and possibly helium and carbon dioxide sensors. There is also a battery power source, and a user interface in the form of a visual display, user input interface in the form of button switches, and possibly audio and vibratory alarms.<sup id="cite_ref-Simanek_2021_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simanek_2021-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a minimal eCCR the system is very vulnerable. A single critical fault can necessitate manual procedures for fault recovery or the need to bail out to an alternative breathing gas supply. Some faults may have fatal consequences if not noticed and managed very quickly. Critical failures include power supply, non-redundant oxygen sensor, solenoid valves or control unit.<sup id="cite_ref-Simanek_2021_5-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simanek_2021-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The purely mechanical components are relatively robust and reliable and tend to degrade non-catastrophically, and are bulky and heavy, so the electronic sensors and control systems have been the components where improved fault tolerance has generally been sought. Oxygen cell failures have been a particular problem, with predictably serious consequences, so the use of multiple redundancy in oxygen partial pressure monitoring has been an important area of development for improving reliability. A problem in this regard is the cost and relatively short lifespan of oxygen sensors, along with their relatively unpredictable <a href="/wiki/Mean_time_to_first_failure" title="Mean time to first failure">time to failure</a>, and sensitivity to the environment.<sup id="cite_ref-Simanek_2021_5-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simanek_2021-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To automatically detect and identify oxygen sensor malfunction, either the sensors must be calibrated with a known gas, which is very inconvenient at most times during a dive, but is possible as an occasional test when a fault is suspected, or several cells can be compared and the assumption made that cells with near identical output are functioning correctly. This voting logic requires a minimum of three cells, and reliability increases with number.<sup id="cite_ref-Simanek_2021_5-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simanek_2021-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To combine cell redundancy with monitoring circuit, control circuit and display redundancy, the cell signals should all be available to all monitoring and control circuits in normal conditions. This can be done by sharing signals at the analog or digital stage – the cell output voltage can be supplied to the input of all monitoring units, or the voltages of some cells can be supplied to each monitor, and the processed digital signals shared. The sharing of digital signals may allow easier isolation of defective components if short circuits occur. The minimum number of cells in this architecture is two per monitoring unit, with two monitoring units for redundancy, which is more than the minimum three for basic voting logic capability.<sup id="cite_ref-Simanek_2021_5-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simanek_2021-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The three aspects of a fault tolerant rebreather are hardware redundancy, robust software and a fault detection system. The software is complex and comprises several modules with their own tasks, such as oxygen partial pressure measurement, ambient pressure measurement, Oxygen injection control, decompression status calculation and the user interface of status and information display and user inputs. It is possible to separate the user interface hardware from the control and monitoring unit, in a way that allows the control system to continue to operate if the relatively vulnerable user interface is compromised.<sup id="cite_ref-Simanek_2021_5-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simanek_2021-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Characteristics that would improve safety include:<sup id="cite_ref-Sieber_et_al_2013_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sieber_et_al_2013-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Full automation of the control system would avoid a range of user errors, provided the control system is reliable and fault tolerant.</li> <li>A highly reliable oxygen sensor system would reduce the risk of hypoxia or hyperoxic breathing gas.</li> <li>An oxygen sensor system that can reliably detect sensor failures and identify the failure mode.</li> <li>Carbon dioxide sensors that can reliably detect the beginning of a scrubber failure.</li> <li>Low work of breathing.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Operation">Operation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=78" title="Edit section: Operation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rebreather_diving" title="Rebreather diving">Rebreather diving</a></div> <p>Rebreathers are more complex to use than open circuit scuba, and have more potential <a href="/wiki/Point_of_failure" class="mw-redirect" title="Point of failure">points of failure</a>, so acceptably safe use requires a greater level of skill, attention and situational awareness, which is usually derived from understanding the systems, diligent maintenance and overlearning the practical skills of operation and <a href="/wiki/Fault_recovery" class="mw-redirect" title="Fault recovery">fault recovery</a>. Fault tolerant design can make a rebreather less likely to fail in a way that immediately endangers the user, and reduces the task loading on the diver which in turn may lower the risk of operator error. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technological_innovations">Technological innovations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=79" title="Edit section: Technological innovations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rebreather technology has advanced considerably, often driven by the growing market in recreational diving equipment, particularly in underwater cave exploration. Innovations include: </p> <ul><li>Bailout valves – a device in the mouthpiece of the loop which connects to a <a href="/wiki/Bailout_bottle" title="Bailout bottle">bailout</a> demand valve and can be switched to provide gas from either the loop or the demand valve without the diver taking the mouthpiece from their mouth. An important safety device when <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon dioxide poisoning">carbon dioxide poisoning</a> occurs.<sup id="cite_ref-BOV_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BOV-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Closed circuit bailout.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Active and passive oxygen sensor validation.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Hyperoxic linearity test.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Integrated <a href="/wiki/Decompression_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression computer">decompression computers</a> – input to a dive computer from the oxygen sensors of the rebreather allow divers to take advantage of the actual partial pressure of oxygen to generate an optimised schedule for <a href="/wiki/Decompression_(diving)" title="Decompression (diving)">decompression</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Gas integrated decompression computers – these allow divers to take advantage of the actual gas mixture, as measured by one or more oxygen cells in real time, to generate a schedule for <a href="/wiki/Decompression_(diving)" title="Decompression (diving)">decompression</a> in real time.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Carbon dioxide scrubber life monitoring systems – temperature sensors monitor the progress of the reaction of the <a href="/wiki/Soda_lime" title="Soda lime">soda lime</a> and provide an indication of when the scrubber will be exhausted.<sup id="cite_ref-Warkander_2007_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Warkander_2007-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Carbon dioxide level monitoring systems – Gas sensing cell and interpretive electronics which detect the concentration of carbon dioxide in the rebreather loop downstream from the scrubber.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Multiple set-points automatically selected by depth – Electronic rebreather control systems can be programmed to change set-point above and below selectable limiting depths to limit oxygen exposure during the working dive, but increase the limit during decompression above the limiting depth to accelerate decompression.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Automated pre-dive checklists and systems checks.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Head-up displays for status and alarms.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Data logging.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Sidemount rebreathers</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Active_and_passive_oxygen_sensor_validation">Active and passive oxygen sensor validation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=80" title="Edit section: Active and passive oxygen sensor validation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Accurate and reliable oxygen partial pressure measurement is one of the most problematic factors in rebreather diving safety. Control systems using this data have developed to the extent that they are robust and reliable, and the use of an independent backup improves the reliability to about as good as for any other component. The weakest point is the sensors, which are prone to several modes of failure, some of which are relatively insidious as the cell may pass a normobaric calibration and fail when the partial pressure is near the high end of the acceptable working range, which is also the range in which constant partial pressure diving has the maximum benefit. When it has been possible to infer the cause, the leading cause of rebreather fatalities is hypoxia, at approximately 17%, with hyperoxia assumed in an additional 4% of cases. If these trends extend into the range of indeterminate cases, it is possible that inappropriate oxygen content is involved in 30% of rebreather fatalities.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The standard method for improving reliability of oxygen monitoring has been multiple redundancy – the use of 3 or more sensors – and using the multiple data inputs with a voting logic system to try to identify failure of a sensor in time to make a controlled and safe termination of the dive. Voting logic normally assumes that if one sensor produces a reading significantly differing from two or more others when exposed to the same environment, the outlier is faulty, and the input of the others is assumed accurate. Unfortunately this is not always the case, and there have been cases where the outlier sensor was most correct. It has been shown that the reliability of this system is lower than originally expected due to a lack of sufficient statistical independence of the three sensors, and that outcomes are not symmetrical – the effects of faulty low or high partial pressure readings are also depth dependent.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>If a sensor gives relatively static output with little response to variations in depth and temperature, and changes in gas composition due to use, gas addition, incomplete mixing or loop turbulence, it is likely that the sensor may not be responding correctly, and when two sensors follow a similar pattern of response this is a warning that both may be defective. Algorithms that track sensor output against expected output taking known changes into account can indicate reliability of the sensors. This method of monitoring sensors is known as passive sensor validation (PSV), can be used to improve reliability of sensor integrity assessment, and can be used in the control system to make more reliable decisions on which sensors are most likely to be giving trustworthy output in comparison with voting logic based only on calibration values for the sensors. PSV is an improvement on simple voting logic but is still susceptible to errors related to statistical independence of components.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early work on design of an automatic sensor validation system, in which the rebreather control system would periodically inject gas of known composition onto the oxygen sensors during the dive and use the output to determine the viability of the sensor response with greater precision and accuracy than a human diver, was started in 2002, and further developed to be used on the Poseidon/Cis-Lunar MK-VI rebreather. This "Active Sensor Validation" (ASV) system has been refined over thousands of hours of field test diving in varied conditions<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ASV system has become more sophisticated than the manual implementation in the Cis-Lunar MK-5P. It involves more than comparing the measured PO<sub>2</sub> value from the sensor with the calculated PO<sub>2</sub> of the diluent at the current depth. In the implementation in the Poseidon rebreathers the computer automatically injects either diluent or oxygen directly onto a single primary oxygen sensor every five minutes during a dive. The algorithm takes into account current depth, FO<sub>2</sub> of the injected gas, ambient temperature, duration of gas injection, and calibration values for the sensor for that dive to predict how the sensor should respond over the next few seconds after each gas injection, and compares that with the measured results to produce a confidence level for correct sensor performance.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This type of sensor validation test can identify several modes of failure by the ways the measured values deviate from expected values with variations of calculated partial pressure of the test gas, and is capable of detecting failures due to incorrect temperature readings, incorrect input of the FO<sub>2</sub> of the diluent condensation on the oxygen sensor, a defective oxygen sensor, validation gas supply failure and other reasons that would not be detected by voting logic.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hyperoxic_linearity_test">Hyperoxic linearity test</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=81" title="Edit section: Hyperoxic linearity test"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The oxygen sensors for most rebreathers are calibrated at the surface before the dive using air or 100% oxygen at normal atmospheric pressure. These are reliable calibration points but the range of operational partial pressures may extend beyond these calibration points, and if the sensors are calibrated for a linear response between these conditions and the response is extrapolated, for set points above 1 bar, which is standard practice, the control system must operate outside of the range for which response is known to be linear. One of the most common modes of failure is for a cell to become current-limited as it ages. The internal impedance changes as the anode is consumed by the reaction which produces the output current, and the response becomes non-linear at higher oxygen partial pressures. The signal may indicate a lower partial pressure and does not increase proportionately as oxygen is added, leading to a loop oxygen partial pressure that may increase to dangerous levels without warning. A way of validating the sensors at high partial pressures is to expose the sensor to higher PO<sub>2</sub> than the upper set point by exposing it to pure oxygen at a depth of 6 m, for a PO<sub>2</sub> of 1.6 bar during the dive, or at 1.6 bar or more in a calibration pressure pot. Both these methods are cumbersome and the in-water method may cause spiking of the PO<sub>2</sub> during descent. A variation of the ASV system using oxygen, called a hyperoxic linearity test (HLT), uses oxygen as the flushing gas at 6 m, which can check that the sensor is linear to 1.6 bar PO<sub>2</sub>, and if it fails, the set point can be automatically reduced to within the linear range established during calibration. A single sensor with PSV and ASV has been shown to be more reliable than three sensors with conventional voting logic. The effectiveness of cell validation algorithms is expected to improve with the acquisition of more field data gathered by the rebreather control systems.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carbon_dioxide_monitoring">Carbon dioxide monitoring</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=82" title="Edit section: Carbon dioxide monitoring"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Hypercapnia has been identified as one of the most prevalent factors in rebreather diving fatalities. This is generally a consequence of scrubber failure to remove carbon dioxide as fast as it is produced, which may be caused by any one or a combination of spent, wet, or inadequately packed, absorbent material, incorrectly designed or assembled canisters, mismatch of absorbent and canister design, or absorbent used beyond its operational range. Higher carbon dioxide partial pressure in the loop leads to higher levels of carbon dioxide in the blood and tissue, which can have a range of symptoms including respiratory distress, increased susceptibility to CNS oxygen toxicity, disorientation, and loss of consciousness.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most rebreather designs have relied on very conservative time-based limits for absorbent duration based on experimental testing, using cold conditions and high workloads and high depth pressures. The usually unnecessarily high conservatism encourages divers to stretch the absorbent duration, which works well enough until it doesn't, often without warning, which can have serious consequences. A more sophisticated method is to base absorbent duration limits on metabolic oxygen consumption, as a proxy for metabolic carbon dioxide production, which is reasonably stable for most people most of the time, and can compensate fairly well for variations in exertion and base metabolism, but does not compensate reliably for depth and pressure effects on absorbent function.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A more direct and empirical approach is to take advantage of the production of heat and rise in temperature of the active zone of the absorbent in the scrubber. More carbon dioxide is absorbed by the first zone of relatively unused absorbent that it reaches as the breathing gas passes through the scrubber, and this relatively active zone progresses through the canister as the zone first reached by the gas is exhausted, and more reaction occurs further along. This reaction front is at a higher temperature than the spent absorbent, and the absorbent not yet exposed to high carbon dioxide levels, and the front progresses along the scrubber until part of it reaches the end of the absorbent, and unscrubbed gas breaks through to the other side of the loop, after which there is a fairly constant and irreversible increase in inspired carbon dioxide.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some rebreather manufacturers have developed linear temperature probes which identify the position of the reactive front, allowing the user to estimate the remaining duration of the canister. </p><p>None of these methods can detect canister bypass and they have little ability to identify completely spent absorbent, channeling, badly packed, or inappropriate absorbent material, but this can be done by a direct measurement of carbon dioxide partial pressure in the inhalation side of the loop.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Research and development of carbon dioxide sensors goes back at least as far as the early 1990s when Teledyne Analytical Instruments and Cis-Lunar Development Laboratories worked on a sensor for the Cis-Lunar MK-III rebreather, which was accurate in laboratory conditions but in the field susceptible to high humidity and condensation causing unreliable readings, which was a recurring problem with real-time carbon dioxide measurement. High pressures also caused problems for depth compensation. In 2009 VR Technologies released a commercial CO<sub>2</sub> sensor using hydrophobic membranes to keep the sensors dry without excessively reducing gas flow to the sensors.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since then other manufacturers have introduced their products to the market but they have not gained widespread use. They are relatively expensive, give unreliable readings in some circumstances, can only detect failure of the scrubber, and do not predict remaining duration. A combination of temperature measurement and post scrubber CO<sub>2</sub> measurement can give both prediction and failure warning, for increased cost and complexity.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Placement of the sensor in the loop can affect sensitivity to actual CO<sub>2</sub> content of inspired gas. Measuring gas in the mouthpiece has problems due to dead space, and mounting in the inhalation hose near the mouthpiece makes the sensor sensitive to small leaks in the inhalation check valve, while also able to detect high CO<sub>2</sub> due to major check valve leaks which would cause a big increase in dead space, which would not be detected if the sensor is further upstream in the loop.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Furthermore, increased levels of CO<sub>2</sub> in inspired gas is only one cause of hypercapnia. It is also affected by work of breathing, diver fitness, respiratory ventilation patterns, and other behavioural, physiological, and mechanical factors. A better option would be to measure both inhaled and exhaled CO<sub>2</sub> levels, and this would require sensors that are fast and reliable in wet conditions, and reasonably inexpensive<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Automated_pre-dive_checklists">Automated pre-dive checklists</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=83" title="Edit section: Automated pre-dive checklists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Following the strong endorsement by Rebreather Forum 3 of the use of written checklists to improve safety, Cis-Lunar Development Laboratories programmed an electronic pre-dive checklist into their MK-5P rebreather operating system, as a way to prevent the user from neglecting to carry out the recommended checks before use. This was considered successful and implemented on later generations in the Poseidon MK-VI and SE7EN rebreathers, and developed to include robust internal diagnostics for the core electronic components and software, and automatic calibration of the oxygen sensor cells at normobaric pressures. Failure to complete the full checklist results in a range of alarms if the user attempts to dive with the unit. While not entirely foolproof – Oxygen cells are not calibrated at hyperbaric working pressures – a number of safety critical errors will be picked up and the diver made aware of them. The software also logs the steps and data from the pre-dive check and this has been valuable for accident analysis. The pre-dive checks also take less time and require no paper or user logging effort. This system has been shown to reduce risk and has been adopted by several manufacturers.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Head-up_displays">Head-up displays</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=84" title="Edit section: Head-up displays"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Head-up_display" title="Head-up display">Head-up display</a></div> <p>The user interface of the rebreather control system is where information is exchanged between the diver and the electronic control system, and is an area with several possibilities for errors, both of user input and data interpretation, some of which could have serious or fatal consequences. The intrinsically higher risk of mechanical failure due to high complexity can be compensated by engineering redundancy, both of the control system and bailout gas supply, and appropriate training. The design of the human–machine interface (HMI) can be improved to reduce the risk of misunderstanding and error, and training can focus on correct interpretation of the information and appropriate response. The HMI usually has two main components, displays and alarms, and many of the alarms are associated with specific visual information.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A challenge of designing effective alarms is to ensure that the diver is not distracted by irrelevant information and that they are not triggered too easily, which habituates the diver to paying less attention, and while possibly fulfilling legal requirements regarding warnings and alarms, may make the equipment functionally less safe to use. One strategy to avoid this problem is to target different senses – auditory, visual and tactile – sometimes based on a vibratory output to the mouthpiece.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An effective display ensures that the user gets the information they need when they need it, and the information they want when they want it, in a form that is immediately recognised and unambiguously understood. When too much information is presented at a time of stress, the user may be confused or unable to distinguish the useful information in time to use it effectively. At other times more detailed information may be useful or necessary to make a correct decision. Multiple displays, or multiple views on the same display can help with this.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A trend in rebreather displays that is predicted to become more widespread,<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is the use of advanced head-up displays, which can provide a wider range of information by using an array of coloured lights or more complex graphical or alphanumeric displays that remain peripherally visible to the diver at all times, and only require eye movement to become fully readable.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Closed_circuit_bailout">Closed circuit bailout</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=85" title="Edit section: Closed circuit bailout"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A major logistical problem for long and deep rebreather dives is the volume of bailout equipment that must be carried to allow a safe return to the surface from any point of the dive after irrecoverable failure of the primary system. The open circuit option can become extremely bulky and awkward to manage, and while more compact and efficient, the rebreather option has its own set of logistic challenges.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the main design challenges in developing a closed circuit bailout system for rebreathers is to maintain the bailout set in a condition ready for use at all depths. This implies breathable gas for the depth, though not necessarily optimised, as the mix can be brought to set point quite rabidly after bailout, and a gas volume that does not vary excessively, so that buoyancy control is not unduly complicated. The bulk of the system must be manageable, and the bailout set mouthpiece must be easily accessible, but secure. Since bailout rebreathers are most likely to be used on dives with large decompression obligations, the switch to bailout must be accommodated by the decompression management system. If real-time monitoring of oxygen partial pressure is included in decompression computation, it must be possible to transfer this facility between units, without compromising their independence. Task-loading of the diver in managing the two loops must not be excessive, as the diver is recognised as the least reliable aspect of the operation, and may be under significant stress when bailout becomes necessary.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Data_logging">Data logging</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=86" title="Edit section: Data logging"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Data_logger" title="Data logger">Data logger</a></div> <p>Data logged from rebreather dives is useful for accident analysis, testing and development of rebreathers, and for diver educational purposes. Dive profile logging by integrated decompression computers is also of value for research into effectiveness of decompression schedules. Aggregation of such data can provide insights into diving patterns across the population of users and help in analysing risk.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The control systems of electronic rebreathers have continued to increase in processing and storage capacity, and in parallel, their capacity for capturing data at increased granularity and precision has increased. In 1994 the Cis-Lunar Mk-IV data logging system recorded data at several hundred points per hour of dive time, and by 1997 the Cis-Lunar Mk-5P was logging over a thousand points per hour. By 2007 the Poseidon MK-VI Discovery was logging between 15,000 and 25,000 points per hour, and in 2016 the Poseidon SE7EN recorded more than double that quantity, in alignment with the recommendations of Rebreather Forum 3, which states:<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>The forum recommends that all rebreathers incorporate data-logging systems that record functional parameters relevant to the particular unit and dive data and that allow download of these data. Diagnostic reconstruction of dives with as many relevant parameters as possible is the goal of this initiative. An ideal goal would be to incorporate redundancy in data-logging systems and, as much as practical, to standardize the data to be collected<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Some of the logged data is specific to the rebreather model, and is not appropriate for general analysis, but some data is useful for external analysis of user population and diving practices which could improve understanding of behaviour and safety analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_2016_63-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle_2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Manufacturers_and_models">Manufacturers and models</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=87" title="Edit section: Manufacturers and models"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Oxygen rebreathers</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aqua_Lung/La_Spirotechnique" title="Aqua Lung/La Spirotechnique">Aqua Lung/La Spirotechnique</a> – French company manufacturing breathing apparatus and diving equipment <ul><li><a href="/wiki/FROGS_(Full_Range_Oxygen_Gas_System)" class="mw-redirect" title="FROGS (Full Range Oxygen Gas System)">FROGS (Full Range Oxygen Gas System)</a> – Closed circuit oxygen diving rebreather – a model of closed circuit <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> rebreather for intensive shallow water work and clandestine special forces operations made by AquaLung, which has been used in France since October 2002.<sup id="cite_ref-commando_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-commando-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The unit can be worn on the chest, or with an adaptor frame, on the back. The scrubber has an endurance of about 4 hours at 4°C and respiratory minute volume of 40 litres per minute, and a 2.1 litre 207 bar cylinder. It is manufactured in non-magnetic and magnetic versions and can use either 2.6kg of granular sorb or a moulded carbon dioxide absorbent insert.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dr%C3%A4ger_(company)" title="Dräger (company)">Dräger</a> – German manufacturer of breathing equipment <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LAR-5" class="mw-redirect" title="LAR-5">LAR-5</a> – Military oxygen tebreather by Drägerwerk</li> <li><a href="/wiki/LAR-6" class="mw-redirect" title="LAR-6">LAR-6</a> – Military oxygen rebreather by Drägerwerk</li> <li><a href="/wiki/LAR-V" class="mw-redirect" title="LAR-V">LAR-V</a> – Military oxygen rebreather by Drägerwerk</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambertsen_Amphibious_Respiratory_Unit" title="Lambertsen Amphibious Respiratory Unit">Lambertsen Amphibious Respiratory Unit</a> – Early closed circuit oxygen diving rebreather</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porpoise_(scuba_gear)" title="Porpoise (scuba gear)">Porpoise</a> – Australian scuba manufacturer <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Porpoise_(rebreather)" class="mw-redirect" title="Porpoise (rebreather)">Porpoise (rebreather)</a> – Australian oxygen rebreather – <a href="/wiki/Ted_Eldred" title="Ted Eldred">Ted Eldred</a>'s oxygen rebreather.<sup id="cite_ref-eldred_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eldred-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siebe_Gorman" title="Siebe Gorman">Siebe Gorman</a> – British manufacturer of diving equipment and salvage contractor <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mark_IV_Amphibian" title="Mark IV Amphibian">Mark IV Amphibian</a> – British military oxygen rebreather</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siebe_Gorman_CDBA" title="Siebe Gorman CDBA">CDBA</a> – Type of diving rebreather used by the Royal Navy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davis_Submerged_Escape_Apparatus" title="Davis Submerged Escape Apparatus">Davis Submerged Escape Apparatus</a> – Early submarine escape oxygen rebreather also used for shallow water diving. – One of the first rebreathers to be produced in quantity.