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</ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vedic_Sūtras" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vedic_Sūtras"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Vedic Sūtras </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vedic_Sūtras-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hindu_religious_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hindu_religious_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Hindu religious literature </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Hindu_religious_literature-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Hindu religious literature subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Hindu_religious_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Classification </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_Epics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_Epics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Indian Epics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_Epics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mahābhārata" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mahābhārata"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Mahābhārata </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mahābhārata-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rāmāyaṇa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rāmāyaṇa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Rāmāyaṇa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rāmāyaṇa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Purāṇa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Purāṇa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Purāṇa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Purāṇa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_Upaniṣads" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_Upaniṣads"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Later Upaniṣads </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_Upaniṣads-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-Vedic_aphoristic_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-Vedic_aphoristic_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Post-Vedic aphoristic literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-Vedic_aphoristic_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commentaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commentaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Commentaries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commentaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tantric_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tantric_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Tantric literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tantric_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8 Other </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scientific_&_secular_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientific_&_secular_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Scientific & secular literature </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Scientific_&_secular_literature-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Scientific & secular literature subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Scientific_&_secular_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Linguistic_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linguistic_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Linguistic literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Linguistic_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Sanskrit_grammatical_tradition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Sanskrit_grammatical_tradition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 The Sanskrit grammatical tradition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Sanskrit_grammatical_tradition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lexicography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lexicography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.2 Lexicography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lexicography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dharma_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dharma_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Dharma literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dharma_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_secular_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_secular_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Other secular literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_secular_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Buddhist_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buddhist_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Buddhist literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buddhist_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jain_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jain_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Jain literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jain_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kāvya" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kāvya"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Kāvya </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Kāvya-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Kāvya subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Kāvya-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Laghukāvya" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Laghukāvya"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Laghukāvya </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Laghukāvya-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Samghatas_and_Khandakavyas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Samghatas_and_Khandakavyas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Samghatas and Khandakavyas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Samghatas_and_Khandakavyas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mahākāvya" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mahākāvya"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Mahākāvya </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mahākāvya-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_great_mahākāvyas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_great_mahākāvyas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.1 The great mahākāvyas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_great_mahākāvyas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_mahākāvyas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_mahākāvyas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.2 Later mahākāvyas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_mahākāvyas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prose_mahākāvya" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prose_mahākāvya"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.3 Prose mahākāvya </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prose_mahākāvya-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Campū" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Campū"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Campū </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Campū-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_on_prosody_and_poetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_on_prosody_and_poetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Works on prosody and poetics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_on_prosody_and_poetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subhāṣita" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subhāṣita"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Subhāṣita </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subhāṣita-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sanskrit_drama" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sanskrit_drama"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Sanskrit drama </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sanskrit_drama-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_Sanskrit_narratives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_Sanskrit_narratives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Other Sanskrit narratives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_Sanskrit_narratives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_Sanskrit_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_Sanskrit_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Modern Sanskrit literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_Sanskrit_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Glossary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Glossary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Glossary </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Glossary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brahmic_notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brahmic_notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Brahmic notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brahmic_notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 18 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Sanskrit literature</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 37 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-37" aria-hidden="true" > 37 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%AF%D8%A8_%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AA%D9%8A" title="أدب سنسكريتي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أدب سنسكريتي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A4_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="সংস্কৃত সাহিত্য – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="সংস্কৃত সাহিত্য" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="संस्कृत साहित्य – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="संस्कृत साहित्य" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">अवधी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A4_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="সংস্কৃত সাহিত্য – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সংস্কৃত সাহিত্য" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sastra_Sanskerta" title="Sastra Sanskerta – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Sastra Sanskerta" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Banjar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="संस्कृत साहित्य – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="संस्कृत साहित्य" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit-Dichtung" title="Sanskrit-Dichtung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Sanskrit-Dichtung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskritikeelne_kirjandus" title="Sanskritikeelne kirjandus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Sanskritikeelne kirjandus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_s%C3%A1nscrita" title="Literatura sánscrita – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Literatura sánscrita" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrita_literaturo" title="Sanskrita literaturo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Sanskrita literaturo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litt%C3%A9rature_sanskrite" title="Littérature sanskrite – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Littérature sanskrite" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%B0%EC%8A%A4%ED%81%AC%EB%A6%AC%ED%8A%B8_%EB%AC%B8%ED%95%99" title="산스크리트 문학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="산스크리트 문학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%BD%D5%AF%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A3%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Սանսկրիտական գրականություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սանսկրիտական գրականություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="संस्कृत साहित्य – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="संस्कृत साहित्य" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sastra_Sanskerta" title="Sastra Sanskerta – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sastra Sanskerta" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litteratura_sanscrite" title="Litteratura sanscrite – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Litteratura sanscrite" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letteratura_sanscrita" title="Letteratura sanscrita – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Letteratura sanscrita" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%83%E0%B2%A4_%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF" title="ಸಂಸ್ಕೃತ ಸಾಹಿತ್ಯ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸಂಸ್ಕೃತ ಸಾಹಿತ್ಯ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A1%E1%83%99%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90" title="სანსკრიტული ლიტერატურა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="სანსკრიტული ლიტერატურა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litterae_Sanscritae" title="Litterae Sanscritae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Litterae Sanscritae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%83%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82" title="സംസ്കൃതസാഹിത്യം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സംസ്കൃതസാഹിത്യം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B9%E1%80%9E%E1%80%80%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%85%E1%80%AC%E1%80%95%E1%80%B1" title="သင်္သကရိုက်စာပေ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="သင်္သကရိုက်စာပေ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="संस्कृत साहित्य – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="संस्कृत साहित्य" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litteratur_p%C3%A5_sanskrit" title="Litteratur på sanskrit – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Litteratur på sanskrit" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit_adabiyoti" title="Sanskrit adabiyoti – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Sanskrit adabiyoti" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%B3%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%BC_%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="سنسکرټ ادبیات – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="سنسکرټ ادبیات" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a 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data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="संस्कृतवाङ्मयम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="संस्कृतवाङ्मयम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Let%C3%ABrsia_sanskrite" title="Letërsia sanskrite – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Letërsia sanskrite" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Literature of Sanskrit language</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Devimahatmya_(Glory_of_the_Goddess)_manuscript_LACMA_M.88.134.7.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Devimahatmya_%28Glory_of_the_Goddess%29_manuscript_LACMA_M.88.134.7.jpg/220px-Devimahatmya_%28Glory_of_the_Goddess%29_manuscript_LACMA_M.88.134.7.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Devimahatmya_%28Glory_of_the_Goddess%29_manuscript_LACMA_M.88.134.7.jpg/330px-Devimahatmya_%28Glory_of_the_Goddess%29_manuscript_LACMA_M.88.134.7.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Devimahatmya_%28Glory_of_the_Goddess%29_manuscript_LACMA_M.88.134.7.jpg/440px-Devimahatmya_%28Glory_of_the_Goddess%29_manuscript_LACMA_M.88.134.7.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3420" data-file-height="1694" /></a><figcaption>A 17th-century <a href="/wiki/Devi_Mahatmya" title="Devi Mahatmya">Devimahatmya</a> manuscript written in <a href="/wiki/Newar_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Newar script">Newari</a> script</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Maitreya_Folio.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Maitreya_Folio.jpeg/220px-Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Maitreya_Folio.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="91" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Maitreya_Folio.jpeg/330px-Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Maitreya_Folio.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Maitreya_Folio.jpeg/440px-Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Maitreya_Folio.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="330" /></a><figcaption>Sanskrit <a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%ADas%C4%81hasrik%C4%81_Praj%C3%B1%C4%81p%C4%81ramit%C4%81_S%C5%ABtra" title="Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra">Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra</a> manuscript written in the <a href="/wiki/Ranjana_script" title="Ranjana script">Ranjana script</a>. India, early 12th century.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Unknown_(Indian)_-_Jain_Manuscript,_Kalakacarya_Katha_-_71.320.5A_-_Detroit_Institute_of_Arts.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Unknown_%28Indian%29_-_Jain_Manuscript%2C_Kalakacarya_Katha_-_71.320.5A_-_Detroit_Institute_of_Arts.jpg/220px-Unknown_%28Indian%29_-_Jain_Manuscript%2C_Kalakacarya_Katha_-_71.320.5A_-_Detroit_Institute_of_Arts.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Unknown_%28Indian%29_-_Jain_Manuscript%2C_Kalakacarya_Katha_-_71.320.5A_-_Detroit_Institute_of_Arts.jpg/330px-Unknown_%28Indian%29_-_Jain_Manuscript%2C_Kalakacarya_Katha_-_71.320.5A_-_Detroit_Institute_of_Arts.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Unknown_%28Indian%29_-_Jain_Manuscript%2C_Kalakacarya_Katha_-_71.320.5A_-_Detroit_Institute_of_Arts.jpg/440px-Unknown_%28Indian%29_-_Jain_Manuscript%2C_Kalakacarya_Katha_-_71.320.5A_-_Detroit_Institute_of_Arts.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1333" /></a><figcaption>Jain Manuscript, Kalakacarya Katha.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ccccff; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_literature" title="History of literature">History of literature</a> by era</th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_literature" title="Ancient literature">Ancient</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_text_corpora" title="Ancient text corpora">corpora</a>)</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Ancient_literature#Bronze_Age" title="Ancient literature">Bronze Age</a></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_literature" title="Ancient Egyptian literature">Ancient Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_literature" title="Akkadian literature">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamite_language#History" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hattic_language" title="Hattic language">Hattic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_inscriptions" title="Hittite inscriptions">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurro-Urartian_languages" title="Hurro-Urartian languages">Hurro-Urartian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luwian_language#Vocabulary_and_texts" title="Luwian language">Luwian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lydian_language#Sample_text_and_vocabulary" title="Lydian language">Lydian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_literature" title="Sumerian literature">Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugaritic_texts" title="Ugaritic texts">Ugarit</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Ancient_literature#Classical_Antiquity" title="Ancient literature">Classical</a></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Ancient Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Hebrew_writings" title="Ancient Hebrew writings">Ancient Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashokan_Prakrit" title="Ashokan Prakrit">Ancient Prakrit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_classics" title="Chinese classics">Classical Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Classical Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_language#Attestations" title="Parthian language">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygian_language#Inscriptions" title="Phrygian language">Phrygian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_literature#Persian_literature_of_the_medieval_and_pre-modern_periods" title="Persian literature">Old Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Old Tamil</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sanskrit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_literature" title="Syriac literature">Syriac</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Early_medieval_literature" title="Early medieval literature">Early medieval</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_literature" title="Armenian literature">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bactrian_language#Records" title="Bactrian language">Bactrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_literature" title="Byzantine literature">Byzantine Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_literature" title="Coptic literature">Coptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhari_language#Buddhist_manuscripts_in_Gāndhāri" title="Gandhari language">Gandhari Prakrit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez#History_and_literature" title="Geʽez">Geʽez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_literature" title="Georgian literature">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_literature#Heian_literature" title="Japanese literature">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kannada_literature" title="Kannada literature">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maharashtri_Prakrit#Early_literature" title="Maharashtri Prakrit">Maharashtri Prakrit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolic_languages#Pre-Proto-Mongolic" title="Mongolic languages">Pre-Proto-Mongolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_literature" title="Old English literature">Old English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_High_German_literature" title="Old High German literature">Old German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Khmer#Attestation_and_History" title="Old Khmer">Old Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Malay_language#Old_Malay" title="History of the Malay language">Old Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Turkic#Literary_works" title="Old Turkic">Old Turkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_literature" title="Old Norse literature">Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pali_literature" title="Pali literature">Pali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabaic" title="Sabaic">Sabaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saka_language#Texts" title="Saka language">Saka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sogdian_language#Discovery_of_Sogdian_texts" title="Sogdian language">Sogdian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_literature" title="Tibetan literature">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Tocharian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Welsh_literature" title="Medieval Welsh literature">Welsh</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Medieval_literature" title="Medieval literature">Medieval</a> by century</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/10th_century_in_literature" title="10th century in literature">10th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/11th_century_in_literature" title="11th century in literature">11th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/12th_century_in_literature" title="12th century in literature">12th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/13th_century_in_literature" title="13th century in literature">13th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14th_century_in_literature" title="14th century in literature">14th</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_literature" title="Early modern literature">Early modern</a> by century</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/15th_century_in_literature" title="15th century in literature">15th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_century_in_literature" title="16th century in literature">16th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/17th_century_in_literature" title="17th century in literature">17th</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Modern by century</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/18th_century_in_literature" title="18th century in literature">18th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/19th_century_in_literature" title="19th century in literature">19th</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_literature" title="Contemporary literature">Contemporary</a> by century</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/20th_century_in_literature" title="20th century in literature">20th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/21st_century_in_literature" title="21st century in literature">21st</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background:#ddddff;"> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.png/16px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.png/24px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.png/32px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Literature" title="Portal:Literature">Literature portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_literature_by_era" title="Template:History of literature by era"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_literature_by_era" title="Template talk:History of literature by era"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_literature_by_era" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of literature by era"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Sanskrit literature is a broad term for all <a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literature</a> composed in <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>. This includes texts composed in the earliest attested descendant of the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Aryan_language" title="Proto-Indo-Aryan language">Proto-Indo-Aryan language</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">Vedic Sanskrit</a>, texts in <a href="/wiki/Classical_Sanskrit" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Sanskrit">Classical Sanskrit</a> as well as some mixed and non-standard forms of Sanskrit.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[a]</a> Literature in the older language begins during the <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a> with the composition of the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Ṛg·veda</a> between about 1500 and 1000 BCE, followed by other <a href="/wiki/Vedic" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic">Vedic</a> works right up to the time of the grammarian <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇini</a> around 6th or 4th century BCE (after which Classical Sanskrit texts gradually became the norm).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurrow197335-44-4">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[b]</a> Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the extensive liturgical works of the <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic religion</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">Classical</a> Sanskrit is the language of many of the prominent texts associated with the major <a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian religions</a>, especially <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hindu_texts" title="Hindu texts">Hindu texts</a>, but also <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-8">[c]</a> Some <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_Buddhist_literature" title="Sanskrit Buddhist literature">Sanskrit Buddhist texts</a> are also composed in a version of Sanskrit often called <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_Hybrid_Sanskrit" title="Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit">Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit</a> or Buddhistic Sanskrit, which contains many <a href="/wiki/Middle_Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Middle Indo-Aryan languages">Middle Indic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">prakritic</a>) elements not found in other forms of Sanskrit.<a href="#cite_note-9">[6]</a> Early works of Sanskrit literature were transmitted through an <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral tradition</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[d]</a> for centuries before they were written down in manuscript form.