CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>History of education - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"770990c8-d21d-44d1-9c93-a101eceb1c0c","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"History_of_education","wgTitle":"History of education","wgCurRevisionId":1258774589,"wgRevisionId":1258774589,"wgArticleId":2061136,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Webarchive template wayback links","CS1 French-language sources (fr)","CS1 Italian-language sources (it)","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Use British English from March 2021","Use dmy dates from March 2021","Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from March 2021","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from February 2022","Articles with unsourced statements from April 2015", "All articles lacking reliable references","Articles lacking reliable references from February 2021","Articles with unsourced statements from January 2012","Articles with unsourced statements from September 2012","Articles containing Danish-language text","Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the Encyclopedia Americana with a Wikisource reference","History of education","History of science by discipline","History of education in Europe"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"History_of_education","wgRelevantArticleId":2061136,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr" ,"pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":100000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q861408","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready", "skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022", "ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/MANNapoli_124545_plato%27s_academy_mosaic_enh_crop.jpg/1200px-MANNapoli_124545_plato%27s_academy_mosaic_enh_crop.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1225"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/MANNapoli_124545_plato%27s_academy_mosaic_enh_crop.jpg/800px-MANNapoli_124545_plato%27s_academy_mosaic_enh_crop.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="816"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/MANNapoli_124545_plato%27s_academy_mosaic_enh_crop.jpg/640px-MANNapoli_124545_plato%27s_academy_mosaic_enh_crop.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="653"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="History of education - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_education"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_education"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-History_of_education rootpage-History_of_education skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=History+of+education" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=History+of+education" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=History+of+education" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=History+of+education" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Education_in_ancient_civilization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education_in_ancient_civilization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Education in ancient civilization</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Education_in_ancient_civilization-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Education in ancient civilization subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Education_in_ancient_civilization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Middle_East" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_East"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Middle East</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_East-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vedic_Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vedic_Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Vedic Education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vedic_Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Buddhist_Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buddhist_Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2</span> <span>Buddhist Education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buddhist_Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vinaya_Pitaka" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vinaya_Pitaka"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2.1</span> <span>Vinaya Pitaka</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vinaya_Pitaka-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sutta_Pitaka" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sutta_Pitaka"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2.2</span> <span>Sutta Pitaka</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sutta_Pitaka-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abhidhamma_Pitaka" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abhidhamma_Pitaka"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2.3</span> <span>Abhidhamma Pitaka</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abhidhamma_Pitaka-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greece" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greece"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Greece</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greece-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Rome</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formal_education_in_the_Middle_Ages_(500–1500_AD)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formal_education_in_the_Middle_Ages_(500–1500_AD)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Formal education in the Middle Ages (500–1500 AD)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Formal_education_in_the_Middle_Ages_(500–1500_AD)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Formal education in the Middle Ages (500–1500 AD) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Formal_education_in_the_Middle_Ages_(500–1500_AD)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamic_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Islamic world</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-China_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-India_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hindu_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hindu_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Hindu education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hindu_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamic_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.2</span> <span>Islamic education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Japan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Central_and_South_American_civilizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Central_and_South_American_civilizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Central and South American civilizations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Central_and_South_American_civilizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Aztec" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aztec"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.1</span> <span>Aztec</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aztec-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inca" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inca"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.2</span> <span>Inca</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inca-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_the_15th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_the_15th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>After the 15th century</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-After_the_15th_century-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle After the 15th century subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-After_the_15th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-China_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Europe_overview" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe_overview"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Europe overview</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe_overview-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Central_and_Eastern_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Central_and_Eastern_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Central and Eastern Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Central_and_Eastern_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Universities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Universities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>Universities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Universities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.4</span> <span>19th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.5</span> <span>20th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Denmark" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Denmark"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.6</span> <span>Denmark</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Denmark-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-England" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#England"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.7</span> <span>England</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-England-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Scotland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scotland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.7.1</span> <span>Scotland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scotland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.8</span> <span>France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-French_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.8.1</span> <span>French Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Imperial_Russia_and_the_Soviet_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imperial_Russia_and_the_Soviet_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.9</span> <span>Imperial Russia and the Soviet Union</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Imperial_Russia_and_the_Soviet_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Italy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.10</span> <span>Italy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Norway" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Norway"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.11</span> <span>Norway</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Norway-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sweden" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sweden"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.12</span> <span>Sweden</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sweden-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japan_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Japan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japan_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Meiji_reforms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meiji_reforms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Meiji reforms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meiji_reforms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-India_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Australia,_Canada,_New_Zealand" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia,_Canada,_New_Zealand"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Australia, Canada, New Zealand</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia,_Canada,_New_Zealand-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Turkey" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Turkey"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Turkey</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Turkey-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recent_world-wide_trends" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recent_world-wide_trends"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Recent world-wide trends</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recent_world-wide_trends-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Historiography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">History of education</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 22 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-22" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">22 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onderwys_(geskiedenis)" title="Onderwys (geskiedenis) – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Onderwys (geskiedenis)" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%85" title="تاريخ التعليم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ التعليم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="শিক্ষার ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="শিক্ষার ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_de_l%27educaci%C3%B3" title="Història de l'educació – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història de l'educació" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uddannelseshistorie" title="Uddannelseshistorie – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Uddannelseshistorie" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bildungsgeschichte" title="Bildungsgeschichte – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Bildungsgeschichte" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_la_educaci%C3%B3n" title="Historia de la educación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de la educación" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_de_eduko" title="Historio de eduko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Historio de eduko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_l%27%C3%A9ducation" title="Histoire de l'éducation – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire de l'éducation" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B5%90%EC%9C%A1%EC%9D%98_%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC" title="교육의 역사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="교육의 역사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="शिक्षा का इतिहास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="शिक्षा का इतिहास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%97%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%9A_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%99" title="היסטוריה של החינוך המערבי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היסטוריה של החינוך המערבי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_ya_elimu" title="Historia ya elimu – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Historia ya elimu" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenis_van_het_Europese_onderwijs" title="Geschiedenis van het Europese onderwijs – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geschiedenis van het Europese onderwijs" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2%E5%8F%B2" title="教育史 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="教育史" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_da_educa%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="História da educação – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História da educação" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_e_arsimit" title="Historia e arsimit – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Historia e arsimit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koulutuksen_historia" title="Koulutuksen historia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Koulutuksen historia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utbildningshistoria" title="Utbildningshistoria – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Utbildningshistoria" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="கல்வியின் வரலாறு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கல்வியின் வரலாறு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C4%9Fitim_tarihi" title="Eğitim tarihi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Eğitim tarihi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2%E5%8F%B2" title="教育史 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="教育史" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q861408#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_education" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:History_of_education" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_education"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_education"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/History_of_education" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/History_of_education" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&oldid=1258774589" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=History_of_education&id=1258774589&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FHistory_of_education"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FHistory_of_education"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=History_of_education&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:History_of_education" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikisource mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:History_of_education" hreflang="en"><span>Wikisource</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q861408" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with the journal <a href="/wiki/History_of_Education_Quarterly" title="History of Education Quarterly">History of Education Quarterly</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MANNapoli_124545_plato%27s_academy_mosaic_enh_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/MANNapoli_124545_plato%27s_academy_mosaic_enh_crop.jpg/220px-MANNapoli_124545_plato%27s_academy_mosaic_enh_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/MANNapoli_124545_plato%27s_academy_mosaic_enh_crop.jpg/330px-MANNapoli_124545_plato%27s_academy_mosaic_enh_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/MANNapoli_124545_plato%27s_academy_mosaic_enh_crop.jpg/440px-MANNapoli_124545_plato%27s_academy_mosaic_enh_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1653" data-file-height="1687" /></a><figcaption>Mosaic from <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a> (1st c. BC) depicting <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>history of education</b>, like other history, extends at least as far back as the first written records recovered from ancient civilizations. Historical studies have included virtually every nation.