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siebe_Gorman_Salvus" title="Siebe Gorman Salvus">Salvus</a> – Industrial rescue and shallow water oxygen rebreather</li> <li>The "Universal" rebreather was a long-dive derivative of the <a href="/wiki/Davis_Submerged_Escape_Apparatus" title="Davis Submerged Escape Apparatus">Davis Submerged Escape Apparatus</a>, intended to be used with the <a href="/wiki/Sladen_Suit" title="Sladen Suit">Sladen Suit</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IDA71" title="IDA71">IDA71</a> – Russian military rebreather for underwater and high altitude use</li> <li><a href="/wiki/SDBA" title="SDBA">SDBA</a> – Special duty oxygen breathing apparatus, a military rebreather. – A type of frogman's oxygen rebreather. It has a <a href="/wiki/Nitrox" title="Nitrox">nitrox</a> variant called ONBA.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <p><b>Mixed gas rebreathers</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AP_Diving" title="AP Diving">AP Diving</a> – British manufacturer of underwater diving equipment <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inspiration_(rebreather)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Inspiration (rebreather) (page does not exist)">Inspiration series</a> – one of the first electronic closed circuit rebreathers to be mass produced for the recreational market.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aqua_Lung/La_Spirotechnique" title="Aqua Lung/La Spirotechnique">Aqua Lung/La Spirotechnique</a> – French company manufacturing breathing apparatus and diving equipment <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=DC55&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="DC55 (page does not exist)">DC55</a><sup id="cite_ref-DC55_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DC55-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BioMarine" class="mw-redirect" title="BioMarine">BioMarine</a> – American manufacturer of diving rebreathers<sup id="cite_ref-Juergensen_1998_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Juergensen_1998-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=BioMarine_CCR_1000&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="BioMarine CCR 1000 (page does not exist)">BioMarine CCR 1000</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=BioMarine_Mk-15&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="BioMarine Mk-15 (page does not exist)">BioMarine Mk-15</a> military rebreather</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=BioMarine_Mk-16&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="BioMarine Mk-16 (page does not exist)">BioMarine Mk-16</a> military rebreather</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carleton_Life_Support" class="mw-redirect" title="Carleton Life Support">Carleton Life Support</a> – Subsidiary of Cobham based in Davenport, Iowa <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siva_(rebreather)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siva (rebreather)">Siva</a> – Range of military rebreathers military rebreather, and</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viper_(rebreather)" class="mw-redirect" title="Viper (rebreather)">Viper</a> – Electronically-controlled closed circuit mixed gas military rebreather</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viper_E&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Viper E (page does not exist)">Viper E</a> – made by Carleton and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Juergensen_Defense_Corporation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Juergensen Defense Corporation (page does not exist)">Juergensen Defense Corporation</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carleton_CDBA" class="mw-redirect" title="Carleton CDBA">Carleton CDBA</a> – Military rebreather by Cobham plc – Clearance Diver's Breathing Apparatus.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cis-Lunar" title="Cis-Lunar">Cis-Lunar</a> – Manufacturer of electronically controlled closed-circuit rebreathers for scuba diving</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divex" title="Divex">Divex</a> – Scottish provider of diving equipment and related services. <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clearance_Divers%27_Life_Support_Equipment&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Clearance Divers' Life Support Equipment (page does not exist)">Clearance Divers' Life Support Equipment</a> (<abbr>CDLSE</abbr>) – An electronic closed circuit rebreather allowing diving to 60 metres (200 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-Historical_diving_times_2007_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Historical_diving_times_2007-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dr%C3%A4ger_(company)" title="Dräger (company)">Dräger</a> – German manufacturer of breathing equipment <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dr%C3%A4ger_Dolphin" class="mw-redirect" title="Dräger Dolphin">Dräger Dolphin</a> – Semi-closed circuit recreational diving rebreather</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dr%C3%A4ger_Ray" class="mw-redirect" title="Dräger Ray">Dräger Ray</a> – Semi-closed circuit diving rebreather</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halcyon_Dive_Systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Halcyon Dive Systems">Halcyon Dive Systems</a> – American manufacturer of diving equipment<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Halcyon_PVR-BASC" title="Halcyon PVR-BASC">Halcyon PVR-BASC</a> – Semi-closed circuit depth compensated passive addition diving rebreather</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halcyon_RB80" title="Halcyon RB80">Halcyon RB80</a> – Non-depth-compensated passive addition semi-closed circuit rebreather</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IDA71" title="IDA71">IDA71</a> – Russian military rebreather for underwater and high altitude use</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interspiro_DCSC" title="Interspiro DCSC">Interspiro DCSC</a> – Military semi-closed circuit passive addition diving rebreather</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jetsam_Technologies" class="mw-redirect" title="Jetsam Technologies">Jetsam Technologies</a> – Manufacturer of manual closed circuit rebreathers <ul><li><a href="/wiki/KISS_(rebreather)" class="mw-redirect" title="KISS (rebreather)">KISS</a> – Manual closed circuit mixed gas rebreather – line of manually operated closed circuit rebreathers designed by <a href="/wiki/Gordon_Smith_(inventor)" title="Gordon Smith (inventor)">Gordon Smith</a> .<sup id="cite_ref-Kiss_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kiss-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=KISS_sidewinder&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="KISS sidewinder (page does not exist)">KISS sidewinder</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=JJ_CCR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="JJ CCR (page does not exist)">JJ CCR</a> – A technical diving rebreather built to allow mounting of large cylinders to enable carrying larger quantities of bailout gas on the rebreather frame.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238216509">.mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}</style><span class="vanchor"><span id="Divesoft"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Divesoft</span></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberty_rebreathers&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Liberty rebreathers (page does not exist)">Liberty rebreathers</a> Back and sidemount mixed gas technical diving rebreathers.<sup id="cite_ref-Heinerth_2019_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heinerth_2019-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Liberty_CCR_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liberty_CCR-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mark_29_Underwater_Breathing_Apparatus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mark 29 Underwater Breathing Apparatus (page does not exist)">Mark 29 Underwater Breathing Apparatus</a><sup id="cite_ref-DON_Innovation_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DON_Innovation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poseidon_Diving_Systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Poseidon Diving Systems">Poseidon Diving Systems</a> – Swedish manufacturer of diving equipment <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Poseidon_MkVI&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poseidon MkVI (page does not exist)">Poseidon MkVI</a> – the world's first fully automatic closed circuit rebreather for recreational use,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> based on the <a href="/wiki/Cis-Lunar" title="Cis-Lunar">Cis-Lunar</a> MK5 design and further developed into,</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Poseidon_SE7EN&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poseidon SE7EN (page does not exist)">Poseidon SE7EN</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prism_2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prism 2 (page does not exist)">Prism 2</a> – Notable for a radial scrubber and high-current oxygen cells from the Navy MK15 unit enabling an analogue gauge to read the oxygen levels.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=ScubaForce&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ScubaForce (page does not exist)">ScubaForce</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=SF2_(rebreather)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SF2 (rebreather) (page does not exist)">SF2 (rebreather)</a> – Back or sidemount ECCR with bellows counterlung.<sup id="cite_ref-Rubicon_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rubicon-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siebe_Gorman" title="Siebe Gorman">Siebe Gorman</a> – British manufacturer of diving equipment and salvage contractor <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siebe_Gorman_CDBA" title="Siebe Gorman CDBA">Siebe Gorman CDBA</a> – Type of diving rebreather used by the Royal Navy – also CDMBA, SCBA, SCMBA, UBA</li> <li>A type introduced in 1999 in the <a href="/wiki/British_Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="British Navy">British Navy</a>, being an update of the BioMarine/Carleton MK16:<sup id="cite_ref-Mk16_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mk16-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>Some military rebreathers (for example the <a href="/wiki/US_Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="US Navy">US Navy</a> MK-25 and the MK-16 mixed-gas rebreather), and the <a href="/wiki/Phibian" class="mw-redirect" title="Phibian">Phibian</a> CCS50 and CCS100 rebreathers, were developed by <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_Worldwide" title="Oceanic Worldwide">Oceanic</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>The current US Navy Mark 16 Mod 2 (Explosive Ordnance Disposal) and Mark 16 Mod 3 (Naval Special Warfare) units use the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Juergensen_Defense_Corporation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Juergensen Defense Corporation (page does not exist)">Juergensen Defense Corporation</a> Mark V Control System.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>The Orca ECR is a CCR design that has both carbon dioxide and oxygen monitoring<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The Megalodon<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>The rEvo III<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>The O<sub>2</sub>ptima CM<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:IDA-71_with_lid_of_casing_opened_showing_interior_P5167785.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="IDA-71 with lid of casing opened showing interior"><img alt="IDA-71 with lid of casing opened showing interior" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/IDA-71_with_lid_of_casing_opened_showing_interior_P5167785.JPG/240px-IDA-71_with_lid_of_casing_opened_showing_interior_P5167785.JPG" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/IDA-71_with_lid_of_casing_opened_showing_interior_P5167785.JPG/360px-IDA-71_with_lid_of_casing_opened_showing_interior_P5167785.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/IDA-71_with_lid_of_casing_opened_showing_interior_P5167785.JPG/480px-IDA-71_with_lid_of_casing_opened_showing_interior_P5167785.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">IDA-71 with lid of casing opened showing interior</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:IDA-71_mask,_DSV_and_breathing_hoses_P5167748.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="IDA-71 mask, DSV and breathing hoses"><img alt="IDA-71 mask, DSV and breathing hoses" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/IDA-71_mask%2C_DSV_and_breathing_hoses_P5167748.JPG/240px-IDA-71_mask%2C_DSV_and_breathing_hoses_P5167748.JPG" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/IDA-71_mask%2C_DSV_and_breathing_hoses_P5167748.JPG/360px-IDA-71_mask%2C_DSV_and_breathing_hoses_P5167748.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/IDA-71_mask%2C_DSV_and_breathing_hoses_P5167748.JPG/480px-IDA-71_mask%2C_DSV_and_breathing_hoses_P5167748.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">IDA-71 mask, DSV and breathing hoses</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 92px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 90px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Inspiration_back.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Inspiration with casing open showing interior"><img alt="Inspiration with casing open showing interior" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Inspiration_back.JPG/135px-Inspiration_back.JPG" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Inspiration_back.JPG/202px-Inspiration_back.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Inspiration_back.JPG/270px-Inspiration_back.JPG 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="667" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Inspiration with casing open showing interior </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 193.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CCR_Liberty.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Liberty closed circuit rebreathers"><img alt="Liberty closed circuit rebreathers" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/CCR_Liberty.jpg/290px-CCR_Liberty.jpg" decoding="async" width="194" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/CCR_Liberty.jpg/435px-CCR_Liberty.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/CCR_Liberty.jpg/580px-CCR_Liberty.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4118" data-file-height="2559" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Liberty closed circuit rebreathers</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:REvo_rebreather_back_right_side_P3164662.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="rEvo rebreather back view, right side"><img alt="rEvo rebreather back view, right side" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/REvo_rebreather_back_right_side_P3164662.JPG/240px-REvo_rebreather_back_right_side_P3164662.JPG" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/REvo_rebreather_back_right_side_P3164662.JPG/360px-REvo_rebreather_back_right_side_P3164662.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/REvo_rebreather_back_right_side_P3164662.JPG/480px-REvo_rebreather_back_right_side_P3164662.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">rEvo rebreather back view, right side</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=88" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_scrubber" title="Carbon dioxide scrubber">Carbon dioxide scrubber</a> – Device which absorbs carbon dioxide from circulated gas</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escape_breathing_apparatus" title="Escape breathing apparatus">Escape breathing apparatus</a>, also known as escape set – Self contained breathing apparatus providing gas to escape from a hazardous environment</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_life_support_system" title="Primary life support system">Primary life support system</a>, also known as Portable Life Support System – Life support device for a space suit</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebreather" title="Rebreather">Rebreather</a> – Portable apparatus to recycle breathing gas</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebreather_diving" title="Rebreather diving">Rebreather diving</a> – Underwater diving using self contained breathing gas recycling apparatus</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-contained_breathing_apparatus" title="Self-contained breathing apparatus">Self-contained breathing apparatus</a> (<abbr>SCBA</abbr>) – Breathing gas supply system carried by the user. (surface-only (industrial) breathing sets including rebreathers)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=89" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-JFD_Cobra-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JFD_Cobra_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jfdglobal.com/products/commercial-divers-equipment/rebreathers/cobra-compact-bailout-rebreathing-apparatus/">"JFD | COBRA (Compact bailout rebreathing apparatus)"</a>. <i>www.jfdglobal.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 October</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.jfdglobal.com&rft.atitle=JFD+%26%23124%3B+COBRA+%28Compact+bailout+rebreathing+apparatus%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jfdglobal.com%2Fproducts%2Fcommercial-divers-equipment%2Frebreathers%2Fcobra-compact-bailout-rebreathing-apparatus%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiving+rebreather" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Crawford_2016-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Crawford_2016_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrawford2016" class="citation book cs1">Crawford, J. (2016). "8.5.1 Helium recovery systems". <i>Offshore Installation Practice</i> (revised ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 150–155. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781483163192" title="Special:BookSources/9781483163192"><bdi>9781483163192</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=8.5.1+Helium+recovery+systems&rft.btitle=Offshore+Installation+Practice&rft.pages=150-155&rft.edition=revised&rft.pub=Butterworth-Heinemann&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781483163192&rft.aulast=Crawford&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiving+rebreather" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thornton_2000-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Thornton_2000_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornton2000" class="citation report cs1">Thornton, Michael Albert (December 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA387646.pdf">A Survey and Engineering Design of Atmospheric Diving Suits</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Report). Texas A&M University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230319071430/https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA387646.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2023-03-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-09-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=A+Survey+and+Engineering+Design+of+Atmospheric+Diving+Suits&rft.pub=Texas+A%26M+University&rft.date=2000-12&rft.aulast=Thornton&rft.aufirst=Michael+Albert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapps.dtic.mil%2Fsti%2Fpdfs%2FADA387646.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiving+rebreather" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sieber_et_al_2013-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sieber_et_al_2013_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sieber_et_al_2013_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSieberSchusterReifKessler2013" class="citation journal cs1">Sieber, Arne; Schuster, Andreas; Reif, Sebastian; Kessler, Michael; Lucyshyn, Thomas; Buzzacott, Peter; Enoksson, Peter (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4031%2FMTSJ.47.6.5">"Compact Recreational Rebreather With Innovative Gas Sensing Concept and Low Work of Breathing Design"</a>. <i>Marine Technology Society Journal</i>. <b>47</b> (27): 27–41. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4031%2FMTSJ.47.6.5">10.4031/MTSJ.47.6.5</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Technology+Society+Journal&rft.atitle=Compact+Recreational+Rebreather+With+Innovative+Gas+Sensing+Concept+and+Low+Work+of+Breathing+Design&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=27&rft.pages=27-41&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4031%2FMTSJ.47.6.5&rft.aulast=Sieber&rft.aufirst=Arne&rft.au=Schuster%2C+Andreas&rft.au=Reif%2C+Sebastian&rft.au=Kessler%2C+Michael&rft.au=Lucyshyn%2C+Thomas&rft.au=Buzzacott%2C+Peter&rft.au=Enoksson%2C+Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.4031%252FMTSJ.47.6.5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiving+rebreather" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Simanek_2021-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Simanek_2021_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Simanek_2021_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Simanek_2021_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Simanek_2021_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Simanek_2021_5-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Simanek_2021_5-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Simanek_2021_5-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Simanek_2021_5-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Simanek_2021_5-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Simanek_2021_5-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Simanek_2021_5-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFŠimánek2021" class="citation web cs1">Šimánek, Jakub (2 February 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gue.com/blog/building-a-fault-tolerant-rebreather-our-path-to-simplicity/">"Building A Fault Tolerant Rebreather: Our Path to Simplicity"</a>. <i>In Depth</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-10-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=KISS+Closed+Circuit+Rebreather&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobubbles.com%2FRebreather%2Fkiss.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiving+rebreather" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Liberty_CCR-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Liberty_CCR_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.divesoft.com/en/manuals/ccr-liberty-manual">"User manual, CCR Liberty, Manual version: 2.17 CU HW rev 1.0, HS HW rev 3.0, FW 2.17"</a>. <i>www.divesoft.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.divesoft.com&rft.atitle=User+manual%2C+CCR+Liberty%2C+Manual+version%3A+2.17+CU+HW+rev+1.0%2C+HS+HW+rev+3.0%2C+FW+2.17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.divesoft.com%2Fen%2Fmanuals%2Fccr-liberty-manual&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiving+rebreather" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mk16-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mk16_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080219220544/http://www.cybermaps.co.uk/cyberbarics/biomarine_mk16.htm">"BioMarine/Carleton MK16 and Royal Navy CDBA"</a>. <i>www.cybermaps.co.uk</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cybermaps.co.uk/cyberbarics/biomarine_mk16.htm">the original</a> on 2008-02-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 February</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.cybermaps.co.uk&rft.atitle=BioMarine%2FCarleton+MK16+and+Royal+Navy+CDBA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cybermaps.co.uk%2Fcyberbarics%2Fbiomarine_mk16.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiving+rebreather" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://divelungfish.com/technology">"Carbon Dioxide Monitoring"</a>. <i>Lungfish Dive Systems</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lungfish+Dive+Systems&rft.atitle=Carbon+Dioxide+Monitoring&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdivelungfish.com%2Ftechnology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiving+rebreather" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=90" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUS_Navy_Diving_Manual2016" class="citation book cs1">US Navy (1 December 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.navsea.navy.mil/Portals/103/Documents/SUPSALV/Diving/US%20DIVING%20MANUAL_REV7.pdf?ver=2016-12-14-135043-757"><i>U.S. Navy Diving Manual Revision 7 SS521-AG-PRO-010 0910-LP-115-1921</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Washington, DC.: US Naval Sea Systems Command.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=U.S.+Navy+Diving+Manual+Revision+7+SS521-AG-PRO-010+0910-LP-115-1921&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC.&rft.pub=US+Naval+Sea+Systems+Command&rft.date=2016-12-01&rft.au=US+Navy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.navsea.navy.mil%2FPortals%2F103%2FDocuments%2FSUPSALV%2FDiving%2FUS%2520DIVING%2520MANUAL_REV7.pdf%3Fver%3D2016-12-14-135043-757&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiving+rebreather" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&action=edit&section=91" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Diving_rebreathers" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Diving rebreathers">Diving rebreathers</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Template:Breathing_apparatus" title="Template:Breathing apparatus"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Breathing_apparatus" title="Template talk:Breathing apparatus"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Breathing_apparatus" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Breathing apparatus"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Breathing_apparatus" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Breathing_apparatus" title="Breathing apparatus">Breathing apparatus</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="High_altitude_breathing_apparatus" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/High_altitude_breathing_apparatus" title="High altitude breathing apparatus">High altitude breathing apparatus</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_breathing_apparatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Aviation breathing apparatus">Aviation breathing apparatus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_oxygen_system" title="Emergency oxygen system">Emergency oxygen system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountaineering_breathing_apparatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mountaineering breathing apparatus">Mountaineering breathing apparatus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Occupational_breathing_apparatus" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Occupational breathing apparatus</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="Respirator"><a href="/wiki/Respirator" title="Respirator">Respirator</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regulated by <a href="/wiki/NIOSH_air_filtration_rating#Table_of_TC/BM_Approval_Schedules" title="NIOSH air filtration rating">NIOSH</a> and others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_mask" title="Gas mask">Gas mask</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_mask_canister" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas mask canister">Canister</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplied-air_respirator" title="Supplied-air respirator">Supplied-air respirator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-contained_breathing_apparatus" title="Self-contained breathing apparatus">Self-contained breathing apparatus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Self-contained_self-rescue_device" title="Self-contained self-rescue device">Self-contained self-rescue device</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_filter_(respirator)" title="Mechanical filter (respirator)">Particulate respirator</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/N95_respirator" title="N95 respirator">N95 respirator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust_mask" title="Dust mask">Dust mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powered_air-purifying_respirator" title="Powered air-purifying respirator">Powered air-purifying respirator</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_cartridge" title="Chemical cartridge">Chemical cartridge</a></li> <li>Facepieces <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smoke_hood" title="Smoke hood">Smoke hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elastomeric_respirator" title="Elastomeric respirator">Elastomeric respirator</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regulations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NIOSH_air_filtration_rating" title="NIOSH air filtration rating">42 CFR 84 (United States)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NIOSH_air_filtration_rating#Chemical_cartridge_and_canister_classifications" title="NIOSH air filtration rating">ANSI K13.1-1973</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_respirator_standards" title="European respirator standards">EN 149/14683/143 (Europe)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_filter_(respirator)#Other_standards_(KN95_and_others)" title="Mechanical filter (respirator)">GB2626 (China), and others</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Medical_breathing_apparatus" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Medical_breathing_apparatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical breathing apparatus">Medical breathing apparatus</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anaesthetic_machine" title="Anaesthetic machine">Anaesthetic machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bubble_CPAP" title="Bubble CPAP">Bubble CPAP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuous_positive_airway_pressure" title="Continuous positive airway pressure">Continuous positive airway pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resuscitator" title="Resuscitator">Resuscitator</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bag_valve_mask" title="Bag valve mask">Bag valve mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pocket_mask" title="Pocket mask">Pocket mask</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventilator" title="Ventilator">Ventilator</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iron_lung" title="Iron lung">Iron lung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-invasive_ventilation" title="Non-invasive ventilation">Non-invasive ventilation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_therapy" title="Oxygen therapy">Oxygen therapy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_medicine" title="Hyperbaric medicine">Hyperbaric medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Built-in_breathing_system" title="Built-in breathing system">Built-in breathing system</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_airway_pressure" title="Positive airway pressure">Positive airway pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_gas_humidification" title="Respiratory gas humidification">Respiratory gas humidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplemental_oxygen" class="mw-redirect" title="Supplemental oxygen">Supplemental oxygen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nasal_cannula" title="Nasal cannula">Nasal cannula</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reservoir_cannula" class="mw-redirect" title="Reservoir cannula">Reservoir cannula</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-rebreather_mask" title="Non-rebreather mask">Non-rebreather mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_hood" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxygen hood">Oxygen hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_mask" title="Oxygen mask">Oxygen mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_tent" title="Oxygen tent">Oxygen tent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partial_rebreather_mask" class="mw-redirect" title="Partial rebreather mask">Partial rebreather mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_face_mask" title="Simple face mask">Simple face mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venturi_mask" title="Venturi mask">Venturi mask</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Underwater_breathing_apparatus" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Underwater_breathing_apparatus" title="Underwater breathing apparatus">Underwater breathing apparatus</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Open-circuit_scuba" class="mw-redirect" title="Open-circuit scuba">Open-circuit scuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_helmet" title="Diving helmet">Diving helmet</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Diving rebreather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full-face_diving_mask" title="Full-face diving mask">Full-face diving mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface-supplied_diving_equipment" title="Surface-supplied diving equipment">Surface-supplied diving equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snorkel_(swimming)" title="Snorkel (swimming)">Snorkel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Helicopter_escape_set" class="mw-redirect" title="Helicopter escape set">Helicopter escape set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_escape_set" class="mw-redirect" title="Submarine escape set">Submarine escape