<a href="#cite_note-12">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurrow197364-66-14">[10]</a> While most Sanskrit texts were composed in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient India">ancient India</a>, others were composed in <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a> or <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>. Sanskrit literature is vast and includes <a href="/wiki/Hindu_texts" title="Hindu texts">Hindu texts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">religious scripture</a>, various forms of <a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poetry</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">epic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lyric_poetry" title="Lyric poetry">lyric</a>), <a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">drama</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prose" title="Prose">narrative prose</a>. It also includes substantial works covering secular and technical sciences and the arts. Some of these subjects include: <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">custom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrology</a>-<a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic" title="Arithmetic">arithmetic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dance" title="Dance">dance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theatre_studies" title="Theatre studies">dramatics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magic_(illusion)" title="Magic (illusion)">magic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divination</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">sexuality</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[11]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview">edit</a>]</div> Literature in the Vedic and the Classical language differ in numerous respects. The Vedic literature that survives is almost entirely religious, being focused on the prayers, hymns to the gods (<a href="/wiki/Deva_(Hinduism)" title="Deva (Hinduism)">devas</a>), <a href="/wiki/Homa_(ritual)" title="Homa (ritual)">sacrifices</a> and other concerns of the <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic religion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-16">[12]</a> The language of this archaic literature (the earliest being the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a>), <a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">Vedic Sanskrit</a>, is different in many ways (and much less regular) than the "classical" Sanskrit described by later grammarians like <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇini</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gombrich2006p24-17">[13]</a> This literature was transmitted orally during the Vedic period, only later was it written down.<a href="#cite_note-Meier-Brügger2003-18">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Keith1993-19">[15]</a> Classical Sanskrit literature is more varied and includes the following genres: scripture (Hindu, Buddhist and Jain), <a href="/wiki/Indian_epic_poetry" title="Indian epic poetry">epics</a>, court poetry (<a href="/wiki/K%C4%81vya" title="Kāvya">kavya</a>), lyric, <a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">drama</a>, romance, fairytale, fables, <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a>, civil and religious law (<a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">dharma</a>), the science of politics and practical life, the science of love and sexual intercourse (<a href="/wiki/Kama" title="Kama">kama</a>), <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">philosophy</a>, medicine, astronomy, astrology and <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, and is largely secular in subject-matter.<a href="#cite_note-Iyengar5-20">[16]</a> On the other hand, the Classical Sanskrit language was much more formalized and homogeneous, partly due to the influence of Sanskrit grammarians like <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇini</a> and his commentators.<a href="#cite_note-21">[17]</a> Sanskrit was an important language for medieval Indian religious literature. Most pre-modern <a href="/wiki/Hindu_texts" title="Hindu texts">Hindu literature</a> and philosophy was in Sanskrit and a significant portion of <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Buddhist literature</a> was also written in either classical Sanskrit or <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_Hybrid_Sanskrit" title="Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit">Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit</a>.<a href="#cite_note-22">[18]</a> Many of these Sanskrit Buddhist texts were the basis for later translation into the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon" title="Chinese Buddhist canon">Chinese Buddhist Canon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_canon" title="Tibetan Buddhist canon">Tibetan Canon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-23">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[20]</a> Many <a href="/wiki/Jain_literature" title="Jain literature">Jain texts</a> were also written in Sanskrit, like the <a href="/wiki/Tattvartha_Sutra" title="Tattvartha Sutra">Tattvartha sutra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bhaktamara_Stotra" class="mw-redirect" title="Bhaktamara Stotra">Bhaktamara Stotra</a>, etc.<a href="#cite_note-Parret1976p102-25">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[22]</a> Classical Sanskrit also served as a common language of scholarship and elites (as opposed to local vernacular who were only understood regionally).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurrow197360-27">[23]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent">invasions of northern India by Islamic powers</a> in the 13th century severely damaged Indian Sanskrit scholarship and the dominance of Islamic power over India eventually contributed to the decline of this scholarly language, especially since Muslim rulers promoted Middle Eastern languages.<a href="#cite_note-28">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[26]</a> However, Sanskrit remains in use throughout India, and is used in rituals, religious practice, scholarship, art, and other Indian traditions.<a href="#cite_note-31">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vedic_literature">Vedic literature</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Vedic literature">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1500-1200_BCE,_Vivaha_sukta,_Rigveda_10.85.16-27,_Sanskrit,_Devanagari,_manuscript_page.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/1500-1200_BCE%2C_Vivaha_sukta%2C_Rigveda_10.85.16-27%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari%2C_manuscript_page.jpg/220px-1500-1200_BCE%2C_Vivaha_sukta%2C_Rigveda_10.85.16-27%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari%2C_manuscript_page.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/1500-1200_BCE%2C_Vivaha_sukta%2C_Rigveda_10.85.16-27%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari%2C_manuscript_page.jpg/330px-1500-1200_BCE%2C_Vivaha_sukta%2C_Rigveda_10.85.16-27%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari%2C_manuscript_page.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/1500-1200_BCE%2C_Vivaha_sukta%2C_Rigveda_10.85.16-27%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari%2C_manuscript_page.jpg/440px-1500-1200_BCE%2C_Vivaha_sukta%2C_Rigveda_10.85.16-27%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari%2C_manuscript_page.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2364" data-file-height="2730" /></a><figcaption>Hymn 10.85 of the Rigveda, which includes the Vivaha-sukta (above). Its recitation continues to be a part of <a href="/wiki/Hindu_wedding" title="Hindu wedding">Hindu wedding rituals</a>.<a href="#cite_note-32">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[29]</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chronology">Chronology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Chronology">edit</a>]</div> Five chronologically distinct strata can be identified within the literature of <a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">Vedic Sanskrit</a>:<a href="#cite_note-34">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurrow197343-35">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[e]</a> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Ṛg·vedic</a> Hymns</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">Mantras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83hit%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Saṃhitā">Saṃhitā</a> prose</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Br%C4%81hma%E1%B9%87a" class="mw-redirect" title="Brāhmaṇa">Brāhmaṇa</a> prose</li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C5%ABtras" class="mw-redirect" title="Sūtras">Sūtras</a></li></ol> The first three are commonly grouped together, as the Saṃhitās<a href="#cite_note-39">[A]</a> comprising the four Vedas:<a href="#cite_note-41">[B]</a> ṛk, atharvan, yajus, sāman, which together constitute the oldest texts in Sanskrit and the canonical foundation both of the Vedic religion, and the later religion known as Hinduism.<a href="#cite_note-jb12-42">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ṛg·veda">Ṛg·veda</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Ṛg·veda">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.5em;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Hindu_texts" title="Category:Hindu texts">a series</a> on <a href="/wiki/Hindu_scriptures" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu scriptures">Hindu scriptures</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a> and their <a href="/wiki/Shakhas" class="mw-redirect" title="Shakhas">Shakhas</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Om"><img alt="Om" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Om2.svg/80px-Om2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="82" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Om2.svg/120px-Om2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Om2.svg/160px-Om2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="356" data-file-height="367" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:1.0em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; text-align: center; padding-left:0.4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/Shakala" class="mw-redirect" title="Shakala">Shakala</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bhashkala&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bhashkala (page does not exist)">Bhashkala</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:1.0em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; text-align: center; padding-left:0.4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Samaveda" title="Samaveda">Samaveda</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">Ranayana Shatyamukhya Vyasa Bhaguri Olundi Goulgulvi Bhanumanoupamayava Karati Mashaka Argya Varshgagavya Kuthuma Shakugitre <a href="/wiki/Jaiminiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaiminiya">Jaiminiya</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:1.0em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; text-align: center; padding-left:0.4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Yajurveda#Krishna_Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Krishna Yajurveda</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/Taittiriya_Samhita" class="mw-redirect" title="Taittiriya Samhita">Taittiriya Samhita</a> <a href="/wiki/Maitrayani" class="mw-redirect" title="Maitrayani">Maitrayani Samhita</a> Karaka Katha Samhita Kapisthala Kahta Samhita Kathaka</div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:1.0em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; text-align: center; padding-left:0.4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Yajurveda#Shukla_Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Shukla Yajurveda</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">Kanava Madhyandin</div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:1.0em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; text-align: center; padding-left:0.4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/Shaunaka" title="Shaunaka">Shaunaka</a> Paippalada Stauda Mauda Jajala Jalada Kuntap Brahmavada Devadarsa Caranavaidya</div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="text-align:center;"> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Hinduism" title="Portal:Hinduism">Hinduism portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Vedas_and_Shakhas" title="Template:Vedas and Shakhas"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Vedas_and_Shakhas" title="Template talk:Vedas and Shakhas"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Vedas_and_Shakhas" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Vedas and Shakhas"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/RigVeda" class="mw-redirect" title="RigVeda">Ṛgveda</a></div> The Ṛg·veda, the first and oldest of the four Vedas, is the foundation for the others. The Ṛg·veda is made of 1028 hymns named sūktas, composed of verses in strictly regulated meters. These are collected into <a href="/wiki/Samhita" title="Samhita">saṃhitās</a>. There are about 10,000 of these verses that make up the Ṛg·veda. The Ṛg·vedic hymns are subdivided into 10 maṇḍalas, most of which are attributed to members of certain families. Composition of the Ṛg·vedic hymns was entirely oral, and for much of its history, the Ṛg·veda has been transmitted only orally, written down likely no sooner than in the second half of the first millennium of the Common Era.<a href="#cite_note-jb23-43">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_later_Vedas">The later Vedas</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The later Vedas">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Samaveda" title="Samaveda">Sāmaveda</a> is not an original composition: it's almost entirely (except 75) made of stanzas taken from the Ṛgveda and rearranged with reference to their place in the <a href="/wiki/Soma_(drink)" title="Soma (drink)">Soma</a> sacrifice. This book is meant to be sung to certain fixed melodies, and may thus be called the book of chants, sāman. The <a href="/wiki/Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Yajurveda</a> like the Sāman is also largely made of verses taken from the Ṛgveda, but also contains several prose formulas. It is called the book of sacrificial prayers yajus.<a href="#cite_note-44">[37]</a> The last of the four, the <a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a>, both by the internal structure of the language used and by comparison with the Ṛg·veda, is a much later work. However, the Atharvaveda represents a much earlier stage of thought of the Vedic people, being composed mainly of spells and incantations appealing to demons, and is rife with notions of witchcraft, derived from a much earlier period.<a href="#cite_note-45">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[f]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brāhmaṇas">Brāhmaṇas</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Brāhmaṇas">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Brahmanas" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmanas">Brāhmaṇas</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Brahmana" title="Brahmana">Brāhmaṇas</a> (a subdivision within the Vedas) concern themselves with the correct application of <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic ritual</a>, and the duties of the Vedic priest (<a href="/wiki/Vedic_priesthood" title="Vedic priesthood">hotṛ</a>: 'pourer, worshiper, reciter') the word being derived from bráhman meaning 'prayer'. They were composed at a period in time by which the Vedic hymns had achieved the status of being ancient and sacred revelations and the language had changed sufficiently so that the priests did not fully understand the Vedic texts. The Brāhmaṇas are composed in prose, unlike the previous works, forming some of the earliest examples of prose in any <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European language</a>. The Brāhmaṇas intend to explain the relation between the sacred text and ritual ceremony.<a href="#cite_note-47">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[g]</a> The later part of the Brāhmaṇas contain material which also discuss <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>. These works were meant to be imparted or studied in the peace and calm of the forest, hence their name the <a href="/wiki/Aranyaka" title="Aranyaka">Āraṇyakas</a> ("Of the forest") The last part of these are books of Vedic doctrine and philosophy that came to be called <a href="/wiki/Upanisads" class="mw-redirect" title="Upanisads">Upaniṣads</a> ("sitting down beside"). The doctrines in the Vedic or <a href="/wiki/Principal_Upanishads" title="Principal Upanishads">Mukhya Upaniṣads</a> (the main and most ancient Upaniṣads) were later developed into the <a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedānta</a> ("end of the Vedas") system.<a href="#cite_note-49">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vedic_Sūtras">Vedic Sūtras</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Vedic Sūtras">edit</a>]</div> The Vedic <a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">Sūtras</a> were <a href="/wiki/Aphorism" title="Aphorism">aphoristic</a> treatises concerned either with Vedic ritual (<a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(Vedanga)" title="Kalpa (Vedanga)">Kalpa</a> <a href="/wiki/Vedanga" title="Vedanga">Vedanga</a>) or customary law. They arrived during the later period of the Brāhmaṇas when a vast mass of ritual and customary details had been accumulated. To address this, the Sūtras are intended to provide a concise survey of Vedic knowledge through short aphoristic passages that could be easily memorized. The Sūtras forego the need to interpret the ceremony or custom, but simply provide a plain, methodical account with the utmost brevity.<a href="#cite_note-50">[h]</a> The word sūtra, derived from the root siv-, 'to sew', <a href="#cite_note-51">[i]</a> thus meaning 'sewn' or 'stitched together' eventually became a byword for any work of aphorisms of similar concision.<a href="#cite_note-52">[j]</a> The sutras in many cases are so terse they cannot be understood without the help of detailed commentaries.<a href="#cite_note-53">[41]</a> The main types of Vedic Sūtras include the <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arauta" title="Śrauta">Śrauta</a> sūtras (focusing on ritual), <a href="/wiki/Shulba_Sutras" title="Shulba Sutras">Śulbasûtra</a> (on altar construction), <a href="/wiki/Grhya_Sutras" class="mw-redirect" title="Grhya Sutras">Gṛhyasūtras</a> which focus on <a href="/wiki/Rite_of_passage" title="Rite of passage">rites of passage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dharma%C5%9B%C4%81stra#The_Dharmasutras" title="Dharmaśāstra">Dharmasūtras</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hindu_religious_literature">Hindu religious literature</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Hindu religious literature">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Upani%E1%B9%A3ad" class="mw-redirect" title="Upaniṣad">The Upaniṣads</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad-Gītā</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BhagavadGita-19th-century-Illustrated-Sanskrit-Chapter_1.20.21.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/BhagavadGita-19th-century-Illustrated-Sanskrit-Chapter_1.20.21.jpg/275px-BhagavadGita-19th-century-Illustrated-Sanskrit-Chapter_1.20.21.jpg" decoding="async" width="275" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/BhagavadGita-19th-century-Illustrated-Sanskrit-Chapter_1.20.21.jpg/413px-BhagavadGita-19th-century-Illustrated-Sanskrit-Chapter_1.20.21.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/BhagavadGita-19th-century-Illustrated-Sanskrit-Chapter_1.20.21.jpg/550px-BhagavadGita-19th-century-Illustrated-Sanskrit-Chapter_1.20.21.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1416" data-file-height="857" /></a><figcaption>A 19th-century illustrated Sanskrit manuscript from the Bhagavad Gita, composed c. 400 BCE – 200 BCE.</figcaption></figure> Most ancient and medieval Hindu texts were composed in Sanskrit, either <a href="/wiki/Indian_epic_poetry" title="Indian epic poetry">epic Sanskrit</a> (the pre-classical language found in the two main Indian epics) or classical Sanskrit (Paninian Sanskrit).<a href="#cite_note-54">[42]</a> In modern times, most ancient texts have been translated into other <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_India" title="Languages of India">Indian languages</a> and some in Western languages.<a href="#cite_note-goodallix-55">[43]</a> Prior to the start of the common era, the Hindu texts were composed orally, then memorized and transmitted orally, from one generation to next, for more than a millennium before they were written down into manuscripts.<a href="#cite_note-michaelwitzel68-56">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-graham67-57">[45]</a> This verbal tradition<a href="#cite_note-59">[k]</a> of preserving and transmitting Hindu texts, from one generation to next, continued into the modern era.<a href="#cite_note-michaelwitzel68-56">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-graham67-57">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classification">Classification</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Classification">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.5em;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Hindu_texts" title="Category:Hindu texts">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_texts" title="Hindu texts">Hindu scriptures and texts</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Om_symbol.svg/100px-Om_symbol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Om_symbol.svg/150px-Om_symbol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Om_symbol.svg/200px-Om_symbol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="356" data-file-height="367" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above hlist" style="border:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aruti" title="Śruti">Shruti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Smṛti">Smriti</a> </li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_texts" title="List of Hindu texts">List</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.15em;padding-left:0.25em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaveda" title="Samaveda">Samaveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Yajurveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a></li></ul> Divisions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samhita" title="Samhita">Samhita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmana" title="Brahmana">Brahmana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aranyaka" title="Aranyaka">Aranyaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.15em;padding-left:0.25em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;">Rig vedic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aitareya_Upanishad" title="Aitareya Upanishad">Aitareya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaushitaki_Upanishad" title="Kaushitaki Upanishad">Kaushitaki</a></li></ul> Sama vedic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chandogya_Upanishad" title="Chandogya Upanishad">Chandogya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kena_Upanishad" title="Kena Upanishad">Kena</a></li></ul> Yajur vedic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brihadaranyaka_Upanishad" title="Brihadaranyaka Upanishad">Brihadaranyaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isha_Upanishad" title="Isha Upanishad">Isha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taittiriya_Upanishad" title="Taittiriya Upanishad">Taittiriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katha_Upanishad" title="Katha Upanishad">Katha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shvetashvatara_Upanishad" title="Shvetashvatara Upanishad">Shvetashvatara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitrayaniya_Upanishad" title="Maitrayaniya Upanishad">Maitri</a></li></ul> Atharva vedic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mundaka_Upanishad" title="Mundaka Upanishad">Mundaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandukya_Upanishad" title="Mandukya Upanishad">Mandukya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prashna_Upanishad" title="Prashna Upanishad">Prashna</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.15em;padding-left:0.25em;;color: var(--color-base)">Other scriptures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80gama_(Hinduism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Āgama (Hinduism)">Agamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantras_(Hinduism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tantras (Hinduism)">Tantras</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:transparent;"> Related Hindu texts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.15em;padding-left:0.25em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Vedanga" title="Vedanga">Vedangas</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shiksha" title="Shiksha">Shiksha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_prosody" title="Sanskrit prosody">Chandas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vy%C4%81kara%E1%B9%87a" title="Vyākaraṇa">Vyakarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirukta" title="Nirukta">Nirukta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(Vedanga)" title="Kalpa (Vedanga)">Kalpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jyotisha" class="mw-redirect" title="Jyotisha">Jyotisha</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.15em;padding-left:0.25em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Puranas" title="Puranas">Puranas</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;">Brahma puranas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Purana" title="Brahma Purana">Brahma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmanda_Purana" title="Brahmanda Purana">Brahmānda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Vaivarta_Purana" title="Brahma Vaivarta Purana">Brahmavaivarta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Markandeya_Purana" title="Markandeya Purana">Markandeya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhavishya_Purana" title="Bhavishya Purana">Bhavishya</a></li></ul> Vaishnava puranas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vishnu_Purana" title="Vishnu Purana">Vishnu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhagavata_Purana" title="Bhagavata Purana">Bhagavata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naradiya_Purana" title="Naradiya Purana">Naradiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garuda_Purana" title="Garuda Purana">Garuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padma_Purana" title="Padma Purana">Padma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vamana_Purana" title="Vamana Purana">Vamana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varaha_Purana" title="Varaha Purana">Varaha Purana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurma_Purana" title="Kurma Purana">Kurma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matsya_Purana" title="Matsya Purana">Matsya</a></li></ul> Shaiva puranas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shiva_Purana" title="Shiva Purana">Shiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linga_Purana" title="Linga Purana">Linga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skanda_Purana" title="Skanda Purana">Skanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vayu_Purana" title="Vayu Purana">Vayu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agni_Purana" title="Agni Purana">Agni</a></li></ul> Shakta puranas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Devi_Bhagavata_Purana" title="Devi Bhagavata Purana">Devi Bhagavata</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.15em;padding-left:0.25em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Itihasa-Purana" title="Itihasa-Purana">Itihasa</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_the_Ramayana" class="mw-redirect" title="Historicity of the Ramayana">Historicity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_the_Mahabharata" class="mw-redirect" title="Historicity of the Mahabharata">Historicity</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.15em;padding-left:0.25em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Sangam literature</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tirumurai" title="Tirumurai">Saiva Tirumurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naalayira_Divya_Prabandham" title="Naalayira Divya Prabandham">Divya Prabandham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirumuruk%C4%81%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fuppa%E1%B9%ADai" title="Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai">Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruppugazh" class="mw-redirect" title="Thiruppugazh">Thiruppugazh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirukku%E1%B9%9Fa%E1%B8%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirukkuṟaḷ">Tirukkuṟaḷ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramavataram" title="Ramavataram">Kamba Ramayanam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Great_Epics" title="Five Great Epics">Five Great Epics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Greater_Texts" title="Eighteen Greater Texts">Eighteen Greater Texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Lesser_Texts" title="Eighteen Lesser Texts">Eighteen Lesser Texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aathichoodi" class="mw-redirect" title="Aathichoodi">Aathichoodi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraiyanar_Akapporul" title="Iraiyanar Akapporul">Iraiyanar Akapporul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhirami_Anthadhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhirami Anthadhi">Abhirami Anthadhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvilaiyadal_Puranam" title="Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam">Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinayagar_Agaval" title="Vinayagar Agaval">Vinayagar Agaval</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.15em;padding-left:0.25em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Shastra" title="Shastra">Shastras</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">sutras</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharma%C5%9B%C4%81stra" title="Dharmaśāstra">Dharma Shastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthashastra" title="Arthashastra">Artha Shastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamasutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamasutra">Kamasutra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Sutras" title="Brahma Sutras">Brahma Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samkhyapravachana_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Samkhyapravachana Sutra">Samkhya Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purva_Mimamsa_Sutras" title="Purva Mimamsa Sutras">Mimamsa Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vai%C5%9Be%E1%B9%A3ika_S%C5%ABtra" title="Vaiśeṣika Sūtra">Vaiśeṣika Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pramana" title="Pramana">Pramana Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charaka_Samhita" title="Charaka Samhita">Charaka Samhita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sushruta_Samhita" title="Sushruta Samhita">Sushruta Samhita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natya_Shastra" title="Natya Shastra">Natya Shastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vastu_Shastra" class="mw-redirect" title="Vastu Shastra">Vastu Shastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchatantra" title="Panchatantra">Panchatantra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divya_Prabandha" class="mw-redirect" title="Divya Prabandha">Divya Prabandha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirumurai" title="Tirumurai">Tirumurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramcharitmanas" title="Ramcharitmanas">Ramcharitmanas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Vasistha" title="Yoga Vasistha">Yoga Vasistha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiva_Swarodaya" title="Shiva Swarodaya">Swara yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiva_Samhita" title="Shiva Samhita">Shiva Samhita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gheranda_Samhita" title="Gheranda Samhita">Gheranda Samhita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchadasi" title="Panchadasi">Panchadasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedantasara_(of_Sadananda)" title="Vedantasara (of Sadananda)">Vedantasara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stotra" title="Stotra">Stotra</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.15em;padding-left:0.25em;;color: var(--color-base)">Timeline</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Hindu_texts" title="Timeline of Hindu texts">Timeline of Hindu texts</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Hindu_scriptures_and_texts" title="Template:Hindu scriptures and texts"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Hindu_scriptures_and_texts" title="Template talk:Hindu scriptures and texts"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Hindu_scriptures_and_texts" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Hindu scriptures and texts"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Hindu Sanskrit texts are subdivided into two classes: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aruti" title="Śruti">Śruti</a> ("that which is heard")<a href="#cite_note-60">[C]</a> are believed to be 'revealed', such as the <a href="/wiki/Veda" class="mw-redirect" title="Veda">Vedas</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Upanishad" class="mw-redirect" title="Upanishad">Upaniṣads</a>.