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest known formal school was developed in Egypt's Middle Kingdom under the direction of Kheti, treasurer to <a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_II" title="Mentuhotep II">Mentuhotep II</a> (2061-2010 BC). In ancient India, education was mainly imparted through the <a href="/wiki/Vedic_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic education">Vedic</a> and Buddhist education system, while the first education system in ancient China was created in Xia dynasty (2076–1600 BC). In the <a href="/wiki/City-states" class="mw-redirect" title="City-states">city-states</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a>, most <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a> was private, except in Sparta. For example, in Athens, during the 5th and 4th century BC, aside from two years military training, the state played little part in schooling. The first schools in Ancient <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> arose by the middle of the 4th century BC. </p><p>In Europe, during the Early Middle Ages, the monasteries of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> were the centers of education and literacy, preserving the Church's selection from Latin learning and maintaining the art of writing. In the Islamic civilization that spread all the way between China and Spain during the time between the 7th and 19th centuries, Muslims started schooling from 622 in Medina, which is now a city in Saudi Arabia, schooling at first was in the mosques (masjid in Arabic) but then schools became separate in schools next to mosques. Modern systems of education in Europe derive their origins from the schools of the <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a>. Most schools during this era were founded upon religious principles with the primary purpose of training the clergy. Many of the earliest universities, such as the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">University of Paris</a> founded in 1160, had a <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> basis. In addition to this, a number of secular universities existed, such as the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bologna" title="University of Bologna">University of Bologna</a>, founded in 1088, the <a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_universities_in_continuous_operation" title="List of oldest universities in continuous operation">oldest university in continuous operation in the world</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Naples_Federico_II" title="University of Naples Federico II">University of Naples Federico II</a> (founded in 1224) in Italy, the world's oldest state-funded university in continuous operation. </p><p>In northern Europe this clerical education was largely superseded by forms of elementary schooling following the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Reformation</a>. <a href="/wiki/Herbart" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbart">Herbart</a> developed a system of pedagogy widely used in German-speaking areas. Mass compulsory schooling started in Prussia by around 1800 to "produce more soldiers and more obedient citizens". After 1868 reformers set Japan on a rapid course of <a href="/wiki/Modernization" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernization">modernization</a>, with a public education system like <a href="/wiki/Western_education" title="Western education">that of Western Europe</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Russia">Imperial Russia</a>, according to the 1897 census, literate people made up 28 per cent of the population. There was a strong network of universities for the upper class, but weaker provisions for everyone else. <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a>, in 1919 proclaimed the major aim of the <a href="/wiki/Sovnarkom" class="mw-redirect" title="Sovnarkom">Soviet government</a> was the abolition of illiteracy. A system of universal compulsory education was established. Millions of illiterate adults were enrolled in special <a href="/wiki/Literacy_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Literacy school">literacy schools</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Education_in_ancient_civilization">Education in ancient civilization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Education in ancient civilization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_writing" title="History of writing">History of writing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_higher-learning_institutions" title="Ancient higher-learning institutions">Ancient higher-learning institutions</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_East">Middle East</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Middle East"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of education in ancient Israel and Judah">History of education in ancient Israel and Judah</a></div> <p>The earliest known formal school was developed in Egypt's Middle Kingdom under the direction of Kheti, treasurer to <a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_II" title="Mentuhotep II">Mentuhotep II</a> (2061-2010 BC).<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, the early <a href="/wiki/Logographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Logographic">logographic</a> system of cuneiform script took many years to master. Thus only a limited number of individuals were hired as <a href="/wiki/Scribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Scribes">scribes</a> to be trained in its reading and writing. Only royal offspring and sons of the rich and professionals, such as scribes, physicians, and temple administrators, were schooled.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most boys were taught their father's trade or were apprenticed to learn a trade.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (March 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Girls stayed at home with their mothers to learn <a href="/wiki/Housekeeping" title="Housekeeping">housekeeping</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cooking" title="Cooking">cooking</a>, and to look after the younger children. Later, when a <a href="/wiki/Syllabary" title="Syllabary">syllabic</a> script became more widespread, more of the Mesopotamian population became literate. Later still in <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylonian</a> times there were libraries in most towns and temples; an old <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumerian</a> proverb averred "he who would excel in the school of the scribes must rise with the dawn."<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> There arose a whole social class of scribes, mostly employed in agriculture, but some as personal secretaries or lawyers.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women as well as men learned to read and write, and for the Semitic Babylonians, this involved knowledge of the extinct <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian language</a>, and a complicated and extensive syllabary. Vocabularies, grammars, and interlinear translations were compiled for the use of students, as well as commentaries on the older texts and explanations of obscure words and phrases. Massive archives of texts were recovered from the archaeological contexts of Old Babylonian scribal schools known as <span title="Sumerian-language romanization"><i lang="sux-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Eduba" title="Eduba">edubas</a></i></span> (2000–1600 BCE), through which literacy was disseminated. The <a href="/wiki/Epic_of_Gilgamesh" title="Epic of Gilgamesh">Epic of Gilgamesh</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">epic poem</a> from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Mesopotamia">Ancient Mesopotamia</a> is among the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_literature" title="Ancient literature">earliest known works of literary fiction</a>. The earliest <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumerian</a> versions of the epic date from as early as the <a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Third Dynasty of Ur</a> (2150–2000 BC) (Dalley 1989: 41–42). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ashurbanipal" title="Ashurbanipal">Ashurbanipal</a> (685 – c. 627 BC), a king of the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a>, was proud of his scribal education. His youthful scholarly pursuits included oil divination, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, reading and writing as well as the usual <a href="/wiki/Horsemanship" class="mw-redirect" title="Horsemanship">horsemanship</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">hunting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chariot" title="Chariot">chariotry</a>, soldierliness, <a href="/wiki/Artisan" title="Artisan">craftsmanship</a>, and royal decorum. During his reign he collected cuneiform texts from all over Mesopotamia, and especially Babylonia, in the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Ashurbanipal" title="Library of Ashurbanipal">library in Nineveh</a>, the first systematically organized library in the ancient Middle East,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which survives in part today. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>, literacy was concentrated among an educated elite of <a href="/wiki/Scribe" title="Scribe">scribes</a>. Only people from certain backgrounds were allowed to train to become scribes, in the service of temple, pharaonic, and military authorities. The hieroglyph system was always difficult to learn, but in later centuries was purposely made even more so, as this preserved the scribes' status. Literacy remains an elusive subject for ancient Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Estimations of literacy range from 1 to 5 per cent of the population, based on very limited evidence<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Literacy_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Literacy-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to much higher numbers.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Generalisations for the whole country, even at a given period, inevitably mask differences between regions, and, most importantly, between urban and rural populations. They may seriously underestimate the proportion of the population able to read and write in towns; low literacy estimates are a regular feature of 19th and 20th century attitudes to ancient and medieval (pre-Reformation) societies.<sup id="cite_ref-Literacy_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Literacy-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Israel">ancient Israel</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> (the fundamental religious text) includes commands to read, learn, teach and write the Torah, thus requiring literacy and study. In 64 AD the <a href="/wiki/Kohen_Gadol" class="mw-redirect" title="Kohen Gadol">high priest</a> caused schools to be opened.<sup id="cite_ref-Compayre_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compayre-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Emphasis was placed on developing good memory skills in addition to comprehension oral repetition. For details of the subjects taught, see <a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of education in ancient Israel and Judah">History of education in ancient Israel and Judah</a>. Although girls were not provided with formal education in the <a href="/wiki/Yeshivah" class="mw-redirect" title="Yeshivah">yeshivah</a>, they were required to know a large part of the subject areas to prepare them to maintain the home after marriage, and to educate the children before the age of seven. Despite this schooling system, it would seem that many children did not learn to read and write, because it has been estimated that "at least ninety percent of the Jewish population of Roman Palestine [in the first centuries AD] could merely write their own name or not write and read at all",<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or that the literacy rate was about 3 per cent.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India">India</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of education in the Indian subcontinent">History of education in the Indian subcontinent</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nalanda_-_043_Teaching_Platform_(9253479492).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Nalanda_-_043_Teaching_Platform_%289253479492%29.jpg/220px-Nalanda_-_043_Teaching_Platform_%289253479492%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Nalanda_-_043_Teaching_Platform_%289253479492%29.jpg/330px-Nalanda_-_043_Teaching_Platform_%289253479492%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Nalanda_-_043_Teaching_Platform_%289253479492%29.jpg/440px-Nalanda_-_043_Teaching_Platform_%289253479492%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4199" data-file-height="3149" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nalanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Nalanda">Nalanda</a> - teaching platform</figcaption></figure> <p>In ancient India, education was mainly imparted through the Vedic and Buddhist education system. Sanskrit was the language used to impart the <a href="/wiki/Vedic_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic education">Vedic education system</a>. Pali was the language used in the Buddhist education system. In the Vedic system, a child started his education at the age of 8 to 12, whereas in the Buddhist system the child started his education at the age of eight. The main aim of education in ancient India was to develop a person's character, master the art of self-control, bring about social awareness, and to conserve and take forward ancient culture. </p><p>The Buddhist and Vedic systems had different subjects. In the Vedic system of study, the students were taught the four Vedas – Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda, they were also taught the six Vedangas – ritualistic knowledge, metrics, exegetics, grammar, phonetics and astronomy, the Upanishads and more. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vedic_Education">Vedic Education</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Vedic Education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Brahmanical_System_of_Education" title="Brahmanical System of Education">Brahmanical System of Education</a></div> <p>In ancient India, education was imparted and passed on orally rather than in written form. Education was a process that involved three steps, first was <a href="/wiki/Shravana_(hearing)" title="Shravana (hearing)">Shravana (hearing)</a> which is the acquisition of knowledge by listening to the Shrutis. The second is <a href="/wiki/Manana_(reflection)" class="mw-redirect" title="Manana (reflection)">Manana (reflection)</a> wherein the students think, analyze and make inferences. Third, is <a href="/wiki/Nididhy%C4%81sana" title="Nididhyāsana">Nididhyāsana</a> in which the students apply the knowledge in their real life. </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a> from about 1500 BC to 600 BC, most education was based on the <a href="/wiki/Veda" class="mw-redirect" title="Veda">Veda</a> (hymns, formulas, and incantations, recited or chanted by priests of a pre-Hindu tradition) and later Hindu texts and scriptures. The main aim of education, according to the Vedas, is liberation. </p><p>Vedic education included proper pronunciation and recitation of the Veda, the rules of sacrifice, grammar and derivation, composition, versification and meter, understanding of secrets of nature, reasoning including logic, the sciences, and the skills necessary for an occupation.<sup id="cite_ref-Gupta_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gupta-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some medical knowledge existed and was taught. There is mention in the Veda of herbal medicines for various conditions or diseases, including fever, cough, baldness, snake bite and others.<sup id="cite_ref-Gupta_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gupta-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Education included teaching of Ayurveda, <a href="/wiki/Kal%C4%81" title="Kalā">64 kalas</a> (arts), crafts, Shilpa Shastra, Natya Shastra.<sup id="cite_ref-Gupta_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gupta-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Educating the women was given a great deal of importance in ancient India. Women were trained in dance, music and housekeeping. The <i>Sadyodwahas</i> class of women got educated till they were married. The <i>Brahmavadinis</i> class of women never got married and educated themselves for their entire life. Parts of Vedas that included poems and religious songs required for rituals were taught to women. Some noteworthy women scholars of ancient India include Ghosha, Gargi, Indrani and so on.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The oldest of the <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a> – another part of Hindu scriptures – date from around 500 BC. The Upanishads are considered as "wisdom teachings" as they explore the deeper and actual meaning of sacrifice. These texts encouraged an exploratory learning process where teachers and students were co-travellers in a search for truth. The teaching methods used reasoning and questioning. Nothing was labelled as the final answer.<sup id="cite_ref-Gupta_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gupta-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Gurukula" title="Gurukula">Gurukula</a> system of education supported traditional Hindu residential schools of learning; typically the teacher's house or a monastery. In the Gurukul system, the teacher (Guru) and the student (Śiṣya) were considered to be equal even if they belonged to different social standings. Education was free, but students from well-to-do families paid "Gurudakshina", a voluntary contribution after the completion of their studies. Gurudakshina is a mark of respect by the students towards their Guru. It is a way in which the students acknowledged, thanked and respected their Guru, whom they consider to be their spiritual guide. At the Gurukulas, the teacher imparted knowledge of Religion, Scriptures, <a href="/wiki/Hindu_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu Philosophy">Philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_Literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit Literature">Literature</a>, Warfare, Statecraft, <a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Medicine</a>, Astrology and History.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The corpus of <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_literature" title="Sanskrit literature">Sanskrit literature</a> encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_drama" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit drama">drama</a> as well as technical <a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_ancient_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Science and technology in ancient India">scientific</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">philosophical</a> and generally <a href="/wiki/Hindu_scriptures" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu scriptures">Hindu religious</a> texts, though many central texts of <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> have also been composed in Sanskrit. </p><p>Two <a href="/wiki/Indian_epic_poetry" title="Indian epic poetry">epic poems</a> formed part of ancient Indian education. The <a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a>, part of which may date back to the 8th century BC,<sup id="cite_ref-Brockington_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brockington-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> discusses human goals (purpose, pleasure, duty, and liberation), attempting to explain the relationship of the individual to society and the world (the nature of the '<a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">Self</a>') and the workings of <a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">karma</a>. The other epic poem, <a href="/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a>, is shorter, although it has 24,000 verses. It is thought to have been compiled between about 400 BC and 200 AD. The epic explores themes of human existence and the concept of <a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">dharma</a> (doing ones duty).<sup id="cite_ref-Brockington_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brockington-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Buddhist_Education">Buddhist Education</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Buddhist Education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the Buddhist education system, the subjects included Pitakas. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Vinaya_Pitaka">Vinaya Pitaka</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Vinaya Pitaka"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It is a Buddhist canon that contains a code of rules and regulations that govern the Buddhist community residing in the Monastery. The Vinaya Pitaka is especially preached to Buddhist monks (Sanga) to maintain discipline when interacting with people and nature. The set of rules ensures that people, animals, nature and the environment are not harmed by the Buddhist monks. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Sutta_Pitaka">Sutta Pitaka</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Sutta Pitaka"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It is divided into 5 <i>niyakas</i> (collections). It contains Buddhas teachings recorded mainly as sermons and. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Abhidhamma_Pitaka">Abhidhamma Pitaka</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Abhidhamma Pitaka"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It contains a summary and analysis of Buddha's teachings. </p><p>An early centre of learning in India dating back to the 5th century BC was <a href="/wiki/Taxila" title="Taxila">Taxila</a> (also known as <i>Takshashila</i>), which taught the trayi <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a> and the eighteen accomplishments.