set</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_diving_suit" title="Atmospheric diving suit">Atmospheric diving suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_extender" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas extender">Gas extender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helium_reclaim_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Helium reclaim system">Helium reclaim system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="User_respiratory_interface" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/User_respiratory_interface" class="mw-redirect" title="User respiratory interface">User respiratory interface</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Breathing mask <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Full_facepiece" class="mw-redirect" title="Full facepiece">Full facepiece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Half_mask" class="mw-redirect" title="Half mask">Half mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orinasal_mask" title="Orinasal mask">orinasal mask</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="General" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">General</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breathing_gas" title="Breathing gas">Breathing gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breathing_performance_of_regulators" title="Breathing performance of regulators">Breathing performance of regulators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_space_(physiology)" title="Dead space (physiology)">Dead space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_gas_supply" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergency gas supply">Emergency gas supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escape_breathing_apparatus" title="Escape breathing apparatus">Escape breathing apparatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facepiece" class="mw-redirect" title="Facepiece">Facepiece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazmat_suit" title="Hazmat suit">Hazmat suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_pressure_breathing" class="mw-redirect" title="Negative pressure breathing">Negative pressure breathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_circuit_breathing_apparatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Open circuit breathing apparatus">Open circuit breathing apparatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_concentrator" title="Oxygen concentrator">Oxygen concentrator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_pressure_breathing" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive pressure breathing">Positive pressure breathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_protective_equipment" title="Respiratory protective equipment">Respiratory protective equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure_regulator" title="Pressure regulator">Pressure regulator</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constant_flow_regulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Constant flow regulator">Constant flow regulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demand_valve" class="mw-redirect" title="Demand valve">Demand valve</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebreather" title="Rebreather">Rebreather</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Closed_circuit_rebreather" class="mw-redirect" title="Closed circuit rebreather">Closed circuit rebreather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterlung" class="mw-redirect" title="Counterlung">Counterlung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_rebreather" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxygen rebreather">Oxygen rebreather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_scrubber" title="Carbon dioxide scrubber">Carbon dioxide scrubber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-closed_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-closed circuit">Semi-closed circuit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_of_breathing" title="Work of breathing">Work of breathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escape_respirator" class="mw-redirect" title="Escape respirator">Escape respirator</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Breathing_apparatus" title="Category:Breathing apparatus">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Breathing_apparatus" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Breathing apparatus">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_breathing_apparatus_terminology" title="Glossary of breathing apparatus terminology">Glossary</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Underwater_diving" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Underwater_diving" title="Template:Underwater diving"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Underwater_diving" title="Template talk:Underwater diving"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Underwater_diving" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Underwater diving"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Underwater_diving" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Underwater_diving" title="Underwater diving">Underwater diving</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_activities" title="Diving activities">Diving activities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_mode" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving mode">Diving modes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmospheric pressure diving">Atmospheric pressure diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freediving" title="Freediving">Freediving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturation_diving" title="Saturation diving">Saturation diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_diving" title="Scuba diving">Scuba diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snorkeling" title="Snorkeling">Snorkeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_oriented_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface oriented diving">Surface oriented diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface-supplied_diving" title="Surface-supplied diving">Surface-supplied diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmanned_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Unmanned diving">Unmanned diving</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Diving_equipment" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Diving_equipment" title="Diving equipment">Diving equipment</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cleaning_and_disinfection_of_personal_diving_equipment" title="Cleaning and disinfection of personal diving equipment">Cleaning and disinfection of personal diving equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_factors_in_diving_equipment_design" title="Human factors in diving equipment design">Human factors in diving equipment design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diving_equipment_manufacturers" title="List of diving equipment manufacturers">List of diving equipment manufacturers</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_mask" title="Diving mask">Diving mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snorkel_(swimming)" title="Snorkel (swimming)">Snorkel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swimfin" title="Swimfin">Swimfin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Breathing_gas" title="Breathing gas">Breathing gas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bailout_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Bailout gas">Bailout gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Bottom gas">Bottom gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breathing_air" class="mw-redirect" title="Breathing air">Breathing air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression gas">Decompression gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_gas_supply" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergency gas supply">Emergency gas supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliox" title="Heliox">Heliox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydreliox" title="Hydreliox">Hydreliox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrox_(breathing_gas)" title="Hydrox (breathing gas)">Hydrox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrox" title="Nitrox">Nitrox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">Oxygen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travel_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Travel gas">Travel gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimix_(breathing_gas)" title="Trimix (breathing gas)">Trimix</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Buoyancy and<br />trim equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avelo_diving_system" title="Avelo diving system">Avelo diving system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buoyancy_compensator_(diving)" title="Buoyancy compensator (diving)">Buoyancy compensator</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Power_inflator" class="mw-redirect" title="Power inflator">Power inflator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dump_valve_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dump valve (diving)">Dump valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_buoyancy_pressure_vessel" class="mw-redirect" title="Variable buoyancy pressure vessel">Variable buoyancy pressure vessel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_weighting_system" title="Diving weighting system">Diving weighting system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ankle_weights_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ankle weights (diving)">Ankle weights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_weights" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrated weights">Integrated weights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trim_weights_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trim weights (diving)">Trim weights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weight_belt" class="mw-redirect" title="Weight belt">Weight belt</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Decompression_equipment" title="Decompression equipment">Decompression<br />equipment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_buoy" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression buoy">Decompression buoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_chamber" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression chamber">Decompression chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_cylinder" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression cylinder">Decompression cylinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_trapeze" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression trapeze">Decompression trapeze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_computer" title="Dive computer">Dive computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_bell" title="Diving bell">Diving bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_shot" title="Diving shot">Diving shot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_stage" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving stage">Diving stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jersey_upline" class="mw-redirect" title="Jersey upline">Jersey upline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonline" class="mw-redirect" title="Jonline">Jonline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_suit" title="Diving suit">Diving suit</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_diving_suit" title="Atmospheric diving suit">Atmospheric diving suit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/JIM_suit" title="JIM suit">JIM suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtsuit" title="Newtsuit">Newtsuit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_suit" title="Dry suit">Dry suit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sladen_suit" class="mw-redirect" title="Sladen suit">Sladen suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_diving_suit" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard diving suit">Standard diving suit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rash_vest" class="mw-redirect" title="Rash vest">Rash vest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetsuit" title="Wetsuit">Wetsuit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dive_skins" class="mw-redirect" title="Dive skins">Dive skins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot-water_suit" class="mw-redirect" title="Hot-water suit">Hot-water suit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Helmets<br />and masks</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-fog" title="Anti-fog">Anti-fog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_helmet" title="Diving helmet">Diving helmet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Free-flow_helmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Free-flow helmet">Free-flow helmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lightweight_demand_helmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Lightweight demand helmet">Lightweight demand helmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orinasal_mask" title="Orinasal mask">Orinasal mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reclaim_helmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Reclaim helmet">Reclaim helmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_water_helmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Shallow water helmet">Shallow water helmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_diving_helmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard diving helmet">Standard diving helmet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_mask" title="Diving mask">Diving mask</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Band_mask" class="mw-redirect" title="Band mask">Band mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full-face_mask" class="mw-redirect" title="Full-face mask">Full-face mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Half_mask" class="mw-redirect" title="Half mask">Half mask</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Instrumentation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_timer" class="mw-redirect" title="Bottom timer">Bottom timer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depth_gauge" title="Depth gauge">Depth gauge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_computer" title="Dive computer">Dive computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_timer" class="mw-redirect" title="Dive timer">Dive timer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_watch" title="Diving watch">Diving watch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Helium_release_valve" title="Helium release valve">Helium release valve</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electro-galvanic_oxygen_sensor" title="Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor">Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumofathometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Pneumofathometer">Pneumofathometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submersible_pressure_gauge" class="mw-redirect" title="Submersible pressure gauge">Submersible pressure gauge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mobility<br />equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diver_propulsion_vehicle" title="Diver propulsion vehicle">Diver propulsion vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_bell" title="Diving bell">Diving bell</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Closed_bell" class="mw-redirect" title="Closed bell">Closed bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_bell" class="mw-redirect" title="Wet bell">Wet bell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_stage" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving stage">Diving stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swimfin" title="Swimfin">Swimfin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monofin" title="Monofin">Monofin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PowerSwim" title="PowerSwim">PowerSwim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Towboard" title="Towboard">Towboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_sub" title="Wet sub">Wet sub</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Safety<br />equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_air_source" title="Alternative air source">Alternative air source</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Octopus_regulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Octopus regulator">Octopus regulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pony_bottle" title="Pony bottle">Pony bottle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolt_snap" title="Bolt snap">Bolt snap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddy_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddy line">Buddy line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_light" title="Dive light">Dive light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver%27s_cutting_tool" class="mw-redirect" title="Diver's cutting tool">Diver's cutting tool</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diver%27s_knife" class="mw-redirect" title="Diver's knife">Diver's knife</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver%27s_telephone" class="mw-redirect" title="Diver's telephone">Diver's telephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Through-water_communications" class="mw-redirect" title="Through-water communications">Through-water communications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_acoustic_communication" title="Underwater acoustic communication">Underwater acoustic communication</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_bell" title="Diving bell">Diving bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_safety_harness" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving safety harness">Diving safety harness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_gas_supply" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergency gas supply">Emergency gas supply</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bailout_block" class="mw-redirect" title="Bailout block">Bailout block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bailout_bottle" title="Bailout bottle">Bailout bottle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifeline_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lifeline (diving)">Lifeline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Screw_gate_carabiner" class="mw-redirect" title="Screw gate carabiner">Screw gate carabiner</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_locator_beacon" title="Emergency locator beacon">Emergency locator beacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_tether" class="mw-redirect" title="Rescue tether">Rescue tether</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_helmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Safety helmet">Safety helmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shark-proof_cage" class="mw-redirect" title="Shark-proof cage">Shark-proof cage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snoopy_loop" class="mw-redirect" title="Snoopy loop">Snoopy loop</a></li> <li>Navigation equipment <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distance_line" title="Distance line">Distance line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_compass" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving compass">Diving compass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_reel" class="mw-redirect" title="Dive reel">Dive reel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Line_marker" title="Line marker">Line marker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_marker_buoy" title="Surface marker buoy">Surface marker buoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silt_screw" class="mw-redirect" title="Silt screw">Silt screw</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Underwater_breathing_apparatus" title="Underwater breathing apparatus">Underwater<br />breathing<br />apparatus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_diving_suit" title="Atmospheric diving suit">Atmospheric diving suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_cylinder" title="Diving cylinder">Diving cylinder</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burst_disc" class="mw-redirect" title="Burst disc">Burst disc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_cylinder_valve" title="Scuba cylinder valve">Scuba cylinder valve</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_helmet" title="Diving helmet">Diving helmet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reclaim_helmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Reclaim helmet">Reclaim helmet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_regulator" title="Diving regulator">Diving regulator</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mechanism_of_diving_regulators" title="Mechanism of diving regulators">Mechanism of diving regulators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulator_malfunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Regulator malfunction">Regulator malfunction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regulator_freeze" class="mw-redirect" title="Regulator freeze">Regulator freeze</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-hose_regulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-hose regulator">Single-hose regulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twin-hose_regulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Twin-hose regulator">Twin-hose regulator</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full-face_diving_mask" title="Full-face diving mask">Full-face diving mask</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Open-circuit_scuba" class="mw-redirect" title="Open-circuit scuba">Open-circuit<br />scuba</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_set" title="Scuba set">Scuba set</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bailout_bottle" title="Bailout bottle">Bailout bottle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_cylinder" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression cylinder">Decompression cylinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_doubles" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent doubles">Independent doubles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifolded_twin_set" class="mw-redirect" title="Manifolded twin set">Manifolded twin set</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_manifold" title="Scuba manifold">Scuba manifold</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pony_bottle" title="Pony bottle">Pony bottle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_configuration" class="mw-redirect" title="Scuba configuration">Scuba configuration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidemount" class="mw-redirect" title="Sidemount">Sidemount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sling_cylinder" class="mw-redirect" title="Sling cylinder">Sling cylinder</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Diving rebreathers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_scrubber" title="Carbon dioxide scrubber">Carbon dioxide scrubber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carleton_CDBA" class="mw-redirect" title="Carleton CDBA">Carleton CDBA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clearance_Divers_Life_Support_Equipment" title="Clearance Divers Life Support Equipment">Clearance Divers Life Support Equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_rebreather" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryogenic rebreather">Cryogenic rebreather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CUMA" title="CUMA">CUMA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSEA" class="mw-redirect" title="DSEA">DSEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dr%C3%A4ger_Dolphin" class="mw-redirect" title="Dräger Dolphin">Dolphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halcyon_PVR-BASC" title="Halcyon PVR-BASC">Halcyon PVR-BASC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halcyon_RB80" title="Halcyon RB80">Halcyon RB80</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IDA71" title="IDA71">IDA71</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interspiro_DCSC" title="Interspiro DCSC">Interspiro DCSC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LAR-5" class="mw-redirect" title="LAR-5">LAR-5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LAR-6" class="mw-redirect" title="LAR-6">LAR-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LAR-V" class="mw-redirect" title="LAR-V">LAR-V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambertsen_Amphibious_Respiratory_Unit" title="Lambertsen Amphibious Respiratory Unit">LARU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_IV_Amphibian" title="Mark IV Amphibian">Mark IV Amphibian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porpoise_(scuba_gear)" title="Porpoise (scuba gear)">Porpoise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dr%C3%A4ger_Ray" class="mw-redirect" title="Dräger Ray">Ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siebe_Gorman_CDBA" title="Siebe Gorman CDBA">Siebe Gorman CDBA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siebe_Gorman_Salvus" title="Siebe Gorman Salvus">Salvus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siva_(rebreather)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siva (rebreather)">Siva</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Surface-supplied_diving_equipment" title="Surface-supplied diving equipment">Surface-supplied<br />diving equipment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_line" title="Air line">Air line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver%27s_umbilical" class="mw-redirect" title="Diver's umbilical">Diver's umbilical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_air_compressor" title="Diving air compressor">Diving air compressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_panel" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas panel">Gas panel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hookah_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hookah (diving)">Hookah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_replacement" class="mw-redirect" title="Scuba replacement">Scuba replacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snuba" title="Snuba">Snuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_diving_dress" title="Standard diving dress">Standard diving dress</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_diving_equipment_manufacturers" title="List of diving equipment manufacturers"> Diving<br />equipment<br />manufacturers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AP_Diving" title="AP Diving">AP Diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apeks" title="Apeks">Apeks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aqua_Lung_America" title="Aqua Lung America">Aqua Lung America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aqua_Lung/La_Spirotechnique" title="Aqua Lung/La Spirotechnique">Aqua Lung/La Spirotechnique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beuchat" title="Beuchat">Beuchat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Cavalero" title="René Cavalero">René Cavalero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cis-Lunar" title="Cis-Lunar">Cis-Lunar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cressi-Sub" title="Cressi-Sub">Cressi-Sub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacor_(scuba_diving)" title="Dacor (scuba diving)">Dacor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DESCO" title="DESCO">DESCO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_Xtras" title="Dive Xtras">Dive Xtras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divex" title="Divex">Divex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_Unlimited_International" title="Diving Unlimited International">Diving Unlimited International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dr%C3%A4gerwerk" class="mw-redirect" title="Drägerwerk">Drägerwerk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faber_Industrie_S.p.A." title="Faber Industrie S.p.A.">Faber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fenzy" title="Fenzy">Fenzy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Fernez" title="Maurice Fernez">Maurice Fernez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Ferraro_(naval_officer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Luigi Ferraro (naval officer)">Technisub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Gugen" title="Oscar Gugen">Oscar Gugen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinke_(diving_equipment_manufacturer)" title="Heinke (diving equipment manufacturer)">Heinke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HeinrichsWeikamp" title="HeinrichsWeikamp">HeinrichsWeikamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_Outdoors" title="Johnson Outdoors">Johnson Outdoors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mares_(scuba_equipment)" title="Mares (scuba equipment)">Mares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morse_Diving" title="Morse Diving">Morse Diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemrod" title="Nemrod">Nemrod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_Worldwide" title="Oceanic Worldwide">Oceanic Worldwide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porpoise_(scuba_gear)" title="Porpoise (scuba gear)">Porpoise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shearwater_Research" title="Shearwater Research">Shearwater Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siebe_Gorman" title="Siebe Gorman">Siebe Gorman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_Products" title="Submarine Products">Submarine Products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suunto" title="Suunto">Suunto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Diving_support_equipment" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Diving_support_equipment" title="Diving support equipment">Diving support equipment</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Access equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boarding_stirrup" class="mw-redirect" title="Boarding stirrup">Boarding stirrup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_lift" class="mw-redirect" title="Diver lift">Diver lift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_bell" title="Diving bell">Diving bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_ladder" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving ladder">Diving ladder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_platform_(scuba)" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving platform (scuba)">Diving platform (scuba)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_stage" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving stage">Diving stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downline_(diving)" title="Downline (diving)">Downline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackstay" title="Jackstay">Jackstay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Launch_and_recovery_system_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Launch and recovery system (diving)">Launch and recovery system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messenger_line" title="Messenger line">Messenger line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moon_pool" title="Moon pool">Moon pool</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Breathing gas<br />handling</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_air_compressor#Filtration" title="Diving air compressor">Air filtration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Activated_carbon" title="Activated carbon">Activated carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hopcalite" title="Hopcalite">Hopcalite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_sieve" title="Molecular sieve">Molecular sieve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silica_gel" title="Silica gel">Silica gel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booster_pump" title="Booster pump">Booster pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_scrubber" title="Carbon dioxide scrubber">Carbon dioxide scrubber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_filling_system" title="Cascade filling system">Cascade filling system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver%27s_pump" title="Diver's pump">Diver's pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_air_compressor" title="Diving air compressor">Diving air compressor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_air_filter" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving air filter">Diving air filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_separator" class="mw-redirect" title="Water separator">Water separator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_pressure_breathing_air_compressor" class="mw-redirect" title="High pressure breathing air compressor">High pressure breathing air compressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_pressure_breathing_air_compressor" class="mw-redirect" title="Low pressure breathing air compressor">Low pressure breathing air compressor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_blending" title="Gas blending">Gas blending</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_blending_for_scuba_diving" title="Gas