<a href="#cite_note-iep.utm.edu-61">[47]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Smriti" class="mw-redirect" title="Smriti">Smṛti</a> ("that which is remembered") Sanskrit texts are a specific body of <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hindu</a> texts attributed to an author,<a href="#cite_note-iep.utm.edu-61">[47]</a> as a derivative work they are considered less authoritative than Śruti in Hinduism.<a href="#cite_note-jamesmriti-62">[48]</a> The Smṛti literature includes but is not limited to <a href="/wiki/Vedanga" title="Vedanga">Vedāṅgas</a>, Itihasas (the Hindu epics such as <a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">Sūtras</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shastra" title="Shastra">Śāstras</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Puranas" title="Puranas">Purāṇas</a>, while some traditions also include Kāvya (courtly poetry), <a href="/wiki/Bhashya" title="Bhashya">Bhāṣyas</a>,<a href="#cite_note-63">[D]</a> and numerous Nibandhas (digests) covering politics, ethics, culture, arts and society.<a href="#cite_note-bilimoriasmrti-64">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-Roy_Perrett_1998_pages_16-18-65">[50]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian_Epics">Indian Epics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Indian Epics">edit</a>]</div> The first traces of <a href="/wiki/Indian_epic_poetry" title="Indian epic poetry">Indian epic poetry</a> are seen in the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedic literature</a>, among the certain hymns of the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Ṛgveda</a> (which contain dialogues), as well as the Ākhyānas (ballads), <a href="/wiki/Itihasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Itihasa">Itihāsas</a> ('traditional accounts of past events') and the <a href="/wiki/Puranas" title="Puranas">Purāṇas</a> found in the Vedic <a href="/wiki/Brahmana" title="Brahmana">Brāhmaṇas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:5-66">[51]</a> These poems were originally songs of praise or heroic songs which developed into <a href="/wiki/Epic_poems" class="mw-redirect" title="Epic poems">epic poems</a> of increasing length over time. They were originally recited during important events such as during the Vedic <a href="/wiki/Horse_sacrifice" title="Horse sacrifice">horse sacrifice</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Ashvamedha" title="Ashvamedha">aśvamedha</a>) or during a funeral.<a href="#cite_note-:5-66">[51]</a> Another related genre were the "songs in praise of men" (<a href="/wiki/Gatha_(India)" title="Gatha (India)">gāthā</a> narasamsi), which focus on the glorious deeds of warriors and princes, which also developed into long epic cycles.<a href="#cite_note-67">[52]</a> These epic poems were recited by courtly <a href="/wiki/Bard" title="Bard">bards</a> called <a href="/wiki/S%C5%ABta" title="Sūta">sūtas</a>, who may have been their own <a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_India" title="Caste system in India">caste</a> and were closely related to the <a href="/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">warrior caste</a>. There was also a related group of traveling singers called kusilavas.<a href="#cite_note-68">[53]</a> Indian kings and princes seem to have kept bards in their courts which sung the praises of the king, recite poems at festivals and sometimes even recite poetry in battle to embolden the warriors.<a href="#cite_note-69">[54]</a> While there were certainly other epic cycles, only two have survived, the <a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahābhārata</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Rāmāyaṇa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinternitz1972314-70">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mahābhārata">Mahābhārata</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Mahābhārata">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahābhārata</a> is in a sense not just a single 'epic poem', but can be seen as a whole body of literature in its own right, a massive collection of many different poetic works built around the heroic tales of the <a href="/wiki/Bharatas_(tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bharatas (tribe)">Bharata</a> tribe.<a href="#cite_note-72">[57]</a> Most of this literature was probably compiled between the 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE by numerous authors, with the oldest preserved parts not much older than around 400 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-73">[58]</a> Already in the Ṛgveda, the Bharatas find mention as a warlike tribe, and the Brāhmaṇas also speak of <a href="/wiki/Bharata_(Ramayana)" title="Bharata (Ramayana)">Bharata</a>, the son of <a href="/wiki/Dushyanta" title="Dushyanta">Duṣyanta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shakuntala" title="Shakuntala">Śakuntalā</a>. The core of the Mahābhārata is a family feud in the royal house of the <a href="/wiki/Kaurava" title="Kaurava">Kauravas</a> (the descendants of Bharata), leading to a bloody <a href="/wiki/Kurukshetra_War" title="Kurukshetra War">battle at Kurukshetra</a>. Over the centuries, an enormous mass of poetry, myths, legends, secondary tales, moral stories and more was added to the original core story. The final form of the epic is thus a massive 100,000 ślokas <a href="#cite_note-74">[l]</a> across 18+1 books.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinternitz1972317–321-75">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[60]</a> According to Winternitz, the Mahābhārata also shows the influence of the <a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">Brahmin class</a>, which he argues was engaged in a project of appropriating the poetry of the bards (which was mainly a secular heroic literature) in order to infuse it with their religious theology and values.<a href="#cite_note-77">[61]</a> The most influential part of the <a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahābhārata</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavadgītā</a>, which became a central scripture for the Vedanta school and remains widely read today.<a href="#cite_note-78">[62]</a> Another important associated text, which acts as a kind of supplement (khila) to the <a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahābhārata</a>, is the <a href="/wiki/Harivamsa" class="mw-redirect" title="Harivamsa">Harivanhśa</a>, which focuses on the figure of <a href="/wiki/Krishna" title="Krishna">Krishna</a>.<a href="#cite_note-79">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rāmāyaṇa">Rāmāyaṇa</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Rāmāyaṇa">edit</a>]</div> In contrast to the Mahābhārata, the <a href="/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Rāmāyaṇa</a> consists of only 24,000 <a href="/wiki/Shloka" title="Shloka">ślokas</a> divided into seven books, and in form is more purely regular, ornate epic poetry, a form of style which is the basis of the later <a href="/wiki/K%C4%81vya" title="Kāvya">Kāvya</a> tradition.<a href="#cite_note-80">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinternitz1972467-81">[65]</a> There are two parts to the story of the Rāmāyaṇa,<a href="#cite_note-82">[66]</a> which are narrated in the five genuine books. The first revolves around the events at the court of King <a href="/wiki/Dasharatha" title="Dasharatha">Daśaratha</a> at <a href="/wiki/Ayodhya_(Ramayana)" title="Ayodhya (Ramayana)">Ayodhya</a> with one of his wives vying for the succession of the throne to her own son Bharata in place of the one chosen by the king, <a href="/wiki/Rama" title="Rama">Rāma</a>. The second part of the epic is full of myth and marvel, with the banished Rāma combating giants in the forest, and slaying thousands of demons. The second part also deals with the abduction of Rāmā's wife, <a href="/wiki/Sita" title="Sita">Sītā</a> by king <a href="/wiki/Ravana" title="Ravana">Rāvaṇa</a> of Lankā, leading Rāma to carry out to expedition to the island to defeat the king in battle and recover his wife.<a href="#cite_note-83">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Purāṇa">Purāṇa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Purāṇa">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pur%C4%81%E1%B9%87a" class="mw-redirect" title="Purāṇa">Purāṇa</a></div>The <a href="/wiki/Puranas" title="Puranas">Purāṇa</a> are a large class of Hindu scriptures which cover numerous topics such as myth, legends of the <a href="/wiki/Hindu_deities" title="Hindu deities">Hindu gods</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cosmogony" title="Cosmogony">cosmogony</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>, stories of ancient kings and sages, folk tales, information about temples, medicine, astronomy, grammar and Hindu theology and <a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">philosophy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-84">[68]</a> Perhaps the most influential of these texts is the <a href="/wiki/Bhagavata_Purana" title="Bhagavata Purana">Bhāgavata Purāṇa</a>, a central text for <a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnava</a> theology.<a href="#cite_note-richardthompson-85">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[70]</a> Other Purāṇas center on different gods, like the <a href="/wiki/Shiva_Purana" title="Shiva Purana">Shiva Purāṇa</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Devi-Bhagavata_Purana" class="mw-redirect" title="Devi-Bhagavata Purana">Devī Bhāgavata Purāṇa</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_Upaniṣads">Later Upaniṣads</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Later Upaniṣads">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Principal_Upanishads" title="Principal Upanishads">principal Upaniṣads</a> can be considered <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedic literature</a> since they are included within the <a href="/wiki/Brahmanas" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmanas">Brahmanas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aranyakas" class="mw-redirect" title="Aranyakas">Aranyakas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-olivelleintro-87">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-88">[72]</a> However, numerous scriptures titled "Upaniṣads" continued to be composed after the closure of the Vedas proper. Of these later "Upaniṣads" there are two categories of texts:<a href="#cite_note-89">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[74]</a> <ul><li>95 canonical Upaniṣads which are part of the <a href="/wiki/Muktik%C4%81" title="Muktikā">Muktikā canon</a>. These were composed from about the last centuries of 1st-millennium BCE through about 15th-century CE.</li> <li>Newer paracanonical Upaniṣads, which were composed through the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">modern eras</a> and which deal with numerous non-Vedic topics.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-Vedic_aphoristic_literature">Post-Vedic aphoristic literature</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Post-Vedic aphoristic literature">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Patanjali%27s_Yogabhasya,_Sanskrit,_Devanagari_script,_sample_pages.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Patanjali%27s_Yogabhasya%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari_script%2C_sample_pages.jpg/220px-Patanjali%27s_Yogabhasya%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari_script%2C_sample_pages.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Patanjali%27s_Yogabhasya%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari_script%2C_sample_pages.jpg/330px-Patanjali%27s_Yogabhasya%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari_script%2C_sample_pages.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Patanjali%27s_Yogabhasya%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari_script%2C_sample_pages.jpg/440px-Patanjali%27s_Yogabhasya%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari_script%2C_sample_pages.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1766" data-file-height="1190" /></a><figcaption>19th-century manuscript of Patanjali's <a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga-bhāṣya</a>, preserved at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a>.</figcaption></figure> Sūtra style aphoristic literature continued to be composed on numerous topics, the most popular being on the different fields of <a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-gavinfloodaith54-91">[75]</a> The main Sūtra texts (sometimes also called <a href="/wiki/Karika" title="Karika">kārikās</a>) on <a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a> include:<a href="#cite_note-:17-92">[76]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhyakarika" title="Samkhyakarika">Sāṁkhyakārikā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya_Pravachana_Sutra" title="Samkhya Pravachana Sutra">Sāṁkhyapravacanasūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purva_Mimamsa_Sutras" title="Purva Mimamsa Sutras">Mīmāṁsā Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vai%C5%9Be%E1%B9%A3ika_S%C5%ABtra" title="Vaiśeṣika Sūtra">Vaiśeṣika Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga Sūtras</a> of <a href="/wiki/Patanjali" title="Patanjali">Patanjali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Sutras" title="Brahma Sutras">Brahma Sūtra</a> (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> sutra)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gauḍapāda</a> Kārikā</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashupata_Shaivism" title="Pashupata Shaivism">Pāśupata</a> Sūtras</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiva_Sutras" title="Shiva Sutras">Shiva Sūtras</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spandak%C4%81rik%C4%81&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Spandakārikā (page does not exist)">Spandakārikā</a></li> <li>Īśvarapratyabhijñākārikā of <a href="/wiki/Utpaladeva" title="Utpaladeva">Utpaladeva</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commentaries">Commentaries</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Commentaries">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Isha_Upanishad_Verses_1_to_3,_Shukla_Yajurveda,_Sanskrit,_Devanagari.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Isha_Upanishad_Verses_1_to_3%2C_Shukla_Yajurveda%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari.jpg/220px-Isha_Upanishad_Verses_1_to_3%2C_Shukla_Yajurveda%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Isha_Upanishad_Verses_1_to_3%2C_Shukla_Yajurveda%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari.jpg/330px-Isha_Upanishad_Verses_1_to_3%2C_Shukla_Yajurveda%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Isha_Upanishad_Verses_1_to_3%2C_Shukla_Yajurveda%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari.jpg/440px-Isha_Upanishad_Verses_1_to_3%2C_Shukla_Yajurveda%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2131" data-file-height="993" /></a><figcaption>A manuscript of the <a href="/wiki/Isha_Upanishad" title="Isha Upanishad">Isha Upanishad</a>, the small text in the margins and edges are an unknown scholar's notes and comments in the typical Hindu style of a minor Bhāṣya.</figcaption></figure> The various Sanskrit literature also spawned a large tradition of commentary texts, which were called <a href="/wiki/Bhashya" title="Bhashya">Bhāṣyas</a>, Vṛṭṭis, Ṭīkās, Vārttikas and other names.<a href="#cite_note-:17-92">[76]</a> These commentaries were written on numerous genres of Sanskrit texts, including on Sūtras, on Upaniṣads and on the Sanskrit epics.<a href="#cite_note-richa17-93">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[79]</a> Examples include the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yogabh%C4%81%E1%B9%A3ya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yogabhāṣya (page does not exist)">Yogabhāṣya</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga Sūtras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shankaracharya" title="Shankaracharya">Shankara's</a> Brahmasūtrabhāṣya, the Gītābhāṣya and <a href="/wiki/Sri_Bhasya" class="mw-redirect" title="Sri Bhasya">Śrī Bhāṣya</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ramanuja" title="Ramanuja">Ramanuja</a> (1017–1137), <a href="/wiki/Pak%E1%B9%A3ilasv%C4%81min_V%C4%81tsy%C4%81yana" title="Pakṣilasvāmin Vātsyāyana">Pakṣilasvāmin Vātsyāyana</a>'s Nyāya Sūtra Bhāṣya and the Matharavṛṭṭi (on the <a href="/wiki/Samkhyakarika" title="Samkhyakarika">Sāṁkhyakārikā</a>). Furthermore, over time, secondary commentaries (i.e. a commentary to a commentary) also came to be written.<a href="#cite_note-96">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tantric_literature">Tantric literature</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Tantric literature">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tantras_(Hinduism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tantras (Hinduism)">Tantras (Hinduism)</a></div>There are a varied group of Hindu <a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">Tantric</a> scriptures titled <a href="/wiki/Tantras_(Hinduism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tantras (Hinduism)">Tantras</a> or <a href="/wiki/Agama_(Hinduism)" title="Agama (Hinduism)">Agamas.</a> <a href="/wiki/Gavin_Flood" title="Gavin Flood">Gavin Flood</a> argues that the earliest date for these Tantric texts is 600 CE, though most of them were probably composed after the 8th century onwards.<a href="#cite_note-:4-97">[81]</a> Tantric literature was very popular during the <a href="/wiki/Tantra#Tantric_Age" title="Tantra">"Tantric Age" (c. 8th to the 14th century)</a>, a period of time when Tantric traditions rose to prominence and flourished throughout India. According to Flood, all Hindu traditions, <a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaiva</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnava</a>, <a href="/wiki/Smarta_tradition" title="Smarta tradition">Smarta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shaktism" title="Shaktism">Shakta</a> (perhaps excepting the <a href="/wiki/Shrauta" class="mw-redirect" title="Shrauta">Srautas</a>) became influenced by Tantric works and adopted some Tantric elements into their literature.<a href="#cite_note-:4-97">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Other">edit</a>]</div> There are also numerous other types of Hindu religious works, including prose and poetry. Among prose works there are important works like the <a href="/wiki/Yoga_Vasistha" title="Yoga Vasistha">Yoga-Vāsiṣṭha</a> (which is important in <a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita Vedanta</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Yoga_Yajnavalkya" title="Yoga Yajnavalkya">Yoga-Yājñavalkya</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Devi_Mahatmya" title="Devi Mahatmya">Devi Mahatmya</a> (a key <a href="/wiki/Shaktism" title="Shaktism">Shakta</a> work). When it comes to poetry, there are numerous <a href="/wiki/Stotra" title="Stotra">stotras</a> (odes), <a href="/wiki/List_of_suktas_and_stutis" title="List of suktas and stutis">suktas and stutis</a>, as well as other poetic genres. Some important works of Hindu Sanskrit poetry include the <a href="/wiki/Vivekachudamani" class="mw-redirect" title="Vivekachudamani">Vivekacūḍāmaṇi</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Hanuman_Chalisa" title="Hanuman Chalisa">Hanuman Chalisa</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ashtavakra_Gita" title="Ashtavakra Gita">Aṣṭāvakragītā</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bhaja_Govindam" title="Bhaja Govindam">Bhaja Govindam</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Shiva_Tandava_Stotra" title="Shiva Tandava Stotra">Shiva Tandava Stotra</a>. Another group of later Sanskrit Hindu texts are those which focus on <a href="/wiki/Hatha_yoga" title="Hatha yoga">Hatha Yoga</a>, and include the <a href="/wiki/Dattatreya_Yoga_Shastra" class="mw-redirect" title="Dattatreya Yoga Shastra">Dattātreyayogaśāstra</a> (13th century), the <a href="/wiki/Gorak%E1%B9%A3a%C5%9Bataka" class="mw-redirect" title="Gorakṣaśataka">Gorakṣaśataka</a> (13th century), the <a href="/wiki/Hatha_Yoga_Pradipika" title="Hatha Yoga Pradipika">Haṭhayogapradīpikā</a> (15th century) and the <a href="/wiki/Gheranda_Samhita" title="Gheranda Samhita">Gheraṇḍasaṁhitā</a> (17th or 18th-century).<a href="#cite_note-98">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scientific_&_secular_literature">Scientific & secular literature</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Scientific & secular literature">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81stra" class="mw-redirect" title="Śāstra">Śāstra</a></div>Over time, Sanskrit works on the <a href="/wiki/Secularity" title="Secularity">secular</a> sciences (<a href="/wiki/Shastra" title="Shastra">śāstra</a> or <a href="/wiki/Vidya_(philosophy)" title="Vidya (philosophy)">vidyā</a>) were composed on a wide variety of topics.<a href="#cite_note-99">[83]</a> These include: grammar, poetry, lexicography, geometry, astronomy, medicine, worldly life and pleasure, philosophy, law, politics, etc.<a href="#cite_note-100">[84]</a> The learning of these secular sciences took place by way of a <a href="/wiki/Guru" title="Guru">guru</a> expounding the subject orally, using works of <a href="/wiki/Aphorism" title="Aphorism">aphorisms</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">sūtra</a> texts, which on account of their terseness would be meaningful only to those who knew how to interpret them. The <a href="/wiki/Bhashya" title="Bhashya">bhāṣyas</a>, the commentaries that followed the sūtras were structured in the style of student-teacher dialogue wherein a question is posed, a partial solution, the <a href="/wiki/Purva_paksha" title="Purva paksha">pūrvapakṣa</a>, proposed, which is then handled, corrected and the final opinion established, the <a href="/wiki/Siddhanta" title="Siddhanta">siddhānta</a>. In time, the bhāṣyas evolved to become more like a lecture.<a href="#cite_note-101">[85]</a> The sūtras were initially regarded as definite. This was later circumvented, in the field of grammar, by the creation of vārttikas, to correct or amend sūtras. Another form often employed was the <a href="/wiki/Shloka" title="Shloka">śloka</a>, which was a relatively simple metre, easy to write and remember. Sometimes a mix of prose and verse was used. Some of the later work, such as in law and poetics, developed a much clearer style which avoided a propensity towards obscurity that verse was prone to.<a href="#cite_note-102">[86]</a> The study of these secular works was widespread in India. Buddhist institutions like <a href="/wiki/Nalanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Nalanda">Nalanda</a> also focused on the study of four of these secular sciences, known as the vidyāsthānas. These are: linguistic science (sabdavidya), logical science (hetuvidya), medical science (cikitsavidya), science of fine arts and crafts (silpakarmasthanavidya). The fifth main topic studied at Buddhist universities were the spiritual sciences (adhyatmavidya).<a href="#cite_note-Gold,_Jonathan_C._2007_pp.14-15-103">[87]</a> These Indian Sanskrit language disciples also had an influence on <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayan</a> cultures, like <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>, which not only adopted Buddhist religious literature but also these secular works.<a href="#cite_note-:19-104">[88]</a> The Tibetan scholar <a href="/wiki/Sakya_Pandita" title="Sakya Pandita">Sakya Pandita</a> (1182–1251) was a well known scholar of Sanskrit, and promoted the study of these secular disciplines among Tibetans.<a href="#cite_note-105">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-:21-106">[90]</a> The study of Sanskrit grammars and prosody was also practiced in <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, even when the <a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pali language</a> focused <a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a> school rose to prominence in those regions.<a href="#cite_note-107">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Linguistic_literature">Linguistic literature</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Linguistic literature">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_grammar" title="Sanskrit grammar">Sanskrit grammar</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Birch_bark_MS_from_Kashmir_of_the_Rupavatra_Wellcome_L0032691.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Birch_bark_MS_from_Kashmir_of_the_Rupavatra_Wellcome_L0032691.jpg/220px-Birch_bark_MS_from_Kashmir_of_the_Rupavatra_Wellcome_L0032691.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Birch_bark_MS_from_Kashmir_of_the_Rupavatra_Wellcome_L0032691.jpg/330px-Birch_bark_MS_from_Kashmir_of_the_Rupavatra_Wellcome_L0032691.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Birch_bark_MS_from_Kashmir_of_the_Rupavatra_Wellcome_L0032691.jpg/440px-Birch_bark_MS_from_Kashmir_of_the_Rupavatra_Wellcome_L0032691.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5216" data-file-height="3408" /></a><figcaption>Birch bark manuscript from <a href="/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a> of the Rupavatara, a grammatical textbook based on the Sanskrit grammar of Panini. It was composed by the Sinhalese Buddhist monk Dharmakirti. The manuscript was transcribed in 1663.