<sup id="cite_ref-Scharfe_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scharfe-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was an important <a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedic</a>/<a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hindu</a><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> centre of learning from the 6th century <a href="/wiki/Anno_Domini" title="Anno Domini">BC</a><sup id="cite_ref-Britannica_Education_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britannica_Education-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to the 5th century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-Encarta_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Encarta-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Needham_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Needham-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another important centre of learning from 5th century CE was <a href="/wiki/Nalanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Nalanda">Nalanda</a>. In the kingdom of Magadha, Nalanda was well known Buddhist monastery. Scholars and students from Tibet, China, Korea and Central Asia traveled to Nalanda in pursuit of education. <a href="/wiki/Vikramashila" title="Vikramashila">Vikramashila</a> was one of the largest Buddhist monasteries that was set up in 8th to 9th centuries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China">China</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_China" title="History of education in China">History of education in China</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Taiwan" title="History of education in Taiwan">History of education in Taiwan</a></div> <p>According to legendary accounts, the rulers <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Yao" title="Emperor Yao">Yao</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Shun" title="Emperor Shun">Shun</a> (ca. 24th–23rd century BC) established the first schools. The first education system was created in Xia dynasty (2076–1600 BC). During Xia dynasty, government built schools to educate aristocrats about rituals, literature and archery (important for ancient Chinese aristocrats). </p><p>During Shang dynasty (1600 BC to 1046 BC), normal people (farmers, workers etc.) accepted rough education. In that time, aristocrats' children studied in government schools. And normal people studied in private schools. Government schools were always built in cities and private schools were built in rural areas. Government schools paid attention on educating students about rituals, literature, politics, music, arts and archery. Private schools educated students to do farmwork and handworks.<sup id="cite_ref-HardyG_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HardyG-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a> (1045–256 BC), there were five national schools in the capital city, Pi Yong (an imperial school, located in a central location) and four other schools for the aristocrats and nobility, including <a href="/wiki/Shang_Xiang" title="Shang Xiang">Shang Xiang</a>. The schools mainly taught the <a href="/wiki/Six_Arts" title="Six Arts">Six Arts</a>: rites, music, archery, charioteering, calligraphy, and mathematics. According to the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Rites" title="Book of Rites">Book of Rites</a>, at age twelve, boys learned arts related to ritual (i.e. music and dance) and when older, archery and chariot driving. Girls learned ritual, correct deportment, silk production and weaving.<sup id="cite_ref-Kinney_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kinney-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It was during the Zhou dynasty that the origins of native <a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosophy</a> also developed. <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> (551–479 BC) founder of <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>, was a Chinese philosopher who made a great impact on later generations of Chinese, and on the curriculum of the Chinese educational system for much of the following 2000 years. </p><p>Later, during the <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a> (246–207 BC), a hierarchy of officials was set up to provide central control over the outlying areas of the empire. To enter this hierarchy, both literacy and knowledge of the increasing body of philosophy was required: "....the content of the educational process was designed not to engender functionally specific skills but rather to produce morally enlightened and cultivated generalists".<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> (206–221 AD), boys were thought ready at age seven to start learning basic skills in reading, writing and calculation.<sup id="cite_ref-HardyG_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HardyG-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 124 BC, the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Han" title="Emperor Wu of Han">Emperor Wudi</a> established the <a href="/wiki/Taixue" title="Taixue">Imperial Academy</a>, the curriculum of which was the <a href="/wiki/Five_Classics" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Classics">Five Classics</a> of Confucius. By the end of the Han dynasty (220 AD) the academy enrolled more than 30,000 students, boys between the ages of fourteen and seventeen years. However education through this period was a luxury.<sup id="cite_ref-Kinney_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kinney-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Nine-rank_system" title="Nine-rank system">nine-rank system</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Civil_service" title="Civil service">civil service</a> nomination system during the <a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a> (220–280 AD) and the <a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and Southern dynasties</a> (420–589 AD) in China. Theoretically, local government authorities were given the task of selecting talented candidates, then categorizing them into nine grades depending on their abilities. In practice, however, only the rich and powerful would be selected. The Nine Rank System was eventually superseded by the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">imperial examination</a> system for the civil service in the <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui dynasty</a> (581–618 AD). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greece">Greece</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Greece"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Greece" title="Education in ancient Greece">Education in ancient Greece</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotle_and_his_disciples_Lebiedzki_Rahl.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Aristotle_and_his_disciples_Lebiedzki_Rahl.jpg/220px-Aristotle_and_his_disciples_Lebiedzki_Rahl.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Aristotle_and_his_disciples_Lebiedzki_Rahl.jpg/330px-Aristotle_and_his_disciples_Lebiedzki_Rahl.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Aristotle_and_his_disciples_Lebiedzki_Rahl.jpg/440px-Aristotle_and_his_disciples_Lebiedzki_Rahl.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1150" data-file-height="850" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> and his disciples – <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander</a>, <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_Phalereus" class="mw-redirect" title="Demetrius Phalereus">Demetrius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Strato_of_Lampsacus" title="Strato of Lampsacus">Strato</a>, in an 1888 fresco in the portico of the <a href="/wiki/National_and_Kapodistrian_University_of_Athens" title="National and Kapodistrian University of Athens">National University of Athens</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/City-states" class="mw-redirect" title="City-states">city-states</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a>, most <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a> was private, except in Sparta. For example, in Athens, during the 5th and 4th century BC, aside from two years military training, the state played little part in schooling.<sup id="cite_ref-Coulson_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coulson-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cordasco_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cordasco-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anyone could open a school and decide the curriculum. Parents could choose a school offering the subjects they wanted their children to learn, at a monthly fee they could afford.<sup id="cite_ref-Coulson_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coulson-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most parents, even the poor, sent their sons to schools for at least a few years, and if they could afford it from around the age of seven until fourteen, learning gymnastics (including athletics, sport and wrestling), music (including poetry, drama and history) and literacy.<sup id="cite_ref-Coulson_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coulson-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cordasco_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cordasco-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Girls rarely received formal education. At writing school, the youngest students learned the alphabet by song, then later by copying the shapes of letters with a stylus on a waxed wooden tablet. After some schooling, the sons of poor or middle-class families often learnt a trade by apprenticeship, whether with their father or another tradesman.<sup id="cite_ref-Coulson_33-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coulson-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By around 350 BC, it was common for children at schools in Athens to also study various arts such as drawing, painting, and sculpture. The richest students continued their <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a> by studying with sophists, from whom they could learn subjects such as rhetoric, mathematics, geography, natural history, politics, and logic.<sup id="cite_ref-Coulson_33-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coulson-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cordasco_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cordasco-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of Athens' greatest schools of higher education included the <a href="/wiki/Lyceum" title="Lyceum">Lyceum</a> (the so-called <a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a> founded by <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> of <a href="/wiki/Stageira" class="mw-redirect" title="Stageira">Stageira</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Platonic Academy</a> (founded by <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> of Athens). The <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a> system of the wealthy ancient Greeks is also called <a href="/wiki/Paideia" title="Paideia">Paideia</a>. In the subsequent Roman empire, Greek was the primary language of science. Advanced scientific research and teaching was mainly carried on in the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</a> side of the Roman empire, in Greek. </p><p>The education system in the Greek city-state of <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a> was entirely different, designed to create warriors with complete obedience, courage, and physical perfection. At the age of seven, boys were taken away from their homes to live in school dormitories or military barracks. There they were taught sports, endurance and fighting, and little else, with harsh discipline. Most of the population was illiterate.<sup id="cite_ref-Coulson_33-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coulson-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cordasco_34-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cordasco-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rome">Rome</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Rome"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Rome" title="Education in ancient Rome">Education in ancient Rome</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Busto_maschile.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Busto_maschile.JPG/220px-Busto_maschile.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Busto_maschile.JPG/330px-Busto_maschile.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Busto_maschile.JPG/440px-Busto_maschile.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1672" data-file-height="1663" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Roman_portraiture" title="Roman portraiture">Roman portraiture</a> fresco of a young man with a <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a> <a href="/wiki/Scroll" title="Scroll">scroll</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Herculaneum" title="Herculaneum">Herculaneum</a>, 1st century AD</figcaption></figure> <p>The first schools in Ancient <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> arose by the middle of the 4th century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Hist_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hist-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These schools were concerned with the basic socialization and rudimentary education of young Roman children. The literacy rate in the 3rd century BC has been estimated as around 1-2%.<sup id="cite_ref-HarrisWV_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HarrisWV-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are very few primary sources or accounts of Roman educational process until the 2nd century BC,<sup id="cite_ref-Hist_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hist-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> during which there was a proliferation of private schools in Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-HarrisWV_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HarrisWV-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the height of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> and later the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, the Roman educational system gradually found its final form. Formal schools were established, which served paying students (very little in the way of free public education as we know it can be found).<sup id="cite_ref-Ox_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ox-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Normally, both boys and girls were educated, though not necessarily together.<sup id="cite_ref-Ox_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ox-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a system much like the one that predominates in the modern world, the Roman education system that developed arranged schools in tiers. </p><p>The educator <a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a> recognized the importance of starting education as early as possible, noting that "memory … not only exists even in small children, but is specially retentive at that age".<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A Roman student would progress through schools just as a student today might go from elementary school to middle school, then to high school, and finally college. Progression depended more on ability than age<sup id="cite_ref-Ox_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ox-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with great emphasis being placed upon a student's <i>ingenium</i> or inborn "gift" for learning,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a more tacit emphasis on a student's ability to afford high-level education. Only the Roman elite would expect a complete formal education. A tradesman or farmer would expect to pick up most of his vocational skills on the job. Higher education in Rome was more of a status symbol than a practical concern. </p><p>Literacy rates in the Greco-Roman world were seldom more than 20 per cent; averaging perhaps not much above 10 per cent in the Roman empire, though with wide regional variations, probably never rising above 5 per cent in the western provinces. The literate in classical Greece did not much exceed 5 per cent of the population.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formal_education_in_the_Middle_Ages_(500–1500_AD)"><span id="Formal_education_in_the_Middle_Ages_.28500.E2.80.931500_AD.29"></span>Formal education in the Middle Ages (500–1500 AD)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Formal education in the Middle Ages (500–1500 AD)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">Medieval university</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_universities" title="List of medieval universities">List of medieval universities</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_universities_in_continuous_operation" title="List of oldest universities in continuous operation">List of oldest universities in continuous operation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cluny-Abtei-Ostfluegel-mtob.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Cluny-Abtei-Ostfluegel-mtob.jpg/220px-Cluny-Abtei-Ostfluegel-mtob.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Cluny-Abtei-Ostfluegel-mtob.jpg/330px-Cluny-Abtei-Ostfluegel-mtob.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Cluny-Abtei-Ostfluegel-mtob.jpg/440px-Cluny-Abtei-Ostfluegel-mtob.jpg 2x" data-file-width="670" data-file-height="770" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Abbey_of_Cluny" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbey of Cluny">Abbey of Cluny</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The word school applies to a variety of educational organizations in the Middle Ages, including town, church, and monastery schools. During the late medieval period, students attending town schools were usually between the ages of seven and fourteen. Instruction for boys in such schools ranged from the basics of literacy (alphabet, syllables, simple prayers and proverbs) to more advanced instruction in the Latin language. Occasionally, these schools may also have taught rudimentary arithmetic or letter writing and other skills useful in business. Often instruction at various levels took place in the same schoolroom.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Early Middle Ages, the monasteries of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> were the centers of education and literacy, preserving the Church's selection from Latin learning and maintaining the art of writing. Prior to their formal establishment, many medieval universities were run for hundreds of years as Christian <a href="/wiki/Monastic_school" title="Monastic school">monastic schools</a> (<i>Scholae monasticae</i>), in which <a href="/wiki/Monk" title="Monk">monks</a> taught classes, and later as <a href="/wiki/Cathedral_school" title="Cathedral school">cathedral schools</a>; evidence of these immediate forerunners of the later university at many places dates back to the early 6th century.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first medieval institutions generally considered to be universities were established in Italy, France, and England in the late 11th and the 12th centuries for the study of arts, law, medicine, and theology. These universities evolved from much older Christian cathedral schools and monastic schools, and it is difficult to define the date on which they became true universities, although the lists of <a href="/wiki/Studium_generale" title="Studium generale">studia generalia</a> for higher education in Europe held by the Vatican are a useful guide. </p><p>Students in the twelfth-century were very proud of the master whom they studied under. They were not very concerned with telling others the place or region where they received their education. Even now when scholars cite schools with distinctive doctrines, they use group names to describe the school rather than its geographical location. Those who studied under <a href="/wiki/Robert_of_Melun" title="Robert of Melun">Robert of Melun</a> were called the <i>Meludinenses</i>. These people did not study in <a href="/wiki/Melun" title="Melun">Melun</a>, but in Paris, and were given the group name of their master. Citizens in the twelfth-century became very interested in learning the rare and difficult skills masters could provide.