blending for scuba diving">Gas blending for scuba diving</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_panel" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas panel">Gas panel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_reclaim_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas reclaim system">Gas reclaim system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_storage_bank" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas storage bank">Gas storage bank</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_storage_quad" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas storage quad">Gas storage quad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_storage_tube" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas storage tube">Gas storage tube</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helium_analyzer" title="Helium analyzer">Helium analyzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrox_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrox production">Nitrox production</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Membrane_gas_separation" title="Membrane gas separation">Membrane gas separation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure_swing_adsorption" title="Pressure swing adsorption">Pressure swing adsorption</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_analyser" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxygen analyser">Oxygen analyser</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electro-galvanic_oxygen_sensor" title="Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor">Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_compatibility" title="Oxygen compatibility">Oxygen compatibility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Decompression_equipment" title="Decompression equipment">Decompression<br />equipment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air-lock" class="mw-redirect" title="Air-lock">Air-lock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Built-in_breathing_system" title="Built-in breathing system">Built-in breathing system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_tables" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression tables">Decompression tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_bell" title="Diving bell">Diving bell</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bell_cursor" class="mw-redirect" title="Bell cursor">Bell cursor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Closed_bell" class="mw-redirect" title="Closed bell">Closed bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clump_weight" class="mw-redirect" title="Clump weight">Clump weight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Launch_and_recovery_system_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Launch and recovery system (diving)">Launch and recovery system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_bell" class="mw-redirect" title="Wet bell">Wet bell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_chamber" title="Diving chamber">Diving chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_stage" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving stage">Diving stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreational_Dive_Planner" title="Recreational Dive Planner">Recreational Dive Planner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturation_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Saturation system">Saturation system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Platforms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dive_boat" title="Dive boat">Dive boat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canoe_and_kayak_diving" title="Canoe and kayak diving">Canoe and kayak diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_rubber_raiding_craft" title="Combat rubber raiding craft">Combat rubber raiding craft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liveaboard" title="Liveaboard">Liveaboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subskimmer" title="Subskimmer">Subskimmer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_support_vessel" title="Diving support vessel">Diving support vessel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Challenger_(K07)" title="HMS Challenger (K07)">HMS Challenger (K07)</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Underwaterhabitat" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Underwater_habitat" title="Underwater habitat">Underwater<br />habitat</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquarius_Reef_Base" title="Aquarius Reef Base">Aquarius Reef Base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Shelf_Station_Two" title="Continental Shelf Station Two">Continental Shelf Station Two</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helgoland_Habitat" title="Helgoland Habitat">Helgoland Habitat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Carpenter_Space_Analog_Station" title="Scott Carpenter Space Analog Station">Scott Carpenter Space Analog Station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SEALAB" title="SEALAB">SEALAB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tektite_habitat" title="Tektite habitat">Tektite habitat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Remotely_operated_underwater_vehicle" title="Remotely operated underwater vehicle">Remotely operated<br />underwater vehicles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/8A4-class_ROUV" title="8A4-class ROUV">8A4-class ROUV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ABISMO" title="ABISMO">ABISMO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantis_ROV_Team" title="Atlantis ROV Team">Atlantis ROV Team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COTSBot" title="COTSBot">COTSBot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CURV" title="CURV">CURV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_Drone" title="Deep Drone">Deep Drone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89paulard" title="Épaulard">Épaulard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Explorer_ROV" title="Global Explorer ROV">Global Explorer ROV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goldfish-class_ROUV" title="Goldfish-class ROUV">Goldfish-class ROUV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaik%C5%8D_ROV" title="Kaikō ROV">Kaikō ROV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ka%C5%9Fif_ROUV" title="Kaşif ROUV">Kaşif ROUV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long-Term_Mine_Reconnaissance_System" title="Long-Term Mine Reconnaissance System">Long-Term Mine Reconnaissance System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mini_Rover_ROV" title="Mini Rover ROV">Mini Rover ROV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpenROV" title="OpenROV">OpenROV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ROV_KIEL_6000" title="ROV KIEL 6000">ROV KIEL 6000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ROV_PHOCA" title="ROV PHOCA">ROV PHOCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorpio_ROV" title="Scorpio ROV">Scorpio ROV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Dragon-class_ROV" title="Sea Dragon-class ROV">Sea Dragon-class ROV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabed_tractor" title="Seabed tractor">Seabed tractor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafox_drone" title="Seafox drone">Seafox drone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SeaPerch" title="SeaPerch">SeaPerch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SJT-class_ROUV" title="SJT-class ROUV">SJT-class ROUV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T1200_Trenching_Unit" title="T1200 Trenching Unit">T1200 Trenching Unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VideoRay_UROVs" title="VideoRay UROVs">VideoRay UROVs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Safety equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diver_down_flag" title="Diver down flag">Diver down flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_shot" title="Diving shot">Diving shot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ENOS_Rescue-System" title="ENOS Rescue-System">ENOS Rescue-System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_lifeboat" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperbaric lifeboat">Hyperbaric lifeboat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_stretcher" title="Hyperbaric stretcher">Hyperbaric stretcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackstay_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jackstay (diving)">Jackstay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonline" class="mw-redirect" title="Jonline">Jonline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserve_gas_supply_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Reserve gas supply (diving)">Reserve gas supply</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_spread" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving spread">Diving spread</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_spread" class="mw-redirect" title="Air spread">Air spread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturation_spread" class="mw-redirect" title="Saturation spread">Saturation spread</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_water_system_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hot water system (diving)">Hot water system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonar" title="Sonar">Sonar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_acoustic_positioning_system" title="Underwater acoustic positioning system">Underwater acoustic positioning system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_acoustic_communication" title="Underwater acoustic communication">Underwater acoustic communication</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Freediving" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Freediving" title="Freediving">Freediving</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Activities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquathlon_(underwater_wrestling)" title="Aquathlon (underwater wrestling)">Aquathlon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apnoea_finswimming" class="mw-redirect" title="Apnoea finswimming">Apnoea finswimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freediving" title="Freediving">Freediving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haenyeo" title="Haenyeo">Haenyeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pearl_hunting" title="Pearl hunting">Pearl hunting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ama_(diving)" title="Ama (diving)">Ama</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snorkeling" title="Snorkeling">Snorkeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spearfishing" title="Spearfishing">Spearfishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_football" title="Underwater football">Underwater football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_hockey" title="Underwater hockey">Underwater hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_rugby" title="Underwater rugby">Underwater rugby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_target_shooting" title="Underwater target shooting">Underwater target shooting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Competitions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Deep" title="Nordic Deep">Nordic Deep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertical_Blue" title="Vertical Blue">Vertical Blue</a></li> <li>Disciplines <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constant_weight" class="mw-redirect" title="Constant weight">Constant weight</a> (CWT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constant_weight_bi-fins" title="Constant weight bi-fins">Constant weight bi-fins</a> (CWTB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constant_weight_without_fins" title="Constant weight without fins">Constant weight without fins</a> (CNF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_apnea" title="Dynamic apnea">Dynamic apnea</a> (DYN)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_apnea_without_fins" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic apnea without fins">Dynamic apnea without fins</a> (DNF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_immersion" class="mw-redirect" title="Free immersion">Free immersion</a> (FIM)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/No-limits_apnea" title="No-limits apnea">No-limits apnea</a> (NLT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Static_apnea" title="Static apnea">Static apnea</a> (STA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skandalopetra_diving" title="Skandalopetra diving">Skandalopetra diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_weight_apnea" class="mw-redirect" title="Variable weight apnea">Variable weight apnea</a> (VWT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_weight_apnea_without_fins" class="mw-redirect" title="Variable weight apnea without fins">Variable weight apnea without fins</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_mask" title="Diving mask">Diving mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_suit" title="Diving suit">Diving suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_sling" title="Hawaiian sling">Hawaiian sling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polespear" title="Polespear">Polespear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snorkel_(swimming)" title="Snorkel (swimming)">Snorkel (swimming)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speargun" title="Speargun">Speargun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swimfin" title="Swimfin">Swimfins</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monofin" title="Monofin">Monofin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_polo_cap" title="Water polo cap">Water polo cap</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Freedivers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deborah_Andollo" title="Deborah Andollo">Deborah Andollo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Arrigoni" title="Simone Arrigoni">Simone Arrigoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peppo_Biscarini" title="Peppo Biscarini">Peppo Biscarini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Board" title="Michael Board">Michael Board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sara_Campbell" title="Sara Campbell">Sara Campbell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derya_Can_G%C3%B6%C3%A7en" class="mw-redirect" title="Derya Can Göçen">Derya Can Göçen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goran_%C4%8Colak" title="Goran Čolak">Goran Čolak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlos_Coste" title="Carlos Coste">Carlos Coste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Croft_(diver)" title="Robert Croft (diver)">Robert Croft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandy-Rae_Cruickshank" title="Mandy-Rae Cruickshank">Mandy-Rae Cruickshank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yasemin_Dalk%C4%B1l%C4%B1%C3%A7" title="Yasemin Dalkılıç">Yasemin Dalkılıç</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_D%27Imporzano" title="Leonardo D'Imporzano">Leonardo D'Imporzano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flavia_Eberhard" title="Flavia Eberhard">Flavia Eberhard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Eahika_Erc%C3%BCmen" title="Şahika Ercümen">Şahika Ercümen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emma_Farrell_(freediver)" title="Emma Farrell (freediver)">Emma Farrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Ferreras" title="Francisco Ferreras">Francisco Ferreras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Frolla" title="Pierre Frolla">Pierre Frolla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flavia_Eberhard" title="Flavia Eberhard">Flavia Eberhard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehgan_Heaney-Grier" title="Mehgan Heaney-Grier">Mehgan Heaney-Grier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elisabeth_Kristoffersen" title="Elisabeth Kristoffersen">Elisabeth Kristoffersen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andriy_Yevhenovych_Khvetkevych" class="mw-redirect" title="Andriy Yevhenovych Khvetkevych">Andriy Yevhenovych Khvetkevych</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lo%C3%AFc_Leferme" title="Loïc Leferme">Loïc Leferme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzo_Maiorca" title="Enzo Maiorca">Enzo Maiorca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Mayol" title="Jacques Mayol">Jacques Mayol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audrey_Mestre" title="Audrey Mestre">Audrey Mestre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karol_Meyer" title="Karol Meyer">Karol Meyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kate_Middleton_(free-diver)" title="Kate Middleton (free-diver)">Kate Middleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St%C3%A9phane_Mifsud" title="Stéphane Mifsud">Stéphane Mifsud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexey_Molchanov" title="Alexey Molchanov">Alexey Molchanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalia_Molchanova" title="Natalia Molchanova">Natalia Molchanova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dave_Mullins_(freediver)" title="Dave Mullins (freediver)">Dave Mullins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Musimu" title="Patrick Musimu">Patrick Musimu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume_N%C3%A9ry" title="Guillaume Néry">Guillaume Néry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Nitsch" title="Herbert Nitsch">Herbert Nitsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Pelizzari" title="Umberto Pelizzari">Umberto Pelizzari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liv_Philip" title="Liv Philip">Liv Philip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annelie_Pompe" title="Annelie Pompe">Annelie Pompe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stig_Severinsen" title="Stig Severinsen">Stig Severinsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Sietas" title="Tom Sietas">Tom Sietas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aharon_Solomons" title="Aharon Solomons">Aharon Solomons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_%C5%A0t%C4%9Bp%C3%A1nek_(free-diver)" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin Štěpánek (free-diver)">Martin Štěpánek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Steyn" title="Walter Steyn">Walter Steyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanya_Streeter" title="Tanya Streeter">Tanya Streeter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Trubridge" title="William Trubridge">William Trubridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devrim_Cenk_Ulusoy" title="Devrim Cenk Ulusoy">Devrim Cenk Ulusoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatma_Uruk" title="Fatma Uruk">Fatma Uruk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danai_Varveri" title="Danai Varveri">Danai Varveri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alessia_Zecchini" title="Alessia Zecchini">Alessia Zecchini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nataliia_Zharkova" title="Nataliia Zharkova">Nataliia Zharkova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hazards</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barotrauma" title="Barotrauma">Barotrauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drowning" title="Drowning">Drowning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freediving_blackout" title="Freediving blackout">Freediving blackout</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep-water_blackout" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep-water blackout">Deep-water blackout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freediving_blackout#Terminology" title="Freediving blackout">Shallow-water blackout</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypercapnia" title="Hypercapnia">Hypercapnia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothermia" title="Hypothermia">Hypothermia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ama_(diving)" title="Ama (diving)">Ama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Octopus_wrestling" title="Octopus wrestling">Octopus wrestling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swimming_at_the_1900_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_underwater_swimming" title="Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics – Men's underwater swimming">Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics – Men's underwater swimming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AIDA_International" title="AIDA International">AIDA International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_Schools_International" title="Scuba Schools International">Scuba Schools International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Underwater_Federation" title="Australian Underwater Federation">Australian Underwater Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Freediving_Association" title="British Freediving Association">British Freediving Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Mondiale_des_Activit%C3%A9s_Subaquatiques" title="Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques">Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Fran%C3%A7aise_d%27%C3%89tudes_et_de_Sports_Sous-Marins" title="Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins">Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance_Freediving_International" title="Performance Freediving International">Performance Freediving International</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Professional_diving" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Professional_diving" title="Professional diving">Professional diving</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Occupations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ama_(diving)" title="Ama (diving)">Ama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial diver">Commercial diver</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_offshore_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial offshore diver">Commercial offshore diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazmat_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Hazmat diver">Hazmat diver</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divemaster" title="Divemaster">Divemaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_instructor" title="Diving instructor">Diving instructor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_safety_officer" title="Diving safety officer">Diving safety officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_superintendent" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving superintendent">Diving superintendent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_supervisor" title="Diving supervisor">Diving supervisor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haenyeo" title="Haenyeo">Haenyeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Media diver">Media diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Police diver">Police diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_safety_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Public safety diver">Public safety diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific diver">Scientific diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_archaeologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Underwater archaeologist">Underwater archaeologist</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Militarydiving" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_diving" title="Military diving">Military<br />diving</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Army_engineer_diver" title="Army engineer diver">Army engineer diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Armed_Forces_Divers" title="Canadian Armed Forces Divers">Canadian Armed Forces Divers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clearance_diver" title="Clearance diver">Clearance diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frogman" title="Frogman">Frogman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minentaucher" title="Minentaucher">Minentaucher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy_ships_diver" title="Royal Navy ships diver">Royal Navy ships diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_divers" title="United States military divers">United States military divers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Navy_diver_(United_States_Navy)" title="Navy diver (United States Navy)">U.S. Navy diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_diver_(United_States_Navy)" title="Master diver (United States Navy)">U.S.Navy master diver</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Militarydivingunits" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_diving_units" title="List of military diving units">Military<br />diving<br />units</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clearance_Diving_Branch_(RAN)" title="Clearance Diving Branch (RAN)">Clearance Diving Branch (RAN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commando_Hubert" class="mw-redirect" title="Commando Hubert">Commando Hubert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Special_Operations_Force" title="Lithuanian Special Operations Force">Combat Divers Service (Lithuania)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comando_Raggruppamento_Subacquei_e_Incursori_Teseo_Tesei" title="Comando Raggruppamento Subacquei e Incursori Teseo Tesei">Comando Raggruppamento Subacquei e Incursori Teseo Tesei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decima_Flottiglia_MAS" title="Decima Flottiglia MAS">Decima Flottiglia MAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frogman_Corps_(Denmark)" title="Frogman Corps (Denmark)">Frogman Corps (Denmark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuerzas_Especiales" title="Fuerzas Especiales">Fuerzas Especiales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fukuryu" title="Fukuryu">Fukuryu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GRUMEC" title="GRUMEC">GRUMEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grup_Gerak_Khas" class="mw-redirect" title="Grup Gerak Khas">Grup Gerak Khas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jagdkommando" title="Jagdkommando">Jagdkommando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JW_Formoza" class="mw-redirect" title="JW Formoza">JW Formoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JW_GROM" class="mw-redirect" title="JW GROM">JW GROM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JW_Komandos%C3%B3w" class="mw-redirect" title="JW Komandosów">JW Komandosów</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kommando_Spezialkr%C3%A4fte_Marine" title="Kommando Spezialkräfte Marine">Kommando Spezialkräfte Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KOPASKA" title="KOPASKA">KOPASKA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MARCOS" title="MARCOS">MARCOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_Commandos" title="Marine Commandos">Marine Commandos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marinejegerkommandoen" title="Marinejegerkommandoen">Marinejegerkommandoen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_Raider_Regiment" title="Marine Raider Regiment">Marine Raider Regiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minedykkerkommandoen" title="Minedykkerkommandoen">Minedykkerkommandoen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namibian_Marine_Corps#Operational_Diving_Unit" title="Namibian Marine Corps">Namibian Marine Corps Operational Diving Unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Diving_Unit_(Singapore)" title="Naval Diving Unit (Singapore)">Naval Diving Unit (Singapore)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Service_Diving_Section" title="Naval Service Diving Section">Naval Service Diving Section</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Special_Operations_Command" title="Naval Special Operations Command">Naval Special Operations Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operational_Diving_Division_(SA_Navy)" title="Operational Diving Division (SA Navy)">Operational Diving Division (SA Navy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Engineers" title="Royal Engineers">Royal Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_commando_frogmen" title="Russian commando frogmen">Russian commando frogmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sappers_Divers_Group" title="Sappers Divers Group">Sappers Divers Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shayetet_13" title="Shayetet 13">Shayetet 13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Air_Service" title="Special Air Service">Special Air Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Air_Service_Regiment" title="Special Air Service Regiment">Special Air Service Regiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Actions_Detachment" title="Special Actions Detachment">Special Actions Detachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Boat_Service" title="Special Boat Service">Special Boat Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Boat_Squadron_(Sri_Lanka)" title="Special Boat Squadron (Sri Lanka)">Special Boat Squadron (Sri Lanka)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Forces_Command_(Turkey)" title="Special Forces Command (Turkey)">Special Forces Command (Turkey)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Forces_Group_(Belgium)" title="Special Forces Group (Belgium)">Special Forces Group (Belgium)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Operations_Battalion_(Croatia)" title="Special Operations Battalion (Croatia)">Special Operations Battalion (Croatia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Service_Group_(Navy)" title="Special Service Group (Navy)">Special Service Group (Navy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Warfare_Diving_and_Salvage" title="Special Warfare Diving and Salvage">Special Warfare Diving and Salvage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_Divers_Group" title="Tactical Divers Group">Tactical Divers Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_Force_Reconnaissance" title="United States Marine Corps Force Reconnaissance">US Marine Corps Force Reconnaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_Reconnaissance_Battalions" title="United States Marine Corps Reconnaissance Battalions">US Marine Corps Reconnaissance Battalions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy_SEALs" title="United States Navy SEALs">US Navy SEALs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Construction_Teams" title="Underwater Construction Teams">Underwater Construction Teams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Demolition_Command" title="Underwater Demolition Command">Underwater Demolition Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Demolition_Team" title="Underwater Demolition Team">Underwater Demolition Team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Offence_(Turkish_Armed_Forces)" title="Underwater Offence (Turkish Armed Forces)">Underwater Offence (Turkish Armed Forces)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNGERIN" title="UNGERIN">UNGERIN</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Underwater_work" title="Underwater work">Underwater<br />work</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_offshore_diving" title="Commercial offshore diving">Commercial offshore diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_leader" title="Dive leader">Dive leader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_training" title="Diver training">Diver training</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Recreational_diver_training" title="Recreational diver training">Recreational diver training</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazmat_diving" title="Hazmat diving">Hazmat diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_welding" title="Hyperbaric welding">Hyperbaric welding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_construction" title="Marine construction">Marine construction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_construction" title="Offshore construction">Offshore construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_construction" title="Underwater construction">Underwater construction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_diving" title="Media diving">Media diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pearl_hunting" title="Pearl hunting">Pearl hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_diving" title="Police diving">Police diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potable_water_diving" title="Potable water diving">Potable water diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_safety_diving" title="Public safety diving">Public safety diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_diving" title="Scientific diving">Scientific diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_husbandry" title="Ships husbandry">Ships husbandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sponge_diving" title="Sponge diving">Sponge diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_pipeline" title="Submarine pipeline">Submarine pipeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_archaeology" title="Underwater archaeology">Underwater archaeology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_shipwrecks" title="Archaeology of shipwrecks">Archaeology of shipwrecks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_cutting_and_welding" title="Underwater cutting