</figcaption></figure> By the time of the Sūtra period, the Sanskrit language had evolved sufficiently to make increasing parts of the older literature hard to understand, and to recite correctly. This led to the emergence of several classes of works intended to resolve this matter. These works were styled like the religious Sūtras, however they were not religious per se but focused on the <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistic</a> study of the Sanskrit language.<a href="#cite_note-110">[m]</a> The main topics discussed in these works were <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vy%C4%81kara%E1%B9%87a" title="Vyākaraṇa">vyākaraṇa</a>), <a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">phonetics</a> (<a href="/wiki/Shiksha" title="Shiksha">śikṣā</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">etymology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nirukta" title="Nirukta">nirukta</a>). These are traditionally part of the <a href="/wiki/Vedanga" title="Vedanga">vedāṅga</a> ("limbs of the Veda"), six auxiliary disciplines that developed along with the study of the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-jameslochtefeldvedanga-111">[94]</a> One of the earliest and most important of these works is the Vedic era <a href="/wiki/Pratishakhyas" title="Pratishakhyas">Prātiśākhya Sūtras</a>, which deal with accentuation, pronunciation, prosody and related matters in order to study the phonetic changes that have taken place in Vedic words. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Sanskrit_grammatical_tradition">The Sanskrit grammatical tradition</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: The Sanskrit grammatical tradition">edit</a>]</div> The early grammatical works of the linguist <a href="/wiki/Y%C4%81ska" title="Yāska">Yāska</a> (some time between 7th and 4th century BCE), such as his <a href="/wiki/Nirukta" title="Nirukta">Nirukta</a>, provides the foundation of the study of Sanskrit grammar and etymology.<a href="#cite_note-112">[95]</a> The most influential work for the Indian Sanskrit grammatical tradition is the <a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%AD%C4%81dhy%C4%81y%C4%AB" title="Aṣṭādhyāyī">Aṣṭādhyāyī</a> of <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇini</a>, a book of succinct Sūtras that meticulously define the language and <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_grammar" title="Sanskrit grammar">grammar of Sanskrit</a> and lay the foundations of what is hereafter the normative form of Sanskrit (and thus, defines Classical Sanskrit).<a href="#cite_note-113">[96]</a> After Pāṇini, other influential works in this field were the <a href="/wiki/V%C4%81rttikak%C4%81ra" title="Vārttikakāra">Vārttikakāra</a> of <a href="/wiki/K%C4%81ty%C4%81yana" title="Kātyāyana">Kātyāyana</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81bh%C4%81%E1%B9%A3ya" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahābhāṣya">Mahābhāṣya</a> of the grammarian Patañjali and <a href="/wiki/Bhart%E1%B9%9Bhari" title="Bhartṛhari">Bhartṛhari's</a> <a href="/wiki/V%C4%81kyapad%C4%ABya" class="mw-redirect" title="Vākyapadīya">Vākyapadīya</a> (a work on grammar and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">philosophy of language</a>).<a href="#cite_note-114">[97]</a> Over time, different grammatical schools developed. There was a tradition of Jain grammarians and Buddhist grammarians and a later tradition of Paninian grammarians.<a href="#cite_note-115">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lexicography">Lexicography</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Lexicography">edit</a>]</div> There were numerous <a href="/wiki/Lexicography" title="Lexicography">lexicographical</a> works written in Sanskrit, including numerous dictionaries attributed to figures like Bana, Mayura, Murari, and Sriharsha.<a href="#cite_note-Keith_1956,_p._412-116">[99]</a> According to Keith, "of lexica two main classes exist—synonymous, in which words are grouped by subject-matter, and homonymous (anekartha, nanartha), but the important synonymous dictionaries usually include a homonymous section."<a href="#cite_note-Keith_1956,_p._412-116">[99]</a> One of the earliest lexicons (kośaḥ) is <a href="/wiki/Amarasimha" title="Amarasimha">Amarasiṃha's</a> Nāmalingānusāsana, better known as the <a href="/wiki/Amarakosha" title="Amarakosha">Amarākośa</a>. According to Keith, Amarasiṃha, who possibly flourished in the 6th century, was "certainly a Buddhist who knew the Mahāyāna and used Kālidāsa."<a href="#cite_note-117">[100]</a> Other lexica are later works, including the short Abhidhānaratnamālā of the poet-grammarian <a href="/wiki/Halayudha" title="Halayudha">Halāyudha</a> (c. 950), Yādavaprakāsha's Vaijayantī, <a href="/wiki/Hemachandra" title="Hemachandra">Hemacandra's</a> Abhidhānacintāmaṇi and Anekarthasabdakosha of Medinikara (14th century).<a href="#cite_note-118">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dharma_literature">Dharma literature</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Dharma literature">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dharma%C5%9B%C4%81stra" title="Dharmaśāstra">Dharmaśāstra</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1407_CE,_Naradasmriti_Hindu_law_manuscript,_Sanskrit,_Bhujimol_script,_Malla_kingdom.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/1407_CE%2C_Naradasmriti_Hindu_law_manuscript%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Bhujimol_script%2C_Malla_kingdom.jpg/220px-1407_CE%2C_Naradasmriti_Hindu_law_manuscript%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Bhujimol_script%2C_Malla_kingdom.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/1407_CE%2C_Naradasmriti_Hindu_law_manuscript%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Bhujimol_script%2C_Malla_kingdom.jpg/330px-1407_CE%2C_Naradasmriti_Hindu_law_manuscript%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Bhujimol_script%2C_Malla_kingdom.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/1407_CE%2C_Naradasmriti_Hindu_law_manuscript%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Bhujimol_script%2C_Malla_kingdom.jpg/440px-1407_CE%2C_Naradasmriti_Hindu_law_manuscript%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Bhujimol_script%2C_Malla_kingdom.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2332" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>A manuscript of the <a href="/wiki/N%C4%81radasm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Nāradasmṛti">Nāradasmṛti</a>, a Dharmaśāstra work which focuses solely on legal matters.</figcaption></figure> The Vedic practice of sūtras pertaining to the correct performance of ritual was extended to other matters such as the performance of duties of all kinds, and in social, moral and legal spheres. These works came to be known as <a href="/wiki/Dharma%C5%9B%C4%81stra" title="Dharmaśāstra">Dharmasūtras and Dharmaśāstras</a> in contradistinction to the older <a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(Vedanga)" title="Kalpa (Vedanga)">gṛhyasūtras</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(Vedanga)" title="Kalpa (Vedanga)">śrautasūtras</a> although no distinction was felt initially. Like other sūtras, this was terse prose peppered with a few ślokas or verses in <a href="/wiki/Trishtubh_(Vedic_metre)" title="Trishtubh (Vedic metre)">triṣtubh</a> metre to emphasize a doctrine here and there. More broadly, works in the field of civil and religious law come under the banner of dharmaśāstra.<a href="#cite_note-119">[102]</a> Examples of such works are: <ul><li>Gautamīya dharmaśāstra</li> <li>Hāritā dharmaśāstra</li> <li>Vasiṣṭha dharmaśāstra</li> <li>Baudhāyana dharmaśāstra</li> <li>Āpastambīya dharmasūtra</li> <li>Vaiṣṇava dharmaśāstra</li> <li>Vaikhānasa dharmaśāstra</li></ul> The most important of all dharma literature however is the <a href="/wiki/Manusmriti" title="Manusmriti">Manusmṛiti</a>, which was composed in verse form, and was intended to apply to all human beings of all castes.<a href="#cite_note-120">[103]</a> The Manusmṛiti deals with a wide variety of topics including marriage, daily duties, funeral rites, occupation and general rules of life, lawful and forbidden food, impurity and purification, laws on women, duties of husband and wife, inheritance and partition, and much more. There are chapters devoted to the <a href="/wiki/Castes_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Castes in India">castes</a>, the conduct of different castes, their occupations, the matter of caste admixture, enumerating in full detail the system of social stratification. The Manu·smṛti has been dated to the couple of centuries around the turn of the Common Era.<a href="#cite_note-121">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[105]</a> According to recent genetic research, it has been determined that it was around the first century CE that population mixture among different groups in India, prevalent on a large scale from around 2200 BCE, ground to a halt with <a href="/wiki/Endogamy" title="Endogamy">endogamy</a> setting in.<a href="#cite_note-123">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_secular_literature">Other secular literature</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Other secular literature">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kamasutra_vatsyayana_Wellcome_L0045293.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Kamasutra_vatsyayana_Wellcome_L0045293.jpg/220px-Kamasutra_vatsyayana_Wellcome_L0045293.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Kamasutra_vatsyayana_Wellcome_L0045293.jpg/330px-Kamasutra_vatsyayana_Wellcome_L0045293.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Kamasutra_vatsyayana_Wellcome_L0045293.jpg/440px-Kamasutra_vatsyayana_Wellcome_L0045293.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3716" data-file-height="2672" /></a><figcaption>A Nepalese manuscript of the Kamasutra, with Buddhist illustrations.</figcaption></figure> Sanskrit literature also covers a variety of other technical and secular topics including:<a href="#cite_note-124">[107]</a> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Barhaspatya_sutras" title="Barhaspatya sutras">Bārhaspatya sūtras</a>, a work of the materialistic <a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Charvaka</a> school of Indian philosophy.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">Astrological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomical</a> literature (<a href="/wiki/Hindu_astrology" title="Hindu astrology">Jyotisha</a>), including the <a href="/wiki/Vedanga_Jyotisha" title="Vedanga Jyotisha">Jyotiṣavedāṅga</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Aryabhatiya" title="Aryabhatiya">Āryabhaṭīya</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Surya_Siddhanta" title="Surya Siddhanta">Sūrya Siddhānta</a>, and the Varāhamihira Bṛhatsaṃhitā. These works also discuss other topics like divination and agriculture.</li> <li>Closely associated with jyotisha are <a href="/wiki/Indian_mathematics" title="Indian mathematics">Indian Mathematical works</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Br%C4%81hmasphu%E1%B9%ADasiddh%C4%81nta" title="Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta">Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemical literature</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rasayana" title="Rasayana">Rasāyana</a>), including the works of <a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna_(metallurgist)" title="Nagarjuna (metallurgist)">Nāgārjuna</a>, such as the Rasaratanakaram</li> <li>Works on politics, statecraft and other related topics, the most famous of which is the <a href="/wiki/Arthashastra" title="Arthashastra">Arthaśāstram</a>.<a href="#cite_note-125">[108]</a> Others include the <a href="/wiki/Nitisara" title="Nitisara">Nitisara of Kamandaki</a>, the Nitivakyamrta of <a href="/wiki/Somadeva_Suri" title="Somadeva Suri">Somadeva Suri</a> and the Yuki-ḵalpataru ascribed to Bhoja.<a href="#cite_note-126">[109]</a></li> <li>Works on archery (dhanurveda) and the science of horses (asvāyurveda).<a href="#cite_note-127">[110]</a></li> <li>The study of jewels (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ratna%C5%9B%C4%81stra&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ratnaśāstra (page does not exist)">ratnaśāstra</a>).<a href="#cite_note-128">[111]</a></li> <li>Medical <a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Ayurvedic</a> literature, including the great Ayurveda classics such as the <a href="/wiki/Charaka_Samhita" title="Charaka Samhita">Carakasaṃhitā</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sushruta_Samhita" title="Sushruta Samhita">Suśrutasaṃhitā</a> and the works of <a href="/wiki/Vagbhata" title="Vagbhata">Vāgbhaṭa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-129">[112]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamashastra" title="Kamashastra">Kāma Śāstras</a> (works on love, pleasure and sexuality), the most famous of which is the <a href="/wiki/Kama_Sutra" title="Kama Sutra">Kāma-sūtra</a>. Other works include <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kokkaka&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kokkaka (page does not exist)">Kokkaka</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Ratirahasya" title="Ratirahasya">Ratirahasya</a> (13th century) and Kalyanamalla's (16th century) <a href="/w/index.php?title=Anangaranga&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anangaranga (page does not exist)">Anangaranga</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_India" title="Architecture of India">Indian Architectural</a> literature (<a href="/wiki/Vastu_shastra" title="Vastu shastra">vāstuśāstra</a>), such as the <a href="/wiki/Manushyalaya_Chandrika" title="Manushyalaya Chandrika">Manushyalaya Chandrika</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Samarangana_Sutradhara" title="Samarangana Sutradhara">Samarāṅgaṇasūtradhāra</a>.</li> <li>Literature on arts and crafts (<a href="/wiki/Shilpa_Shastras" title="Shilpa Shastras">śilpaśāstra</a>), such as works on <a href="/wiki/Sculpture_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Sculpture in the Indian subcontinent">sculpture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Music_of_India" title="Music of India">music</a> (such as the <a href="/wiki/Sangita_Ratnakara" title="Sangita Ratnakara">Saṅgītaratnākara</a>), acting and dance (described in the <a href="/wiki/Natya_Shastra" title="Natya Shastra">Nāṭyaśāstra</a>), painting (Vishnudharmottara), etc.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Buddhist_literature">Buddhist literature</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Buddhist literature">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eastern_India,_Pala_period_-_Seven_Leaves_from_a_Manuscript_of_the_Gandavyuha-sutra_-_1955.49_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Eastern_India%2C_Pala_period_-_Seven_Leaves_from_a_Manuscript_of_the_Gandavyuha-sutra_-_1955.49_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Eastern_India%2C_Pala_period_-_Seven_Leaves_from_a_Manuscript_of_the_Gandavyuha-sutra_-_1955.49_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Eastern_India%2C_Pala_period_-_Seven_Leaves_from_a_Manuscript_of_the_Gandavyuha-sutra_-_1955.49_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Eastern_India%2C_Pala_period_-_Seven_Leaves_from_a_Manuscript_of_the_Gandavyuha-sutra_-_1955.49_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Eastern_India%2C_Pala_period_-_Seven_Leaves_from_a_Manuscript_of_the_Gandavyuha-sutra_-_1955.49_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Eastern_India%2C_Pala_period_-_Seven_Leaves_from_a_Manuscript_of_the_Gandavyuha-sutra_-_1955.49_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5891" data-file-height="4046" /></a><figcaption>Seven Leaves from a Manuscript of the <a href="/wiki/Gandavyuha" title="Gandavyuha">Gandavyuha-sutra</a>, Eastern India, <a href="/wiki/Pala_dynasty_(Kamarupa)" title="Pala dynasty (Kamarupa)">Pala period</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_Buddhist_literature" title="Sanskrit Buddhist literature">Sanskrit Buddhist literature</a></div> In India, <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Buddhist texts</a> were often written in <a href="/wiki/Classical_Sanskrit" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Sanskrit">classical Sanskrit</a> as well as in <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_Hybrid_Sanskrit" title="Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit">Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit</a> (also known as "Buddhistic Sanskrit" and "Mixed Sanskrit").<a href="#cite_note-:32-130">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-131">[114]</a> While the <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_texts" title="Early Buddhist texts">earliest Buddhist texts</a> were composed and transmitted in <a href="/wiki/Middle_Indo-Aryan" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Indo-Aryan">Middle Indo-Aryan</a> <a href="/wiki/Prakrits" class="mw-redirect" title="Prakrits">Prakrits</a>, later Indian Buddhists translated their canonical works into Sanskrit or at least partially Sanskritized their literature.<a href="#cite_note-:15-132">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-:73-133">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-:32-130">[113]</a> Beginning in the third century, Buddhist texts also began to be composed in classical Sanskrit.<a href="#cite_note-:15-132">[115]</a> Over time, Sanskrit became the main language of Buddhist scripture and scholasticism for certain Buddhist schools in the subcontinent, especially in <a href="/wiki/North_India" title="North India">North India</a>. This was influenced by the rise of Sanskrit as a political and literary <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a>, perhaps reflecting an increased need for elite patronage and a desire to compete with Hindu <a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">Brahmins</a>.<a href="#cite_note-134">[117]</a> The Buddhist use of classical Sanskrit is first seen in the work of the great poet and dramatist <a href="/wiki/A%C5%9Bvagho%E1%B9%A3a" title="Aśvaghoṣa">Aśvaghoṣa</a> (c. 100 CE).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurrow197362-135">[118]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivāda</a> school is particularly known for having translated their entire canon into Sanskrit.<a href="#cite_note-:2-136">[119]</a> Other Indian Buddhist schools, like the <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81s%C4%81%E1%B9%83ghika" title="Mahāsāṃghika">Mahāsāṃghika</a>-<a href="/wiki/Lokottarav%C4%81da" title="Lokottaravāda">Lokottaravāda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dharmaguptaka" title="Dharmaguptaka">Dharmaguptaka</a> schools, also adopted Sanskrit or Sanskritized their scriptures to different degrees.<a href="#cite_note-:152-137">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-138">[121]</a> However, other Buddhist traditions, like <a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a>, rejected this trend and kept their canon in Middle Indic languages like <a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pāli</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:73-133">[116]</a> Sanskrit also became the most important language in <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana Buddhism</a> and many <a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahāyāna sūtras</a> were transmitted in Sanskrit.<a href="#cite_note-:73-133">[116]</a> Some of the earliest and most important Mahayana sutras are the <a href="/wiki/Prajnaparamita" title="Prajnaparamita">Prajñāpāramitā sūtras</a>, many of which survive in Sanskrit manuscripts.<a href="#cite_note-139">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[123]</a> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">Indian Buddhist</a> authors also composed Sanskrit <a href="/wiki/Shastra" title="Shastra">treatises</a> and other works on <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_logico-epistemology" title="Buddhist logico-epistemology">logic-epistemology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jataka_tales" title="Jataka tales">jatakas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mahakavya" title="Mahakavya">epic poetry</a> and other topics. While a large number of these works only survive in <a href="/wiki/Classical_Tibetan" title="Classical Tibetan">Tibetan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> translations, many key Buddhist Sanskrit works do survive in <a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">manuscript</a> form and are held in numerous modern collections.<a href="#cite_note-141">[124]</a> Sanskrit was the main scholastic language of the Indian Buddhist philosophers in the <a href="/wiki/Vaibh%C4%81%E1%B9%A3ika" title="Vaibhāṣika">Vaibhasika</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrantika</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a> schools.<a href="#cite_note-:10-142">[125]</a> These include well known figures like <a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81ral%C4%81ta" title="Kumāralāta">Kumāralatā</a>, <a href="/wiki/N%C4%81g%C4%81rjuna" class="mw-redirect" title="Nāgārjuna">Nāgārjuna</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C4%80ryadeva" class="mw-redirect" title="Āryadeva">Āryadeva</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asa%E1%B9%85ga" class="mw-redirect" title="Asaṅga">Asaṅga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a>, Yaśomitra, <a href="/wiki/Dign%C4%81ga" title="Dignāga">Dignāga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sthiramati" title="Sthiramati">Sthiramati</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dharmak%C4%ABrti" class="mw-redirect" title="Dharmakīrti">Dharmakīrti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bh%C4%81viveka" title="Bhāviveka">Bhāviveka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Candrak%C4%ABrti" class="mw-redirect" title="Candrakīrti">Candrakīrti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shantideva" title="Shantideva">Śāntideva</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81ntarak%E1%B9%A3ita" title="Śāntarakṣita">Śāntarakṣita</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:10-142">[125]</a> Some Sanskrit works which were written by Buddhists also cover secular topics, such as grammar (<a href="/wiki/Vy%C4%81kara%E1%B9%87a" title="Vyākaraṇa">vyākaraṇa</a>), lexicography (koṣa), poetry (<a href="/wiki/K%C4%81vya" title="Kāvya">kāvya</a>), poetics (alaṁkāra), and medicine (<a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Ayurveda</a>).<a href="#cite_note-:82-143">[126]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nalanda_university.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Nalanda_university.jpg/220px-Nalanda_university.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Nalanda_university.jpg/330px-Nalanda_university.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Nalanda_university.jpg/440px-Nalanda_university.jpg 2x" data-file-width="560" data-file-height="420" /></a><figcaption>The Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Nalanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Nalanda">Nalanda university</a> was a major center of Sanskrit language learning in India from the 5th century CE until the 12th century.<a href="#cite_note-144">[127]</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a> (c. 4th–6th centuries) and <a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pāla</a> (c. 8th–12th centuries) eras saw the growth of large Buddhist institutions such as <a href="/wiki/N%C4%81land%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Nālandā">Nālandā</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vikramashila" title="Vikramashila">Vikramashila</a> universities, where many fields of knowledge (vidyasthanas) were studied in Sanskrit, including <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist philosophy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-145">[128]</a> These universities also drew foreign students from as far away as China. One of the most famous of these was the 7th century Chinese pilgrim <a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a>, who studied Buddhism in Sanskrit at Nalanda and took over 600 Sanskrit manuscripts back to China for his translation project.<a href="#cite_note-146">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-Garfield-147">[130]</a> Chinese pilgrims to India like <a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">Yijing</a> described how in these universities, the study of Buddhist philosophy was preceded by extensive study of Sanskrit language and grammar.<a href="#cite_note-148">[131]</a> During the Indian <a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">Tantric Age</a> (8th to the 14th century), numerous <a href="/wiki/Tantras_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tantras (Buddhism)">Buddhist Tantras</a> and other Buddhist esoteric literature was written in Sanskrit. These tantric texts often contain non-standard Sanskrit, prakritic elements and influences from regional languages like <a href="/wiki/Apabhra%E1%B9%83%C5%9Ba" title="Apabhraṃśa">apabhramśa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bengali_language" title="Bengali language">Old Bengali</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:142-149">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-:132-150">[133]</a> These vernacular forms are often in verses (<a href="/wiki/Doha_(poetry)" title="Doha (poetry)">dohas</a>) which may be found within esoteric Sanskrit texts.<a href="#cite_note-151">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Jain_literature">Jain literature</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Jain literature">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:12th-century_Yogasastra,_Hemachandra_Jainism,_Sanskrit,_1_mm_Devanagari_script.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/12th-century_Yogasastra%2C_Hemachandra_Jainism%2C_Sanskrit%2C_1_mm_Devanagari_script.jpg/280px-12th-century_Yogasastra%2C_Hemachandra_Jainism%2C_Sanskrit%2C_1_mm_Devanagari_script.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/12th-century_Yogasastra%2C_Hemachandra_Jainism%2C_Sanskrit%2C_1_mm_Devanagari_script.jpg/420px-12th-century_Yogasastra%2C_Hemachandra_Jainism%2C_Sanskrit%2C_1_mm_Devanagari_script.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/12th-century_Yogasastra%2C_Hemachandra_Jainism%2C_Sanskrit%2C_1_mm_Devanagari_script.jpg/560px-12th-century_Yogasastra%2C_Hemachandra_Jainism%2C_Sanskrit%2C_1_mm_Devanagari_script.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2406" data-file-height="954" /></a><figcaption>A 12th-century manuscript of Hemachandra's Yogasastra, notable for the miniaturized Devanagari script.</figcaption></figure> The earliest <a href="/wiki/Jain_literature" title="Jain literature">Jain scriptures</a>, the Jain Agamas, were composed and orally transmitted in <a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrit</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinternitz1972427-152">[135]</a> Later in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Jainism" title="History of Jainism">history of Jainism</a> (after about the 8th century CE), Jain authors began composing literature in other languages, especially classical <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> while also retaining the use of Jain Prakrit.<a href="#cite_note-153">[136]</a> The most important Jain Sanskrit work is <a href="/wiki/Umaswati" title="Umaswati">Umaswati</a>'s (c. sometime between the 2nd-century and 5th-century CE) <a href="/wiki/Tattvarthas%C5%ABtra" class="mw-redirect" title="Tattvarthasūtra">Tattvarthasūtra</a> (On the Nature of Reality). The Tattvarthasūtra is considered an authoritative work on <a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain philosophy</a> by all traditions of Jainism and thus it is widely studied.<a href="#cite_note-154">[137]</a> Other influential Jain Sanskrit authors include: <a href="/wiki/Samantabhadra_(Jain_monk)" title="Samantabhadra (Jain monk)">Samantabhadra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pujyapada" title="Pujyapada">Pūjyapāda</a> (who wrote the most important commentary to the Tattvarthasūtra, entitled <a href="/wiki/Sarv%C4%81rthasiddhi" title="Sarvārthasiddhi">Sarvārthasiddhi</a>), <a href="/wiki/Siddhasena_Divakara" class="mw-redirect" title="Siddhasena Divakara">Siddhasēna Divākara</a> (c. 650 CE), <a href="/wiki/Akalanka" title="Akalanka">Akalanka</a>, <dfn><a href="/wiki/Haribhadra" class="mw-redirect" title="Haribhadra">Haribhadra-s</a></dfn><a href="/wiki/Haribhadra" class="mw-redirect" title="Haribhadra">ūri</a> (c 8th century) author of the <a href="/wiki/Yogad%E1%B9%9B%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%ADisamuccaya" title="Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya">Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hemachandra" title="Hemachandra">Hemachandra</a> (c. 1088–1172 CE) who wrote the <a href="/wiki/Yoga%C5%9B%C4%81stra" title="Yogaśāstra">Yogaśāstra</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yashovijaya" title="Yashovijaya">Yaśovijaya</a> (1624–1688) a scholar of <a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a>.<a href="#cite_note-155">[138]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Kāvya">Kāvya</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Kāvya">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/K%C4%81vya" title="Kāvya">Kāvya</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kalidasa_inditing_the_cloud_Messenger,_A.D._375.