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ireland became known as the island of saints and scholars. Monasteries were built all over Ireland, and these became centres of great learning (see <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic Church">Celtic Church</a>). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Northumbria" title="Northumbria">Northumbria</a> was famed as a centre of religious learning and arts. Initially the kingdom was <a href="/wiki/Hiberno-Scottish_mission" title="Hiberno-Scottish mission">evangelized</a> by monks from the <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic Church">Celtic Church</a>, which led to a flowering of monastic life, and Northumbria played an important role in the formation of <a href="/wiki/Insular_art" title="Insular art">Insular art</a>, a unique style combining Anglo-Saxon, <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Christianity" title="Celtic Christianity">Celtic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Byzantine" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine">Byzantine</a> and other elements. After the <a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Whitby" title="Synod of Whitby">Synod of Whitby</a> in 664 AD, Roman church practices officially replaced the Celtic ones but the influence of the Anglo-Celtic style continued, the most famous examples of this being the <a href="/wiki/Lindisfarne_Gospels" title="Lindisfarne Gospels">Lindisfarne Gospels</a>. The Venerable <a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a> (673–735) wrote his <i><a href="/wiki/Historia_ecclesiastica_gentis_Anglorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum">Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum</a></i> (Ecclesiastical History of the English People, completed in 731) in a Northumbrian monastery, and much of it focuses on the kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the reign of <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>, King of the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> from 768 to 814 AD, whose empire united most of Western Europe for the first time since the Romans, there was a flowering of literature, art, and architecture known as the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissance" title="Carolingian Renaissance">Carolingian Renaissance</a>. Brought into contact with the culture and learning of other countries through his vast conquests, Charlemagne greatly increased the provision of monastic schools and <a href="/wiki/Scriptoria" class="mw-redirect" title="Scriptoria">scriptoria</a> (centres for book-copying) in <a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a>. Most of the surviving works of classical Latin were copied and preserved by Carolingian scholars. </p><p>Charlemagne took a serious interest in scholarship, promoting the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal arts">liberal arts</a> at the court, ordering that his children and grandchildren be well-educated, and even studying himself under the tutelage of Paul the Deacon, from whom he learned grammar, Alcuin, with whom he studied rhetoric, dialect and astronomy (he was particularly interested in the movements of the stars), and Einhard, who assisted him in his studies of arithmetic. The English monk <a href="/wiki/Alcuin" title="Alcuin">Alcuin</a> was invited to Charlemagne's court at <a href="/wiki/Aachen" title="Aachen">Aachen</a>, and brought with him the precise classical Latin education that was available in the monasteries of <a href="/wiki/Northumbria" title="Northumbria">Northumbria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The return of this Latin proficiency to the kingdom of the Franks is regarded as an important step in the development of mediaeval Latin. Charlemagne's chancery made use of a type of script currently known as <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_minuscule" title="Carolingian minuscule">Carolingian minuscule</a>, providing a common writing style that allowed for communication across most of Europe. After the decline of the Carolingian dynasty, the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Saxon_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Saxon Dynasty">Saxon Dynasty</a> in Germany was accompanied by the <a href="/wiki/Ottonian_Renaissance" title="Ottonian Renaissance">Ottonian Renaissance</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Archiginnasio-bologna02.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Archiginnasio-bologna02.png/220px-Archiginnasio-bologna02.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Archiginnasio-bologna02.png/330px-Archiginnasio-bologna02.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Archiginnasio-bologna02.png/440px-Archiginnasio-bologna02.png 2x" data-file-width="618" data-file-height="411" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bologna_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Bologna University">Bologna University</a> in Italy, established in 1088 A.D., is the <a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_universities_in_continuous_operation" title="List of oldest universities in continuous operation">world's oldest university in continuous operation</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Additionally, Charlemagne attempted to establish a free elementary education by parish priests for youth in a capitulary of 797. The capitulary states "that the priests establish schools in every town and village, and if any of the faithful wish to entrust their children to them to learn letters, that they refuse not to accept them but with all charity teach them ... and let them exact no price from the children for their teaching nor receive anything from them save what parents may offer voluntarily and from affection" (P.L., CV., col. 196)<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Wikipedia_and_sources_that_mirror_or_use_it" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="This claim cites another Wikipedia article. Articles need references to reliable third-party sources. (February 2021)">circular reference</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Cathedral schools and monasteries remained important throughout the Middle Ages; at the <a href="/wiki/Third_Lateran_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Lateran Council">Third Lateran Council</a> of 1179 the Church mandated that priests provide the opportunity of a free education to their flocks, and the 12th and 13th century renascence known as the <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholastic Movement</a> was spread through the monasteries. These however ceased to be the sole sources of education in the 11th century when <a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">universities</a>, which grew out of the monasticism began to be established in major European cities. Literacy became available to a wider class of people, and there were major advances in art, sculpture, music and architecture.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1120, <a href="/wiki/Dunfermline_Abbey" title="Dunfermline Abbey">Dunfermline Abbey</a> in Scotland by order of <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_Canmore" class="mw-redirect" title="Malcolm Canmore">Malcolm Canmore</a> and his Queen, Margaret, built and established the first high school in the UK, <a href="/wiki/Dunfermline_High_School" title="Dunfermline High School">Dunfermline High School</a>. This highlighted the monastery influence and developments made for education, from the ancient capital of Scotland. </p><p>Sculpture, paintings and stained glass windows were vital educational media through which Biblical themes and the lives of the saints were taught to illiterate viewers.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islamic_world">Islamic world</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Islamic world"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Madrasah" class="mw-redirect" title="Madrasah">Madrasah</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bimaristan" title="Bimaristan">Bimaristan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ijazah" title="Ijazah">Ijazah</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:University_of_Al_Qaraouiyine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/University_of_Al_Qaraouiyine.jpg/220px-University_of_Al_Qaraouiyine.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/University_of_Al_Qaraouiyine.jpg/330px-University_of_Al_Qaraouiyine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/University_of_Al_Qaraouiyine.jpg/440px-University_of_Al_Qaraouiyine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="1143" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/University_of_al-Qarawiyyin" title="University of al-Qarawiyyin">University of al-Qarawiyyin</a> located in <a href="/wiki/Fes" class="mw-redirect" title="Fes">Fes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In the Islamic civilization that spread all the way between China and Spain during the time between the 7th and 19th centuries, Muslims started schooling from 622 in Medina, which is now a city in Saudi Arabia, schooling at first was in the mosques (masjid in Arabic) but then schools became separate in schools next to mosques. The first separate school was the Nizamiyah school. It was built in 1066 in Baghdad. Children started school from the age of six with free tuition. The <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> encourages Muslims to be educated. Thus, education and schooling sprang up in the ancient Muslim societies. Moreover, the <a href="/wiki/University_of_al-Qarawiyyin" title="University of al-Qarawiyyin">University of al-Qarawiyyin</a> located in <a href="/wiki/Fes" class="mw-redirect" title="Fes">Fes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> is the oldest existing, continually operating and the first degree awarding educational institution in the world according to <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guinness_World_Records" title="Guinness World Records">Guinness World Records</a><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is sometimes referred to as the oldest university.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was originally a mosque that was built in 859.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/House_of_Wisdom" title="House of Wisdom">House of Wisdom</a> in Baghdad was a library, translation and educational centre from the 9th to 13th centuries. Works on <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> were translated. Drawing on <a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Empire">Persian</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">Indian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> texts—including those of <a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sushruta" title="Sushruta">Sushruta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charaka" title="Charaka">Charaka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aryabhata" title="Aryabhata">Aryabhata</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brahmagupta" title="Brahmagupta">Brahmagupta</a>—the scholars accumulated a great collection of knowledge in the world, and built on it through their own discoveries. The House was an unrivalled centre for the study of <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a> and for <a href="/wiki/Islamic_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic science">sciences</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Islamic_mathematics" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic medicine">medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in Islam">chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">zoology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_geography" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic geography">geography</a>. Baghdad was known as the world's richest city and centre for intellectual development of the time, and had a population of over a million, the largest in its time.<sup id="cite_ref-Modelski_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Modelski-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Islamic mosque school (<a href="/wiki/Madrasah" class="mw-redirect" title="Madrasah">Madrasah</a>) taught the Quran in Arabic and did not at all resemble the medieval European universities.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 9th century, <a href="/wiki/Bimaristan" title="Bimaristan">Bimaristan</a> medical schools were formed in the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">medieval Islamic world</a>, where medical <a href="/wiki/Diploma" title="Diploma">diplomas</a> were issued to students of <a href="/wiki/Islamic_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic medicine">Islamic medicine</a> who were qualified to be a practicing <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">Doctor of Medicine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Alatas_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alatas-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Al-Azhar_University" title="Al-Azhar University">Al-Azhar University</a>, founded in <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> in 975, was a <i>Jami'ah</i> ("university" in Arabic) which offered a variety of post-graduate degrees, had a <a href="/wiki/Madrasah" class="mw-redirect" title="Madrasah">Madrasah</a> and theological <a href="/wiki/Seminary" title="Seminary">seminary</a>, and taught <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Islamic law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Islamic jurisprudence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabic_grammar" title="Arabic grammar">Arabic grammar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic astronomy">Islamic astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">early Islamic philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Logic_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Logic in Islamic philosophy">logic in Islamic philosophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Alatas_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alatas-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, the towns of <a href="/wiki/Bursa" title="Bursa">Bursa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edirne" title="Edirne">Edirne</a> became major centers of learning.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 15th and 16th centuries, the town of <a href="/wiki/Timbuktu" title="Timbuktu">Timbuktu</a> in the West African nation of Mali became an Islamic centre of learning with students coming from as far away as the Middle East. The town was home to the prestigious <a href="/wiki/Sankore_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Sankore University">Sankore University</a> and other madrasas. The primary focus of these schools was the teaching of the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a>, although broader instruction in fields such as logic, astronomy, and history also took place. Over time, there was a great accumulation of manuscripts in the area and an estimated 100,000 or more <a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">manuscripts</a>, some of them dated from pre-Islamic times and 12th century, are kept by the great families from the town.<sup id="cite_ref-Manuscrits_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manuscrits-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their contents are didactic, especially in the subjects of astronomy, music, and botany. More than 18,000 manuscripts have been collected by the <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Baba" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmed Baba">Ahmed Baba</a> centre.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China_2">China</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_China" title="History of education in China">History of education in China</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Taiwan" title="History of education in Taiwan">History of education in Taiwan</a></div> <p>Although there are more than 40,000 <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a> in written Chinese, many are rarely used. Studies have shown that full literacy in the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese language</a> requires a knowledge of only between three and four thousand characters.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In China, three oral texts were used to teach children by rote memorization the written characters of their language and the basics of Confucian thought. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Thousand_Character_Classic" title="Thousand Character Classic">Thousand Character Classic</a>, a Chinese poem originating in the 6th century, was used for more than a millennium as a primer for teaching Chinese characters to children. The poem is composed of 250 phrases of four characters each, thus containing exactly one thousand unique characters, and was sung in the same way that children learning the Latin alphabet may use the "<a href="/wiki/Alphabet_song" class="mw-redirect" title="Alphabet song">alphabet song</a>". </p><p>Later, children also learn the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Family_Surnames" title="Hundred Family Surnames">Hundred Family Surnames</a>, a rhyming poem in lines of eight characters composed in the early <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a><sup id="cite_ref-KS_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KS-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (i.e. in about the 11th century) which actually listed more than four hundred of the common surnames in ancient China. </p><p>From around the 13th century until the latter part of the 19th century, the <a href="/wiki/Three_Character_Classic" title="Three Character Classic">Three Character Classic</a>, which is an embodiment of <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian thought</a> suitable for teaching to young children, served as a child's first formal education at home. The text is written in triplets of characters for easy memorization. With illiteracy common for most people at the time, the oral tradition of reciting the classic ensured its popularity and survival through the centuries. With the short and simple text arranged in three-character verses, children learned many common characters, grammar structures, elements of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese history">Chinese history</a> and the basis of <a href="/wiki/Confucian" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian">Confucian</a> morality. </p><p>After learning Chinese characters, students wishing to ascend in the social hierarchy needed to study the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_classic_texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese classic texts">Chinese classic texts</a>. </p><p>The early Chinese state depended upon literate, educated officials for operation of the empire. In 605 AD, during the <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui dynasty</a>, for the first time, an examination system was explicitly instituted for a category of local talents. The merit-based <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">imperial examination system</a> for evaluating and selecting officials gave rise to schools that taught the Chinese classic texts and continued in use for 1,300 years, until the end the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>, being abolished in 1911 in favour of Western education methods. The core of the curriculum for the imperial civil service examinations from the mid-12th century onwards was the <a href="/wiki/Four_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Four Books">Four Books</a>, representing a foundational introduction to Confucianism. </p><p>Theoretically, any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a high-ranking government official by passing the imperial examination, although under some dynasties members of the merchant class were excluded. In reality, since the process of studying for the examination tended to be time-consuming and costly (if tutors were hired), most of the candidates came from the numerically small but relatively wealthy land-owning gentry. However, there are vast numbers of examples in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese history">Chinese history</a> in which individuals moved from a low social status to political prominence through success in imperial examination. Under some dynasties the imperial examinations were abolished and official posts were simply sold, which increased <a href="/wiki/Political_corruption" title="Political corruption">corruption</a> and reduced morale. </p><p>In the period preceding 1040–1050 AD, <a href="/wiki/Zhou_(country_subdivision)" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhou (country subdivision)">prefectural</a> schools had been neglected by the state and left to the devices of wealthy patrons who provided private finances.