and welding">Underwater cutting and welding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_demolition" title="Underwater demolition">Underwater demolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_inspection" class="mw-redirect" title="Underwater inspection">Underwater inspection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nondestructive_testing" title="Nondestructive testing">Nondestructive testing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_logging" title="Underwater logging">Underwater logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_photography" title="Underwater photography">Underwater photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_search_and_recovery" title="Underwater search and recovery">Underwater search and recovery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_searches" title="Underwater searches">Underwater searches</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_videography" title="Underwater videography">Underwater videography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_survey" title="Underwater survey">Underwater survey</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Salvage_diving" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Salvage_diving" title="Salvage diving">Salvage diving</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SS_Egypt" title="SS Egypt">SS <i>Egypt</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kronan_(ship)" title="Kronan (ship)"><i>Kronan</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Belle_(ship)" title="La Belle (ship)"><i>La Belle</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SS_Laurentic_(1908)" title="SS Laurentic (1908)">SS <i>Laurentic</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RMS_Lusitania" title="RMS Lusitania">RMS <i>Lusitania</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_warship_Mars" title="Swedish warship Mars"><i>Mars</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Rose" title="Mary Rose"><i>Mary Rose</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Monitor" title="USS Monitor">USS <i>Monitor</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Royal_George_(1756)" title="HMS Royal George (1756)">HMS <i>Royal George</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasa_(ship)" title="Vasa (ship)"><i>Vasa</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_contractor" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving contractor">Diving<br />contractors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compagnie_maritime_d%27expertises" title="Compagnie maritime d'expertises">COMEX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helix_Energy_Solutions_Group" title="Helix Energy Solutions Group">Helix Energy Solutions Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Marine_Contractors_Association" title="International Marine Contractors Association">International Marine Contractors Association</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tools and<br />equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrasive_waterjet" class="mw-redirect" title="Abrasive waterjet">Abrasive waterjet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airlift_(dredging_device)" title="Airlift (dredging device)">Airlift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baited_remote_underwater_video" title="Baited remote underwater video">Baited remote underwater video</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-water_surface_cleaning" title="In-water surface cleaning">In-water surface cleaning</a> <ul><li>Brush cart</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cavitation_cleaning&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cavitation cleaning (page does not exist)">Cavitation cleaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure_washing" title="Pressure washing">Pressure washing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigging" title="Pigging">Pigging</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_stab" title="Hot stab">Hot stab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifting_bag" title="Lifting bag">Lifting bag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remotely_operated_underwater_vehicle" title="Remotely operated underwater vehicle">Remotely operated underwater vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_lance" title="Thermal lance">Thermal lance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tremie" title="Tremie">Tremie</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_jetting&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water jetting (page does not exist)">Water jetting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Underwater<br />weapons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limpet_mine" title="Limpet mine">Limpet mine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speargun" title="Speargun">Speargun</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_sling" title="Hawaiian sling">Hawaiian sling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polespear" title="Polespear">Polespear</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Underwaterfirearm" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Underwater_firearm" title="Underwater firearm">Underwater<br />firearm</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gyrojet" title="Gyrojet">Gyrojet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mk_1_Underwater_Defense_Gun" title="Mk 1 Underwater Defense Gun">Mk 1 Underwater Defense Gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powerhead_(firearm)" title="Powerhead (firearm)">Powerhead</a></li> <li>Underwater pistols <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heckler_%26_Koch_P11" title="Heckler & Koch P11">Heckler & Koch P11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPP-1_underwater_pistol" title="SPP-1 underwater pistol">SPP-1 underwater pistol</a></li></ul></li> <li>Underwater revolvers <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AAI_underwater_revolver" title="AAI underwater revolver">AAI underwater revolver</a></li></ul></li> <li>Underwater rifles <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ADS_amphibious_rifle" title="ADS amphibious rifle">ADS amphibious rifle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APS_underwater_rifle" title="APS underwater rifle">APS underwater rifle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASM-DT_amphibious_rifle" title="ASM-DT amphibious rifle">ASM-DT amphibious rifle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QBS-06" title="QBS-06">QBS-06</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Recreational_diving" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Recreational_diving" title="Recreational diving">Recreational diving</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Recreational_dive_sites" title="Recreational dive sites">Recreational dive sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_recreational_dive_sites" title="Index of recreational dive sites">Index of recreational dive sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wreck_diving_sites" title="List of wreck diving sites">List of wreck diving sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_recreational_dive_sites" title="Outline of recreational dive sites">Outline of recreational dive sites</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specialties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Altitude_diving" title="Altitude diving">Altitude diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_diving" title="Cave diving">Cave diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_diving" title="Deep diving">Deep diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_diving" title="Ice diving">Ice diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muck_diving" title="Muck diving">Muck diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-water_diving" title="Open-water diving">Open-water diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebreather_diving" title="Rebreather diving">Rebreather diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidemount_diving" title="Sidemount diving">Sidemount diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solo_diving" title="Solo diving">Solo diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_diving" title="Technical diving">Technical diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_photography" title="Underwater photography">Underwater photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wreck_diving" title="Wreck diving">Wreck diving</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diver_organisations" title="Diver organisations">Diver<br />organisations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Sub-Aqua_Club" title="British Sub-Aqua Club">British Sub-Aqua Club</a> (BSAC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_Divers_Association_of_Australia" title="Cave Divers Association of Australia">Cave Divers Association of Australia</a> (CDAA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_Diving_Group" title="Cave Diving Group">Cave Diving Group</a> (CDG)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comhairle_Fo-Thuinn" title="Comhairle Fo-Thuinn">Comhairle Fo-Thuinn</a> (CFT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Mondiale_des_Activit%C3%A9s_Subaquatiques" title="Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques">Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques</a> (CMAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federaci%C3%B3n_Espa%C3%B1ola_de_Actividades_Subacu%C3%A1ticas" title="Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas">Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas</a> (FEDAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Fran%C3%A7aise_d%27%C3%89tudes_et_de_Sports_Sous-Marins" title="Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins">Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins</a> (FFESSM)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_for_Handicapped_Divers" title="International Association for Handicapped Divers">International Association for Handicapped Divers</a> (IAHD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintana_Roo_Speleological_Survey" title="Quintana Roo Speleological Survey">Quintana Roo Speleological Survey</a> (QRSS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodville_Karst_Plain_Project" title="Woodville Karst Plain Project">Woodville Karst Plain Project</a> (WKPP)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diving tourism<br />industry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dive_center" title="Dive center">Dive center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_in_East_Timor" title="Diving in East Timor">Diving in East Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_in_the_Maldives" title="Diving in the Maldives">Diving in the Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_recreational_diving" title="Environmental impact of recreational diving">Environmental impact of recreational diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_diving_tourism" title="Scuba diving tourism">Scuba diving tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_diving_in_the_Cayman_Islands" title="Scuba diving in the Cayman Islands">Scuba diving in the Cayman Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shark_tourism" title="Shark tourism">Shark tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinking_ships_for_wreck_diving_sites" title="Sinking ships for wreck diving sites">Sinking ships for wreck diving sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_diving_on_Guam" class="mw-redirect" title="Underwater diving on Guam">Underwater diving on Guam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diving events<br />and festivals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversnight" title="Diversnight">Diversnight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Bike_Race" title="Underwater Bike Race">Underwater Bike Race</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Diving_safety" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Diving_safety" title="Diving safety">Diving safety</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_factors_in_diving_equipment_design" title="Human factors in diving equipment design">Human factors in diving equipment design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_factors_in_diving_safety" title="Human factors in diving safety">Human factors in diving safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life-support_system" title="Life-support system">Life-support system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety-critical_system" title="Safety-critical system">Safety-critical system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_diving_fatalities" title="Scuba diving fatalities">Scuba diving fatalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_diving_emergency" title="Underwater diving emergency">Underwater diving emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_safety" title="Water safety">Water safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_surface_searches" title="Water surface searches">Water surface searches</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_hazards" title="Diving hazards">Diving<br />hazards</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diving_hazards_and_precautions" title="List of diving hazards and precautions">List of diving hazards and precautions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazards_of_the_diving_environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Hazards of the diving environment">Environmental</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delta-P_(hazard)" class="mw-redirect" title="Delta-P (hazard)">Delta-P</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entanglement_(hazard)" class="mw-redirect" title="Entanglement (hazard)">Entanglement hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penetration_diving" title="Penetration diving">Overhead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silt_out" title="Silt out">Silt out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_action" class="mw-redirect" title="Wave action">Wave action</a></li></ul></li> <li>Equipment <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freeflow" title="Freeflow">Freeflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diving_hazards_and_precautions#Use_of_breathing_equipment_in_an_underwater_environment" title="List of diving hazards and precautions">Use of breathing equipment in an underwater environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diving_hazards_and_precautions#Failure_of_diving_equipment_other_than_breathing_apparatus" title="List of diving hazards and precautions">Failure of diving equipment other than breathing apparatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_point_of_failure" title="Single point of failure">Single point of failure</a></li></ul></li> <li>Physiological <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_shock_response" title="Cold shock response">Cold shock response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_(diving)" title="Decompression (diving)">Decompression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_narcosis" title="Nitrogen narcosis">Nitrogen narcosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_toxicity" title="Oxygen toxicity">Oxygen toxicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seasickness" class="mw-redirect" title="Seasickness">Seasickness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncontrolled_decompression" title="Uncontrolled decompression">Uncontrolled decompression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diving_hazards_and_precautions#Diver_behaviour_and_competence" title="List of diving hazards and precautions">Diver behaviour and competence</a> <ul><li>Lack of <a href="/wiki/Competence_(human_resources)" title="Competence (human resources)">competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overconfidence_effect" title="Overconfidence effect">Overconfidence effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic" title="Panic">Panic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Task_loading" title="Task loading">Task loading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anxiety#Trait" title="Anxiety">Trait anxiety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willful_violation" title="Willful violation">Willful violation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Consequences" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Consequences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barotrauma" title="Barotrauma">Barotrauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_sickness" title="Decompression sickness">Decompression sickness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drowning" title="Drowning">Drowning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothermia" title="Hypothermia">Hypothermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypoxia (medical)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypercapnia" title="Hypercapnia">Hypercapnia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperthermia" title="Hyperthermia">Hyperthermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-freezing_cold_injury" title="Non-freezing cold injury">Non-freezing cold injury</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_procedures" title="Diving procedures">Diving<br />procedures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascending_and_descending_(diving)" title="Ascending and descending (diving)">Ascending and descending</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_ascent" title="Emergency ascent">Emergency ascent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boat_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Boat diving">Boat diving</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canoe_and_kayak_diving" title="Canoe and kayak diving">Canoe and kayak diving</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddy_diving" title="Buddy diving">Buddy diving</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddy_check" title="Buddy check">buddy check</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_(diving)" title="Decompression (diving)">Decompression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_practice" title="Decompression practice">Decompression practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyle_stop" title="Pyle stop">Pyle stop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratio_decompression" title="Ratio decompression">Ratio decompression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_briefing" title="Dive briefing">Dive briefing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_log" title="Dive log">Dive log</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_planning" title="Dive planning">Dive planning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_thirds_(diving)" title="Rule of thirds (diving)">Rule of thirds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_gas_planning" title="Scuba gas planning">Scuba gas planning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_communications" title="Diver communications">Diver communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_rescue" title="Diver rescue">Diver rescue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_training" title="Diver training">Diver training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doing_It_Right_(scuba_diving)" title="Doing It Right (scuba diving)">Doing It Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drift_diving" title="Drift diving">Drift diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_blending_for_scuba_diving" title="Gas blending for scuba diving">Gas blending for scuba diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night_diving" title="Night diving">Night diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebreather_diving" title="Rebreather diving">Rebreather diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_gas_management" title="Scuba gas management">Scuba gas management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solo_diving" title="Solo diving">Solo diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wall_diving" title="Wall diving">Wall diving</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Risk_management" title="Risk management">Risk<br />management</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Checklist" title="Checklist">Checklist</a></li> <li>Hazard identification and risk assessment <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hazard_analysis" title="Hazard analysis">Hazard analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_safety_analysis" title="Job safety analysis">Job safety analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_assessment" title="Risk assessment">Risk assessment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_evacuation_and_rescue" title="Hyperbaric evacuation and rescue">Hyperbaric evacuation and rescue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_control" title="Risk control">Risk control</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_hazard_controls" title="Hierarchy of hazard controls">Hierarchy of hazard controls</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incident_pit" title="Incident pit">Incident pit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lockout%E2%80%93tagout" title="Lockout–tagout">Lockout–tagout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permit_To_Work" class="mw-redirect" title="Permit To Work">Permit To Work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redundancy_(engineering)" title="Redundancy (engineering)">Redundancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_data_sheet" title="Safety data sheet">Safety data sheet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situation_awareness" title="Situation awareness">Situation awareness</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_team" title="Diving team">Diving team</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bellman_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bellman (diving)">Bellman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamber_operator" class="mw-redirect" title="Chamber operator">Chamber operator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_medical_technician" class="mw-redirect" title="Diver medical technician">Diver medical technician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver%27s_attendant" class="mw-redirect" title="Diver's attendant">Diver's attendant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_supervisor" title="Diving supervisor">Diving supervisor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_systems_technician" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving systems technician">Diving systems technician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_man" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas man">Gas man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_support_technician" class="mw-redirect" title="Life support technician">Life support technician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stand-by_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Stand-by diver">Stand-by diver</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equipment<br />safety</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breathing_gas_quality" class="mw-redirect" title="Breathing gas quality">Breathing gas quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testing_and_inspection_of_diving_cylinders" title="Testing and inspection of diving cylinders">Testing and inspection of diving cylinders</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydrostatic_test" title="Hydrostatic test">Hydrostatic test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustained_load_cracking" title="Sustained load cracking">Sustained load cracking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_regulator" title="Diving regulator">Diving regulator</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breathing_performance_of_regulators" title="Breathing performance of regulators">Breathing performance of regulators</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational<br />safety and<br />health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_of_Diving_Contractors_International" title="Association of Diving Contractors International">Association of Diving Contractors International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Marine_Contractors_Association" title="International Marine Contractors Association">International Marine Contractors Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_practice" title="Code of practice">Code of practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contingency_plan" title="Contingency plan">Contingency plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_regulations" title="Diving regulations">Diving regulations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_response_plan" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergency response plan">Emergency response plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_safety_officer" title="Diving safety officer">Diving safety officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_superintendent" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving superintendent">Diving superintendent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_supervisor" title="Diving supervisor">Diving supervisor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_manual" title="Operations manual">Operations manual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_operating_procedure" title="Standard operating procedure">Standard operating procedure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Diving_medicine" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Diving_medicine" title="Diving medicine">Diving medicine</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_disorders" title="Diving disorders">Diving<br />disorders</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_signs_and_symptoms_of_diving_disorders" title="List of signs and symptoms of diving disorders">List of signs and symptoms of diving disorders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cramp" title="Cramp">Cramp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motion_sickness" title="Motion sickness">Motion sickness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surfer%27s_ear" title="Surfer's ear">Surfer's ear</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pressure<br />related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternobaric_vertigo" title="Alternobaric vertigo">Alternobaric vertigo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barostriction" class="mw-redirect" title="Barostriction">Barostriction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barotrauma" title="Barotrauma">Barotrauma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_embolism" title="Air embolism">Air embolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerosinusitis" title="Aerosinusitis">Aerosinusitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barodontalgia" title="Barodontalgia">Barodontalgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dental_barotrauma" class="mw-redirect" title="Dental barotrauma">Dental barotrauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_ear_barotrauma" title="Middle ear barotrauma">Middle ear barotrauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_barotrauma" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmonary barotrauma">Pulmonary barotrauma</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compression_arthralgia" title="Compression arthralgia">Compression arthralgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_illness" title="Decompression illness">Decompression illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysbarism" title="Dysbarism">Dysbarism</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oxygen</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freediving_blackout" title="Freediving blackout">Freediving blackout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperoxia" title="Hyperoxia">Hyperoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypoxia (medical)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_toxicity" title="Oxygen toxicity">Oxygen toxicity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Inert gases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avascular_necrosis" title="Avascular necrosis">Avascular necrosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_sickness" title="Decompression sickness">Decompression sickness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dysbaric_osteonecrosis" title="Dysbaric osteonecrosis">Dysbaric osteonecrosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_ear_decompression_sickness" title="Inner ear decompression sickness">Inner ear decompression sickness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isobaric_counterdiffusion" title="Isobaric counterdiffusion">Isobaric counterdiffusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taravana" title="Taravana">Taravana</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-pressure_nervous_syndrome" title="High-pressure nervous syndrome">High-pressure nervous syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_narcosis" title="Hydrogen narcosis">Hydrogen narcosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_narcosis" title="Nitrogen narcosis">Nitrogen narcosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Carbon dioxide</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypercapnia" title="Hypercapnia">Hypercapnia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypocapnia" title="Hypocapnia">Hypocapnia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Breathing gas<br />contaminants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide_poisoning" title="Carbon monoxide poisoning">Carbon monoxide poisoning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Immersion<br />related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asphyxia" title="Asphyxia">Asphyxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drowning" title="Drowning">Drowning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothermia" title="Hypothermia">Hypothermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immersion_diuresis" class="mw-redirect" title="Immersion diuresis">Immersion diuresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instinctive_drowning_response" title="Instinctive drowning response">Instinctive drowning response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laryngospasm" title="Laryngospasm">Laryngospasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_water_aspiration_syndrome" title="Salt water aspiration syndrome">Salt water aspiration syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swimming-induced_pulmonary_edema" title="Swimming-induced pulmonary edema">Swimming-induced pulmonary edema</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Treatment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demand_valve_oxygen_therapy" title="Demand valve oxygen therapy">Demand valve oxygen therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_aid" title="First aid">First aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_medicine" title="Hyperbaric medicine">Hyperbaric medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_treatment_schedules" title="Hyperbaric treatment schedules">Hyperbaric treatment schedules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-water_recompression" title="In-water recompression">In-water recompression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_therapy" title="Oxygen therapy">Oxygen therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therapeutic_recompression" class="mw-redirect" title="Therapeutic recompression">Therapeutic recompression</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Personnel</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_Medical_Examiner" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving Medical Examiner">Diving Medical Examiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_Medical_Practitioner" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving Medical Practitioner">Diving Medical Practitioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_Medical_Technician" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving Medical Technician">Diving Medical Technician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_nursing" title="Hyperbaric nursing">Hyperbaric nursing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Screening</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atrial_septal_defect" title="Atrial septal defect">Atrial septal defect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_drugs_on_fitness_to_dive" class="mw-redirect" title="Effects of drugs on fitness to dive">Effects of drugs on fitness to dive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_to_dive" title="Fitness to dive">Fitness to dive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_fitness_to_dive" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological fitness to dive">Psychological fitness to dive</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_researchers_in_diving_physiology_and_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="List of researchers in diving physiology and medicine">Researchers in<br />diving physiology<br />and medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_J._Bachrach" title="Arthur J. Bachrach">Arthur J. Bachrach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_R._Behnke" title="Albert R. Behnke">Albert R. Behnke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_B._Bennett" title="Peter B. Bennett">Peter B. Bennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Bert" title="Paul Bert">Paul Bert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_F._Bond" title="George F. Bond">George F. Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alf_O._Brubakk" title="Alf O. Brubakk">Alf O. Brubakk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_A._B%C3%BChlmann" title="Albert A. Bühlmann">Albert A. Bühlmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_R._Clarke_(scientist)" title="John R. Clarke (scientist)">John R. Clarke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guybon_Chesney_Castell_Damant" title="Guybon Chesney Castell Damant">Guybon Chesney Castell Damant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_William_Donald" title="Kenneth William Donald">Kenneth William Donald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Paul_Fife" title="William Paul Fife">William Paul Fife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Scott_Haldane" title="John Scott Haldane">John Scott Haldane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_William_Hamilton_Jr." title="Robert William Hamilton Jr.">Robert William Hamilton Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Valence_Hempleman" title="Henry Valence Hempleman">Henry Valence Hempleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Erskine_Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="Leonard Erskine Hill">Leonard Erskine Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brian_Andrew_Hills" title="Brian Andrew Hills">Brian Andrew Hills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Hoppe-Seyler" title="Felix Hoppe-Seyler">Felix Hoppe-Seyler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_J._Lambertsen" title="Christian J. Lambertsen">Christian J. Lambertsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Mitchell" title="Simon Mitchell">Simon Mitchell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Momsen" title="Charles Momsen">Charles Momsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neal_W._Pollock" title="Neal W. Pollock">Neal W. Pollock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawlins_(Royal_Navy_officer)" title="John Rawlins (Royal Navy officer)">John Rawlins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Wesley_Shilling" title="Charles Wesley Shilling">Charles Wesley Shilling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_D._Thalmann" title="Edward D. Thalmann">Edward D. Thalmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Triger" title="Jacques Triger">Jacques Triger</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diving medical<br />research<br />organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerospace_Medical_Association" title="Aerospace Medical Association">Aerospace Medical Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divers_Alert_Network" title="Divers Alert Network">Divers Alert Network</a> (DAN)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_Diseases_Research_Centre" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving Diseases Research Centre">Diving Diseases Research Centre</a> (DDRC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_Medical_Advisory_Council" title="Diving Medical Advisory Council">Diving Medical Advisory Council</a> (DMAC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Diving_Technology_Committee" title="European Diving Technology Committee">European Diving Technology Committee</a> (EDTC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Underwater_and_Baromedical_Society" title="European Underwater and Baromedical Society">European Underwater and Baromedical Society</a> (EUBS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Board_of_Diving_and_Hyperbaric_Medical_Technology" title="National Board of Diving and Hyperbaric Medical Technology">National Board of Diving and Hyperbaric Medical Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Submarine_Medical_Research_Laboratory" title="Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory">Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Australian_Navy_School_of_Underwater_Medicine" title="Royal Australian Navy School of Underwater Medicine">Royal Australian Navy School of Underwater Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubicon_Foundation" title="Rubicon Foundation">Rubicon Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Pacific_Underwater_Medicine_Society" title="South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society">South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society</a> (SPUMS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_African_Underwater_and_Hyperbaric_Medical_Association" title="Southern African Underwater and Hyperbaric Medical Association">Southern African Underwater and Hyperbaric Medical Association</a> (SAUHMA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undersea_and_Hyperbaric_Medical_Society" title="Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society">Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society</a> (UHMS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy_Experimental_Diving_Unit" title="United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit">United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit</a> (NEDU)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Law" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Law</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liability_in_recreational_diving" title="Civil liability in recreational diving">Civil liability in recreational diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_regulations" title="Diving regulations">Diving regulations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty_of_care" title="Duty of care">Duty of care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_legislation_regulating_underwater_diving" title="List of legislation regulating underwater diving">List of legislation regulating underwater diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investigation_of_diving_accidents" title="Investigation of diving accidents">Investigation of diving accidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Protection_of_the_Underwater_Cultural_Heritage" title="Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage">Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History_of_underwater_diving" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_underwater_diving" title="History of underwater diving">History of underwater diving</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_decompression_research_and_development" title="History of decompression research and development">History of decompression research and development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Diving_Museum" title="History of Diving Museum">History of Diving Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_scuba_diving" title="History of scuba diving">History of scuba diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_researchers_in_underwater_diving" title="List of researchers in underwater diving">List of researchers in underwater diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyons_Maritime_Museum" title="Lyons Maritime Museum">Lyons Maritime Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man_in_the_Sea_Museum" title="Man in the Sea Museum">Man in the Sea Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_diving_technology" title="Timeline of diving technology">Timeline of diving technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pearling_in_Western_Australia" title="Pearling in Western Australia">Pearling in Western Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/US_Navy_decompression_models_and_tables" title="US Navy decompression models and tables">US Navy decompression models and tables</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archeological<br />sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SS_Commodore" title="SS Commodore">SS <i>Commodore</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Monitor" title="USS Monitor">USS <i>Monitor</i></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_Revenge" title="Queen Anne's Revenge">Queen Anne's Revenge</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Whydah_Gally" title="Whydah Gally">Whydah Gally</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Underwater art<br />and artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Diver" title="The Diver">The Diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason_deCaires_Taylor" title="Jason deCaires Taylor">Jason deCaires Taylor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Engineers<br />and inventors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jer%C3%B3nimo_de_Ayanz_y_Beaumont" title="Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont">Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Beebe" title="William Beebe">William Beebe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Beuchat" title="Georges Beuchat">Georges Beuchat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Alfonso_Borelli" title="Giovanni Alfonso Borelli">Giovanni Alfonso Borelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph-Martin_Cabirol" title="Joseph-Martin Cabirol">Joseph-Martin Cabirol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_R._Clarke_(scientist)" title="John R. Clarke (scientist)">John R. Clarke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Cousteau" title="Jacques Cousteau">Jacques Cousteau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Anthony_Deane" title="Charles Anthony Deane">Charles Anthony Deane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Deane_(inventor)" title="John Deane (inventor)">John Deane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Corlieu" title="Louis de Corlieu">Louis de Corlieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Denayrouze" title="Auguste Denayrouze">Auguste Denayrouze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Eldred" title="Ted Eldred">Ted Eldred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Fleuss" title="Henry Fleuss">Henry Fleuss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Gagnan" title="Émile Gagnan">Émile Gagnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Heinrich_Klingert" title="Karl Heinrich Klingert">Karl Heinrich Klingert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kreeft_(diver)" title="Peter Kreeft (diver)">Peter Kreeft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_J._Lambertsen" title="Christian J. Lambertsen">Christian J. Lambertsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yves_Le_Prieur" title="Yves Le Prieur">Yves Le Prieur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lethbridge" title="John Lethbridge">John Lethbridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_William_Moir" title="Ernest William Moir">Ernest William Moir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Salim_Peress" title="Joseph Salim Peress">Joseph Salim Peress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Piccard" title="Auguste Piccard">Auguste Piccard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Savoie" title="Joe Savoie">Joe Savoie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Franklyn_Searle" title="Willard Franklyn Searle">Willard Franklyn Searle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Smith_(inventor)" title="Gordon Smith (inventor)">Gordon Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_Siebe" title="Augustus Siebe">Augustus Siebe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Marie_Touboulic" title="Pierre-Marie Touboulic">Pierre-Marie Touboulic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Triger" title="Jacques Triger">Jacques Triger</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical<br />equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aqua-Lung" title="Aqua-Lung">Aqua-Lung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RV_Calypso" title="RV Calypso">RV <i>Calypso</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SP-350_Denise" title="SP-350 Denise">SP-350 <i>Denise</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnesium_torch" title="Magnesium torch">Magnesium torch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikonos" title="Nikonos">Nikonos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porpoise_(scuba_gear)" title="Porpoise (scuba gear)">Porpoise regulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_diving_dress" title="Standard diving dress">Standard diving dress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub_Marine_Explorer" title="Sub Marine Explorer">Sub Marine Explorer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vintage_scuba" title="Vintage scuba">Vintage scuba</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Diverpropulsionvehicles" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diver_propulsion_vehicle" title="Diver propulsion vehicle">Diver<br />propulsion<br />vehicles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_SEAL_Delivery_System" title="Advanced SEAL Delivery System">Advanced SEAL Delivery System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmos_CE2F_series" title="Cosmos CE2F series">Cosmos CE2F series</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_Combat_Submersible" title="Dry Combat Submersible">Dry Combat Submersible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_torpedo" title="Human torpedo">Human torpedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motorised_Submersible_Canoe" title="Motorised Submersible Canoe">Motorised Submersible Canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necker_Nymph" title="Necker Nymph">Necker Nymph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-2_Mala-class_swimmer_delivery_vehicle" title="R-2 Mala-class swimmer delivery vehicle">R-2 Mala-class swimmer delivery vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SEAL_Delivery_Vehicle" title="SEAL Delivery Vehicle">SEAL Delivery Vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_Water_Combat_Submersible" title="Shallow Water Combat Submersible">Shallow Water Combat Submersible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siluro_San_Bartolomeo" title="Siluro San Bartolomeo">Siluro San Bartolomeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfreighter" title="Welfreighter">Welfreighter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_Nellie" title="Wet Nellie">Wet Nellie</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military and<br />covert operations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Alexandria_(1941)" title="Raid on Alexandria (1941)">Raid on Alexandria (1941)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinking_of_the_Rainbow_Warrior" title="Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior">Sinking of the <i>Rainbow Warrior</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientific projects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1992_cageless_shark-diving_expedition" title="1992 cageless shark-diving expedition">1992 cageless shark-diving expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mission_31" title="Mission 31">Mission 31</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Awards and events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Hass_Award" title="Hans Hass Award">Hans Hass Award</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Scuba_Diving_Hall_of_Fame" title="International Scuba Diving Hall of Fame">International Scuba Diving Hall of Fame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_Diving_Chamber_Dive_Lectures" title="London Diving Chamber Dive Lectures">London Diving Chamber Dive Lectures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NOGI_Awards" title="NOGI Awards">NOGI Awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_Divers_Hall_of_Fame" title="Women Divers Hall of Fame">Women Divers Hall of Fame</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dive_boat" title="Dive boat">Dive boat</a> incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sinking_of_MV_Conception" title="Sinking of MV Conception">Sinking of MV <i>Conception</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diver rescues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpazat_cave_rescue" title="Alpazat cave rescue">Alpazat cave rescue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tham_Luang_cave_rescue" title="Tham Luang cave rescue">Tham Luang cave rescue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early diving</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Day_(carpenter)" title="John Day (carpenter)">John Day (carpenter)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Spalding" title="Charles Spalding">Charles Spalding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebenezer_Watson" class="mw-redirect" title="Ebenezer Watson">Ebenezer Watson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Freediving" title="Freediving">Freediving</a> fatalities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Keenan" title="Stephen Keenan">Stephen Keenan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lo%C3%AFc_Leferme" title="Loïc Leferme">Loïc Leferme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audrey_Mestre" title="Audrey Mestre">Audrey Mestre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Mevoli" title="Nicholas Mevoli">Nicholas Mevoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalia_Molchanova" title="Natalia Molchanova">Natalia Molchanova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Offshore_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Offshore diving">Offshore<br />diving</a> incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byford_Dolphin#Diving_bell_accident" title="Byford Dolphin"><i>Byford Dolphin</i> diving bell accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drill_Master_diving_accident" title="Drill Master diving accident"><i>Drill Master</i> diving accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_Canopus_diving_accident" title="Star Canopus diving accident"><i>Star Canopus</i> diving accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stena_Seaspread_diving_accident" title="Stena Seaspread diving accident"><i>Stena Seaspread</i> diving accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venture_One_diving_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="Venture One diving accident"><i>Venture One</i> diving accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waage_Drill_II_diving_accident" title="Waage Drill II diving accident"><i>Waage Drill II</i> diving accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildrake_diving_accident" title="Wildrake diving accident"><i>Wildrake</i> diving accident</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Professional_diving" title="Professional diving">Professional<br />diving</a> fatalities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Baldwin_(diver)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roger Baldwin (diver)">Roger Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bennett_(diver)" title="John Bennett (diver)">John Bennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_F._Guiel_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Victor F. Guiel Jr.">Victor F. Guiel Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_P._Hammerberg" title="Francis P. Hammerberg">Francis P. Hammerberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craig_M._Hoffman" class="mw-redirect" title="Craig M. Hoffman">Craig M. Hoffman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Henry_Michael_Holmes" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Henry Michael Holmes">Peter Henry Michael Holmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_Sea_Link_accident" title="Johnson Sea Link accident">Johnson Sea Link accident</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Clayton_Link" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwin Clayton Link">Edwin Clayton Link</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerard_Anthony_Prangley" class="mw-redirect" title="Gerard Anthony Prangley">Gerard Anthony Prangley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Per_Skipnes" class="mw-redirect" title="Per Skipnes">Per Skipnes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_John_Smyth" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert John Smyth">Robert John Smyth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_D._Stover" class="mw-redirect" title="Albert D. Stover">Albert D. Stover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_A._Walker" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard A. Walker">Richard A. Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lothar_Michael_Ward" class="mw-redirect" title="Lothar Michael Ward">Lothar Michael Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Wendler" title="Joachim Wendler">Joachim Wendler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Bradley_Westell" title="Death of Bradley Westell">Bradley Westell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arne_Zetterstr%C3%B6m" title="Arne Zetterström">Arne Zetterström</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scuba_diving_fatalities" title="Scuba diving fatalities">Scuba diving<br />fatalities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1973_Mount_Gambier_cave_diving_accident" title="1973 Mount Gambier cave diving accident">1973 Mount Gambier cave diving accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ricardo_Armbruster" title="Ricardo Armbruster">Ricardo Armbruster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_Bridge" title="Allan Bridge">Allan Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Bright_(diver)" title="David Bright (diver)">David Bright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berry_L._Cannon" title="Berry L. Cannon">Berry L. Cannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotton_Coulson" title="Cotton Coulson">Cotton Coulson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cl%C3%A1udio_Coutinho" title="Cláudio Coutinho">Cláudio Coutinho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._Yale_Dawson" title="E. Yale Dawson">E. Yale Dawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deon_Dreyer" title="Deon Dreyer">Deon Dreyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milan_Dufek" title="Milan Dufek">Milan Dufek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheck_Exley" title="Sheck Exley">Sheck Exley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Fargues" title="Maurice Fargues">Maurice Fargues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fernando_Garfella_Palmer" title="Fernando Garfella Palmer">Fernando Garfella Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Garman" title="Guy Garman">Guy Garman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Irwin" title="Steve Irwin">Steve Irwin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Steve_Irwin" title="Death of Steve Irwin">death</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Jones_(American_football,_born_1935)" title="Jim Jones (American football, born 1935)">Jim Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Way_Kendall" title="Henry Way Kendall">Henry Way Kendall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artur_Koz%C5%82owski_(speleologist)" title="Artur Kozłowski (speleologist)">Artur Kozłowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Lipski" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuri Lipski">Yuri Lipski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirsty_MacColl" title="Kirsty MacColl">Kirsty MacColl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Linnea_Mills" title="Death of Linnea Mills">Linnea Mills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnes_Milowka" title="Agnes Milowka">Agnes Milowka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Roubaix" title="François de Roubaix">François de Roubaix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Last_Dive" title="The Last Dive">Chris and Chrissy Rouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dave_Shaw" title="Dave Shaw">Dave Shaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wesley_C._Skiles" title="Wesley C. Skiles">Wesley C. Skiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dewey_Smith" title="Dewey Smith">Dewey Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rob_Stewart_(filmmaker)" title="Rob Stewart (filmmaker)">Rob Stewart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esbj%C3%B6rn_Svensson" title="Esbjörn Svensson">Esbjörn Svensson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josef_Velek" title="Josef Velek">Josef Velek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Publications" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Publications</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Manuals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/NOAA_Diving_Manual" title="NOAA Diving Manual">NOAA Diving Manual</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/U.S._Navy_Diving_Manual" title="U.S. Navy Diving Manual">U.S. Navy Diving Manual</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Basic_Cave_Diving:_A_Blueprint_for_Survival" title="Basic Cave Diving: A Blueprint for Survival">Basic Cave Diving: A Blueprint for Survival</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Underwater_Handbook&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Underwater Handbook (page does not exist)">Underwater Handbook</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bennett_and_Elliott%27s_physiology_and_medicine_of_diving&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bennett and Elliott's physiology and medicine of diving (page does not exist)">Bennett and Elliott's physiology and medicine of diving</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Encyclopedia_of_Recreational_Diving&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving (page does not exist)">Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_new_science_of_skin_and_scuba_diving&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The new science of skin and scuba diving (page does not exist)">The new science of skin and scuba diving</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Professional_Diver%27s_Handbook&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Professional Diver's Handbook (page does not exist)">Professional Diver's Handbook</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Basic_Scuba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Basic Scuba (page does not exist)">Basic Scuba</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Standards and<br />Codes of Practice</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_Practice_for_Scientific_Diving_(UNESCO)" class="mw-redirect" title="Code of Practice for Scientific Diving (UNESCO)">Code of Practice for Scientific Diving (UNESCO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DIN_7876" title="DIN 7876">DIN 7876</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IMCA_Code_of_Practice_for_Offshore_Diving" class="mw-redirect" title="IMCA Code of Practice for Offshore Diving">IMCA Code of Practice for Offshore Diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_24801_Recreational_diving_services_%E2%80%94_Requirements_for_the_training_of_recreational_scuba_divers" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 24801 Recreational diving services — Requirements for the training of recreational scuba divers">ISO 24801 Recreational diving services — Requirements for the training of recreational scuba divers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General non-fiction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Darkness_Beckons" title="The Darkness Beckons">The Darkness Beckons</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Goldfinder" title="Goldfinder">Goldfinder</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Last_Dive" title="The Last Dive">The Last Dive</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shadow_Divers" title="Shadow Divers">Shadow Divers</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Silent_World:_A_Story_of_Undersea_Discovery_and_Adventure" title="The Silent World: A Story of Undersea Discovery and Adventure">The Silent World: A Story of Undersea Discovery and Adventure</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Divers_Alert_Network_publications" title="List of Divers Alert Network publications">List of Divers Alert Network publications</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dive_guide_(publication)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dive guide (publication)">Dive guides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Training_and_registration" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Training and registration</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diver_training" title="Diver training">Diver<br />training</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Competence and assessment <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Competency-based_learning" title="Competency-based learning">Competency-based learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refresher_training_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Refresher training (diving)">Refresher training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skill_assessment" title="Skill assessment">Skill assessment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_training_standard" title="Diver training standard">Diver training standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_instructor" title="Diving instructor">Diving instructor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving school">Diving school</a></li> <li>Occupational diver training <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_diver_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial diver training">Commercial diver training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_diver_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Military diver training">Military diver training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_safety_diver_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Public safety diver training">Public safety diver training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_diver_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific diver training">Scientific diver training</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreational_diver_training" title="Recreational diver training">Recreational diver training</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introductory_diving" title="Introductory diving">Introductory diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_recreational_diving_training_standards" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO recreational diving training standards">ISO training standards</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teaching_method" title="Teaching method">Teaching method</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muscle_memory" title="Muscle memory">Muscle memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overlearning" title="Overlearning">Overlearning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stress_exposure_training" title="Stress exposure training">Stress exposure training</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Skills" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Skills</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Combat_sidestroke" title="Combat sidestroke">Combat sidestroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_navigation" title="Diver navigation">Diver navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_trim" title="Diver trim">Diver trim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ear_clearing" title="Ear clearing">Ear clearing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frenzel_maneuver" title="Frenzel maneuver">Frenzel maneuver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valsalva_maneuver" title="Valsalva maneuver">Valsalva maneuver</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finning_techniques" title="Finning techniques">Finning techniques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_skills" title="Scuba skills">Scuba skills</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddy_breathing" title="Buddy breathing">Buddy breathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_impact_diving" title="Low impact diving">Low impact diving</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diamond_Reef_System" title="Diamond Reef System">Diamond Reef System</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface-supplied_diving_skills" title="Surface-supplied diving skills">Surface-supplied diving skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_searches" title="Underwater searches">Underwater searches</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Recreational_scuba_certification_levels" title="Recreational scuba certification levels">Recreational<br />scuba<br />certification<br />levels</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Core diving skills</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Open_Water_Diver" title="Advanced Open Water Diver">Advanced Open Water Diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_diver" title="Autonomous diver">Autonomous diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CMAS*_scuba_diver" title="CMAS* scuba diver">CMAS* scuba diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CMAS**_scuba_diver" title="CMAS** scuba diver">CMAS** scuba diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introductory_diving" title="Introductory diving">Introductory diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_Impact_Diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Low Impact Diver">Low Impact Diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_Scuba_Diver" title="Master Scuba Diver">Master Scuba Diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Water_Diver" title="Open Water Diver">Open Water Diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervised_diver" title="Supervised