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Kalidasa_inditing_the_cloud_Messenger%2C_A.D._375.jpg/220px-Kalidasa_inditing_the_cloud_Messenger%2C_A.D._375.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Kalidasa_inditing_the_cloud_Messenger%2C_A.D._375.jpg/330px-Kalidasa_inditing_the_cloud_Messenger%2C_A.D._375.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Kalidasa_inditing_the_cloud_Messenger%2C_A.D._375.jpg/440px-Kalidasa_inditing_the_cloud_Messenger%2C_A.D._375.jpg 2x" data-file-width="976" data-file-height="1399" /></a><figcaption>Kalidasa composing the <a href="/wiki/Meghad%C5%ABta" title="Meghadūta">Meghadūta</a></figcaption></figure> There is a large corpus of classical Sanskrit poetry from India in a variety of genres and forms.<a href="#cite_note-156">[139]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Siegfried_Lienhard" title="Siegfried Lienhard">Siegfried Lienhard</a> in India, the term Kāvya refers to individual poems, as well as "poetry itself, i.e., all those works that conform to artistic and literary norms."<a href="#cite_note-157">[140]</a> Indian poetry includes epic and lyrical elements. It may be entirely in prose (gadya), entirely in verse (padya) or in a mixed form (misra).<a href="#cite_note-:6-158">[141]</a> Kāvya works are full of <a href="/wiki/Alliteration" title="Alliteration">alliteration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Simile" title="Simile">similes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metaphor" title="Metaphor">metaphors</a> and other figures of speech.<a href="#cite_note-159">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[143]</a> Indians divided poetry into two main categories: poetry that can be seen (drsya, preksya, i.e. drama/theater) and poetry that can only be listened to (sravya).<a href="#cite_note-161">[144]</a> Metrical Indian poetry can also be divided into two other categories:<a href="#cite_note-:6-158">[141]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mahakavya" title="Mahakavya">Mahākāvya</a> (Major Poetry), also known as sargabandha, which are large poems divided into sections or <a href="/wiki/Canto" title="Canto">cantos</a> (sargas)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laghuk%C4%81vya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Laghukāvya (page does not exist)">Laghukāvya</a> (Minor Poetry), shorter poems or single stanzas</li></ul> According to Lienhard "whereas metrical poetry led a flourishing existence both as mahakavya and laghukavya, prose poems (gadya) and literature in mixed prose and verse (campu) tended to assume the major form. The only exceptions are the panegyric inscriptions (prasasti) and religious epistles (lekha) commonly found in Buddhist societies which may both be composed in the kavya style. Both are written either all in prose or in a mixture of alternately prose and verse and must therefore be counted as belonging to the minor form representing prose kavya or campu - a point that Indian theorists seem to have neglected."<a href="#cite_note-162">[145]</a> Kāvya was employed by court poets in a movement that flourished between c. 200 BCE and 1100 CE.<a href="#cite_note-164">[n]</a> While the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta era</a> is considered by many to have seen the highest point of Indian Kāvya, many poems were composed before this period as well as after.<a href="#cite_note-165">[147]</a> Sanskrit Kāvya also influenced the literature of <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Burma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Malay_Archipelago" title="Malay Archipelago">Malay Archipelago</a>.<a href="#cite_note-166">[148]</a> The study of Sanskrit Kāvya also influenced <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_literature" title="Tibetan literature">Tibetan literature</a>, and was promoted by <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhist</a> scholars like <a href="/wiki/Sakya_Pandita" title="Sakya Pandita">Sakya Pandita</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gold,_Jonathan_C._2007_pp.14-15-103">[87]</a> Sanskrit Kāvya poetry also flourished outside the courts, in towns, learned schools and the homes of pandits and other elites and continues to be composed and studied today.<a href="#cite_note-167">[149]</a> Kāvya was often recited in public gatherings, court receptions and in societies which gathered specifically for the study and enjoyment of poetry. Kavis (Kāvya poets) also competed with each other for rewards and for the support of elites and kings (who often appointed court poets).<a href="#cite_note-168">[150]</a> Kavis were highly educated and many of them would have been pandits with knowledge of other sciences such as grammar, lexicography and other fields. Indian authors held that an important quality of these poets was said to be pratibhā, poetic imagination.<a href="#cite_note-169">[151]</a> The beginnings of Kāvya is obscure. Lienhard traces its beginnings to "the close of the Late Vedic Period (about 550 B.C.)...as this was a time that saw the slow emergence of poetic forms with characteristics of their own, quite different both functionally and structurally from previous models."<a href="#cite_note-170">[152]</a> The earliest Kāvya poems were short stanzas in the minor form (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Laghuk%C4%81vya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Laghukāvya (page does not exist)">laghukāvya</a>), sometimes just being one stanza poems (muktakas). Few of these early works have survived.<a href="#cite_note-171">[153]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Laghukāvya">Laghukāvya</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Laghukāvya">edit</a>]</div> Laghukāvya mainly refers to short poems, which can be single stanza (muktaka), double stanza poems (yugmaka), and several-stanza poems (kulakas). Short poetry was also termed khandakavya and a collection of stanzas or anthology was called a kosa.<a href="#cite_note-:8-172">[154]</a> The earliest laghukāvyas were in prakrits, but some also began to be written in Sanskrit in time.<a href="#cite_note-:8-172">[154]</a> The earliest laghukāvyas where muktakas (also sometimes called <a href="/wiki/Gatha_(India)" title="Gatha (India)">gāthā</a>), single stanzas. These were most commonly lyrical nature poems, lyrical love poems, religious poems or reflective didactic poems.<a href="#cite_note-:9-173">[155]</a> According to Lienhard "muktaka poetry generally paints miniature pictures and scenes, or else it carefully builds up a description of a single theme."<a href="#cite_note-:9-173">[155]</a> Some of the earliest of these early poems are found in the <a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Tripiṭaka">Buddhist canon</a>, which contain two the verse anthologies: the <a href="/wiki/Theragatha" title="Theragatha">Theragāthā</a> (Verses of the Elder Monks) and <a href="/wiki/Ther%C4%ABg%C4%81th%C4%81" title="Therīgāthā">Therīgāthā</a> (Verses of the Elder Nuns). Only the Pali versions of these survive, but they also existed in Prakrit and Sanskrit.<a href="#cite_note-174">[156]</a> There are also some surviving stanzas which are attributed to important figures like the grammarian Panini, the scholar <a href="/wiki/Patanjali" title="Patanjali">Patañjali</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vararuchi" title="Vararuchi">Vararuci</a>, but these attributions are uncertain.<a href="#cite_note-175">[157]</a> Some important Sanskrit poets whose collections of short poems have survived include <a href="/wiki/Bhart%E1%B9%9Bhari" title="Bhartṛhari">Bhartṛhari</a> (<a href="/wiki/Floruit" title="Floruit">fl</a>. c. 5th century CE), known for his <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aatakatraya" title="Śatakatraya">Śatakatraya</a>, Amaru (7th century), author of the <a href="/wiki/Amaru_Shataka" title="Amaru Shataka">Amaruśataka</a> (which mainly contains erotic poetry) and <a href="/wiki/Govardhana_(poet)" title="Govardhana (poet)">Govardhana</a> (12th century), author of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=%C4%80ry%C4%81sapta%C5%9Bat%C4%AB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Āryāsaptaśatī (page does not exist)">Āryāsaptaśatī</a>.<a href="#cite_note-176">[158]</a> There are numerous anthologies which collect short Sanskrit poetry from different authors, these works are our main source of short Sanskrit poems.<a href="#cite_note-:11-177">[159]</a> One widely celebrated anthology is the Subhāṣitaratnakoṣa (Anthology of Well Said Jewels) of the Buddhist monk and anthologist <a href="/wiki/Vidyakara" title="Vidyakara">Vidyakara</a> (c. 1050–1130).<a href="#cite_note-ingalls-178">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-179">[161]</a> Other important anthologies include: Jalhana's Subhāṣitamuktāvalī (13th century), Sridharadasa's Saduktikarṇāmṛta (1205), Śārṅgadharapaddhati (1363) and Vallabhadeva's Subhāṣitāvalī (Chain of Beautiful Sayings, c. 16th century).<a href="#cite_note-:11-177">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Samghatas_and_Khandakavyas">Samghatas and Khandakavyas</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Samghatas and Khandakavyas">edit</a>]</div> In between muktaka and mahākāvya there are medium length Sanskrit poems which are linked stanzas (between eight and one hundred stanzas) using one <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_prosody" title="Sanskrit prosody">Sanskrit metre</a> and one theme (such as the six Indian <a href="/wiki/Season" title="Season">seasons</a>, love and eros, and nature). They are variously called "series of stanzas" (samghata) or khandakavya.<a href="#cite_note-180">[162]</a> Examples of these medium length poems include: the <a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%9Atusa%E1%B9%83h%C4%81ra" title="Ṛtusaṃhāra">Ṛtusaṃhāra</a>, the Ghatakarpara Kavyam, and the <a href="/wiki/Meghad%C5%ABta" title="Meghadūta">Meghadūta</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kalidasa" title="Kalidasa">Kālidāsa</a> (the most famous of all Sanskrit poets) which popularized the <a href="/wiki/Sandesa_Kavya" class="mw-redirect" title="Sandesa Kavya">sandeśa kāvya</a> (messenger poem), Jambukavi's Candraduta (8th to 10th century), <a href="/wiki/Jinasena" class="mw-redirect" title="Jinasena">Jinasena's</a> Parsvabhyudaya (a <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jain</a> work), <a href="/wiki/Vedanta_Desika" title="Vedanta Desika">Vedanta Desika</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Hamsa-Sandesha" title="Hamsa-Sandesha">Hansasandeśa</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kokila_Sande%C5%9Ba" title="Kokila Sandeśa">Kokila Sandeśa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rupa_Goswami" title="Rupa Goswami">Rūpa Gosvāmin</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Ha%E1%B9%83sad%C5%ABta" title="Haṃsadūta">Haṃsadūta</a> (16th century).<a href="#cite_note-181">[163]</a> Another genre of medium length poems were <a href="/wiki/Panegyric" title="Panegyric">panegyrics</a> like the <a href="/w/index.php?title=R%C4%81jendrakar%E1%B9%87ap%C5%ABra&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rājendrakarṇapūra (page does not exist)">Rājendrakarṇapūra</a> of Sambhu.<a href="#cite_note-182">[164]</a> Religious medium length kāvya style poems (often called <a href="/wiki/Stotra" title="Stotra">stotras</a> or stutis) were also very popular and they show some similarities with panegyrics. According to Lienhard, some of the figures which are most widely written about in medium length religious poems include: "<a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Durga" title="Durga">Durga</a>-<a href="/wiki/Kali" title="Kali">Kali</a> (or Devi), <a href="/wiki/Ganesha" title="Ganesha">Ganesa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Krishna" title="Krishna">Krsna</a> (Govinda), <a href="/wiki/Lakshmi" title="Lakshmi">Laksmi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Narasimha" title="Narasimha">Nrsimha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radha" title="Radha">Radha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rama" title="Rama">Rama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saraswati" title="Saraswati">Sarasvati</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Siva</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surya" title="Surya">Surya</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81gata" title="Tathāgata">Tathagatas</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tirthankara" title="Tirthankara">Tirthamkaras</a> or Jinas, Vardhamana <a href="/wiki/Mahavira" title="Mahavira">Mahavira</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Visnu</a>."<a href="#cite_note-183">[165]</a> Only some of the Sanskrit hymns to the gods can be considered literary kāvya, since they are truly artistic and follow some of the classic kāvya rules.<a href="#cite_note-184">[166]</a> According to Lienhard, the literary hymns of the Buddhists are the oldest of these. <a href="/wiki/A%C5%9Bvagho%E1%B9%A3a" title="Aśvaghoṣa">Aśvaghoṣa</a> is said to have written some, but they are all lost.<a href="#cite_note-:13-185">[167]</a> Two Buddhist hymns of the poet <a href="/w/index.php?title=M%C4%81t%E1%B9%9Bce%E1%B9%ADa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mātṛceṭa (page does not exist)">Mātṛceṭa</a>* (c. 70 to 150 CE), the Varṇārhavarṇa Stotra or Catuḥśataka and the Satapancasataka or Prasadapratibha ((Stotra) on the Splendour of Graciousness (of the Buddha)) have survived in Sanskrit. They are some the finest Buddhist stotras and were very popular in the Buddhist community in India.<a href="#cite_note-:13-185">[167]</a> There are also some Buddhist stotras attributed to other Buddhist masters like <a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a> (2nd-3rd century CE), <a href="/wiki/Chandragomin" title="Chandragomin">Chandragomin</a> (5th century) and <a href="/wiki/Dign%C4%81ga" title="Dignāga">Dignāga</a> as well as two Buddhist stotras by King <a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harshavadana</a>.<a href="#cite_note-186">[168]</a> Some important later Buddhist stotras are Sragdharastotra (about 700) by Sarvajñamitra, Vajradatta's Lokesvara-sataka (9th century), the tantric <a href="/wiki/Ma%C3%B1ju%C5%9Br%C4%ABn%C4%81masamg%C4%ABti" title="Mañjuśrīnāmasamgīti">Mañjuśrīnāma-saṃgīti</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ramacandra_Kavibharati&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ramacandra Kavibharati (page does not exist)">Ramacandra Kavibharati</a>'s 15th century <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bhaktisataka&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bhaktisataka (page does not exist)">Bhaktisataka</a> (which is influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Bhakti_movement" title="Bhakti movement">Bhakti movement</a>).<a href="#cite_note-187">[169]</a> There are also many Sanskrit Jaina stotras, most of which are dedicated to the Jain <a href="/wiki/Tirthankara" title="Tirthankara">Tirthankaras</a>. They include the Bhaktacamarastotra by <a href="/wiki/Manatunga" title="Manatunga">Manatunga</a> (7th century), Nandisena's Ajitasantistava, the Mahavirastava by Abhayadeva (mid 11th century) and the stotras of Ramacandra (12th century).<a href="#cite_note-188">[170]</a> There are numerous literary Hindu hymns which were written after the time of Kālidāsa. Some of the most important ones are <a href="/wiki/B%C4%81%E1%B9%87abha%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADa" title="Bāṇabhaṭṭa">Bāṇabhaṭṭa's</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ca%E1%B9%87%E1%B8%8D%C4%AB%C5%9Bataka&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caṇḍīśataka (page does not exist)">Caṇḍīśataka</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Surya_Satakam" class="mw-redirect" title="Surya Satakam">Suryasataka</a> by <a href="/wiki/Mayurbhatta" title="Mayurbhatta">Mayurbhatta</a>, numerous hymns attributed to <a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a> (though the majority of these were likely not composed by him), the Mahimnastava, the Shaiva Pañcāśati (14th century), <a href="/wiki/Abhinavagupta" title="Abhinavagupta">Abhinavagupta's</a> Shaiva stotras, the southern <a href="/wiki/Mukundamala" title="Mukundamala">Mukundamala</a> and <a href="/wiki/Narayaniyam" title="Narayaniyam">Narayaniyam</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Shree_Krishna_Karnamrutam" class="mw-redirect" title="Shree Krishna Karnamrutam">Krishnakarṇāmrutam</a>, and the poems of <a href="/wiki/Nilakantha_Diksita" title="Nilakantha Diksita">Nilakantha Diksita</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jagannatha_Panditaraja" title="Jagannatha Panditaraja">Jagannātha Paṇḍitarāja</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gangadevi" title="Gangadevi">Gangadevi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ramanuja" title="Ramanuja">Ramanuja</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jayadeva" title="Jayadeva">Jayadeva</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rupa_Goswami" title="Rupa Goswami">Rupa Goswami</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bhatta_Narayana" title="Bhatta Narayana">Bhaṭṭa Nārāyaṇa</a> (17th century).<a href="#cite_note-189">[171]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mahākāvya">Mahākāvya</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Mahākāvya">edit</a>]</div> According to Lienhard, the most important feature of mahākāvya (Long poems) is that they are divided into chapters or cantos (sargas). Fully versified Mahākāvyas (called sargabandhas) are written in many different metres. Mahākāvyas may also be written fully in prose or in a mixture of verse and prose (mostly called campu).<a href="#cite_note-190">[172]</a> Sargabandhas commonly center around a <a href="/wiki/Hero" title="Hero">hero</a> and also include <a href="/wiki/Villain" title="Villain">villains</a>. They almost never end in a tragic manner.<a href="#cite_note-191">[173]</a> Indian epic poetry like the <a href="/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Rāmāyaṇa</a> forms an important influence on Sanskrit mahakāvya literature.<a href="#cite_note-Lienhard_1984,_p._164-192">[174]</a> The oldest extant mahākāvyas are those of the Buddhist poet and philosopher <a href="/wiki/A%C5%9Bvagho%E1%B9%A3a" title="Aśvaghoṣa">Aśvaghoṣa</a> (<abbr>c.</abbr> 80 – c. 150 <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">CE</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Lienhard_1984,_p._164-192">[174]</a> His <a href="/wiki/Buddhacarita" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhacarita">Buddhacarita</a> (Acts of the Buddha) was influential enough to be translated into both Tibetan and Chinese.<a href="#cite_note-193">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-194">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-195">[177]</a> The Chinese pilgrim <a href="/wiki/Yijing_(monk)" title="Yijing (monk)">Yijing</a> (635–713 CE) writes that the Buddhacarita was "...extensively read in all the five parts of India and in the countries of the South Sea (Sumātra, Jāva and the neighbouring islands)...it was regarded as a virtue to read it in as much as it contained the noble doctrine in a neat compact form."<a href="#cite_note-ancient-buddhist-texts.net-196">[178]</a> Another mahākāvya by <a href="/wiki/A%C5%9Bvagho%E1%B9%A3a" title="Aśvaghoṣa">Aśvaghoṣa</a> is the Saundarananda, which focuses on the conversion of <a href="/wiki/Nanda_(half-brother_of_Buddha)" title="Nanda (half-brother of Buddha)">Nanda</a>, Buddha's half-brother.<a href="#cite_note-197">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-198">[180]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_great_mahākāvyas">The great mahākāvyas</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: The great mahākāvyas">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Kalidasa" title="Kalidasa">Kālidāsa</a>, called by many the <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">Shakespeare</a> of India,<a href="#cite_note-200">[o]</a> is said to have been the finest master of the Sanskrit poetic style. Arthur Macdonell describes this great poets' words as having a "firmness and evenness of sound, avoiding harsh transitions and preferring gentle harmonies; the use of words in their ordinary sense and clearness of meaning; the power to convey sentiment; beauty, elevation, and the employment of metaphorical expressions".<a href="#cite_note-201">[182]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kalidasa" title="Kalidasa">Kālidāsa</a>'s greatest Kāvyas are the <a href="/wiki/Raghuva%E1%B9%83%C5%9Ba" title="Raghuvaṃśa">Raghuvaṃśa</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81rasambhava" title="Kumārasambhava">Kumārasambhava</a>.<a href="#cite_note-202">[p]</a><a href="#cite_note-203">[183]</a> This <a href="/wiki/Raghuva%E1%B9%83%C5%9Ba" title="Raghuvaṃśa">Raghuvaṃśa</a> (The Genealogy of <a href="/wiki/Raghu" title="Raghu">Raghu</a>) chronicles the life of <a href="/wiki/Rama" title="Rama">Rāma</a> alongside his forefathers and successors in 19 cantos, with the story of Rāma agreeing quite closely that in the Rāmāyaṇa. The narrative moves at a rapid pace, is packed with apt and striking similes and has much genuine poetry, while the style is simpler than what is typical of a mahakāvya. The Raghuvaṃśa is seen to meet all the criteria of a mahākāvya, such as that the central figure should be noble and clever, and triumphant, that the work should abound in <a href="/wiki/Rasa_(aesthetics)" title="Rasa (aesthetics)">rasa</a> and bhāva, and so on. There are more than 20 commentaries of this work that are known.<a href="#cite_note-204">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-205">[185]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81rasambhava" title="Kumārasambhava">Kumārasambhava</a> (The Birth of Kumāra) narrates the story of the courtship and wedding of <a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Śiva</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parvati" title="Parvati">Pārvatī</a>, and the birth of their son, <a href="/wiki/Kartikeya" title="Kartikeya">Kumāra</a>. The poem finishes with the slaying of the demon Tāraka, the very purpose of the birth of the warrior-god. The Kumārasambhava showcases the poet's rich and original imaginative powers making for abundant poetic imagery and wealth of illustration. Again, more than 20 commentaries on the Kumāra·sambhava have survived.<a href="#cite_note-206">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[187]</a> These two great poems are grouped by Indian tradition along with four more works into "the six great mahākāvyas". The other four greats are: <a href="/wiki/Bharavi" title="Bharavi">Bhāravi</a>'s (6th century CE) <a href="/wiki/Kir%C4%81t%C4%81rjun%C4%ABya" title="Kirātārjunīya">Kirātārjunīya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magha_(poet)" title="Magha (poet)">Māgha</a>'s (c. 7th Century CE) <a href="/wiki/Shishupala_Vadha" title="Shishupala Vadha">Śiśupālavadha</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bha%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADik%C4%81vya" title="Bhaṭṭikāvya">Bhaṭṭikāvya</a> (also known as Rāvaṇavadha) and <a href="/wiki/Shriharsha" title="Shriharsha">Śrīharṣa</a>'s (12th century CE) <a href="/wiki/Naishadha_Charita" title="Naishadha Charita">Naiṣadhīyacarita</a>, which is the most extensive and difficult of the great mahākāvyas (and contains many references to Indian philosophy).<a href="#cite_note-208">[188]</a> Over time, various commentaries where also composed on these poems, especially the Naiṣadhīyacarita.<a href="#cite_note-209">[189]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Later_mahākāvyas">Later mahākāvyas</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Later mahākāvyas">edit</a>]</div> Between <a href="/wiki/Kalidasa" title="Kalidasa">Kālidāsa</a>'s time and the 18th century, numerous other sargabandhas were composed in the classic style, such as Mentha's Hayagrīvavadha (6th century), King Pravarasena II's Setubandha, the Sinhalese poet Kumaradasa's Janakiharana, <a href="/wiki/Ratn%C4%81kara" title="Ratnākara">Rājānaka Ratnākara</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Haravijaya" title="Haravijaya">Haravijaya</a>, the Nalodaya, the Buddhist Sivasvamin's Kapphinabhyudaya (9th century), and Buddhaghosa's Padyacudamani (a life of the Buddha, c. 9th century).<a href="#cite_note-210">[190]</a> Later sargabandhas tended to be more heavily loaded with technical complexity, erudition and extensive decoration.<a href="#cite_note-211">[191]</a> Authors of these later works include the 12th century Kashmiri Shaivas <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kaviraja_Rajanaka_Mankha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kaviraja Rajanaka Mankha (page does not exist)">Kaviraja Rajanaka Mankha</a> and Jayaratha, Jayadeva, author of the innovative and widely imitated <a href="/wiki/Gita_Govinda" title="Gita Govinda">Gitagovinda</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lolimbaraja&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lolimbaraja (page does not exist)">Lolimbaraja</a>'s Harivilasa (mid 16th century),<a href="#cite_note-212">[192]</a> the Shaivite Bhiksatana(kavya) of Gokula, Krsnananda's 13th century Sahrdayananda, and the numerous works of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ramapanivada&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ramapanivada (page does not exist)">Ramapanivada</a>.<a href="#cite_note-213">[193]</a> After the 8th century, many sophisticated Jain mahākāvyas were written by numerous Jain poets (mainly from <a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a>), including Jatasimhanandi's Varangacarita (7th century), Kanakasena Vadiraja Suri's Yasodharacarita, and the Ksatracudamani by Vadibhasimha Odayadeva.<a href="#cite_note-214">[194]</a> Jain authors also wrote their own versions of <a href="/wiki/Rama_in_Jainism#Ravisena's_Padmapurana" title="Rama in Jainism">the Ramayana with Jain themes</a>, such as the Padmapurana of Ravisena (678 A.D.).<a href="#cite_note-215">[195]</a> Other later mahākāvyas are poems based on historical figures which embellish history with classic poetic themes such as Parimala's <a href="/wiki/Nava-sahasanka-charita" title="Nava-sahasanka-charita">Navasāhasāṅkacarita</a>, Bilhana's <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vikram%C4%81%E1%B9%85kadevacarita&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vikramāṅkadevacarita (page does not exist)">Vikramāṅkadevacarita</a> (11th century) and <a href="/wiki/Madura_Vijayam" class="mw-redirect" title="Madura Vijayam">Madhurāvijayam</a> (The Conquest of <a href="/wiki/Madurai" title="Madurai">Madurai</a>, c. 14th-century) by <a href="/wiki/Gangadevi" title="Gangadevi">Gangadevi</a>, which chronicles the life a prince of the <a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara Empire</a> and his invasion and conquest of the <a href="/wiki/Madurai_Sultanate" title="Madurai Sultanate">Madurai Sultanate</a>. <a href="/wiki/Rashtraudha_Kavya" title="Rashtraudha Kavya">Rashtraudha Kavya</a> by Rudrakavi chronicles the history of Maratha Bagul kings of <a href="/wiki/Baglana" title="Baglana">Baglana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khandesh" title="Khandesh">Khandesh</a> and details their role and position in military history involving important figures such as the <a href="/wiki/Bahmanis" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahmanis">Bahmanis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_Begada" title="Mahmud Begada">Mahmud Begada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Humayun" title="Humayun">Humayun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Akbar" title="Akbar">Akbar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Murad_Mirza_(son_of_Akbar)" title="Murad Mirza (son of Akbar)">Murad Shah</a>,etc.<a href="#cite_note-ernst-216">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-jackson-217">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-218">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-219">[199]</a> Some later poems focused on specific poetic devices, some of the most popular being <a href="/wiki/Pun" title="Pun">paronomasia</a> ( <a href="/wiki/Bitextual_work" title="Bitextual work">slesa</a>) and ambiguous rhyme (yamaka). For example, the poems of Vasudeva (10th century), such as Yudhiṣṭhira-vijaya and Nalodaya, were all yamaka poems while the Ramapalacarita of Sandhyakara Nandin is a slesakavya.<a href="#cite_note-220">[200]</a> One final genre is the Śāstrakāvya, a kāvya which also contains some didactic content which instructs on some ancient science or knowledge. Examples include Halayudha's Kavirahasya (a handbook for poets), Bhatta Bhima's Arjunaravaniya (which teaches grammar) and Hemacandra's Kumarapalacarita (grammar).<a href="#cite_note-221">[201]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Prose_mahākāvya">Prose mahākāvya</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Prose mahākāvya">edit</a>]</div> While most early mahākāvyas were all in verse, the term mahākāvya could also be applied to any long prose poem and these became more popular after the 7th century, when the great masters of prose (gadya) lived. These are <a href="/wiki/Da%E1%B9%87%E1%B8%8Di" class="mw-redirect" title="Daṇḍi">Daṇḍin</a> (author of the <a href="/wiki/Dashakumaracharita" title="Dashakumaracharita">Daśakumāracarita</a>) Subandhu (author of the <a href="/wiki/Vasavadatta" title="Vasavadatta">Vāsavadattā</a>) and <a href="/wiki/B%C4%81%E1%B9%87abha%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADa" title="Bāṇabhaṭṭa">Bāṇabhaṭṭa</a> (author of <a href="/wiki/K%C4%81dambari" class="mw-redirect" title="Kādambari">Kādambari</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harshacharita" title="Harshacharita">Harshacarita</a>).