<sup id="cite_ref-yuan_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yuan-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The chancellor of China at that time, <a href="/wiki/Fan_Zhongyan" title="Fan Zhongyan">Fan Zhongyan</a>, issued an edict that would have used a combination of government funding and private financing to restore and rebuild all prefectural schools that had fallen into disuse and abandoned.<sup id="cite_ref-yuan_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yuan-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also attempted to restore all county-level schools in the same manner, but did not designate where funds for the effort would be formally acquired and the decree was not taken seriously until a later period.<sup id="cite_ref-yuan_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yuan-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fan's trend of government funding for education set in motion the movement of public schools that eclipsed private academies, which would not be officially reversed until the mid-13th century.<sup id="cite_ref-yuan_62-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yuan-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India_2">India</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first millennium and the few centuries preceding it saw the flourishing of higher education at <a href="/wiki/Nalanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Nalanda">Nalanda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Takshashila_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Takshashila University">Takshashila University</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ujjain" title="Ujjain">Ujjain</a>, & <a href="/wiki/Vikramshila" class="mw-redirect" title="Vikramshila">Vikramshila</a> Universities. Among the subjects taught were Art, Architecture, Painting, Logic, mathematics, Grammar, Philosophy, Astronomy, Literature, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arthashastra" title="Arthashastra">Arthashastra</a> (Economics & Politics), Law, and Medicine. Each university specialized in a particular field of study. Takshila specialized in the study of medicine, while Ujjain laid emphasis on astronomy. Nalanda, being the biggest centre, handled all branches of knowledge, and housed up to 10,000 students at its peak.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mahavihara, another important center of Buddhist learning in India, was established by King Dharmapala (783 to 820) in response to a supposed decline in the quality of scholarship at Nālandā.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Major work in the fields of Mathematics, Astronomy, and Physics were done by Aryabhata. Approximations of <a href="/wiki/Pi" title="Pi">pi</a>, basic trigonometric equation, <a href="/wiki/Indeterminate_equation" title="Indeterminate equation">indeterminate equation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Positional_notation" title="Positional notation">positional notation</a> are mentioned in <a href="/wiki/Aryabhatiya" title="Aryabhatiya">Aryabhatiya</a>, his <i><a href="/wiki/Masterpiece" title="Masterpiece">magnum opus</a></i> and only known surviving work of the 5th century <a href="/wiki/Indian_mathematics" title="Indian mathematics">Indian mathematician</a> in Mathematics.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The work was translated into Arabic around 820CE by <a href="/wiki/Al-Khwarizmi" title="Al-Khwarizmi">Al-Khwarizmi</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hindu_education">Hindu education</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Hindu education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Even during the Middle Ages, education in India was imparted orally. Education was provided to the individuals free of cost. It was considered holy and honorable to do so. The ruling king did not provide any funds for education but it was the people belonging to the Hindu religion who donated for the preservation of the Hindu education. The centres of Hindu learning, which were the universities, were set up in places where the scholars resided. These places also became places of pilgrimage. So, more and more pilgrims funded these institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Islamic_education">Islamic education</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Islamic education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After Muslims started ruling India, there was a rise in the spread of Islamic education. The main aim of Islamic education included the acquisition of knowledge, propagation of Islam and Islamic social morals, preservation and spread of Muslim culture etc. Educations was mainly imparted through Maqtabs, Madrassahas and Mosques. Their education was usually funded by the noble or the landlords. The education was imparted orally and the children learnt a few verses from the Quran by rote.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Indigenous education was widespread in India in the 18th century, with a school for every temple, mosque or village in most regions of the country.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The subjects taught included Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Theology, Law, Astronomy, Metaphysics, Ethics, Medical Science and Religion. The schools were attended by students representative of all classes of society.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japan">Japan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Japan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Japan" title="History of education in Japan">History of education in Japan</a></div> <p>The history of <a href="/wiki/Education_in_Japan" title="Education in Japan">education in Japan</a> dates back at least to the 6th century, when Chinese learning was introduced at the <a href="/wiki/Yamato_period" title="Yamato period">Yamato</a> court. Foreign civilizations have often provided new ideas for the development of Japan's own culture. </p><p>Chinese teachings and ideas flowed into Japan from the sixth to the 9th century. Along with the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> came the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_system_of_writing" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese system of writing">Chinese system of writing</a> and its <a href="/wiki/Chinese_literature" title="Chinese literature">literary tradition</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>. </p><p>By the 9th century, <a href="/wiki/Heian-ky%C5%8D" title="Heian-kyō">Heian-kyō</a> (today's <a href="/wiki/Kyoto" title="Kyoto">Kyoto</a>), the imperial capital, had five institutions of higher learning, and during the remainder of the <a href="/wiki/Heian_period" title="Heian period">Heian period</a>, other schools were established by the nobility and the imperial court. During the medieval period (1185–1600), <a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a> Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Monastery" title="Monastery">monasteries</a> were especially important centers of learning, and the <a href="/wiki/Ashikaga_clan" title="Ashikaga clan">Ashikaga</a> School, <a href="/wiki/Ashikaga_Gakko" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashikaga Gakko">Ashikaga Gakko</a>, flourished in the 15th century as a center of higher learning. </p><p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Central_and_South_American_civilizations">Central and South American civilizations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Central and South American civilizations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aztec">Aztec</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Aztec"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aztec" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec">Aztec</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Aztec" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec">Aztec</a> is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>, particularly those groups who spoke the <a href="/wiki/Nahuatl_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Nahuatl language">Nahuatl language</a> and who achieved political and military dominance over large parts of <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a> in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, a period referred to as the Late post-Classic period in chronology. </p><p>Until the age of fourteen, the education of children was in the hands of their parents, but supervised by the authorities of their <i>calpōlli</i>. Part of this education involved learning a collection of sayings, called <i>huēhuetlàtolli</i> ("sayings of the old"), that embodied the Aztecs' ideals. Judged by their language, most of the <i>huēhuetlàtolli</i> seemed to have evolved over several centuries, predating the Aztecs and most likely adopted from other Nahua cultures. </p><p>At 15, all boys and girls went to school. The china, one of the Aztec groups, were one of the first people in the world to have mandatory education for nearly all children, regardless of gender, rank, or station<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. There were two types of schools: the <i>telpochcalli</i>, for practical and military studies, and the <i><a href="/wiki/Calmecac" title="Calmecac">calmecac</a></i>, for advanced learning in writing, astronomy, statesmanship, theology, and other areas. The two institutions seem to be common to the Nahua people, leading some experts to suggest that they are older than the Aztec culture. </p><p>Aztec teachers (<i>tlatimine</i>) propounded a spartan regime of education with the purpose of forming a stoical people. </p><p>Girls were educated in the crafts of home and child raising. They were not taught to read or write. All women were taught to be involved in religion; there are paintings of women presiding over religious ceremonies, but there are no references to female priests. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Inca">Inca</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Inca"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Inca_education" title="Inca education">Inca education</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Inca_education" title="Inca education">Inca education</a> during the time of the <a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca Empire</a> in the 15th and 16th centuries was divided into two principal spheres: education for the upper classes and education for the general population. The royal classes and a few specially chosen individuals from the <a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Peru" title="Provinces of Peru">provinces</a> of the Empire were formally educated by the <i><b>Amautas</b></i> (wise men), while the general population learned knowledge and skills from their immediate forebears. </p><p>The Amautas constituted a special class of wise men similar to the <a href="/wiki/Bards" class="mw-redirect" title="Bards">bards</a> of <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a>. They included illustrious <a href="/wiki/Philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophers">philosophers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poets" class="mw-redirect" title="Poets">poets</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Priests" class="mw-redirect" title="Priests">priests</a> who kept the oral histories of the Incas alive by imparting the knowledge of their culture, history, customs and traditions throughout the kingdom. Considered the most highly educated and respected men in the Empire, the Amautas were largely entrusted with educating those of <a href="/wiki/Royal_family" title="Royal family">royal</a> blood, as well as other young members of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_periods_of_Peru" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural periods of Peru">conquered cultures</a> specially chosen to administer the regions. Thus, education throughout the territories of the Incas was socially discriminatory, most people not receiving the formal education that royalty received. </p><p>The official language of the empire was <a href="/wiki/Quechua_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Quechua languages">Quechua</a>, although dozens if not hundreds of local languages were spoken. The Amautas did ensure that the general population learn Quechua as the language of the Empire, much in the same way the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a> promoted <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> throughout <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>; however, this was done more for political reasons than educational ones. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="After_the_15th_century">After the 15th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: After the 15th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China_3">China</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 1950s, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">The Chinese Communist Party</a> oversaw the rapid expansion of primary education throughout China. At the same time, it redesigned the primary school curriculum to emphasize the teaching of practical skills in an effort to improve the productivity of future workers. Paglayan <sup id="cite_ref-Paglayan_179–198_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paglayan_179–198-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> notes that Chinese news sources during this time cited the eradication of illiteracy as necessary “to open the way for development of productivity and technical and cultural revolution”.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chinese government officials noted the interrelationship between education and “productive labor” <sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like in the Soviet Union, the Chinese government expanded education provision among other reasons to improve their national economy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe_2">Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Europe_overview">Europe overview</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Europe overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ChiostroPietroMartireNapoli.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/ChiostroPietroMartireNapoli.jpg/220px-ChiostroPietroMartireNapoli.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/ChiostroPietroMartireNapoli.jpg/330px-ChiostroPietroMartireNapoli.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/ChiostroPietroMartireNapoli.jpg/440px-ChiostroPietroMartireNapoli.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4320" data-file-height="3240" /></a><figcaption>Established in 1224 by <a href="/wiki/Frederick_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor">Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Naples_Federico_II" title="University of Naples Federico II">University of Naples Federico II</a> in Italy is the world's oldest state-funded university in continuous operation.<sup id="cite_ref-Storia_d'Italia_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Storia_d'Italia-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Delle_Donne_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Delle_Donne-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Modern systems of education in Europe derive their origins from the schools of the <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a>. Most schools during this era were founded upon religious principles with the primary purpose of training the clergy. Many of the earliest universities, such as the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">University of Paris</a> founded in 1160, had a <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> basis. In addition to this, a number of secular universities existed, such as the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bologna" title="University of Bologna">University of Bologna</a>, founded in 1088 in Italy, the <a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_universities_in_continuous_operation" title="List of oldest universities in continuous operation">oldest university in continuous operation in the world</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Naples_Federico_II" title="University of Naples Federico II">University of Naples Federico II</a> (founded in 1224) in Italy, the world's oldest state-funded university in continuous operation.<sup id="cite_ref-Storia_d'Italia_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Storia_d'Italia-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Delle_Donne_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Delle_Donne-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Free education for the poor was officially mandated by the Church in 1179 when it decreed that every cathedral must assign a master to teach boys too poor to pay the regular fee;<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> parishes and monasteries also established free schools teaching at least basic literary skills. With few exceptions, priests and brothers taught locally, and their salaries were frequently subsidized by towns. Private, independent schools reappeared in medieval Europe during this time, but they, too, were religious in nature and mission.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The curriculum was usually based around the <a href="/wiki/Trivium_(education)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trivium (education)">trivium</a> and to a lesser extent <a href="/wiki/Quadrivium" title="Quadrivium">quadrivium</a> (the seven <a href="/wiki/Artes_Liberales" class="mw-redirect" title="Artes Liberales">Artes Liberales</a> or <a href="/wiki/Liberal_arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal arts">Liberal arts</a>) and was conducted in Latin, the lingua franca of educated Western Europe throughout the Middle Ages and Renaissance.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In northern Europe this clerical education was largely superseded by forms of elementary schooling following the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Reformation</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, for instance, the national <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Scotland" title="Church of Scotland">Church of Scotland</a> set out a programme for spiritual reform in January 1561 setting the principle of a school teacher for every parish church and free education for the poor. This was provided for by an Act of the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Scotland" title="Parliament of Scotland">Parliament of Scotland</a>, passed in 1633, which introduced a tax to pay for this programme. Although few countries of the period had such extensive systems of education, the period between the 16th and 18th centuries saw education become significantly more widespread.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Herbart" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbart">Herbart</a> developed a system of pedagogy widely used in German-speaking areas. Mass compulsory schooling started in Prussia by around 1800 to "produce more soldiers and more obedient citizens". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Central_and_Eastern_Europe">Central and Eastern Europe</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Central and Eastern Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central Europe</a>, the 17th century scientist and educator <a href="/wiki/John_Amos_Comenius" title="John Amos Comenius">John Amos Comenius</a> promulgated a reformed system of universal education that was widely used in Europe. Its growth resulted in increased government interest in education. In the 1760s, for instance, <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Betskoy" title="Ivan Betskoy">Ivan Betskoy</a> was appointed by the Russian Tsarina, <a href="/wiki/Catherine_II_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Catherine II of Russia">Catherine II</a>, as educational advisor. He proposed to educate young Russians of both sexes in state boarding schools, aimed at creating "a new race of men". Betskoy set forth a number of arguments for general education of children rather than specialized one: "in regenerating our subjects by an education founded on these principles, we will create... new citizens." Some of his ideas were implemented in the <a href="/wiki/Smolny_Institute" title="Smolny Institute">Smolny Institute</a> that he established for noble girls in <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Poland established in 1773 of a <a href="/wiki/Commission_of_National_Education" title="Commission of National Education">Commission of National Education</a> (Polish: <i>Komisja Edukacji Narodowej</i>, Lithuanian: <i>Nacionaline Edukacine Komisija</i>). The commission functioned as the first government Ministry of Education in a European country.