diver">Supervised diver</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Leadership skills</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dive_leader" title="Dive leader">Dive leader</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divemaster" title="Divemaster">Divemaster</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_instructor" title="Diving instructor">Diving instructor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Master_Instructor" class="mw-redirect" title="Master Instructor">Master Instructor</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specialist skills</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_Diver" title="Rescue Diver">Rescue Diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solo_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Solo diver">Solo diver</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diver_training_organization" title="Diver training organization">Diver training<br />certification<br />and registration<br />organisations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Underwater_Federation" title="European Underwater Federation">European Underwater Federation</a> (EUF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Diving_Regulators_and_Certifiers_Forum" title="International Diving Regulators and Certifiers Forum">International Diving Regulators and Certifiers Forum</a> (IDRCF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Diving_Schools_Association" title="International Diving Schools Association">International Diving Schools Association</a> (IDSA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Marine_Contractors_Association" title="International Marine Contractors Association">International Marine Contractors Association</a> (IMCA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diver_certification_organizations" title="List of diver certification organizations">List of diver certification organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> (NOAA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nautical_Archaeology_Society" title="Nautical Archaeology Society">Nautical Archaeology Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreational_diver_course_referral" title="Recreational diver course referral">Recreational diver course referral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Recreational_Scuba_Training_Council" title="World Recreational Scuba Training Council">World Recreational Scuba Training Council</a> (WRSTC)</li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Commercial diver<br />certification<br />authorities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Diver_Accreditation_Scheme" title="Australian Diver Accreditation Scheme">Australian Diver Accreditation Scheme</a> (ADAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_diver_registration_in_South_Africa" title="Commercial diver registration in South Africa">Commercial diver registration in South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divers_Institute_of_Technology" title="Divers Institute of Technology">Divers Institute of Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_and_Safety_Executive" title="Health and Safety Executive">Health and Safety Executive</a> (HSE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_Employment_and_Labour" title="Department of Employment and Labour">Department of Employment and Labour</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Commercial diving<br />schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divers_Academy_International" title="Divers Academy International">Divers Academy International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Norway_University_of_Applied_Sciences#Norwegian_diver_school" title="Western Norway University of Applied Sciences">Norwegian diver school</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Free-diving<br />certification<br />agencies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AIDA_International" title="AIDA International">AIDA International</a> (AIDA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Mondiale_des_Activit%C3%A9s_Subaquatiques" title="Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques">Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques</a> (CMAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance_Freediving_International" title="Performance Freediving International">Performance Freediving International</a> (PI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_Schools_International" title="Scuba Schools International">Scuba Schools International</a> (SSI)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Recreational<br />scuba<br />certification<br />agencies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Canadian_Underwater_Certifications" title="American Canadian Underwater Certifications">American Canadian Underwater Certifications</a> (ACUC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Nitrox_Divers_International" title="American Nitrox Divers International">American Nitrox Divers International</a> (ANDI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_nationale_des_moniteurs_de_plong%C3%A9e" title="Association nationale des moniteurs de plongée">Association nationale des moniteurs de plongée</a> (ANMP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Sub-Aqua_Club" title="British Sub-Aqua Club">British Sub-Aqua Club</a> (BSAC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comhairle_Fo-Thuinn" title="Comhairle Fo-Thuinn">Comhairle Fo-Thuinn</a> (CFT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Mondiale_des_Activit%C3%A9s_Subaquatiques" title="Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques">Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques</a> (CMAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federaci%C3%B3n_Espa%C3%B1ola_de_Actividades_Subacu%C3%A1ticas" title="Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas">Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas</a> (FEDAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Fran%C3%A7aise_d%27%C3%89tudes_et_de_Sports_Sous-Marins" title="Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins">Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins</a> (FFESSM)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federazione_Italiana_Attivit%C3%A0_Subacquee" title="Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee">Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee</a> (FIAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Underwater_Explorers" title="Global Underwater Explorers">Global Underwater Explorers</a> (GUE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_for_Handicapped_Divers" title="International Association for Handicapped Divers">International Association for Handicapped Divers</a> (IAHD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_of_Nitrox_and_Technical_Divers" title="International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers">International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers</a> (IANTD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Life_Saving_Federation" title="International Life Saving Federation">International Life Saving Federation</a> (ILS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Diving_Federation" title="Israeli Diving Federation">Israeli Diving Federation</a> (TIDF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Scuba_Educators" title="National Academy of Scuba Educators">National Academy of Scuba Educators</a> (NASE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_of_Underwater_Instructors" title="National Association of Underwater Instructors">National Association of Underwater Instructors</a> (NAUI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nederlandse_Onderwatersport_Bond" title="Nederlandse Onderwatersport Bond">Nederlandse Onderwatersport Bond</a> (NOB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_Association_of_Diving_Instructors" title="Professional Association of Diving Instructors">Professional Association of Diving Instructors</a> (PADI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_Diving_Instructors_Corporation" title="Professional Diving Instructors Corporation">Professional Diving Instructors Corporation</a> (PDIC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_Technical_and_Recreational_Diving" title="Professional Technical and Recreational Diving">Professional Technical and Recreational Diving</a> (ProTec)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebreather_Association_of_International_Divers" title="Rebreather Association of International Divers">Rebreather Association of International Divers</a> (RAID)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-Aqua_Association" title="Sub-Aqua Association">Sub-Aqua Association</a> (SAA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_Diving_International" title="Scuba Diving International">Scuba Diving International</a> (SDI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_Educators_International" title="Scuba Educators International">Scuba Educators International</a> (SEI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Sub_Aqua_Club" title="Scottish Sub Aqua Club">Scottish Sub Aqua Club</a> (ScotSAC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_Schools_International" title="Scuba Schools International">Scuba Schools International</a> (SSI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Underwater_Sports_Federation" title="Turkish Underwater Sports Federation">Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu</a> (TSSF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Diving_Instructors" title="United Diving Instructors">United Diving Instructors</a> (UDI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/YMCA_SCUBA_Program" title="YMCA SCUBA Program">YMCA SCUBA Program</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientific diver<br />certification<br />authorities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Underwater_Sciences" title="American Academy of Underwater Sciences">American Academy of Underwater Sciences</a> (AAUS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Mondiale_des_Activit%C3%A9s_Subaquatiques#Scientific_committee" title="Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques">CMAS Scientific Committee</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technical diver<br />certification<br />agencies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Nitrox_Divers_International" title="American Nitrox Divers International">American Nitrox Divers International</a> (ANDI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Sub-Aqua_Club" title="British Sub-Aqua Club">British Sub-Aqua Club</a> (BSAC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Mondiale_des_Activit%C3%A9s_Subaquatiques" title="Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques">Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques</a> (CMAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_Science_and_Technology" title="Diving Science and Technology">Diving Science and Technology</a> (DSAT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federazione_Italiana_Attivit%C3%A0_Subacquee" title="Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee">Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee</a> (FIAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_of_Nitrox_and_Technical_Divers" title="International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers">International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers</a> (IANTD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_Association_of_Diving_Instructors" title="Professional Association of Diving Instructors">Professional Association of Diving Instructors</a> (PADI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_Diving_Instructors_Corporation" title="Professional Diving Instructors Corporation">Professional Diving Instructors Corporation</a> (PDIC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_Technical_and_Recreational_Diving" title="Professional Technical and Recreational Diving">Professional Technical and Recreational Diving</a> (ProTec)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebreather_Association_of_International_Divers" title="Rebreather Association of International Divers">Rebreather Association of International Divers</a> (RAID)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimix_Scuba_Association" title="Trimix Scuba Association">Trimix Scuba Association</a> (TSA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_Schools_International" title="Scuba Schools International">Technical Extended Range</a> (TXR)</li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Cavediving" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cave<br />diving</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cave_Divers_Association_of_Australia" title="Cave Divers Association of Australia">Cave Divers Association of Australia</a> (CDAA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_Diving_Group" title="Cave Diving Group">Cave Diving Group</a> (CDG)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Underwater_Explorers" title="Global Underwater Explorers">Global Underwater Explorers</a> (GUE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Speleological_Society#Cave_Diving_Group" title="National Speleological Society">National Speleological Society#Cave Diving Group</a> (CDG)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_of_Underwater_Instructors" title="National Association of Underwater Instructors">National Association of Underwater Instructors</a> (NAUI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_Diving_International" title="Technical Diving International">Technical Diving International</a> (TDI)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military diver<br />training centres</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Defence_Diving_School" title="Defence Diving School">Defence Diving School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Support_Activity_Panama_City#Tenant_commands" title="Naval Support Activity Panama City">Navy Diving Salvage and Training Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Escape_Training_Unit" title="Underwater Escape Training Unit">Underwater Escape Training Unit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military diver<br />training courses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_Combatant_Diver_Course" title="United States Marine Corps Combatant Diver Course">United States Marine Corps Combatant Diver Course</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Underwater_sports" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Underwater_sports" title="Underwater sports">Underwater sports</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Surface snorkeling</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Finswimming" title="Finswimming">Finswimming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Snorkeling/breath-hold</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spearfishing" title="Spearfishing">Spearfishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_football" title="Underwater football">Underwater football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_hockey" title="Underwater hockey">Underwater hockey</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_hockey_in_Australia" title="Underwater hockey in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_hockey_in_Turkey" title="Underwater hockey in Turkey">Turkey</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_rugby" title="Underwater rugby">Underwater rugby</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_rugby_in_Colombia" class="mw-redirect" title="Underwater rugby in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_rugby_in_the_United_States" title="Underwater rugby in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_target_shooting" title="Underwater target shooting">Underwater target shooting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Breath-hold</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquathlon_(underwater_wrestling)" title="Aquathlon (underwater wrestling)">Aquathlon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apnoea_finswimming" class="mw-redirect" title="Apnoea finswimming">Apnoea finswimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freediving" title="Freediving">Freediving</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Open Circuit Scuba</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immersion_finswimming" class="mw-redirect" title="Immersion finswimming">Immersion finswimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_diving_(sport)" title="Sport diving (sport)">Sport diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_cycling" title="Underwater cycling">Underwater cycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_orienteering" title="Underwater orienteering">Underwater orienteering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_photography_(sport)" title="Underwater photography (sport)">Underwater photography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rebreather</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_photography_(sport)" title="Underwater photography (sport)">Underwater photography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sports governing<br />organisations<br /> and federations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>International <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AIDA_International" title="AIDA International">AIDA International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Mondiale_des_Activit%C3%A9s_Subaquatiques" title="Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques">Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques</a>)</li></ul></li> <li>National <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AIDA_Hellas" title="AIDA Hellas">AIDA Hellas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Underwater_Federation" title="Australian Underwater Federation">Australian Underwater Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Freediving_Association" title="British Freediving Association">British Freediving Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Octopush_Association" title="British Octopush Association">British Octopush Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Underwater_Sports_Association" title="British Underwater Sports Association">British Underwater Sports Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comhairle_Fo-Thuinn" title="Comhairle Fo-Thuinn">Comhairle Fo-Thuinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federaci%C3%B3n_Espa%C3%B1ola_de_Actividades_Subacu%C3%A1ticas" title="Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas">Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_federation_of_underwater_studies_and_sports" class="mw-redirect" title="French federation of underwater studies and sports">Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Underwater_Sports_Federation" title="South African Underwater Sports Federation">South African Underwater Sports Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Underwater_Sports_Federation" title="Turkish Underwater Sports Federation">Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Society_of_America" title="Underwater Society of America">Underwater Society of America</a>)</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Competitions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/14th_CMAS_Underwater_Photography_World_Championship" title="14th CMAS Underwater Photography World Championship">14th CMAS Underwater Photography World Championship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Hockey_World_Championships" title="Underwater Hockey World Championships">Underwater Hockey World Championships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Orienteering_World_Championships" title="Underwater Orienteering World Championships">Underwater Orienteering World Championships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Rugby_World_Championships" title="Underwater Rugby World Championships">Underwater Rugby World Championships</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Underwater_divers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_underwater_divers" title="Outline of underwater divers">Underwater divers</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pioneers<br />of diving</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Admetlla_i_L%C3%A1zaro" title="Eduard Admetlla i Lázaro">Eduard Admetlla i Lázaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquanaut" title="Aquanaut">Aquanaut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Bonnin" title="Mary Bonnin">Mary Bonnin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Behrens-Furniss" title="Amelia Behrens-Furniss">Amelia Behrens-Furniss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_F._Cahill" title="James F. Cahill">James F. Cahill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Cousteau" title="Jacques Cousteau">Jacques Cousteau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Billy_Deans_(diver)" title="Billy Deans (diver)">Billy Deans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dottie_Frazier" title="Dottie Frazier">Dottie Frazier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trevor_Hampton" title="Trevor Hampton">Trevor Hampton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Hass" title="Hans Hass">Hans Hass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Rutkowski" title="Dick Rutkowski">Dick Rutkowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teseo_Tesei" title="Teseo Tesei">Teseo Tesei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arne_Zetterstr%C3%B6m" title="Arne Zetterström">Arne Zetterström</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Underwater<br />scientists<br />archaeologists and<br />environmentalists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Arbuthnot" title="Michael Arbuthnot">Michael Arbuthnot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Ballard" title="Robert Ballard">Robert Ballard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Bass_(archaeologist)" title="George Bass (archaeologist)">George Bass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mensun_Bound" title="Mensun Bound">Mensun Bound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Boutan" title="Louis Boutan">Louis Boutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Bozanic" title="Jeffrey Bozanic">Jeffrey Bozanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Bradner" title="Hugh Bradner">Hugh Bradner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cathy_Church" title="Cathy Church">Cathy Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenie_Clark" title="Eugenie Clark">Eugenie Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_P._Delgado" title="James P. Delgado">James P. Delgado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvia_Earle" title="Sylvia Earle">Sylvia Earle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Christopher_Fine" title="John Christopher Fine">John Christopher Fine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_R._Fischer" title="George R. Fischer">George R. Fischer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anders_Franz%C3%A9n" title="Anders Franzén">Anders Franzén</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honor_Frost" title="Honor Frost">Honor Frost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fernando_Garfella_Palmer" title="Fernando Garfella Palmer">Fernando Garfella Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Gibbins" title="David Gibbins">David Gibbins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graham_Jessop" title="Graham Jessop">Graham Jessop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swietenia_Puspa_Lestari" title="Swietenia Puspa Lestari">Swietenia Puspa Lestari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pilar_Luna" title="Pilar Luna">Pilar Luna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Marx" title="Robert F. Marx">Robert F. Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Marguerite_McCann" title="Anna Marguerite McCann">Anna Marguerite McCann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innes_McCartney" title="Innes McCartney">Innes McCartney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_T._Meide" title="Charles T. Meide">Charles T. Meide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_M._Newell" title="Mark M. Newell">Mark M. Newell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyuba_Ognenova-Marinova" title="Lyuba Ognenova-Marinova">Lyuba Ognenova-Marinova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Peter_Oleson" title="John Peter Oleson">John Peter Oleson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendel_L._Peterson" title="Mendel L. Peterson">Mendel L. Peterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Pyle" title="Richard Pyle">Richard Pyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Rechnitzer" title="Andreas Rechnitzer">Andreas Rechnitzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_R._Royal" title="William R. Royal">William R. Royal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Rule" title="Margaret Rule">Margaret Rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunter_Sch%C3%B6bel" title="Gunter Schöbel">Gunter Schöbel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanie_Schwabe" title="Stephanie Schwabe">Stephanie Schwabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myriam_Seco" title="Myriam Seco">Myriam Seco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._Lee_Spence" title="E. Lee Spence">E. Lee Spence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_St%C3%A9nuit" title="Robert Sténuit">Robert Sténuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Throckmorton" title="Peter Throckmorton">Peter Throckmorton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cristina_Zenato" title="Cristina Zenato">Cristina Zenato</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scuba record<br />holders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pascal_Bernab%C3%A9" title="Pascal Bernabé">Pascal Bernabé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Bowden_(diver)" title="Jim Bowden (diver)">Jim Bowden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Ellyatt" title="Mark Ellyatt">Mark Ellyatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheck_Exley" title="Sheck Exley">Sheck Exley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuno_Gomes_(diver)" title="Nuno Gomes (diver)">Nuno Gomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudia_Serpieri" title="Claudia Serpieri">Claudia Serpieri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krzysztof_Starnawski" title="Krzysztof Starnawski">Krzysztof Starnawski</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Underwater<br />filmmakers<br />and presenters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samir_Alhafith" title="Samir Alhafith">Samir Alhafith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Attenborough" title="David Attenborough">David Attenborough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ram%C3%B3n_Bravo" title="Ramón Bravo">Ramón Bravo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Michel_Cousteau" title="Jean-Michel Cousteau">Jean-Michel Cousteau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richie_Kohler" title="Richie Kohler">Richie Kohler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Rose_(TV_presenter)" title="Paul Rose (TV presenter)">Paul Rose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andy_Torbet" title="Andy Torbet">Andy Torbet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Tors" title="Ivan Tors">Ivan Tors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Wight" title="Andrew Wight">Andrew Wight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Cameron" title="James Cameron">James Cameron</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Underwater<br />photographers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doug_Allan" title="Doug Allan">Doug Allan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamara_Benitez" title="Tamara Benitez">Tamara Benitez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Beuchat" title="Georges Beuchat">Georges Beuchat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Biddle" title="Adrian Biddle">Adrian Biddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Bird" title="Jonathan Bird">Jonathan Bird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Cheng" title="Eric Cheng">Eric Cheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neville_Coleman" title="Neville Coleman">Neville Coleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Cousteau" title="Jacques Cousteau">Jacques Cousteau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_D._Craig" title="John D. Craig">John D. Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Cropp" title="Ben Cropp">Ben Cropp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Delemotte" title="Bernard Delemotte">Bernard Delemotte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Doubilet" title="David Doubilet">David Doubilet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candice_Farmer" title="Candice Farmer">Candice Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Christopher_Fine" title="John Christopher Fine">John Christopher Fine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodney_Fox" title="Rodney Fox">Rodney Fox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ric_Frazier" title="Ric Frazier">Ric Frazier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Frink" title="Stephen Frink">Stephen Frink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Gimbel" title="Peter Gimbel">Peter Gimbel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monty_Halls" title="Monty Halls">Monty Halls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Hass" title="Hans Hass">Hans Hass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Way_Kendall" title="Henry Way Kendall">Henry Way Kendall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudie_Kuiter" class="mw-redirect" title="Rudie Kuiter">Rudie Kuiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_B._MacInnis" title="Joseph B. MacInnis">Joseph B. MacInnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Marden" title="Luis Marden">Luis Marden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnes_Milowka" title="Agnes Milowka">Agnes Milowka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noel_Monkman" title="Noel Monkman">Noel Monkman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_Oxford" title="Pete Oxford">Pete Oxford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Parish" title="Steve Parish">Steve Parish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zale_Parry" title="Zale Parry">Zale Parry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Petit_(photographer)" title="Pierre Petit (photographer)">Pierre Petit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leni_Riefenstahl" title="Leni Riefenstahl">Leni Riefenstahl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Scoones" title="Peter Scoones">Peter Scoones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brian_Skerry" title="Brian Skerry">Brian Skerry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wesley_C._Skiles" title="Wesley C. Skiles">Wesley C. Skiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._Lee_Spence" title="E. Lee Spence">E. Lee Spence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe_Tailliez" title="Philippe Tailliez">Philippe Tailliez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ron_Taylor_(diver)" title="Ron Taylor (diver)">Ron Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerie_Taylor_(diver)" title="Valerie Taylor (diver)">Valerie Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Tillman" title="Albert Tillman">Albert Tillman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Veltri" title="John Veltri">John Veltri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stan_Waterman" title="Stan Waterman">Stan Waterman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michele_Westmorland" title="Michele Westmorland">Michele Westmorland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ernest_Williamson" title="John Ernest Williamson">John Ernest Williamson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Lamar_Worzel" title="J. Lamar Worzel">J. Lamar Worzel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Underwater<br />explorers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Caves <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Graham_Balcombe" title="Graham Balcombe">Graham Balcombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheck_Exley" title="Sheck Exley">Sheck Exley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyn_Farr" title="Martyn Farr">Martyn Farr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jochen_Hasenmayer" title="Jochen Hasenmayer">Jochen Hasenmayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jill_Heinerth" title="Jill Heinerth">Jill Heinerth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarrod_Jablonski" title="Jarrod Jablonski">Jarrod Jablonski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Hogarth_Main" title="William Hogarth Main">William Hogarth Main</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Mount" title="Tom Mount">Tom Mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Sheppard_(cave_diver)" title="Jack Sheppard (cave diver)">Jack Sheppard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Stone_(caver)" title="William Stone (caver)">Bill Stone</a></li></ul></li> <li>Reefs <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_C._Clarke" title="Arthur C. Clarke">Arthur C. Clarke</a></li></ul></li> <li>Wrecks <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leigh_Bishop" title="Leigh Bishop">Leigh Bishop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Chatterton" title="John Chatterton">John Chatterton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clive_Cussler" title="Clive Cussler">Clive Cussler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Nagle" title="Bill Nagle">Bill Nagle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerie_van_Heest" title="Valerie van Heest">Valerie van Heest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelis_Zervoudis" title="Aristotelis Zervoudis">Aristotelis Zervoudis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aquanaut" title="Aquanaut">Aquanauts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Abercromby" title="Andrew Abercromby">Andrew Abercromby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_M._Acaba" title="Joseph M. Acaba">Joseph M. Acaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clayton_Anderson" title="Clayton Anderson">Clayton Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_R._Arnold" title="Richard R. Arnold">Richard R. Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serena_Au%C3%B1%C3%B3n-Chancellor" title="Serena Auñón-Chancellor">Serena Auñón-Chancellor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Barratt_(astronaut)" title="Michael Barratt (astronaut)">Michael Barratt (astronaut)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Barth" title="Robert A. Barth">Robert A. Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Behnken" title="Bob Behnken">Robert L. Behnken</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randolph_Bresnik" title="Randolph Bresnik">Randolph Bresnik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_J._Broderick" title="Timothy J. Broderick">Timothy J. Broderick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_Brown_(aquanaut)" title="Justin Brown (aquanaut)">Justin Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berry_L._Cannon" title="Berry L. Cannon">Berry L. Cannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Carpenter" title="Scott Carpenter">Scott Carpenter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Chamitoff" title="Gregory Chamitoff">Gregory Chamitoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Chappell" title="Steve Chappell">Steve Chappell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_Coleman" title="Catherine Coleman">Catherine Coleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robin_Cook_(American_novelist)" title="Robin Cook (American novelist)">Robin Cook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craig_B._Cooper" title="Craig B. Cooper">Craig B. Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabien_Cousteau" title="Fabien Cousteau">Fabien Cousteau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe_Cousteau" title="Philippe Cousteau">Philippe Cousteau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Creamer" title="Timothy Creamer">Timothy Creamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Dory" title="Jonathan Dory">Jonathan Dory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_Duque" title="Pedro Duque">Pedro Duque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvia_Earle" title="Sylvia Earle">Sylvia Earle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeanette_Epps" title="Jeanette Epps">Jeanette Epps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheck_Exley" title="Sheck Exley">Sheck Exley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Falco" title="Albert Falco">Albert Falco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_J._Feustel" title="Andrew J. Feustel">Andrew J. Feustel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Fincke" title="Michael Fincke">Michael Fincke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satoshi_Furukawa" title="Satoshi Furukawa">Satoshi Furukawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_J._Garan_Jr." title="Ronald J. Garan Jr.">Ronald J. Garan Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_L._Gernhardt" title="Michael L. Gernhardt">Michael L. Gernhardt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_E._Gerty" title="Christopher E. Gerty">Christopher E. Gerty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Gruber" title="David Gruber">David Gruber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_Hadfield" title="Chris Hadfield">Chris Hadfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Hansen" title="Jeremy Hansen">Jeremy Hansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_M._Hern%C3%A1ndez" title="José M. Hernández">José M. Hernández</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Herrington" title="John Herrington">John Herrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Hill_(flight_director)" title="Paul Hill (flight director)">Paul Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akihiko_Hoshide" title="Akihiko Hoshide">Akihiko Hoshide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Hulsbeck" title="Mark Hulsbeck">Mark Hulsbeck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emma_Hwang" title="Emma Hwang">Emma Hwang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norishige_Kanai" title="Norishige Kanai">Norishige Kanai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Les_Kaufman" title="Les Kaufman">Les Kaufman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Kelly_(astronaut)" title="Scott Kelly (astronaut)">Scott Kelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karen_Kohanowich" title="Karen Kohanowich">Karen Kohanowich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Kopra" title="Timothy Kopra">Timothy Kopra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominic_Landucci" title="Dominic Landucci">Dominic Landucci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jon_Lindbergh" title="Jon Lindbergh">Jon Lindbergh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kjell_N._Lindgren" title="Kjell N. Lindgren">Kjell N. Lindgren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_L%C3%B3pez-Alegr%C3%ADa" title="Michael López-Alegría">Michael López-Alegría</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_B._MacInnis" title="Joseph B. MacInnis">Joseph B. MacInnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandra_Magnus" title="Sandra Magnus">Sandra Magnus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Marshburn" title="Thomas Marshburn">Thomas Marshburn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthias_Maurer" title="Matthias Maurer">Matthias Maurer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K._Megan_McArthur" title="K. Megan McArthur">K. Megan McArthur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craig_McKinley_(physician)" title="Craig McKinley (physician)">Craig McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jessica_Meir" title="Jessica Meir">Jessica Meir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Melchior" title="Simone Melchior">Simone Melchior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Metcalf-Lindenburger" title="Dorothy Metcalf-Lindenburger">Dorothy Metcalf-Lindenburger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Mogensen" title="Andreas Mogensen">Andreas Mogensen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karen_Nyberg" title="Karen Nyberg">Karen Nyberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_D._Olivas" title="John D. Olivas">John D. Olivas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takuya_Onishi" title="Takuya Onishi">Takuya Onishi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luca_Parmitano" title="Luca Parmitano">Luca Parmitano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Patrick" title="Nicholas Patrick">Nicholas Patrick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Peake" title="Tim Peake">Tim Peake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pesquet" title="Thomas Pesquet">Thomas Pesquet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Reagan" title="Marc Reagan">Marc Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garrett_Reisman" title="Garrett Reisman">Garrett Reisman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Rubins" title="Kathleen Rubins">Kathleen Rubins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Rutkowski" title="Dick Rutkowski">Dick Rutkowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tara_Ruttley" title="Tara Ruttley">Tara Ruttley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Saint-Jacques" title="David Saint-Jacques">David Saint-Jacques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josef_Schmid_(flight_surgeon)" title="Josef Schmid (flight surgeon)">Josef Schmid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Sheats" title="Robert Sheats">Robert Sheats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dewey_Smith" title="Dewey Smith">Dewey Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Squyres" title="Steve Squyres">Steve Squyres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heidemarie_Stefanyshyn-Piper" title="Heidemarie Stefanyshyn-Piper">Heidemarie Stefanyshyn-Piper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_St%C3%A9nuit" title="Robert Sténuit">Robert Sténuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herv%C3%A9_Stevenin" title="Hervé Stevenin">Hervé Stevenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicole_Stott" title="Nicole Stott">Nicole Stott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Talacek" title="James Talacek">James Talacek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_M._Tani" title="Daniel M. Tani">Daniel M. Tani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Thirsk" title="Robert Thirsk">Robert Thirsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Todd" title="Bill Todd">Bill Todd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_T._Vande_Hei" title="Mark T. Vande Hei">Mark T. Vande Hei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koichi_Wakata" title="Koichi Wakata">Koichi Wakata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rex_J._Walheim" title="Rex J. Walheim">Rex J. Walheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shannon_Walker" title="Shannon Walker">Shannon Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Morgan_Wells" title="John Morgan Wells">John Morgan Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Wendler" title="Joachim Wendler">Joachim Wendler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_H._Wheelock" title="Douglas H. Wheelock">Douglas H. Wheelock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peggy_Whitson" title="Peggy Whitson">Peggy Whitson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dafydd_Williams" title="Dafydd Williams">Dafydd Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Williams_(astronaut)" title="Jeffrey Williams (astronaut)">Jeffrey Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunita_Williams" title="Sunita Williams">Sunita Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reid_Wiseman" title="Reid Wiseman">Reid Wiseman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimiya_Yui" title="Kimiya Yui">Kimiya Yui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers and journalists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michael_C._Barnette" title="Michael C. Barnette">Michael C. Barnette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Berge" title="Victor Berge">Victor Berge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe_Diol%C3%A9" title="Philippe Diolé">Philippe Diolé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Gentile" title="Gary Gentile">Gary Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bret_Gilliam" title="Bret Gilliam">Bret Gilliam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Halstead" title="Bob Halstead">Bob Halstead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillary_Hauser" title="Hillary Hauser">Hillary Hauser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trevor_Jackson_(diver)" title="Trevor Jackson (diver)">Trevor Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Lewis_(diver)" title="Steve Lewis (diver)">Steve Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Mattera" title="John Mattera">John Mattera</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rescuers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Craig_Challen" title="Craig Challen">Craig Challen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Harris_(anaesthetist)" title="Richard Harris (anaesthetist)">Richard Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rick_Stanton" title="Rick Stanton">Rick Stanton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Volanthen" title="John Volanthen">John Volanthen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Frogmen</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lionel_Crabb" title="Lionel Crabb">Lionel Crabb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Edward_Fraser" title="Ian Edward Fraser">Ian Edward Fraser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sydney_Knowles" title="Sydney Knowles">Sydney Knowles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Joseph_Magennis" title="James Joseph Magennis">James Joseph Magennis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Commercial salvors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keith_Jessop" title="Keith Jessop">Keith Jessop</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Science_of_underwater_diving" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Science_of_underwater_diving" title="Science of underwater diving">Science of underwater diving</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_researchers_in_underwater_diving" title="List of researchers in underwater diving">List of researchers in underwater diving</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_physics" title="Diving physics">Diving<br />physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metre_sea_water" title="Metre sea water">Metre sea water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_buoyancy" title="Neutral buoyancy">Neutral buoyancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_acoustics" title="Underwater acoustics">Underwater acoustics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modulated_ultrasound" title="Modulated ultrasound">Modulated ultrasound</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_vision" title="Underwater vision">Underwater vision</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_computer_vision" title="Underwater computer vision">Underwater computer vision</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_physiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving physiology">Diving<br />physiology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_reflex#Blood_shift" title="Diving reflex">Blood shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_shock_response" title="Cold shock response">Cold shock response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_reflex" title="Diving reflex">Diving reflex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equivalent_narcotic_depth" title="Equivalent narcotic depth">Equivalent narcotic depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_operating_depth" title="Maximum operating depth">Maximum operating depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiological_response_to_water_immersion" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiological response to water immersion">Physiological response to water immersion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_balance_of_the_underwater_diver" title="Thermal balance of the underwater diver">Thermal balance of the underwater diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_vision" title="Underwater vision">Underwater vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_of_breathing" title="Work of breathing">Work of breathing</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Decompressiontheory" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Decompression_theory" title="Decompression theory">Decompression<br />theory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Decompression models: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%BChlmann_decompression_algorithm" title="Bühlmann decompression algorithm">Bühlmann decompression algorithm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haldane%27s_decompression_model" title="Haldane's decompression model">Haldane's decompression model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reduced_gradient_bubble_model" title="Reduced gradient bubble model">Reduced gradient bubble model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thalmann_algorithm" title="Thalmann algorithm">Thalmann algorithm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_model_of_decompression" title="Thermodynamic model of decompression">Thermodynamic model of decompression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varying_Permeability_Model" title="Varying Permeability Model">Varying Permeability Model</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equivalent_air_depth" title="Equivalent air depth">Equivalent air depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_window" title="Oxygen window">Oxygen window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology_of_decompression" title="Physiology of decompression">Physiology of decompression</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Underwater_diving_environment" title="Underwater diving environment">Diving<br />environments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_exploration" title="Underwater exploration">Underwater exploration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep-sea_exploration" title="Deep-sea exploration">Deep-sea exploration</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diving_environments_by_type" title="List of diving environments by type">List of diving environments by type</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altitude_diving" title="Altitude diving">Altitude diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benign_water_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Benign water diving">Benign water diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confined_water_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Confined water diving">Confined water diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_diving" title="Deep diving">Deep diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inland_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Inland diving">Inland diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inshore_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Inshore diving">Inshore diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muck_diving" title="Muck diving">Muck diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night_diving" title="Night diving">Night diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-water_diving" title="Open-water diving">Open-water diving</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black-water_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Black-water diving">Black-water diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue-water_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Blue-water diving">Blue-water diving</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penetration_diving" title="Penetration diving">Penetration diving</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cave_diving" title="Cave diving">Cave diving</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torricellian_chamber" title="Torricellian chamber">Torricellian chamber</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_diving" title="Ice diving">Ice diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wreck_diving" title="Wreck diving">Wreck diving</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreational_dive_sites" title="Recreational dive sites">Recreational dive sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_environment" title="Underwater environment">Underwater environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_diving_environment" title="Underwater diving environment">Underwater diving environment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Impact</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_recreational_diving" title="Environmental impact of recreational diving">Environmental impact of recreational diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_impact_diving" title="Low impact diving">Low impact diving</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Other" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bathysphere" title="Bathysphere">Bathysphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_against_swimmer_incursions" title="Defense against swimmer incursions">Defense against swimmer incursions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diver_detection_sonar" title="Diver detection sonar">Diver detection sonar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Offshore survey">Offshore survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rugged_compact_camera" class="mw-redirect" title="Rugged compact camera">Rugged compact camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_domain_awareness" title="Underwater domain awareness">Underwater domain awareness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_vehicle" title="Underwater vehicle">Underwater vehicle</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Deep-submergence_vehicle" title="Deep-submergence vehicle">Deep-submergence<br />vehicle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aluminaut" title="Aluminaut"><i>Aluminaut</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Alvin" title="DSV Alvin">DSV <i>Alvin</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_submarine_NR-1" title="American submarine NR-1">American submarine NR-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathyscaphe" title="Bathyscaphe">Bathyscaphe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archim%C3%A8de" title="Archimède"><i>Archimède</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FNRS-2" title="FNRS-2">FNRS-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FNRS-3" title="FNRS-3">FNRS-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Pole-class_bathyscaphe#Harmony_class_bathyscaphe" title="Sea Pole-class bathyscaphe"><i>Harmony</i> class bathyscaphe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Pole-class_bathyscaphe" title="Sea Pole-class bathyscaphe"><i>Sea Pole</i>-class bathyscaphe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathyscaphe_Trieste_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Bathyscaphe Trieste II"><i>Trieste II</i></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deepsea_Challenger" title="Deepsea Challenger"><i>Deepsea Challenger</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ictineu_3" title="Ictineu 3"><i>Ictineu 3</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JAGO_(German_research_submersible)" title="JAGO (German research submersible)"><i>JAGO</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiaolong_(submersible)" title="Jiaolong (submersible)"><i>Jiaolong</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konsul-class_submersible" title="Konsul-class submersible"><i>Konsul</i>-class submersible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Limiting_Factor" title="DSV Limiting Factor"><i>Limiting Factor</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_submarine_Losharik" title="Russian submarine Losharik">Russian submarine <i>Losharik</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mir_(submersible)" title="Mir (submersible)"><i>Mir</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nautile" title="Nautile"><i>Nautile</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pisces-class_deep_submergence_vehicle" title="Pisces-class deep submergence vehicle"><i>Pisces</i>-class deep submergence vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Sea_Cliff" title="DSV Sea Cliff">DSV <i>Sea Cliff</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Shinkai" title="DSV Shinkai">DSV <i>Shinkai</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Shinkai_2000" title="DSV Shinkai 2000">DSV <i>Shinkai 2000</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Shinkai_6500" title="DSV Shinkai 6500">DSV <i>Shinkai 6500</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Turtle" title="DSV Turtle">DSV <i>Turtle</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV-5_Nemo" title="DSV-5 Nemo">DSV-5 <i>Nemo</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Submarine_rescue" title="Submarine rescue">Submarine rescue</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Submarine_Escape_and_Rescue_Liaison_Office" title="International Submarine Escape and Rescue Liaison Office">International Submarine Escape and Rescue Liaison Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_Escape_and_Rescue_system_(Royal_Swedish_Navy)" title="Submarine Escape and Rescue system (Royal Swedish Navy)">Submarine Escape and Rescue system (Royal Swedish Navy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCann_Rescue_Chamber" title="McCann Rescue Chamber">McCann Rescue Chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_rescue_ship" title="Submarine rescue ship">Submarine rescue ship</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Deep-submergencerescue_vehicle" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Deep-submergence_rescue_vehicle" title="Deep-submergence rescue vehicle">Deep-submergence<br />rescue vehicle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LR5" title="LR5">LR5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LR7" title="LR7">LR7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MSM-1" title="MSM-1">MSM-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mystic-class_deep-submergence_rescue_vehicle" title="Mystic-class deep-submergence rescue vehicle"><i>Mystic</i>-class deep-submergence rescue vehicle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DSRV-1_Mystic" title="DSRV-1 Mystic">DSRV-1 <i>Mystic</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSRV-2_Avalon" title="DSRV-2 Avalon">DSRV-2 <i>Avalon</i></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO_Submarine_Rescue_System" title="NATO Submarine Rescue System">NATO Submarine Rescue System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priz-class_deep-submergence_rescue_vehicle" title="Priz-class deep-submergence rescue vehicle"><i>Priz</i>-class deep-submergence rescue vehicle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_deep_submergence_rescue_vehicle_AS-28" title="Russian deep submergence rescue vehicle AS-28">Russian deep submergence rescue vehicle AS-28</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_submarine_AS-34" title="Russian submarine AS-34">Russian submarine AS-34</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASRV_Remora" class="mw-redirect" title="ASRV Remora">ASRV <i>Remora</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SRV-300" title="SRV-300">SRV-300</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_Rescue_Diving_Recompression_System" title="Submarine Rescue Diving Recompression System">Submarine Rescue Diving Recompression System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_7103_DSRV" class="mw-redirect" title="Type 7103 DSRV">Type 7103 DSRV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/URF_(Swedish_Navy)" title="URF (Swedish Navy)">URF (Swedish Navy)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_escape&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Submarine escape (page does not exist)">Submarine escape</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Escape_trunk" title="Escape trunk">Escape trunk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_escape_training_facility" title="Submarine escape training facility">Submarine escape training facility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_Escape_Training_Facility_(Australia)" title="Submarine Escape Training Facility (Australia)">Submarine Escape Training Facility (Australia)</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Escape_set" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Escape_set" class="mw-redirect" title="Escape set">Escape set</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Davis_Submerged_Escape_Apparatus" title="Davis Submerged Escape Apparatus">Davis Submerged Escape Apparatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Momsen_lung" title="Momsen lung">Momsen lung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steinke_hood" title="Steinke hood">Steinke hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_Escape_Immersion_Equipment" title="Submarine Escape Immersion Equipment">Submarine Escape Immersion Equipment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Special<br />interest<br />groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_Reef_Society_of_British_Columbia" title="Artificial Reef Society of British Columbia">Artificial Reef Society of British Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CMAS_Europe" title="CMAS Europe">CMAS Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_Reef_Alliance" title="Coral Reef Alliance">Coral Reef Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divers_Alert_Network" title="Divers Alert Network">Divers Alert Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Fins" title="Green Fins">Green Fins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finger_Lakes_Underwater_Preserve_Association" title="Finger Lakes Underwater Preserve Association">Finger Lakes Underwater Preserve Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karst_Underwater_Research" title="Karst Underwater Research">Karst Underwater Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nautical_Archaeology_Program" title="Nautical Archaeology Program">Nautical Archaeology Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nautical_Archaeology_Society" title="Nautical Archaeology Society">Nautical Archaeology Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Air_Command_Sub_Aqua_Club" title="Naval Air Command Sub Aqua Club">Naval Air Command Sub Aqua Club</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PADI_AWARE" title="PADI AWARE">PADI AWARE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reef_Check" title="Reef Check">Reef Check</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reef_Life_Survey" title="Reef Life Survey">Reef Life Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubicon_Foundation" title="Rubicon Foundation">Rubicon Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Save_Ontario_Shipwrecks" title="Save Ontario Shipwrecks">Save Ontario Shipwrecks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SeaKeys" title="SeaKeys">SeaKeys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Research_Society" title="Sea Research Society">Sea Research Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_Underwater_Historical_Research" title="Society for Underwater Historical Research">Society for Underwater Historical Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_Underwater_Technology" title="Society for Underwater Technology">Society for Underwater Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Archaeology_Branch,_Naval_History_%26_Heritage_Command" title="Underwater Archaeology Branch, Naval History & Heritage Command">Underwater Archaeology Branch, Naval History & Heritage Command</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Neutral buoyancy<br />facilities for<br />Astronaut training</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_Buoyancy_Laboratory" title="Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory">Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_buoyancy_pool" title="Neutral buoyancy pool">Neutral buoyancy pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_buoyancy_simulation_as_a_training_aid" title="Neutral buoyancy simulation as a training aid">Neutral buoyancy simulation as a training aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_Buoyancy_Simulator" title="Neutral Buoyancy Simulator">Neutral Buoyancy Simulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Systems_Laboratory_(Maryland)" title="Space Systems Laboratory (Maryland)">Space Systems Laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin_Cosmonaut_Training_Center" title="Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center">Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nautilus_Productions" title="Nautilus Productions">Nautilus Productions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helicopter_Aircrew_Breathing_Device" title="Helicopter Aircrew Breathing Device">Helicopter Aircrew Breathing Device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_diving_therapy" title="Scuba diving therapy">Scuba diving therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabed_mining" title="Seabed mining">Seabed mining</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Underwater_diving" title="Category:Underwater diving">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Underwater_diving" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Underwater diving">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_underwater_diving_terminology" title="Glossary of underwater diving terminology">Glossary</a></b></li> <li><b>Indexes: <a href="/wiki/Index_of_recreational_dive_sites" title="Index of recreational dive sites">Dive sites</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_underwater_divers" title="Index of underwater divers">Divers</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_underwater_diving" title="Index of underwater diving">Diving</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_underwater_diving" title="Outline of underwater diving">Outline</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Underwater_diving" title="Portal:Underwater diving">Portal</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&oldid=1252614433">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diving_rebreather&oldid=1252614433</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div 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