<a href="#cite_note-222">[202]</a> Prose mahākāvyas replaced virtuosity in metre with highly complex and artistic sentences.<a href="#cite_note-223">[203]</a> Other important writers of Sanskrit prose poems include Bhūṣaṇa bhaṭṭa, Dhanapala (the Jain author of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tilakama%C3%B1jari&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tilakamañjari (page does not exist)">Tilakamañjari</a>), and Vadibhasimha Odayadeva (author of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gadyacint%C4%81ma%E1%B9%87i&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gadyacintāmaṇi (page does not exist)">Gadyacintāmaṇi</a>).<a href="#cite_note-224">[204]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Campū">Campū</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Campū">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Champu" title="Champu">Campū</a> (also known as gadyapadyamayi) is a poetic genre which contains both verse and prose. This genre was rare during the first millennium CE, but later grew in popularity, especially in South India.<a href="#cite_note-:14-225">[205]</a> The earliest Sanskrit example of this genre is Trivikramabhatta's Nalacampu (or Damayanticampu, c. 10th century).<a href="#cite_note-:14-225">[205]</a> While many other Sanskrit works also contain a mixture of verse and prose, like Āryaśūra's Jātakamālā, Lienhard notes that these are not true campūs. This is because "in true campū there is a calculated balance between prose that is as perfect as possible and stanzas in the genuine kavya style."<a href="#cite_note-226">[206]</a> Some important campūs include Somaprabha Suri's <a href="/wiki/Yashastilaka" title="Yashastilaka">Yaśastilakacampū</a> (9th century, Jain), Haricandra's Jivandharacampū (Jain), the Ramayanacampū, Divakara's Amogharaghavacampu, the 17th century female poet Tirumalamba's Varadambikaparinaya, Venkatadhvarin's Visvagunadarsacampu, <a href="/wiki/Jiva_Goswami" title="Jiva Goswami">Jiva Gosvamin</a>'s voluminous Gopalacampu, <a href="/wiki/Raghunatha_dasa_Goswami" title="Raghunatha dasa Goswami">Raghunathadasa</a>'s Muktacaritra, and the 18th century <a href="/wiki/Maithil_Brahmin" title="Maithil Brahmin">Maithili</a> poet Krishnadutta's Shri Janraj Champu.<a href="#cite_note-227">[207]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_on_prosody_and_poetics">Works on prosody and poetics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Works on prosody and poetics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chandas" class="mw-redirect" title="Chandas">Chandas</a></div>There are also numerous Sanskrit works which discuss <a href="/wiki/Prosody_(poetry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prosody (poetry)">prosody</a> and <a href="/wiki/Poetics" title="Poetics">poetics</a>. The earliest work which discusses poetics is Bharatamuni's <a href="/wiki/Natya_Shastra" title="Natya Shastra">Nāṭyaśāstra</a> (200 B.C. to 200 A.D.), a work which mainly deals with drama.<a href="#cite_note-228">[208]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pingala" title="Pingala">Piṅgalá</a> (<a href="/wiki/Floruit" title="Floruit">fl.</a> 300–200 BCE) authored the <a href="/wiki/Chanda%E1%B8%A5%C5%9B%C4%81stra" class="mw-redirect" title="Chandaḥśāstra">Chandaḥśāstra</a>, an early <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> treatise on <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_prosody" title="Sanskrit prosody">prosody</a>. Gaurinath Bhattacharyya Shastri lists four main school of Indian poetics and their main figures:<a href="#cite_note-229">[209]</a> <ul><li>The Alaṅkāra school which draws on <a href="/wiki/Bhamaha" title="Bhamaha">Bhāmaha's</a> (<abbr>c.</abbr> 7th century) Kāvyālaṅkāra, Udbhaṭa's Alankarasamgraha and Rudrata's Kāvyālaṅkāra.</li> <li>The Riti school - <a href="/wiki/Da%E1%B9%87%E1%B8%8Di" class="mw-redirect" title="Daṇḍi">Daṇḍin</a>'s (<abbr>fl.</abbr> 7th–8th century) <a href="/wiki/Kavyadarsha" title="Kavyadarsha">Kāvyādarśa</a> is influenced by the Alaṅkāra school and introduces the concept of <a href="/wiki/Gu%E1%B9%87a" title="Guṇa">guna</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Kavyadarsha" title="Kavyadarsha">Kāvyādarśa</a> was very influential for Vāmana, the 8th century founder of the Riti school and author of the Kāvyālaṅkāra Sūtra.</li> <li>The Rasa school draws on the Nāṭyaśāstra's aphorism on rasa (emotional flavor). The key figure of this school is <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bha%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADan%C4%81yaka&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bhaṭṭanāyaka (page does not exist)">Bhaṭṭanāyaka</a>, author of the Hṛdayadarpaṇa.</li> <li>The Dhvani school which makes use of <a href="/wiki/Anandavardhana" title="Anandavardhana">Anandavardhana's</a> (c. 820–890 CE) <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dhvanyaloka&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dhvanyaloka (page does not exist)">Dhvanyāloka</a> and the commentary of <a href="/wiki/Abhinavagupta" title="Abhinavagupta">Abhinavagupta</a> (who also wrote the Abhinavabharati, a commentary on the Nāṭyaśāstra). This school emphasizes "aesthetic suggestion" (dhvani).</li></ul> Later influential works on poetics include <a href="/wiki/Mammata_Bhatta" title="Mammata Bhatta">Mammaṭa's</a> (11th century) <a href="/w/index.php?title=K%C4%81vyaprak%C4%81%C5%9Ba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kāvyaprakāśa (page does not exist)">Kāvyaprakāśa</a>, the writings on poetics by <a href="/wiki/Kshemendra" title="Kshemendra">Kshemendra</a>, Hemacandra's Kavyanusasana, Vagbhata's Vagbhatalankara, and <a href="/wiki/Rupa_Goswami" title="Rupa Goswami">Rupa Gosvamin</a>'s Ujjvalanilamani.<a href="#cite_note-230">[210]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Subhāṣita">Subhāṣita</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Subhāṣita">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Subhashita" title="Subhashita">Subhashita</a></div> Outside of kāvya literature are also numerous poetic works, called <a href="/wiki/Subhashita" title="Subhashita">subhāṣita</a>, ("well said") which can be classified as <a href="/wiki/Gnomic_poetry" title="Gnomic poetry">gnomic poetry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Didactic_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Didactic poetry">didactic poetry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:16-231">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-232">[212]</a> These are mainly poems which contain some wise saying, <a href="/wiki/Aphorism" title="Aphorism">aphoristic</a> lesson (often ethical), popular maxim or a <a href="/wiki/Proverb" title="Proverb">proverb</a> (lokavakya).<a href="#cite_note-233">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-234">[214]</a> These are thousands of <a href="/wiki/Subhashita" title="Subhashita">Subhāṣitas</a> on many themes.<a href="#cite_note-235">[215]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Dhammapada" title="Dhammapada">Dharmapada</a> is one important early collection of aphorisms.<a href="#cite_note-:16-231">[211]</a> There are also many didactic works attributed to <a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Cāṇakya</a> (but actually written by numerous authors), such as the Rājanītisamuccaya, Cāṇakyanīti, Cāṇakyarājanīti, Vṛddha-Cāṇakya, and the Laghu-Cāṇakya.<a href="#cite_note-236">[216]</a> Another important collection of gnomic sayings is the Nisataka of <a href="/wiki/Bhart%E1%B9%9Bhari" title="Bhartṛhari">Bhartrhari</a>.<a href="#cite_note-237">[217]</a> Later examples of this genre include the Jain <a href="/wiki/Amitagati" title="Amitagati">Amitagati</a>'s Subhasitaratnasaridoha, <a href="/wiki/Kshemendra" title="Kshemendra">Kṣemendra's</a> Cārucaryā, Darpadalana and Samayamatrka, Kusumadeva's Dṛṣṭāntaśataka, Dya Dviveda's Nitimañjari (1494), and Vallabhadeva's <a href="/w/index.php?title=Subh%C4%81%E1%B9%A3it%C4%81val%C4%AB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Subhāṣitāvalī (page does not exist)">Subhāṣitāvalī</a> (15th century).<a href="#cite_note-238">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-239">[219]</a> There are also numerous anthologies of <a href="/wiki/Subhashita" title="Subhashita">subhāṣita</a>, such as the <a href="/w/index.php?title=C%C4%81tak%C4%81%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%ADaka&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cātakāṣṭaka (page does not exist)">Cātakāṣṭaka</a>.<a href="#cite_note-240">[220]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sanskrit_drama">Sanskrit drama</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Sanskrit drama">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Sanskrit_plays_in_English_translation" title="List of Sanskrit plays in English translation">List of Sanskrit plays in English translation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nirupama_Rajendra_Dance_Theater_musical_Shakunthala.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nirupama_Rajendra_Dance_Theater_musical_Shakunthala.jpg/220px-Nirupama_Rajendra_Dance_Theater_musical_Shakunthala.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nirupama_Rajendra_Dance_Theater_musical_Shakunthala.jpg/330px-Nirupama_Rajendra_Dance_Theater_musical_Shakunthala.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nirupama_Rajendra_Dance_Theater_musical_Shakunthala.jpg/440px-Nirupama_Rajendra_Dance_Theater_musical_Shakunthala.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nirupama_Rajendra" title="Nirupama Rajendra">Nirupama Rajendra</a> in a musical of <a href="/wiki/Shakuntala_(play)" title="Shakuntala (play)">Shakunthala</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Indian_classical_drama" title="Indian classical drama">Indian classical drama</a> (dṛśya, nātaka) was also mainly written in Sanskrit and there are many examples of this Sanskrit literary genre. Bharata's <a href="/wiki/Natya_Shastra" title="Natya Shastra">Nāṭyaśāstra</a> (3rd century CE) is the earliest work which discusses Sanskrit <a href="/wiki/Dramaturgy" title="Dramaturgy">dramaturgy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-241">[221]</a> Sanskrit drama focuses on the sentiments and on heroic characters. Classically, the <a href="/wiki/Happy_ending" title="Happy ending">endings are happy</a>, never <a href="/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">tragic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-242">[222]</a> References to Sanskrit drama are found throughout ancient Sanskrit texts, including the great epics.<a href="#cite_note-243">[223]</a> Some of the earliest Sanskrit dramas are those of <a href="/wiki/A%C5%9Bvagho%E1%B9%A3a" title="Aśvaghoṣa">Aśvaghoṣa</a> (only a fragment of his <a href="/w/index.php?title=%C5%9A%C4%81riputraprakara%E1%B9%87a&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Śāriputraprakaraṇa (page does not exist)">Śāriputraprakaraṇa</a> survives) and the many plays of <a href="/wiki/Bh%C4%81sa" title="Bhāsa">Bhāsa</a> (c.1st century BCE), most of which are based on the two great epics (Mahabharata and Ramayana).<a href="#cite_note-244">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-245">[225]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kalidasa" title="Kalidasa">Kalidasa</a> is widely considered to be the greatest Sanskrit playwright, hailed for his linguistic mastery and economy of style.<a href="#cite_note-246">[226]</a> He wrote three plays: <a href="/wiki/Vikram%C5%8Drva%C5%9B%C4%AByam" title="Vikramōrvaśīyam">Vikramōrvaśīyam</a>,<a href="#cite_note-247">[E]</a> <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81lavik%C4%81gnimitram" title="Mālavikāgnimitram">Mālavikāgnimitram</a>,<a href="#cite_note-248">[F]</a> <a href="/wiki/Abhij%C3%B1%C4%81na%C5%9B%C4%81kuntalam" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhijñānaśākuntalam">Abhijñānaśākuntalam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-249">[G]</a> Other important plays include the <a href="/wiki/Mrichakatika" class="mw-redirect" title="Mrichakatika">Mṛcchakaṭika</a> (The Little Clay Cart, 5th century) and the <a href="/wiki/Mudrarakshasa" title="Mudrarakshasa">Mudrārākṣasa</a>. <a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harṣa</a>, a 7th-century Indian emperor, was also known as a great playwright with a simple and delicate style.<a href="#cite_note-250">[227]</a> His <a href="/wiki/Ratnavali" title="Ratnavali">Ratnavali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nagananda" title="Nagananda">Nagananda</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Priyadarsika" class="mw-redirect" title="Priyadarsika">Priyadarsika</a> are well known Sanskrit dramas.<a href="#cite_note-:02-251">[228]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Mattavilasa_Prahasana" title="Mattavilasa Prahasana">Mattavilāsaprahasana</a> (A Farce of Drunken Sport) is a short one-act <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> play. It is one of the two great one act plays written by Pallava King <a href="/wiki/Mahendravarman_I" title="Mahendravarman I">Mahendravarman I</a> (571– 630CE) in the beginning of the seventh century in Tamil Nadu.<a href="#cite_note-Mattavilasa-252">[229]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bhavabhuti" title="Bhavabhuti">Bhavabhuti</a> (8th century) is one of the great playwrights after Kalidasa.<a href="#cite_note-253">[230]</a> Other major Sanskrit playwrights include <a href="/wiki/Vishakhadatta" title="Vishakhadatta">Visakhadatta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bhatta_Narayana" title="Bhatta Narayana">Bhaṭṭa Nārāyaṇa</a>, Murari, <a href="/wiki/Rajashekhara_(Sanskrit_poet)" title="Rajashekhara (Sanskrit poet)">Rajasekhara</a>, Kshemisvara, Damodaramishra, and Krishnamishra.<a href="#cite_note-254">[231]</a> Later Sanskrit dramaturgical texts also continued to be written in the second millennium, such as the <a href="/wiki/Shilparatna" title="Shilparatna">Shilparatna</a> which discusses dance and drama. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_Sanskrit_narratives">Other Sanskrit narratives</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Other Sanskrit narratives">edit</a>]</div> There are various classical Sanskrit collections of <a href="/wiki/Fable" title="Fable">fables</a> one of the most influential of which is the early <a href="/wiki/Panchatantra" title="Panchatantra">Pañcatantra</a>, a work that was widely imitated.<a href="#cite_note-255">[232]</a> Other works include the <a href="/wiki/Hitopadesha" title="Hitopadesha">Hitopadeśa</a> and Srivara's Kathakautuka.<a href="#cite_note-256">[233]</a> Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Jataka_tales" title="Jataka tales">Jatakas</a> (tales of the <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Buddha's</a> past lives) is a similar genre and includes the <a href="/wiki/Divyavadana" title="Divyavadana">Divyāvadāna</a>, Āryaśūra's <a href="/wiki/Jataka_tales" title="Jataka tales">Jātakamālā</a> (a collection of Buddhist fables), and <a href="/wiki/Kshemendra" title="Kshemendra">Ksemendra</a>'s various works like the Avadānakalpalatā. <a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_India" title="Folklore of India">Folk tale</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Fairy_tale" title="Fairy tale">fairy tale</a>) collections include the <a href="/wiki/Baital_Pachisi" class="mw-redirect" title="Baital Pachisi">Vetala Pañcaviṃśati</a>, <a href="/wiki/Singhasan_Battisi" title="Singhasan Battisi">Siṃhāsana Dvātriṃśikā</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aukasaptati" title="Śukasaptati">Suktasaptati</a>.<a href="#cite_note-257">[234]</a> There is also Somadeva's <a href="/wiki/Kathasaritsagara" title="Kathasaritsagara">Kathāsaritsāgara</a> (Ocean of the Streams of Stories). There are also poetic historical <a href="/wiki/Category:Indian_chronicles" title="Category:Indian chronicles">chronicles</a> like the <a href="/wiki/Rajatarangini" title="Rajatarangini">Rajatarangini</a> of Kalhana, <a href="/wiki/Rashtraudha_Kavya" title="Rashtraudha Kavya">Rashtraudha Kavya</a> of Rudrakavi, Shivbharata and Paramanandkavya of Paramananda, Rajaramcharitra of Keshavbhatt, Sri Janraj Champu of Krishna Dutta.<a href="#cite_note-258">[235]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hemachandra" title="Hemachandra">Hemacandra's</a> (1088-1172) Trisastisalakapurusacaritra is one example of Jain didactic narrative in Sanskrit.<a href="#cite_note-259">[236]</a> There are also abridged retellings of more ancient lost texts, such as <a href="/wiki/Budhasvamin" class="mw-redirect" title="Budhasvamin">Budhasvāmin's</a> <a href="/wiki/B%E1%B9%9Bhatkath%C4%81%C5%9Blokasa%E1%B9%83graha" title="Bṛhatkathāślokasaṃgraha">Bṛhatkathāślokasaṃgraha</a>.<a href="#cite_note-260">[237]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_Sanskrit_literature">Modern Sanskrit literature</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Modern Sanskrit literature">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Sahitya_Akademi_Award_winners_for_Sanskrit" title="List of Sahitya Akademi Award winners for Sanskrit">List of Sahitya Akademi Award winners for Sanskrit</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sanskrit_College_1999_stamp_of_India.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Sanskrit_College_1999_stamp_of_India.jpg/220px-Sanskrit_College_1999_stamp_of_India.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Sanskrit_College_1999_stamp_of_India.jpg/330px-Sanskrit_College_1999_stamp_of_India.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Sanskrit_College_1999_stamp_of_India.jpg/440px-Sanskrit_College_1999_stamp_of_India.jpg 2x" data-file-width="942" data-file-height="692" /></a><figcaption>A 1999 stamp dedicated to the 175th anniversary of the <a href="/wiki/The_Sanskrit_College_and_University" class="mw-redirect" title="The Sanskrit College and University">Sanskrit College</a></figcaption></figure> Literature in Sanskrit continues to be produced. These works, however, have a very small readership. In the introduction to Ṣoḍaśī: An Anthology of Contemporary Sanskrit Poets (1992), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Radhavallabh_Tripathi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radhavallabh Tripathi (page does not exist)">Radhavallabh Tripathi</a> writes:<a href="#cite_note-tripathi-261">[238]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Sanskrit is known for its classical literature, even though the creative activity in this language has continued without pause from the medieval age till today. [...] Consequently, contemporary Sanskrit writing suffers from a prevailing negligence.</blockquote> Most current Sanskrit poets are employed as teachers, either pandits in pāṭhaśālas or university professors.<a href="#cite_note-tripathi-261">[238]</a> However, Tripathi also points out the abundance of contemporary Sanskrit literature: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">On the other hand, the number of authors who appear to be very enthusiastic about writing in Sanskrit during these days is not negligible. [...] Dr. Ramji Upadhyaya in his treatise on modern Sanskrit drama has discussed more than 400 Sanskrit plays written and published during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. In a thesis dealing with Sanskrit <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81k%C4%81vya" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahākāvya">mahākāvya</a>s written in a single decade, 1961–1970, the researcher has noted 52 Sanskrit mahākāvyas (epic poems) produced in that very decade.</blockquote> Similarly, <a href="#CITEREFPrajapati2005">Prajapati (2005)</a>, in Post-Independence Sanskrit Literature: A Critical Survey, estimates that more than 3000 Sanskrit works were composed in the period after Indian Independence (i.e., since 1947) alone. Further, much of this work is judged as being of high quality, both in comparison to classical Sanskrit literature, and to modern literature in other Indian languages.<a href="#cite_note-mswk-262">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-assp-263">[240]</a> Since 1967, the <a href="/wiki/Sahitya_Akademi" title="Sahitya Akademi">Sahitya Akademi</a>, India's national academy of letters, has had an <a href="/wiki/List_of_Sahitya_Akademi_Award_winners_for_Sanskrit" title="List of Sahitya Akademi Award winners for Sanskrit">award</a> for the best creative work written that year in Sanskrit. In 2009, <a href="/wiki/Satyavrat_Shastri" class="mw-redirect" title="Satyavrat Shastri">Satyavrat Shastri</a> became the first Sanskrit author to win the <a href="/wiki/Jnanpith_Award" title="Jnanpith Award">Jnanpith Award</a>, India's highest literary award.<a href="#cite_note-264">[241]</a> <a href="/wiki/Vidyadhar_Shastri#Awards_and_Honors" title="Vidyadhar Shastri">Vidyadhar Shastri</a> wrote two epic poems (Mahakavya), seven shorter poems, three plays and three songs of praise (stavana kavya, he received the Vidyavachaspati award in 1962. Some other modern Sanskrit composers include <a href="/wiki/Abhiraj_Rajendra_Mishra" title="Abhiraj Rajendra Mishra">Abhiraj Rajendra Mishra</a> (known as Triveṇī Kavi, composer of short stories and several other genres of Sanskrit literature), <a href="/wiki/Rambhadracharya" title="Rambhadracharya">Jagadguru Rambhadracharya</a> (known as Kavikularatna, composer of two epics, several minor works and commentaries on Prasthānatrayī). Another great Sanskrit epic that remained largely unrecognised till lately is "Dhruv Charitra" written by Pandit Surya Dev Mishra in 1946. He won laurels of appreciation by renowned Hindi and Sanskrit critics like Hazari Prasad Dwiedi, Ayodhya Singh Upadhyay "Hariaudh", Suryakant tripathi "Nirala", Laldhar Tripathi "Pravasi".<a href="#cite_note-265">[242]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.png/28px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.png/42px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.png/56px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Literature" title="Portal:Literature">Literature portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <dl><dt>Literature</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_drama" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit drama">Sanskrit drama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_scripture" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu scripture">Hindu scripture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Buddhist texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Medieval_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Medieval literature">Early Medieval literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_literature" title="Indian literature">Indian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_poets#Sanskrit" title="List of Indian poets">List of Sanskrit poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Indian_writers" title="List of ancient Indian writers">List of ancient Indian writers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_legendary_creatures_in_Hindu_mythology" title="List of legendary creatures in Hindu mythology">Legendary creatures in Sanskrit mythology</a></li></ul> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <dl><dt>Revival and significance</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_revival" title="Sanskrit revival">Sanskrit revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clay_Sanskrit_Library" title="Clay Sanskrit Library">Clay Sanskrit Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sanskrit_universities_in_India" title="List of Sanskrit universities in India">List of Sanskrit universities in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_revival#Revival_outside_India" title="Sanskrit revival">List of Sanskrit academic institutes outside India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historic_Indian_texts" title="List of historic Indian texts">List of historic Sanskrit texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit#Symbolic_usage" title="Sanskrit">Symbolic usage of Sanskrit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sanskrit-related_topics" title="List of Sanskrit-related topics">Sanskrit-related topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_Wikipedia" title="Sanskrit Wikipedia">Sanskrit Wikipedia</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> "Since the Renaissance there has been no event of such worldwide significance in the history of culture as the discovery of Sanskrit literature in the latter part of the eighteenth century" - Macdonell<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> "The Ṛg·veda is a monumental text with signal significance for both world religion and world literature" - Jamison & Brereton <a href="#cite_note-5">[4]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> 'The style of the [Vedic] works is more simple and spontaneous while that of the later works abounds in puns, conceits and long compounds. Rhetorical ornaments are more and more copious and complex and the rules of Poetic and Grammar more and more rigidly observed as time advances.' - Iyengar,<a href="#cite_note-7">[5]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> The preeminent Sanskritist <a href="/wiki/William_Jones_(philologist)" title="William Jones (philologist)">Sir William Jones</a> is said to be the first who ever printed an edition of a Sanskrit text - the Ṛtusaṃhāra of Kālidāsa.<a href="#cite_note-10">[7]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> "The literature of the Veda is one of the most original and interesting productions of human endeavor." – Jan Gonda<a href="#cite_note-36">[32]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> Originally only the first 3 Vedas were taken as canonical, being termed the trayī·vidyā, 'three-fold knowledge' </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> The Brāhmaṇas produced "a ritual system far surpassing in complexity of detail anything the world has elsewhere known" – Macdonell </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> "According to [a characteristic aphorism that's been preserved] the composers of grammatical Sūtras delight as much in the saving of a short vowel as in the birth of a son"! – Macdonell </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> compare Latin sutura (suture) </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> An example is the Anukramaṇīs, indexes, designed to preserve the text of the Vedas from loss or change, each of which quotes "the first word of each hymn, its author, the deity celebrated in it, the number of verses it contains, and the metre in which it is composed. One of them states the total number of hymns, verses, words, and even syllables, contained in the Ṛg·veda, alongside other minute details" – Macdonell </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> "The Vedas are still learnt by heart as they were long before the invasion of Alexander, and could even now be restored from he lips of religious teachers if every manuscript or printed copy of them were destroyed.", Macdonell, 1900 <a href="#cite_note-58">[46]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> the account based on the actual historical 18-day battle itself takes up 20,000 ślokas </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> "In various branches of scientific literature, in phonetics, grammar, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and law, the ancient Indians also achieved notable results. In some of these subjects their attainments are, indeed, far in advance of what was accomplished by the Greeks.", Macdonell<a href="#cite_note-109">[93]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> While it has been demonstrated that there was a vigorous court-epic tradition during this entire period, almost none of it from the first few centuries has survived.<a href="#cite_note-163">[146]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Monier_Williams" class="mw-redirect" title="Monier Williams">Monier Williams</a> said to be the first to do so.<a href="#cite_note-199">[181]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> "both distinguished by independence of treatment as well as considerable poetic beauty" - Macdonell </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Glossary">Glossary</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Glossary">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-upper-alpha" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> 'compiled', 'put together'<a href="#cite_note-38">[33]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> from vid-, 'to know', cognate with Eng. 