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Universities">Universities</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Universities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_European_universities" title="History of European universities">History of European universities</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:King%27s_College,_Strand,_London._Engraving_by_J._C._Carter._Wellcome_V0013842.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/King%27s_College%2C_Strand%2C_London._Engraving_by_J._C._Carter._Wellcome_V0013842.jpg/220px-King%27s_College%2C_Strand%2C_London._Engraving_by_J._C._Carter._Wellcome_V0013842.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/King%27s_College%2C_Strand%2C_London._Engraving_by_J._C._Carter._Wellcome_V0013842.jpg/330px-King%27s_College%2C_Strand%2C_London._Engraving_by_J._C._Carter._Wellcome_V0013842.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/King%27s_College%2C_Strand%2C_London._Engraving_by_J._C._Carter._Wellcome_V0013842.jpg/440px-King%27s_College%2C_Strand%2C_London._Engraving_by_J._C._Carter._Wellcome_V0013842.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3044" data-file-height="2240" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/King%27s_College_London" title="King's College London">King's College London</a> in 1831, as engraved by J. C. Carter. It is one of the founding institutions of <a href="/wiki/University_of_London" title="University of London">University of London</a>, established in 1836.</figcaption></figure> <p>By the 18th century, universities published <a href="/wiki/Academic_journal" title="Academic journal">academic journals</a>; by the 19th century, the German and the French university models were established. The French established the <a href="/wiki/Ecole_Polytechnique" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecole Polytechnique">Ecole Polytechnique</a> in 1794 by the mathematician Gaspard Monge during the French Revolution, and it became a military academy under Napoleon I in 1804. The German university — the <a href="/wiki/Humboldtian_model_of_higher_education" title="Humboldtian model of higher education">Humboldtian model</a> — established by <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Wilhelm von Humboldt</a> was based upon <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Friedrich Schleiermacher</a>'s liberal ideas about the importance of <a href="/wiki/Seminar" title="Seminar">seminars</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Laboratory" title="Laboratory">laboratories</a>. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the universities concentrated upon science, and served an upper class clientele. Science, mathematics, theology, philosophy, and ancient history comprised the typical curriculum. </p><p>Increasing academic interest in education led to analysis of teaching methods and in the 1770s the establishment of the first chair of <a href="/wiki/Pedagogy" title="Pedagogy">pedagogy</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Halle" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Halle">University of Halle</a> in Germany. Contributions to the study of education elsewhere in Europe included the work of <a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Pestalozzi" title="Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi">Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi</a> in Switzerland and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lancaster" title="Joseph Lancaster">Joseph Lancaster</a> in Britain. </p><p>In 1884, a groundbreaking education conference was held in London at the <a href="/wiki/International_Health_Exhibition" title="International Health Exhibition">International Health Exhibition</a>, attracting specialists from all over Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="19th_century">19th century</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the late 19th century, most of West, Central, and parts of East Europe began to provide elementary education in reading, writing, and arithmetic, partly because politicians believed that education was needed for orderly political behavior. As more people became literate, they realized that most secondary education was only open to those who could afford it. Having created primary education, the major nations had to give further attention to secondary education by the time of World War I.<sup id="cite_ref-Kagan_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kagan-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="20th_century">20th century</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 20th century, new directions in education included, in Italy, <a href="/wiki/Maria_Montessori" title="Maria Montessori">Maria Montessori</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Montessori_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Montessori method">Montessori schools</a>; and in Germany, <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a>'s development of <a href="/wiki/Waldorf_education" title="Waldorf education">Waldorf education</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Denmark">Denmark</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Denmark"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Education_in_Denmark#History" title="Education in Denmark">Education in Denmark § History</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dansk_Skolemuseum_Copenhagen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Dansk_Skolemuseum_Copenhagen.jpg/220px-Dansk_Skolemuseum_Copenhagen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Dansk_Skolemuseum_Copenhagen.jpg/330px-Dansk_Skolemuseum_Copenhagen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Dansk_Skolemuseum_Copenhagen.jpg/440px-Dansk_Skolemuseum_Copenhagen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2297" data-file-height="2210" /></a><figcaption>Dansk Skolemuseum</figcaption></figure> <p>The Danish education system has its origin in the cathedral- and monastery schools established by the Church; and seven of the schools established in the 12th and 13th centuries still exist today. After the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Reformation</a>, which was officially implemented in 1536, the schools were taken over by the <a href="/wiki/King_of_Denmark" class="mw-redirect" title="King of Denmark">Crown</a>. Their main purpose was to prepare the students for theological studies by teaching them Latin and Greek. Popular elementary education was at that time still very primitive, but in 1721, 240 <i><a href="/wiki/Rytterskoler" class="mw-redirect" title="Rytterskoler">rytterskoler</a></i> ("cavalry schools") were established throughout the kingdom. Moreover, the religious movement of <a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietism</a>, spreading in the 18th century, required some level of literacy, thereby promoting the need for public education. Throughout the 19th century (and even up until today), the Danish education system was especially influenced by the ideas of clergyman, politician and poet <a href="/wiki/N._F._S._Grundtvig" title="N. F. S. Grundtvig">N. F. S. Grundtvig</a>, who advocated inspiring methods of teaching and the foundation of <a href="/wiki/Folk_high_school" title="Folk high school">folk high schools</a>. In 1871, there was a division of the <a href="/wiki/Secondary_education_in_Denmark" title="Secondary education in Denmark">secondary education</a> into two lines: the <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">languages</a> and the mathematics-science line. This division was the backbone of the structure of the <a href="/wiki/Gymnasium_(Denmark)" title="Gymnasium (Denmark)">Gymnasium</a> (i.e. academic general upper secondary education programme) until the year 2005.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1894, the <i><a href="/wiki/Danish_Folkeskole_Education" title="Danish Folkeskole Education">Folkeskole</a></i> ("public school", the government-funded <a href="/wiki/Primary_education" title="Primary education">primary education</a> system) was formally established (until then, it had been known as <i>Almueskolen</i> ("common school")), and measures were taken to improve the education system to meet the requirements of <a href="/wiki/Industrial_society" title="Industrial society">industrial society</a>. </p><p>In 1903, the 3-year course of the Gymnasium was directly connected the municipal school through the establishment of the <i><span title="Danish-language text"><i lang="da">mellemskole</i></span></i> ('<a href="/wiki/Middle_school" title="Middle school">middle school</a>', grades 6–9), which was later on replaced by the <i><a href="/wiki/Realschule" class="mw-redirect" title="Realschule">realskole</a></i>. Previously, students wanting to go to the Gymnasium (and thereby obtain qualification for admission to university) had to take private tuition or similar means as the municipal schools were insufficient. </p><p>In 1975, the <i><span title="Danish-language text"><i lang="da">realskole</i></span></i> was abandoned and the <i>Folkeskole</i> (<a href="/wiki/Primary_education" title="Primary education">primary education</a>) transformed into an egalitarian system where pupils go to the same schools regardless of their academic merits. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="England">England</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: England"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_England" title="History of education in England">History of education in England</a></div> <p>In 1818, <a href="/wiki/John_Pounds" title="John Pounds">John Pounds</a> set up a school and began teaching poor children reading, writing, and mathematics without charging fees. In 1820, Samuel Wilderspin opened the first infant school in Spitalfield. Starting in 1833, Parliament voted money to support poor children's school fees in England and Wales.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1837, the Whig Lord Chancellor Henry Brougham led the way in preparing for public education. Most schooling was handled in church schools, and religious controversies between the Church of England and the dissenters became a central theme and educational history before 1900.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Scotland">Scotland</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Scotland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Scotland has a separate system. See <a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Scotland" title="History of education in Scotland">History of education in Scotland</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="France">France</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_France" title="History of education in France">History of education in France</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Miallet_15_cite-nature.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Miallet_15_cite-nature.JPG/220px-Miallet_15_cite-nature.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Miallet_15_cite-nature.JPG/330px-Miallet_15_cite-nature.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Miallet_15_cite-nature.JPG/440px-Miallet_15_cite-nature.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>Typical school furniture of the period 1930s to 1950s in France</figcaption></figure> <p>In the Ancien Régime before 1789, educational facilities and aspirations were becoming increasingly institutionalized primarily in order to supply the church and state with the functionaries to serve as their future administrators. France had many small local schools where working-class children — both boys and girls — learned to read, the better to know, love and serve God. The sons and daughters of the noble and bourgeois elites, however, were given quite distinct educations: boys were sent to upper school, perhaps a university, while their sisters perhaps were sent for finishing at a convent. The <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> challenged this old ideal, but no real alternative presented itself for female education. Only through education at home were knowledgeable women formed, usually to the sole end of dazzling their salons.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The modern era of French education begins in the 1790s. The Revolution in the 1790s abolished the traditional universities.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Napoleon sought to replace them with new institutions, the Polytechnique, focused on technology.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The elementary schools received little attention until 1830, when France copied the <a href="/wiki/Prussian_education_system" title="Prussian education system">Prussian education system</a>. </p><p>In 1833, France passed the Guizot Law, the first comprehensive law of primary education in France. This law mandated all local governments to establish primary schools for boys. It also established a common curriculum focused on moral and religious education, reading, and the system of weights and measurements. The expansion of education provision under the Guizot law was largely motivated by the July Monarchy's desire to shape the moral character of future French citizens with an eye toward promoting social order and political stability. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Jules_Ferry" title="Jules Ferry">Jules Ferry</a>, an anti-clerical politician holding the office of Minister of Public Instruction in the 1880s, created the modern Republican school (<i>l'école républicaine</i>) by requiring all children under the age of 15—boys and girls—to attend. see <a href="/wiki/Jules_Ferry_laws" title="Jules Ferry laws">Jules Ferry laws</a> Schools were free of charge and <a href="/wiki/Secular_education" title="Secular education">secular</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/La%C3%AFcit%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Laïcité">laïque</a></i>). The goal was to break the hold of the Catholic Church and monarchism on young people. Catholic schools were still tolerated but in the early 20th century the religious orders sponsoring them were shut down.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="French_Empire">French Empire</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: French Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>French colonial officials, influenced by the revolutionary ideal of equality, standardized schools, curricula, and teaching methods as much as possible. They did not establish colonial school systems with the idea of furthering the ambitions of the local people, but rather simply exported the systems and methods in vogue in the mother nation.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Having a moderately trained lower bureaucracy was of great use to colonial officials.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The emerging French-educated indigenous elite saw little value in educating rural peoples.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After 1946 the policy was to bring the best students to Paris for advanced training. The result was to immerse the next generation of leaders in the growing anti-colonial diaspora centered in Paris. Impressionistic colonials could mingle with studious scholars or radical revolutionaries or so everything in between. <a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh#Political_education_in_France" title="Ho Chi Minh">Ho Chi Minh</a> and other young radicals in Paris formed the French Communist party in 1920.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tunisia was exceptional. The colony was administered by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Cambon" title="Paul Cambon">Paul Cambon</a>, who built an educational system for colonists and indigenous people alike that was closely modeled on mainland France. He emphasized female and vocational education. By independence, the quality of Tunisian education nearly equalled that in France.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>African nationalists rejected such a public education system, which they perceived as an attempt to retard African development and maintain colonial superiority. One of the first demands of the emerging nationalist movement after World War II was the introduction of full metropolitan-style education in French West Africa with its promise of equality with Europeans.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Algeria, the debate was polarized. The French set up schools based on the scientific method and French culture. The <a href="/wiki/Pied-Noir" class="mw-redirect" title="Pied-Noir">Pied-Noir</a> (Catholic migrants from Europe) welcomed this. Those goals were rejected by the Moslem Arabs, who prized mental agility and their distinctive religious tradition. The Arabs refused to become patriotic and cultured Frenchmen and a unified educational system was impossible until the Pied-Noir and their Arab allies went into exile after 1962.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In South Vietnam from 1955 to 1975 there were two competing colonial powers in education, as the French continued their work and the Americans moved in. They sharply disagreed on goals. The French educators sought to preserving French culture among the Vietnamese elites and relied on the Mission Culturelle – the heir of the colonial Direction of Education – and its prestigious high schools. The Americans looked at the great mass of people and sought to make South Vietnam a nation strong enough to stop communism. The Americans had far more money, as USAID coordinated and funded the activities of expert teams, and particularly of academic missions. The French deeply resented the American invasion of their historical zone of cultural imperialism.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Imperial_Russia_and_the_Soviet_Union">Imperial Russia and the Soviet Union</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Imperial Russia and the Soviet Union"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Education in the Soviet Union">Education in the Soviet Union</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BogdanovBelsky_UstnySchet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/BogdanovBelsky_UstnySchet.jpg/220px-BogdanovBelsky_UstnySchet.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/BogdanovBelsky_UstnySchet.jpg/330px-BogdanovBelsky_UstnySchet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/BogdanovBelsky_UstnySchet.jpg/440px-BogdanovBelsky_UstnySchet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1507" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>Mental Calculations. In the school of SRachinsky by <a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Bogdanov-Belsky" title="Nikolay Bogdanov-Belsky">Nikolay Bogdanov-Belsky</a>. 1895.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Russia">Imperial Russia</a>, according to the 1897 census, literate people made up 28 per cent of the population. There was a strong network of universities for the upper class, but weaker provisions for everyone else. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a>, in 1919 proclaimed the major aim of the <a href="/wiki/Sovnarkom" class="mw-redirect" title="Sovnarkom">Soviet government</a> was the abolition of illiteracy. A system of universal compulsory education was established. Millions of illiterate adults were enrolled in special <a href="/wiki/Literacy_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Literacy school">literacy schools</a>. Youth groups (<a href="/wiki/Komsomol" title="Komsomol">Komsomol</a> members and <a href="/wiki/Young_Pioneer_organization_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Young Pioneer organization of the Soviet Union">Young Pioneer</a>) were utilized to teach. In 1926, the <a href="/wiki/Literacy_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Literacy rate">literacy rate</a> was 56.6 per cent of the population. By 1937, according to <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Census_(1937)" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Census (1937)">census data</a>, the literacy rate was 86% for men and 65% for women, making a total literacy rate of 75%. </p><p>The fastest expansion of primary schooling in the history of the Soviet Union coincided with the First Five-Year Plan. The motivation behind this rapid expansion of primary education can largely be attributed to Stalin's interest in ensuring that everyone would have the skills and predisposition necessary to contribute to the state's industrialization and international supremacy goals. Indeed, Paglayan <sup id="cite_ref-Paglayan_179–198_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paglayan_179–198-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> notes that one of the things that most surprised U.S. officials during their education missions to the USSR was, in U.S. officials’ own words, “the extent to which the Nation is committed to education as a means of national advancement. In the organization of a planned society in the Soviet Union, education is regarded as one of the chief resources and techniques for achieving social, economic, cultural, and scientific objectives in national interest. Tremendous responsibilities are therefore placed on Soviet schools, and comprehensive support is provided for them” <sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An important aspect of the early campaign for literacy and education was the policy of "indigenization" (<a href="/wiki/Korenizatsiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Korenizatsiya">korenizatsiya</a>). This policy, which lasted essentially from the mid-1920s to the late 1930s, promoted the development and use of non-Russian languages in the government, the media, and education. Intended to counter the historical practices of Russification, it had as another practical goal assuring native-language education as the quickest way to increase educational levels of future generations. A huge network of so-called "national schools" was established by the 1930s, and this network continued to grow in enrolments throughout the Soviet era. Language policy changed over time, perhaps marked first of all in the government's mandating in 1938 the teaching of Russian as a required <i>subject</i> of study in every non-Russian school, and then especially beginning in the latter 1950s a growing conversion of non-Russian schools to Russian as the main medium of instruction. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Italy">Italy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Italy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Education_in_Italy#History" title="Education in Italy">Education in Italy § History</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Literacy_rates_in_Italy_1861.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Literacy_rates_in_Italy_1861.svg/260px-Literacy_rates_in_Italy_1861.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="335" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Literacy_rates_in_Italy_1861.svg/390px-Literacy_rates_in_Italy_1861.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Literacy_rates_in_Italy_1861.svg/520px-Literacy_rates_in_Italy_1861.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1030" /></a><figcaption>Literacy rates in Italy in 1861, shortly after the <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy">proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy</a>. Italy lacks <a href="/wiki/Lazio" title="Lazio">Lazio</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Triveneto" title="Triveneto">Triveneto</a>, which were subsequently annexed.</figcaption></figure> <p>In Italy a state school system or Education System has existed since 1859, when the Legge Casati (Casati Act) mandated educational responsibilities for the forthcoming Italian state (<a href="/wiki/Italian_unification" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian unification">Italian unification</a> took place in 1861). The Casati Act made primary education compulsory, and had the goal of increasing <a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">literacy</a>. This law gave control of primary education to the single towns, of secondary education to the <a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Italy" title="Provinces of Italy">provinces</a>, and the universities were managed by the State. Even with the Casati Act and compulsory education, in rural (and southern) areas children often were not sent to school (the rate of children enrolled in primary education would reach 90% only after 70 years) and the illiteracy rate (which was nearly 80% in 1861) took more than 50 years to halve. </p><p>The next important law concerning the Italian education system was the <a href="/wiki/Gentile_Reform" title="Gentile Reform">Gentile Reform</a>. This act was issued in 1923, thus when <a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a> and his <a href="/wiki/National_Fascist_Party" title="National Fascist Party">National Fascist Party</a> were in power. In fact, <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Giovanni Gentile</a> was appointed the task of creating an education system deemed fit for the fascist system. The compulsory age of education was raised to 14 years, and was somewhat based on a ladder system: after the first five years of primary education, one could choose the 'Scuola media', which would give further access to the "liceo" and other secondary education, or the 'avviamento al lavoro' (work training), which was intended to give a quick entry into the low strates of the workforce. The reform enhanced the role of the <i>Liceo Classico</i>, created by the Casati Act in 1859 (and intended during the Fascist era as the peak of secondary education, with the goal of forming the future upper classes), and created the Technical, Commercial and Industrial institutes and the <i>Liceo Scientifico</i>. The <i>Liceo Classico</i> was the only secondary school that gave access to all types of higher education until 1968. The influence of Gentile's <a href="/wiki/Italian_idealism" title="Italian idealism">Italian idealism</a> was great,<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and he considered the Catholic religion to be the "foundation and crowning" of education. In 1962 the 'avviamento al lavoro' was abolished, and all children up to 14 years had to follow a single program, encompassing primary education (<i>scuola elementare</i>) and middle school (<i>scuola media</i>). </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Regio_Liceo_Ginnasio_Manzoni_Milano_anni_20.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Regio_Liceo_Ginnasio_Manzoni_Milano_anni_20.jpg/220px-Regio_Liceo_Ginnasio_Manzoni_Milano_anni_20.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Regio_Liceo_Ginnasio_Manzoni_Milano_anni_20.jpg/330px-Regio_Liceo_Ginnasio_Manzoni_Milano_anni_20.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Regio_Liceo_Ginnasio_Manzoni_Milano_anni_20.jpg/440px-Regio_Liceo_Ginnasio_Manzoni_Milano_anni_20.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1773" data-file-height="1228" /></a><figcaption>A high school in <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a> in the 1920s.</figcaption></figure> <p>From 1962 to the present day, the main structure of Italian primary (and secondary) education remained largely unchanged, even if some modifications were made: a narrowing of the gap between males and females (through the merging of the two distinct programmes for <i>technical education</i>, and the optional introduction of mixed-gender gym classes), a change in the structure of secondary school (<i>legge Berlinguer</i>) and the creation of new <i>licei</i>, 'istituti tecnici' and 'istituti professionali', offering students a broader range of options. </p><p>In 1999, in accordance with the guidelines laid down by the <a href="/wiki/Bologna_Process" title="Bologna Process">Bologna Process</a>, the Italian university system switched from the old system (<i>vecchio ordinamento</i>, which led to the traditional five-year <i>Laurea</i> degree), to the new system (<i>nuovo ordinamento</i>). The <i>nuovo ordinamento</i> split the former <i>Laurea</i> into two tracks: the <i>Laurea triennale</i> (a three-year degree akin to the <a href="/wiki/Bachelor%27s_Degree" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachelor's Degree">Bachelor's Degree</a>), followed by the 2-year <i>Laurea specialistica</i> (Master's Degree), the latter renamed <i>Laurea Magistrale</i> in 2007. A credit system was established to quantify the amount of work needed by each course and exam (25 work hours = 1 credit), as well as enhance the possibility to change course of studies and facilitate the transfer of credits for further studies or go on exchange (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Erasmus_Programme" title="Erasmus Programme">Erasmus Programme</a>) in another country. However, it is now established that there is just a five-year degree "Laurea Magistrale a Ciclo Unico" for programmes such as Law and a six-year degree for Medicine. </p><p>In 2019, Education minister <a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_Fioramonti" title="Lorenzo Fioramonti">Lorenzo Fioramonti</a> announced that in 2020 Italy would become the first country in the world to make the study of <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_(general_concept)" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change (general concept)">climate change</a> and sustainable development mandatory for students.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Norway">Norway</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Norway"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Education_in_Norway" title="Education in Norway">Education in Norway</a></div> <p>Shortly after Norway became an <a href="/wiki/Diocese" title="Diocese">archdiocese</a> in 1152, <a href="/wiki/Cathedral_school" title="Cathedral school">cathedral schools</a> were constructed to educate priests in <a href="/wiki/Trondheim" title="Trondheim">Trondheim</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oslo" title="Oslo">Oslo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bergen,_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Bergen, Norway">Bergen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hamar" title="Hamar">Hamar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">reformation</a> of Norway in 1537, (Norway entered a <a href="/wiki/Denmark-Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Denmark-Norway">personal union</a> with <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> in 1536) the cathedral schools were turned into Latin schools, and it was made mandatory for all <a href="/wiki/Market_town" title="Market town">market towns</a> to have such a school. In 1736 training in reading was made compulsory for all children, but was not effective until some years later. In 1827, Norway introduced the <i>folkeskole</i>, a primary school which became mandatory for 7 years in 1889 and 9 years in 1969. In the 1970s and 1980s, the <i>folkeskole</i> was abolished, and the <i>grunnskole</i> was introduced.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1997, Norway established a new curriculum for elementary schools and middle schools. The plan is based on ideological nationalism, child-orientation, and community-orientation along with the effort to publish new ways of teaching.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sweden">Sweden</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Sweden"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Education_in_Sweden#History" title="Education in Sweden">Education in Sweden § History</a></div> <p>In 1842, the Swedish parliament introduced a four-year primary school for children in Sweden, "<i>folkskola</i>". In 1882 two grades were added to "<i>folkskola</i>", grade 5 and 6. Some "<i>folkskola</i>" also had grade 7 and 8, called "<i>fortsättningsskola</i>". Schooling in Sweden became mandatory for 7 years in the 1930s and for 8 years in the 1950s and for 9 years in 1962,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Lars Petterson, the number of students grew slowly, 1900–1947, then shot up rapidly in the 1950s, and declined after 1962. The pattern of birth rates was a major factor. In addition Petterson points to the opening up of the gymnasium from a limited upper social base to the general population based on talent. In addition he points to the role of central economic planning, the widespread emphasis on education as a producer of economic growth and the expansion of white collar jobs.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japan_2">Japan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Japan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Japan" title="History of education in Japan">History of education in Japan</a></div> <p>Japan isolated itself from the rest of the world in the year 1600 under the <a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Tokugawa</a> regime (1600–1867). In 1600 very few common people were literate. By the period's end, learning had become widespread. Tokugawa education left a valuable legacy: an increasingly literate populace, a <a href="/wiki/Meritocratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Meritocratic">meritocratic</a> ideology, and an emphasis on discipline and competent performance. Traditional Samurai curricula for elites stressed morality and the martial arts. <a href="/wiki/Confucian_classics" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian classics">Confucian classics</a> were memorized, and reading and recitation of them were common methods of study. Arithmetic and calligraphy were also studied. Education of commoners was generally practically oriented, providing basic <a href="/wiki/The_three_Rs" title="The three Rs">three Rs</a>, calligraphy and use of the <a href="/wiki/Abacus" title="Abacus">abacus</a>. Much of this education was conducted in so-called temple schools (<a href="/wiki/Terakoya" title="Terakoya">terakoya</a>), derived from earlier Buddhist schools. These schools were no longer religious institutions, nor were they, by 1867, predominantly located in temples. By the end of the Tokugawa period, there were more than 11,000 such schools, attended by 750,000 students. Teaching techniques included reading from various textbooks, memorizing, abacus, and repeatedly copying <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a> and Japanese script. By the 1860s, 40–50% of Japanese boys, and 15% of the girls, had some schooling outside the home. These rates were comparable to major European nations at the time (apart from Germany, which had compulsory schooling).<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under subsequent <a href="/wiki/Meiji_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Meiji period">Meiji</a> leadership, this foundation would facilitate Japan's rapid transition from feudal society to modern nation which paid very close attention to Western science, technology and educational methods. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Meiji_reforms">Meiji reforms</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Meiji reforms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Education in the Empire of Japan">Education in the Empire of Japan</a></div> <p>After 1868 reformers set Japan on a rapid course of <a href="/wiki/Modernization" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernization">modernization</a>, with a public education system like that of Western Europe. Missions like the <a href="/wiki/Iwakura_mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Iwakura mission">Iwakura mission</a> were sent abroad to study the education systems of leading Western countries. They returned with the ideas of decentralization, local <a href="/wiki/School_board" class="mw-redirect" title="School board">school boards</a>, and teacher autonomy. Elementary school enrolments climbed from about 40 or 50 per cent of the school-age population in the 1870s to more than 90 per cent by 1900, despite strong public protest, especially against school fees. </p><p>A modern concept of childhood emerged in Japan after 1850 as part of its engagement with the West. Meiji era leaders decided the nation-state had the primary role in mobilizing individuals – and children – in service of the state. The Western-style school became the agent to reach that goal. By the 1890s, schools were generating new sensibilities regarding childhood.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After 1890 Japan had numerous reformers, child experts, magazine editors, and well-educated mothers who bought into the new sensibility. They taught the upper middle class a model of childhood that included children having their own space where they read children's books, played with educational toys and, especially, devoted enormous time to school homework. These ideas rapidly disseminated through all social classes<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After 1870 school textbooks based on Confucianism were replaced by westernized texts. However, by the 1890s, a reaction set in and a more authoritarian approach was imposed. Traditional Confucian and Shinto precepts were again stressed, especially those concerning the hierarchical nature of human relations, service to the new state, the pursuit of learning, and morality. These ideals, embodied in the 1890 <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Rescript_on_Education" title="Imperial Rescript on Education">Imperial Rescript on Education</a>, along with highly centralized government control over education, largely guided Japanese education until 1945, when they were massively repudiated.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India_3">India</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Education_in_India" title="Education in India">Education in India</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of education in the Indian subcontinent">History of education in the Indian subcontinent</a></div> <p>Education was widespread for elite young men in the 18th century, with schools in most regions of the country. The subjects taught included Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Theology, Law, Astronomy, Metaphysics, Ethics, Medical Science and Religion. </p><p>The current system of education, with its western style and content, was introduced and founded by the British during the <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a>, following recommendations by <a href="/wiki/Lord_Macaulay" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Macaulay">Lord Macaulay</a>, who advocated for the teaching of English in schools and the formation of a class of Anglicized Indian interpreters.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Traditional structures were not recognized by the British government and have been on the decline since. </p><p>Public education expenditures in the late 19th and early 20th centuries varied dramatically across regions with the western and southern provinces spending three to four times as much as the eastern provinces. Much of the inter-regional differential was due to historical differences in land taxes, the major source of revenue.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Lord_Curzon" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Curzon">Lord Curzon</a>, the Viceroy 1899–1905, made mass education a high priority after finding that no more than 20% of India's children attended school. His reforms centered on literacy training and on restructuring of the university systems. They stressed ungraded curricula, modern textbooks, and new examination systems. Curzon's plans for technical education laid the foundations which were acted upon by later governments.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australia,_Canada,_New_Zealand"><span id="Australia.2C_Canada.2C_New_Zealand"></span>Australia, Canada, New Zealand</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Australia, Canada, New Zealand"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:St_Pats_Primary_school_2021_b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/St_Pats_Primary_school_2021_b.jpg/220px-St_Pats_Primary_school_2021_b.