'wit'<a href="#cite_note-40">[34]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> hearing, heard </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> commentaries </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> Vikrama and Urvaśī </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a> Mālavika and Agnimitra </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a> The Recognition of Śakuntalā </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Brahmic_notes">Brahmic notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Brahmic notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1256386598">.mw-parser-output .cot-header-mainspace{background:#F0F2F5;color:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cot-header-other{background:#CCFFCC;color:inherit}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cot-header-mainspace{background:#14181F;color:inherit}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cot-header-other{background:#003500;color:inherit}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cot-header-mainspace{background:#14181F;color:inherit}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cot-header-other{background:#003500;color:inherit}}</style> <div style="margin-left:0"> <table class="mw-collapsible mw-archivedtalk mw-collapsed" style="color:inherit; background: transparent; text-align: left; border: 1px solid Silver; margin: 0.2em auto auto; width:100%; clear: both; padding: 1px;"> <tbody><tr> <th class="cot-header-mainspace" style="; font-size:87%; padding:0.2em 0.3em; text-align:center;"><div style="font-size:115%;margin:0 4em">Brahmic transliteration</div> </th></tr> <tr> <td style="color:inherit; border: solid 1px Silver; padding: 0.6em; background: var(--background-color-base, #fff);"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-roman" style="column-width: 20em;"> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> Fortson, §10.23. </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Macdonell, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurrow197335-44-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurrow197335-44_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBurrow1973">Burrow 1973</a>, p. 35-44. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Jamison & Brereton p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Iyengar, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> Edgerton, Franklin. The Prakrit Underlying Buddhistic Hybrid Sanskrit. Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, University of London, Vol. 8, No. 2/3, page 503. </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Macdonell, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> Keith, §1. </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> Macdonnell, §1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurrow197364-66-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurrow197364-66_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBurrow1973">Burrow 1973</a>, p. 64-66. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Winternitz (1972) Vol I, pp. 3-4. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Iyengar, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-Gombrich2006p24-17"><a href="#cite_ref-Gombrich2006p24_17-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRichard_Gombrich2006" class="citation book cs1">Richard Gombrich (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jZyJAgAAQBAJ">Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo</a>. Routledge. pp. 24–25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-90352-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-90352-8"><bdi>978-1-134-90352-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theravada+Buddhism%3A+A+Social+History+from+Ancient+Benares+to+Modern+Colombo&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E24-%3C%2Fspan%3E25&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-134-90352-8&rft.au=Richard+Gombrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjZyJAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Meier-Brügger2003-18"><a href="#cite_ref-Meier-Brügger2003_18-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeier-Brügger2003" class="citation book cs1">Meier-Brügger, Michael (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=49xq3UlKWckC">Indo-European Linguistics</a>. Walter de Gruyter. p. 20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-017433-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-017433-5"><bdi>978-3-11-017433-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indo-European+Linguistics&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-3-11-017433-5&rft.aulast=Meier-Br%C3%BCgger&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D49xq3UlKWckC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Keith1993-19"><a href="#cite_ref-Keith1993_19-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeith1993" class="citation book cs1">Keith, A. Berriedale (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GNALtBMVbd0C">A History of Sanskrit Literature</a>. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1100-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1100-3"><bdi>978-81-208-1100-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Sanskrit+Literature&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1100-3&rft.aulast=Keith&rft.aufirst=A.+Berriedale&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGNALtBMVbd0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Iyengar5-20"><a href="#cite_ref-Iyengar5_20-0">^</a> Iyengar, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGérard_HuetAmba_KulkarniPeter_Scharf2009" class="citation book cs1">Gérard Huet; Amba Kulkarni; Peter Scharf (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t2f1hneiV08C">Sanskrit Computational Linguistics: First and Second International Symposia Rocquencourt, France, October 29–31, 2007 Providence, RI, USA, May 15–17, 2008, Revised Selected Papers</a>. Springer. pp. v–vi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-00154-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-00154-3"><bdi>978-3-642-00154-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sanskrit+Computational+Linguistics%3A+First+and+Second+International+Symposia+Rocquencourt%2C+France%2C+October+29%E2%80%9331%2C+2007+Providence%2C+RI%2C+USA%2C+May+15%E2%80%9317%2C+2008%2C+Revised+Selected+Papers&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3Ev-%3C%2Fspan%3Evi&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-3-642-00154-3&rft.au=G%C3%A9rard+Huet&rft.au=Amba+Kulkarni&rft.au=Peter+Scharf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt2f1hneiV08C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Kelly1996" class="citation book cs1">John Kelly (1996). Jan E.M. Houben (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_eqr833q9qYC&pg=PA87">Ideology and Status of Sanskrit: Contributions to the History of the Sanskrit Language</a>. BRILL Academic. pp. 87–102. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10613-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10613-0"><bdi>978-90-04-10613-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ideology+and+Status+of+Sanskrit%3A+Contributions+to+the+History+of+the+Sanskrit+Language&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E87-%3C%2Fspan%3E102&rft.pub=BRILL+Academic&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-90-04-10613-0&rft.au=John+Kelly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_eqr833q9qYC%26pg%3DPA87&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephen_K._Stein2017" class="citation book cs1">Stephen K. Stein (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QmOWDgAAQBAJ">The Sea in World History: Exploration, Travel, and Trade [2 volumes]</a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 147. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4408-3551-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4408-3551-3"><bdi>978-1-4408-3551-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sea+in+World+History%3A+Exploration%2C+Travel%2C+and+Trade+%5B2+volumes%5D&rft.pages=147&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-4408-3551-3&rft.au=Stephen+K.+Stein&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQmOWDgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles_Taliaferro2010" class="citation book cs1">Charles Taliaferro (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CfWoAwAAQBAJ">A Dictionary of Philosophy of Religion</a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 245–246. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-8504-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-8504-4"><bdi>978-1-4411-8504-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Philosophy+of+Religion&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E245-%3C%2Fspan%3E246&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4411-8504-4&rft.au=Charles+Taliaferro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCfWoAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Parret1976p102-25"><a href="#cite_ref-Parret1976p102_25-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ.F._Staal1976" class="citation book cs1">J.F. Staal (1976). 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Walter de Gruyter. pp. 102–130. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-005818-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-005818-5"><bdi>978-3-11-005818-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Linguistic+Thought+and+Contemporary+Linguistics&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E102-%3C%2Fspan%3E130&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-3-11-005818-5&rft.au=J.F.+Staal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhQh0bC5RAe8C%26pg%3DPA102&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_Dundas2006" class="citation book cs1">Paul Dundas (2006). Patrick Olivelle (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=efaOR_-YsIcC">Between the Empires: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 395–396. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-977507-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-977507-1"><bdi>978-0-19-977507-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+the+Empires%3A+Society+in+India+300+BCE+to+400+CE&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E395-%3C%2Fspan%3E396&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-19-977507-1&rft.au=Paul+Dundas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DefaOR_-YsIcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurrow197360-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurrow197360_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBurrow1973">Burrow 1973</a>, p. 60. </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPollock2001" class="citation journal cs1">Pollock, Sheldon (2001). "The Death of Sanskrit". Comparative Studies in Society and History. 43 (2): 392–426. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs001041750100353x">10.1017/s001041750100353x</a> (inactive 1 November 2024). <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:35550166">35550166</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comparative+Studies+in+Society+and+History&rft.atitle=The+Death+of+Sanskrit&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E392-%3C%2Fspan%3E426&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs001041750100353x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A35550166%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Pollock&rft.aufirst=Sheldon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+literature" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanneder2002" class="citation journal cs1">Hanneder, J. 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Indo-Iranian Journal. 45 (4): 293–310. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F000000002124994847">10.1163/000000002124994847</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24664154">24664154</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:189797805">189797805</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Indo-Iranian+Journal&rft.atitle=On+%27The+Death+of+Sanskrit%27&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E293-%3C%2Fspan%3E310&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A189797805%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24664154%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F000000002124994847&rft.aulast=Hanneder&rft.aufirst=J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Farticle%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1021366131934&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> Deshpande, Madhav M. (1993). Sanskrit & Prakrit, Sociolinguistic Issues. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 118–124. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1136-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1136-2">978-81-208-1136-2</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> Moriz Winternitz (1996). A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1. 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Journal for the Study of Religion. 5 (1): 31–40. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24764135">24764135</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+for+the+Study+of+Religion&rft.atitle=The+vivaha+%28marriage%29+Samskara+as+a+paradigm+for+religio-cultural+integration+in+Hinduism&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E31-%3C%2Fspan%3E40&rft.date=1992&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24764135%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVivekananda2005" class="citation book cs1">Vivekananda, Swami (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pJjXAAAAMAAJ">Prabuddha Bharata</a> [Awakened India]. Prabuddha Bharata Press. pp. 362, 594. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7823-180-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7823-180-8"><bdi>978-81-7823-180-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prabuddha+Bharata&rft.pages=362%2C+594&rft.pub=Prabuddha+Bharata+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-81-7823-180-8&rft.aulast=Vivekananda&rft.aufirst=Swami&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpJjXAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Witzel, 1989, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurrow197343-35"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurrow197343_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBurrow1973">Burrow 1973</a>, p. 43. </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> Gonda, p. 1 </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> MWW, p. 1123. </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> MWW, p.963. </li> <li id="cite_note-jb12-42"><a href="#cite_ref-jb12_42-0">^</a> J&B, pp. 1-2. </li> <li id="cite_note-jb23-43"><a href="#cite_ref-jb23_43-0">^</a> J&B, pp. 2-3. </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Macdonell, p. 30. </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> Macdonell, pp. 30-31. </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> Macdonell, p. 31-32. </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> Macdonell, p. 34. </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> Macdonell, pp. 35-36. </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> Winternitz (1972) Vol I, p. 46. </li> <li id="cite_note-goodallix-55"><a href="#cite_ref-goodallix_55-0">^</a> Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20778-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20778-3">978-0-520-20778-3</a>, page ix-xliii </li> <li id="cite_note-michaelwitzel68-56">^ <a href="#cite_ref-michaelwitzel68_56-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-michaelwitzel68_56-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Witzel" title="Michael Witzel">Michael Witzel</a>, "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood, Gavin, ed. 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Religions. 12 (11): 927. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel12110927">10.3390/rel12110927</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Religions&rft.atitle=Bliss+beyond+All+Limit%3A+On+the+Apabhra%E1%B9%83%C5%9Ba+Doh%C4%81+in+Tantric+Buddhist+Texts&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=927&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Frel12110927&rft.aulast=Stephenson&rft.aufirst=Jackson+Barkley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Frel12110927&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinternitz1972427-152"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWinternitz1972427_152-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWinternitz1972">Winternitz 1972</a>, p. 427. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWinternitz1972 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> Winternitz (1972), p. 427. </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> Dundas, Paul (2006), Olivelle, Patrick (ed.), Between the Empires: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE, pp. 395–396. 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A History of Classical Poetry: Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit (A History of Indian Literature Vol. III) Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden. </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> Lienhard (1984), p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-158">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_158-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_158-1">b</a> Lienhard (1984), pp. 2, 46. </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> Macdonell, pp. 325-326. </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> Keith, p. 42. </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> Lienhard (1984), p. 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> Lienhard (1984), p. 46. </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> Keith, ch. 2 </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> Lienhard (1984), p. 48. </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> Lienhard (1984), p. 50. </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> Lienhard (1984), p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> Lienhard (1984), pp. 16-18. </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> Lienhard (1984), p. 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> Lienhard (1984), p. 53. </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> Lienhard (1984), pp. 63-64. </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-172">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8_172-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_172-1">b</a> Lienhard (1984), pp. 65-66. </li> <li id="cite_note-:9-173">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:9_173-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_173-1">b</a> Lienhard (1984), pp. 71-75. </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> Lienhard (1984), pp. 75-76. </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> Lienhard (1984), p. 79. </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> Lienhard (1984), pp. 88-99. </li> <li id="cite_note-:11-177">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:11_177-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_177-1">b</a> Lienhard (1984), p. 87. </li> <li id="cite_note-ingalls-178"><a href="#cite_ref-ingalls_178-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVidyākara1968" class="citation book cs1">Vidyākara (1968). Sanskrit poetry, from Vidyākara's "Treasury". Translated by <a href="/wiki/Daniel_H._H._Ingalls,_Sr." class="mw-redirect" title="Daniel H. H. Ingalls, Sr.">Daniel Ingalls</a>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. pp. 346a. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-78865-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-78865-6"><bdi>0-674-78865-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sanskrit+poetry%2C+from+Vidy%C4%81kara%27s+%22Treasury%22&rft.pages=346a&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=0-674-78865-6&rft.au=Vidy%C4%81kara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMohan_Lal" class="citation book cs1">Mohan Lal. Encyclopaedia Of Indian Literature (Volume Five (Sasay To Zorgot), Volume 5. <a href="/wiki/Sahitya_Akademi" title="Sahitya Akademi">Sahitya Akademi</a>. p. 4480.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Of+Indian+Literature+%28Volume+Five+%28Sasay+To+Zorgot%29%2C+Volume+5&rft.pages=4480&rft.pub=Sahitya+Akademi&rft.au=Mohan+Lal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> Lienhard (1984), pp. 104-105. </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> Lienhard (1984), pp. 107-127 </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> Lienhard (1984), pp. 128. </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> Lienhard (1984), pp. 128-129 </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> Lienhard (1984), p. 130 </li> <li id="cite_note-:13-185">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:13_185-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_185-1">b</a> Lienhard (1984), p. 132 </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> Lienhard (1984), p. 133. </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> Lienhard (1984), p. 134. </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> Lienhard (1984), p. 136. </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> Lienhard (1984), pp. 137-149. </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> Lienhard (1984), pp. 161-162 </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> Lienhard (1984), p. 161. </li> <li id="cite_note-Lienhard_1984,_p._164-192">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lienhard_1984,_p._164_192-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lienhard_1984,_p._164_192-1">b</a> Lienhard (1984), p. 164 </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> Macdonell, p. 319. </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> Keith, ch. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> E.B. Cowell, trans. The Buddha Carita or the Life of the Buddha, Oxford, Clarendon 1894, reprint: New Delhi, 1977, p. X (introduction). </li> <li id="cite_note-ancient-buddhist-texts.net-196"><a href="#cite_ref-ancient-buddhist-texts.net_196-0">^</a> J.K. Nariman: Literary History of Sanskrit Buddhism, Bombay 1919. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ancient-buddhist-texts.net/Buddhist-Texts/XX-Early-Buddhist-Texts/05-EBT-Asvaghosa.htm">Aśvaghoṣa and his School</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110110133430/http://www.ancient-buddhist-texts.net/Buddhist-Texts/XX-Early-Buddhist-Texts/05-EBT-Asvaghosa.htm">Archived</a> 10 January 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> Yoshichika Honda. 'Indian Buddhism and the kāvya literature: Asvaghosa's Saundaranandakavya.' Hiroshima Daigaku Daigakuin Bungaku Kenkyuuka ronshuu, vol. 64, pp. 17–26, 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=16560383">[1]</a> (Japanese) </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="saundarananda" class="citation book cs1">Johnston, E. H. (1928). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/download/TFIC_ASI_Books/SaundaranandaOfAsvaghosa.pdf">Saundarananda</a> (PDF). Lahore: University of Panjab.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Saundarananda&rft.place=Lahore&rft.pub=University+of+Panjab&rft.date=1928&rft.aulast=Johnston&rft.aufirst=E.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdownload%2FTFIC_ASI_Books%2FSaundaranandaOfAsvaghosa.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> Kale, p. xxvi. </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> Keith, p. 101 </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> Macdonell, p. 326. </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> Macdonell, pp. 326-327. </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> Keith, §4.7. </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> Macdonell, p. 328. </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> Keith, §4.6. </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> Lienhard (1984), pp. 171-192. </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> Lienhard (1984), pp. 172 - 194. </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> Lienhard (1984), pp. 196-201 </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> Lienhard (1984), p. 202 </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ccras.nic.in/sites/default/files/viewpdf/jimh/JIMH_2009/19%20to%2028.pdf">Lolimbaraja and his work</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> Lienhard (1984), pp. 201-211 </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> Lienhard (1984), pp. 212-213 </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> Lienhard (1984), pp. 213-214. </li> <li id="cite_note-ernst-216"><a href="#cite_ref-ernst_216-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErnst1992" class="citation book cs1">Ernst, Carl W. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VgIOryEPymcC&pg=RA1-PA297">Eternal garden: mysticism, history, and politics at a South Asian Sufi center</a> (Illustrated ed.). SUNY Press. p. 297. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-0884-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-0884-1"><bdi>978-0-7914-0884-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eternal+garden%3A+mysticism%2C+history%2C+and+politics+at+a+South+Asian+Sufi+center&rft.pages=297&rft.edition=Illustrated&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-0884-1&rft.aulast=Ernst&rft.aufirst=Carl+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVgIOryEPymcC%26pg%3DRA1-PA297&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-jackson-217"><a href="#cite_ref-jackson_217-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson2005" class="citation book cs1">Jackson, William Joseph (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PxvDNBc4qwUC&pg=PA61">Vijayanagara voices: exploring South Indian history and Hindu literature</a> (Illustrated ed.). Ashgate Publishing. pp. 61–70. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-3950-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-3950-3"><bdi>978-0-7546-3950-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vijayanagara+voices%3A+exploring+South+Indian+history+and+Hindu+literature&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E61-%3C%2Fspan%3E70&rft.edition=Illustrated&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-3950-3&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=William+Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPxvDNBc4qwUC%26pg%3DPA61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChattopadhyaya2006" class="citation book cs1">Chattopadhyaya, Brajadulal (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m38UxgHNonIC&pg=PA141">Studying Early India: Archaeology, Texts and Historical Issues</a>. Anthem Press. pp. 141–143. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84331-132-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84331-132-4"><bdi>978-1-84331-132-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studying+Early+India%3A+Archaeology%2C+Texts+and+Historical+Issues&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E141-%3C%2Fspan%3E143&rft.pub=Anthem+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-84331-132-4&rft.aulast=Chattopadhyaya&rft.aufirst=Brajadulal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm38UxgHNonIC%26pg%3DPA141&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> Lienhard (1984), pp. 215-221. </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> Lienhard (1984), pp. 222-224 </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> Lienhard (1984), pp. 225-227. </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> Lienhard (1984), pp. 228, 234-247 </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> Lienhard (1984), p. 233. </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> Lienhard (1984), pp. 258-263 </li> <li id="cite_note-:14-225">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:14_225-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:14_225-1">b</a> Lienhard (1984), p. 265 </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a> Lienhard (1984), p. 226. </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> Lienhard (1984), pp. 268-272 </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> Lienhard (1984), p. 54. </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> Gaurinath Bhattacharyya Shastri (1987), pp. 150-153. </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> Gaurinath Bhattacharyya Shastri (1987), pp. 154-155. </li> <li id="cite_note-:16-231">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:16_231-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:16_231-1">b</a> Keith (1956), p. 227. </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> Sternbach, Ludwik (1974). Subhasita, Gnomic and Didactic Literature (A History of Indian Literature Vol. IV, 1. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> L. Sternbach (1973), Subhashita - A forgotten chapter in the histories of Sanskrit literature, in Indologica Taurinensia, Torino, Vol I, pp. 169-254. </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a> Sternbach, Ludwik (1974). Subhasita, Gnomic and Didactic Literature, pp. 1-2. (A History of Indian Literature Vol. IV, 1. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a> Kashinath Sharma (1952), <a href="//archive.org/details/SubhashitaRatnaBhandagara" class="extiw" title="iarchive:SubhashitaRatnaBhandagara">Subhashita Ratna Bhandagara - A collection of over 10,000 subhasitas</a>, Nirnaya Sagar Press </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a> Keith (1956), p. 228. </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a> Keith (1956), p. 231. </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> Sternbach (1974) pp. 2-8 </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> Keith (1956), pp. 237-240. </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> Keith (1956), p. 234. </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> Gaurinath Bhattacharyya Shastri (1987), p. 85. </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> Gaurinath Bhattacharyya Shastri (1987), pp. 8-92 </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> Gaurinath Bhattacharyya Shastri (1987), p. 95 </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a> Samir Kumar Datta (1979). Aśvaghoṣa as a Poet and a Dramatist: A Critical Study, p. 123. University of Burdwan. </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a> Gaurinath Bhattacharyya Shastri (1987), pp. 97-103. </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> Gaurinath Bhattacharyya Shastri (1987), p. 104. </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a> Gaurinath Bhattacharyya Shastri (1987), p. 107. </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-251"><a href="#cite_ref-:02_251-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarsha2006" class="citation book cs1">Harsha (2006). "The Lady of the Jewel Necklace" and "The Lady who Shows Her Love". Translated by Wendy Doniger. New York University Press. p. 18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22The+Lady+of+the+Jewel+Necklace%22+and+%22The+Lady+who+Shows+Her+Love%22&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.au=Harsha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mattavilasa-252"><a href="#cite_ref-Mattavilasa_252-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMahendravikramavarma_Pallava600" class="citation book cs1">Mahendravikramavarma Pallava (600). Lockwood, Michael; Bhat, Vishnu (eds.). Mattavilasa Prahasana The Farce of Drunken Sport. Christian Literature Society.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mattavilasa+Prahasana+The+Farce+of+Drunken+Sport&rft.pub=Christian+Literature+Society&rft.date=600&rft.au=Mahendravikramavarma+Pallava&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a> Gaurinath Bhattacharyya Shastri (1987), p. 109 </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a> Gaurinath Bhattacharyya Shastri (1987), pp. 111-119. </li> <li id="cite_note-255"><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a> Keith (1956), pp. 244-245, 259-263. </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a> Gaurinath Bhattacharyya Shastri (1987), pp. 137-138 </li> <li id="cite_note-257"><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a> Gaurinath Bhattacharyya Shastri (1987), p. 138 </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> Lienhard (1984), p. 218. </li> <li id="cite_note-259"><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a> Keith (1956), p. 294. </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a> Keith (1956), pp. 272 </li> <li id="cite_note-tripathi-261">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tripathi_261-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tripathi_261-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadhavallabh_Tripathi1992" class="citation cs2">Radhavallabh Tripathi, ed. (1992), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gXtWVxJCA7MC&q=%22Harshadev%22">Ṣoḍaśī: An Anthology of Contemporary Sanskrit Poets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sahitya_Akademi" title="Sahitya Akademi">Sahitya Akademi</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7201-200-4" title="Special:BookSources/81-7201-200-4"><bdi>81-7201-200-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E1%B9%A2o%E1%B8%8Da%C5%9B%C4%AB%3A+An+Anthology+of+Contemporary+Sanskrit+Poets&rft.pub=Sahitya+Akademi&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=81-7201-200-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgXtWVxJCA7MC%26q%3D%2522Harshadev%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-mswk-262"><a href="#cite_ref-mswk_262-0">^</a> S. Ranganath (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sanskrit.nic.in/digitalbook/m/mswk.pdf">Modern Sanskrit Writings in Karnataka</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-86111-21-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-86111-21-5">978-81-86111-21-5</a>, p. 7: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Contrary to popular belief, there is an astonishing Sanskrit writing is qualitatively of such high order that it can easily be treated on par with the best of Classical Sanskrit literature, It can also easily compete with the writings in other Indian languages.</blockquote> </li> <li id="cite_note-assp-263"><a href="#cite_ref-assp_263-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sanskrit.nic.in/ASSP/Index.html">Adhunika Sanskrit Sahitya Pustakalaya</a>, Rashtriya Sanskrit Sansthan: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The latter half of the nineteenth century marks the beginning of a new era in Sanskrit literature. Many of the modern Sanskrit writings are qualitatively of such high order that they can easily be treated at par with the best of classical Sanskrit works, and they can also be judged in contrast to the contemporary literature in other languages.</blockquote> </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.indianexpress.com/news/sanskrits-first-jnanpith-winner-is-a-poet-by-instinct/410480/0">"Sanskrit's first Jnanpith winner is a 'poet by instinct'"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Indian_Express" title="The Indian Express">The Indian Express</a>. Jan 14, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Indian+Express&rft.atitle=Sanskrit%27s+first+Jnanpith+winner+is+a+%27poet+by+instinct%27&rft.date=2009-01-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.indianexpress.com%2Fnews%2Fsanskrits-first-jnanpith-winner-is-a-poet-by-instinct%2F410480%2F0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a> Mishra, Mayank. Karma ka Pujari. Chandigarh : Unistar Publications, 2010. Print </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurrow1973" class="citation book cs1">Burrow, T (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/BurrowTheSanskritLanguage">The Sanskrit Language (3rd edition, 1973)</a> (1973 ed.). Motilal Banarsidass. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-1767-2" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-1767-2"><bdi>81-208-1767-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sanskrit+Language+%283rd+edition%2C+1973%29&rft.edition=1973&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=81-208-1767-2&rft.aulast=Burrow&rft.aufirst=T&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FBurrowTheSanskritLanguage&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeshpande1993" class="citation book cs1">Deshpande, Madhav M (1993). Sanskrit and Prakrit (1993 ed.). Motilal Banarsidass. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-1136-4" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-1136-4"><bdi>81-208-1136-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sanskrit+and+Prakrit&rft.edition=1993&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=81-208-1136-4&rft.aulast=Deshpande&rft.aufirst=Madhav+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFortson2010" class="citation book cs1">Fortson, Benjamin W (2010). Indo-European Language and Culture (2010 ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-8895-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-8895-1"><bdi>978-1-4051-8895-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indo-European+Language+and+Culture&rft.edition=2010&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-8895-1&rft.aulast=Fortson&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Gonda, Jan (ed.) A History of Indian Literature, Otto Harrasowitz, Wiesbaden.* <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ideas-of-history-in-sanskrit-literature-r.-c.-majumdar">Ideas of History in Sanskrit Literature</a> Oxford University Press, 1961.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._C._Majumdar" title="R. C. Majumdar">Majumdar, R. C.</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ideas-of-history-in-sanskrit-literature-r.-c.-majumdar">Ideas of History in Sanskrit Literature</a> Oxford University Press, 1967.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil_elib/HaB014__Hanneder_Broo_eds_Studies_on_Modern_Sanskrit_Writings_15thWSC-Panel_2012.pdf">Studies on Modern Sanskrit Writings: Ādhunika-saṃskṛta-sāhityānuśīlanam.</a> Papers Presented in the Section on Modern Sanskrit Writings (Proceedings of the 15th World Sanskrit Conference, 2012). Edited by Jürgen Hanneder and Måns Broo with an introduction by R. V. Tripathi.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIyengar1965" class="citation book cs1">Iyengar, V. Gopala (1965). A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature. Rs. 4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+Classical+Sanskrit+Literature.+Rs.+4&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Iyengar&rft.aufirst=V.+Gopala&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVijay_K._Jain2011" class="citation cs2">Jain, Vijay K. 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London: Oxford Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Sanskrit-English+Dictionary&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Oxford+Clarendon+Press&rft.aulast=Monier-Williams&rft.aufirst=Monier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrajapati2005" class="citation cs2">Prajapati, Manibhai K. (2005), Post-Independence Sanskrit Literature: A Critical Survey, Standard Publishers (India)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Post-Independence+Sanskrit+Literature%3A+A+Critical+Survey&rft.pub=Standard+Publishers+%28India%29&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Prajapati&rft.aufirst=Manibhai+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li>S. Ranganath, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sanskrit.nic.in/DigitalBook/M/Mswk.pdf">Modern Sanskrit Writings in Karnataka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rashtriya_Sanskrit_Sansthan" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtriya Sanskrit Sansthan">Rashtriya Sanskrit Sansthan</a>, 2009.</li> <li>Gaurinath Bhattacharyya Shastri (1987). A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.</li> <li>Bhattacharji Sukumari, History of Classical Sanskrit Literature, Sangam Books, London, 1993, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86311-242-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-86311-242-0">0-86311-242-0</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitney2008" class="citation book cs1">Whitney, William Dwight (January 2008). Sanskrit Grammar (2000 ed.). Motilal Banarsidass. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0620-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0620-7"><bdi>978-81-208-0620-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sanskrit+Grammar&rft.edition=2000&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=2008-01&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0620-7&rft.aulast=Whitney&rft.aufirst=William+Dwight&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moriz_Winternitz" title="Moriz Winternitz">Winternitz, M.</a> A History of Indian Literature. Oriental books, New Delhi, 1927 (1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moriz_Winternitz" title="Moriz Winternitz">Winternitz, M.</a> A History of Indian Literature Vol. I. Introduction, Veda, National Epics, Puranas and Tantras. Oriental books, New Delhi, 1972</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moriz_Winternitz" title="Moriz Winternitz">Winternitz, M.</a> A History of Indian Literature Vol. II. Buddhist literature and Jaina literature. Oriental books, New Delhi, 1972</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWitzel,_Michael1989" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Witzel" title="Michael Witzel">Witzel, Michael</a> (1989), <a href="/wiki/Colette_Caillat" title="Colette Caillat">Colette Caillat</a> (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/dialects.pdf">Tracing the Vedic dialects, in Dialectes dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes</a> (PDF), Paris: de Boccard</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tracing+the+Vedic+dialects%2C+in+Dialectes+dans+les+litteratures+Indo-Aryennes&rft.pub=Paris%3A+de+Boccard&rft.date=1989&rft.au=Witzel%2C+Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.people.fas.harvard.edu%2F~witzel%2Fdialects.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASanskrit+literature" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_literature&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Sanskrit literature at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Sanskrit-language_literature" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Sanskrit-language literature">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Category:Works_originally_in_Sanskrit" class="extiw" title="s:Category:Works originally in Sanskrit">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Sanskrit" class="extiw" title="b:Sanskrit">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Sanskrit_Language" class="extiw" title="v:Introduction to Sanskrit Language">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sub.uni-goettingen.de/ebene_1/fiindolo/gretil.htm">GRETIL: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages</a> a cumulative register of the numerous download sites for electronic texts in Indian languages.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/indexe.htm?/texte/texte2.htm#ind">TITUS Indica</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060111075741/http://vedabase.net/">Vedabase.net</a>: Vaishnava literatures with word for word translations from Sanskrit to English.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.claysanskritlibrary.org">Official page</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Clay_Sanskrit_Library" title="Clay Sanskrit Library">Clay Sanskrit Library</a>, publisher of classical Indian literature with facing-page texts and translations. Also offers numerous downloadable materials.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sanskritdocuments.org">Sanskrit Documents Collection</a>: Documents in ITX format of Upanishads, Stotras etc., and a metasite with links to translations, dictionaries, tutorials, tools and other Sanskrit resources.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mahabharata.manipal.edu/">MAHE Mahabharata Digital Concordance</a> by <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://manipal.edu/philosophy.html/">Department of Philosophy - Manipal</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sf-encyclopedia.uk/fe.php?nm=sanskrit_literature">Sanskrit Literature</a> at the <a href="/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_of_Fantasy" title="The Encyclopedia of Fantasy">Encyclopedia of Fantasy</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output 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class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sanskrit_language_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sanskrit language topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Sanskrit89" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Influence zone</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_India" title="Greater India">Greater India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indosphere" title="Indosphere">Indosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandala_(political_model)" title="Mandala (political model)">Mandala model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mode of spread</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanskritisation_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskritisation (sociology)">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskritisation_(language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskritisation (language)">Linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskritism" title="Sanskritism">Sanskritism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">Vedic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_Hybrid_Sanskrit" title="Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit">Buddhist Hybrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_grammar" title="Sanskrit grammar">Grammar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_nouns" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit nouns">Nouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_pronouns_and_determiners" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit pronouns and determiners">Pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_compound" title="Sanskrit compound">Compounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_verbs" title="Sanskrit verbs">Verbs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit_grammar" title="Vedic Sanskrit grammar">Vedic grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_prosody" title="Sanskrit prosody">Prosody</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Origin <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahmi_script" title="Brahmi script">Brahmi script</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>Later development <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nandinagari" title="Nandinagari">Nandinagari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagari_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagari script">Nagari script</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>Spread of usage <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bangla_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Bangla alphabet">Bangla script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_script" title="Gujarati script">Gujarati script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kawi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kawi language">Kawi script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odia_script" title="Odia script">Odia script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suyat" title="Suyat">Suyat family of scripts</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_Buddhist_literature" title="Sanskrit Buddhist literature">Buddhist literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_classical_drama" title="Indian classical drama">Drama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_epic_poetry" title="Indian epic poetry">Epics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historic_Indian_texts" title="List of historic Indian texts">Historic texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_legendary_creatures_in_Hindu_mythology" title="List of legendary creatures in Hindu mythology">Legendary creatures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sanskrit_poets" title="List of Sanskrit poets">Poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vy%C4%81kara%E1%B9%87a" title="Vyākaraṇa">Vyākaraṇa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current usage</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_university_and_college_mottos#India" title="List of university and college mottos">Sanskrit mottos of universities in India</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>Loanwords <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Sanskrit_origin" title="List of English words of Sanskrit origin">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sanskrit_and_Persian_roots_in_Hindi" title="List of Sanskrit and Persian roots in Hindi">Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sanskrit_loanwords_in_Indonesian" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Sanskrit loanwords in Indonesian">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_loanwords_in_Tagalog#Sanskrit" class="mw-redirect" title="List of loanwords in Tagalog">Tagalog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_inscriptions_in_the_Malay_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit inscriptions in the Malay world">Malay inscriptions</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern status</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_revival" title="Sanskrit revival">Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_studies" title="Sanskrit studies">Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_revival#Revival_outside_India" title="Sanskrit revival">Academic institutes outside India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sanskrit_universities_in_India" title="List of Sanskrit universities in India">Universities in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_Wikipedia" title="Sanskrit Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Sanskrit_Day" title="World Sanskrit Day">World Sanskrit Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Sanskrit_Conference" title="World Sanskrit Conference">World Sanskrit Conference</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Poetry_of_different_cultures_and_languages194" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" 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id="Poetry_of_different_cultures_and_languages194" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">Poetry</a> of <a href="/wiki/National_poetry" title="National poetry">different cultures and languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Afghan poetry">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_epic_poetry" title="Albanian epic poetry">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_poetry" title="American poetry">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_poetry_in_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Welsh poetry in English">Anglo-Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_poetry" title="Arabic poetry">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assamese_poetry" title="Assamese poetry">Assamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian poetry">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_poetry" title="Bengali poetry">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_poetry" title="Biblical poetry">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_poetry" title="British poetry">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosniak_epic_poetry" title="Bosniak epic poetry">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Bulgarian poetry">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine poetry">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_poetry" title="Canadian poetry">Canadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_poetry" title="Chinese poetry">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_poetry" title="Cantonese poetry">Cantonese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Cornish poetry">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_poetry" title="English poetry">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_poetry" title="Estonian poetry">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_poetry" title="Finnish poetry">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_poetry" title="French poetry">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek poetry">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guern%C3%A9siais" title="Guernésiais">Guernésiais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Gujarati poetry">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindi_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindi poetry">Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew_poetry" title="Modern Hebrew poetry">Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_poetry" title="Indian poetry">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_epic_poetry" title="Indian epic poetry">Indian epic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_poetry" title="Irish poetry">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_poetry" title="Italian poetry">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_poetry" title="Japanese poetry">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Javanese_poetry" title="Javanese poetry">Javanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A8rriais_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Jèrriais poetry">Jèrriais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kannada_poetry" title="Kannada poetry">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmiri_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Kashmiri poetry">Kashmiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_poetry" title="Korean poetry">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_poetry" title="Latin poetry">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_American_poetry" title="Latin American poetry">Latin American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latino_poetry" title="Latino poetry">Latino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Manx poetry">Manx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marathi_poetry" title="Marathi poetry">Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_poetry" title="Malayalam poetry">Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepali_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Nepali poetry">Nepali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="New Zealand poetry">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Old English poetry">Old English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_poetry" title="Old Norse poetry">Old Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_poetry" title="Ottoman poetry">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_poetry" title="Pakistani poetry">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashto_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Pashto poetry">Pashto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian poetry">Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_poetry" title="Polish poetry">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_poetry" title="Portuguese poetry">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Punjabi poetry">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajasthani_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Rajasthani poetry">Rajasthani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian poetry">Russian</a></li> <li>Sanskrit <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_classical_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit classical poetry">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetry_of_Scotland" title="Poetry of Scotland">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_poetry" title="Serbian poetry">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_epic_poetry" title="Serbian epic poetry">Serbian epic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sindhi_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Sindhi poetry">Sindhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Slovak poetry">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_poetry" title="Spanish poetry">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamil poetry">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Telugu poetry">Telugu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_poetry" title="Thai poetry">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkish poetry">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urdu_poetry" title="Urdu poetry">Urdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_poetry" title="Vietnamese poetry">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_poetry" title="Welsh poetry">Welsh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Quill_and_ink.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Quill_and_ink.svg/16px-Quill_and_ink.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Quill_and_ink.svg/24px-Quill_and_ink.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Quill_and_ink.svg/32px-Quill_and_ink.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="152" data-file-height="152" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Poetry" 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[\"Collapse top\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Sanskrit Literature\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 2,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 2,\n [\"Efn\"] = 16,\n [\"Efn-ua\"] = 7,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvcoltxt\"] = 1,\n [\"Hindu scriptures\"] = 1,\n [\"History of literature by era\"] = 1,\n [\"IAST\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 22,\n [\"Main\"] = 10,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist-lr\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist-ua\"] = 1,\n [\"PD-notice\"] = 1,\n [\"Poetry of different cultures and languages\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Sanskrit language topics\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 3,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 9,\n [\"Sfnref\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 1,\n [\"Vedas and Shakhas\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 2,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\nno target: CITEREFWinternitz1972\nno target: CITEREFWinternitz1972\nno target: CITEREFWinternitz1972\nno target: CITEREFWinternitz1972\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-int.codfw.main-74d9686544-wm6dn","timestamp":"20250219121725","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Sanskrit literature","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sanskrit_literature","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1053936","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1053936","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2004-04-11T11:55:57Z","dateModified":"2024-12-30T22:28:54Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/8\/86\/Devimahatmya_%28Glory_of_the_Goddess%29_manuscript_LACMA_M.88.134.7.jpg","headline":"body of Indic literature"}</script> </body> </html>