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/St_Pats_Primary_school_2021_b.jpg/330px-St_Pats_Primary_school_2021_b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/St_Pats_Primary_school_2021_b.jpg/440px-St_Pats_Primary_school_2021_b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3428" data-file-height="2268" /></a><figcaption>St Patricks Primary school at Murrumbeena in Victoria, Australia</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Education_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Education in Australia">History of Education in Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Education_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Education in Canada">History of Education in Canada</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Education_in_New_Zealand" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Education in New Zealand">History of Education in New Zealand</a></div> <p>In Canada, education became a contentious issue after Confederation in 1867, especially regarding the status of French schools outside Quebec. </p><p>Education in New Zealand began with provision made by the provincial government, the missionary Christian churches and private education. The first act of parliament for education was passed in 1877, and sought to establish a standard for primary education. It was compulsory for children to attend school from the age of 6 until the age of 16 years.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Australia, compulsory education was enacted in the 1870s, and it was difficult to enforce. People found it hard to afford for school fees. Moreover, teachers felt that they did not get a high salary for what they did.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of education in the United States">History of education in the United States</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Turkey">Turkey</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Turkey"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Education_in_Turkey" title="Education in Turkey">Education in Turkey</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%C4%B0stanbulUniversityGate2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/%C4%B0stanbulUniversityGate2.jpg/220px-%C4%B0stanbulUniversityGate2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/%C4%B0stanbulUniversityGate2.jpg/330px-%C4%B0stanbulUniversityGate2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/%C4%B0stanbulUniversityGate2.jpg/440px-%C4%B0stanbulUniversityGate2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="2268" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Istanbul_University" title="Istanbul University">Istanbul University</a> (1453) was founded by sultan <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_II" title="Mehmed II">Mehmed II</a> as a <i>Darülfünun</i>. On 1 August 1933, as part of <a href="/wiki/Atat%C3%BCrk%27s_reforms" title="Atatürk's reforms">Atatürk's reforms</a>, it was reorganized and became the Republic's first modern university.<sup id="cite_ref-istanbuluniversity_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-istanbuluniversity-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In the 1920s and 1930s <a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk" title="Mustafa Kemal Atatürk">Mustafa Kemal Atatürk</a> (1881–1938) imposed radical educational reforms in trying to modernize Turkey. He first separated of governmental and religious affairs. Education was the cornerstone in this effort. In 1923, there were three main educational groups of institutions. The most common institutions were <a href="/wiki/Medrese" class="mw-redirect" title="Medrese">medreses</a> based on Arabic, the Qur'an, and memorization. The second type of institution was idadî and sultanî, the reformist schools of the <a href="/wiki/Tanzimat" title="Tanzimat">Tanzimat</a> era. The last group included colleges and minority schools in foreign languages that used the latest teaching models in educating pupils. The old medrese education was modernized.<sup id="cite_ref-dew_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dew-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Atatürk changed the classical Islamic education for a vigorously promoted reconstruction of educational institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-dew_120-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dew-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He linked educational reform to the liberation of the nation from <a href="/wiki/Dogma" title="Dogma">dogma</a>, which he believed was more important than the Turkish War of Independence. He declared: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Today, our most important and most productive task is the national education [unification and modernization] affairs. We have to be successful in national education affairs and we shall be. The liberation of a nation is only achieved through this way."<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In 1924, Atatürk invited American educational reformer <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a> to Ankara to advise him on how to reform Turkish education.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unification was put into force in 1924, making education inclusive and organized on a model of the civil community. In this new design, all schools submitted their curriculum to the "<a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_National_Education_(Turkey)" title="Ministry of National Education (Turkey)">Ministry of National Education</a>", a government agency modelled after other countries' ministries of education. Concurrently, the republic abolished the two ministries and made clergy subordinate to the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Religious_Affairs" title="Presidency of Religious Affairs">department of religious affairs</a>, one of the foundations of <a href="/wiki/Secularism_in_Turkey" title="Secularism in Turkey">secularism in Turkey</a>. The unification of education under one curriculum ended "clerics or clergy of the Ottoman Empire", but was not the end of religious schools in Turkey; they were moved to higher education until later governments restored them to their former position in secondary after Atatürk's death. </p><p>In the 1930s, at the suggestion of <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>, Atatürk hired over a thousand established academics, including world renowned émigré professors escaping the Nazi takeover in Germany. Most were in medicine, mathematics, and natural science, plus a few in the faculties of law and the arts. Germany's exiled professors served as directors in eight of twelve Istanbul's basic science Institutes, as well as six directors of Istanbul's seventeen clinics at the Faculty of Medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa">Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Education_in_Africa" title="Education in Africa">Education in Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Angola" title="History of education in Angola">History of education in Angola</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Chad" title="History of education in Chad">History of education in Chad</a></div> <p>Education in French controlled West Africa during the late 1800s and early 1900s was different from the nationally uniform compulsory education of France in the 1880s. "Adapted education" was organized in 1903 and used the French curriculum as a basis, replacing information relevant to France with "comparable information drawn from the African context". For example, French lessons of morality were coupled with many references to African history and local folklore. The French language was also taught as an integral part of adapted education. </p><p>Africa has more than 40 million children. According to <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a>'s <i>Regional overview on sub-Saharan Africa</i>, in 2000 only 58% of children were enrolled in primary schools, the lowest enrolment rate of any region. The USAID Center reports as of 2005, forty per cent of school-aged children in Africa do not attend primary school. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Recent_world-wide_trends">Recent world-wide trends</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Recent world-wide trends"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Education_index_UN_HDR_2007_2008.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Education_index_UN_HDR_2007_2008.PNG/300px-Education_index_UN_HDR_2007_2008.PNG" decoding="async" width="300" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Education_index_UN_HDR_2007_2008.PNG/450px-Education_index_UN_HDR_2007_2008.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Education_index_UN_HDR_2007_2008.PNG/600px-Education_index_UN_HDR_2007_2008.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="625" /></a><figcaption>World map indicating Education Index (2007/2008 <a href="/wiki/Human_Development_Report" title="Human Development Report">Human Development Report</a>) <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1256394559">.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key>ol{margin-left:1.3em;margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key>ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media(min-width:300px){.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key,.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key-wide{column-count:2}.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key-narrow{column-count:1}}@media(min-width:450px){.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key-wide{column-count:3}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist image-key"><ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#006000; color:white;"> </span> 0.950 and over</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00a000; color:black;"> </span> 0.900–0.949</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00d000; color:black;"> </span> 0.850–0.899</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00ff00; color:black;"> </span> 0.800–0.849</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#e0ff00; color:black;"> </span> 0.750–0.799</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffff00; color:black;"> </span> 0.700–0.749</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffdf00; color:black;"> </span> 0.650–0.699</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffc160; color:black;"> </span> 0.600–0.649</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffa552; color:black;"> </span> 0.550–0.599</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff8000; color:black;"> </span> 0.500–0.549</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff0000; color:black;"> </span> 0.450–0.499</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#a00000; color:white;"> </span> 0.400–0.449</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#800000; color:white;"> </span> 0.350–0.399</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#400000; color:white;"> </span> under 0.350</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#c0c0c0; color:black;"> </span> not available</div></li></ul></div> </figcaption></figure> <p>Today, there is some form of <a href="/wiki/Compulsory_education" title="Compulsory education">compulsory education</a> in most countries. Due to population growth and the proliferation of compulsory education, <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> has calculated that in the next 30 years more people will receive formal education than in all of human history thus far. </p><p>Illiteracy and the per centage of populations without any schooling have decreased in the past several decades. For example, the percentage of population without any schooling decreased from 36% in 1960 to 25% in 2000. </p><p>Among developing countries, illiteracy and percentages without schooling in 2000 stood at about half the 1970 figures. Among developed countries, figures about illiteracy rates differ widely. Often it is said that they decreased from 6% to 1%. Illiteracy rates in less economically developed countries (<a href="/wiki/LEDC" class="mw-redirect" title="LEDC">LEDCs</a>) surpassed those of more economically developed countries (<a href="/wiki/MEDC" class="mw-redirect" title="MEDC">MEDCs</a>) by a factor of 10 in 1970, and by a factor of about 20 in 2000. Illiteracy decreased greatly in LEDCs, and virtually disappeared in MEDCs. Percentages without any schooling showed similar patterns. </p><p>Percentages of the population with no schooling varied greatly among LEDCs in 2000, from less than 10% to over 65%. MEDCs had much less variation, ranging from less than 2% to 17%. </p><p>Since the mid-20th century, societies around the globe have undergone an accelerating pace of change in economy and technology. Its effects on the workplace, and thus on the demands on the educational system preparing students for the workforce, have been significant. Beginning in the 1980s, government, educators, and major employers issued a series of reports identifying key skills and implementation strategies to steer students and workers towards meeting the demands of the changing and increasingly digital workplace and society. <b><a href="/wiki/21st_century_skills" title="21st century skills">21st century skills</a></b> are a series of higher-order <a href="/wiki/Skills" class="mw-redirect" title="Skills">skills</a>, abilities, and learning dispositions that have been identified as being required for success in 21st century society and workplaces by educators, business leaders, academics, and governmental agencies. Many of these skills are also associated with <a href="/wiki/Deeper_Learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Deeper Learning">deeper learning</a>, including analytic reasoning, complex problem solving, and teamwork, compared to traditional knowledge-based academic skills. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Factory_model_school" title="Factory model school">Factory model school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_childhood" title="History of childhood">History of childhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history#History_of_education" title="Social history">Social history#History of education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_childhood_care_and_education" class="mw-redirect" title="History of childhood care and education">History of childhood care and education</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See James Bowen, <i>A History of Western Education</i> (3 vol 1981) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28James%20Bowen%2C%20%27%27A%20History%20of%20Western%20Education%27%27%29">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gary McCulloch and David Crook, eds. <i>The Routledge International Encyclopedia of Education</i> (2013)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Penelope Peterson, et al. eds. <i>International Encyclopedia of Education</i> (3rd ed. 8 vol 2010) comprehensive coverage for every nation</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFParsons,_Marie" class="citation web cs1">Parsons, Marie. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/educate.htm">"Education in Ancient Egypt"</a>. <i>Tour Egypt</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Tour+Egypt&rft.atitle=Education+in+Ancient+Egypt&rft.au=Parsons%2C+Marie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.touregypt.net%2Ffeaturestories%2Feducate.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomason, Allison Karmel (2005). <i>Luxury and Legitimation: Royal Collecting in Ancient Mesopotamia</i>. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7546-0238-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7546-0238-9">0-7546-0238-9</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-0238-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-0238-5">978-0-7546-0238-5</a>, p. 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRivkah_Harris2000" class="citation book cs1">Rivkah Harris (2000). <i>Gender and Aging in Mesopotamia</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gender+and+Aging+in+Mesopotamia&rft.date=2000&rft.au=Rivkah+Harris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fischer, Steven Roger (2004). <i>A History of Writing</i>. Reaktion Books, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86189-167-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-86189-167-9">1-86189-167-9</a>, p. 50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9009855/Ashurbanipal">"Ashurbanipal – king of Assyria"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ashurbanipal+%E2%80%93+king+of+Assyria&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Feb%2Farticle-9009855%2FAshurbanipal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaines1983" class="citation cs2">Baines, John (1983), <i>Literacy and Ancient Egyptian Society</i>, pp. 572–599</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Literacy+and+Ancient+Egyptian+Society&rft.pages=572-599&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Baines&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRedford2000" class="citation book cs1">Redford, Donald (2000). <i>The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 67, 94.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Encyclopedia+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.pages=67%2C+94&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Redford&rft.aufirst=Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaines2007" class="citation book cs1">Baines, John (2007). <i>Visual and Written Culture in Ancient Egypt</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 67, 94.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Visual+and+Written+Culture+in+Ancient+Egypt&rft.pages=67%2C+94&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Baines&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Literacy-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Literacy_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Literacy_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt/literature/literacy.html">Literacy</a> University College London</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hopkins K "Conquest by book", 1991, p. 135. in JH Humphrey (ed.) <i>Literacy in the Roman World</i> (<i>Journal of Roman Archeology, Supplementary Series</i> No 3, pp. 133–158), University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baines, John "Literacy and ancient Egyptian society", 1983, Man (New Series), 18 (3), 572–599</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLesko1994" class="citation book cs1">Lesko, L. (1994). <i>Pharaoh's Workers: The Villagers of Deir el Medina</i>. Cornell University Press. pp. 67, 94.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pharaoh%27s+Workers%3A+The+Villagers+of+Deir+el+Medina&rft.pages=67%2C+94&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Lesko&rft.aufirst=L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Village Voices: Proceedings of the Symposium "Texts from Deir El-Medîna and Their Interpretation"</i>. Centre of Non-Western Studies, Leiden university. 1991. pp. 81–94.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Village+Voices%3A+Proceedings+of+the+Symposium+%22Texts+from+Deir+El-Med%C3%AEna+and+Their+Interpretation%22&rft.pages=81-94&rft.pub=Centre+of+Non-Western+Studies%2C+Leiden+university&rft.date=1991&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Compayre-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Compayre_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Compayre, Gabriel; Payne, W. H., <i>History of Pedagogy</i> (1899), Translated by W. H. Payne, 2003, Kessinger Publishing; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7661-5486-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7661-5486-6">0-7661-5486-6</a>; p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hezser, Catherine "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zlrxbYml2ioC">Jewish Literacy in Roman Palestine</a>", 2001, <i>Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism</i>; 81. Tuebingen: Mohr-Siebeck, at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zlrxbYml2ioC&pg=PA503">page 503</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bar-Ilan, M. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.biu.ac.il/~barilm/illitera.html">"Illiteracy in the Land of Israel in the First Centuries C.E."</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081029012336/http://faculty.biu.ac.il/~barilm/illitera.html">Archived</a> 2008-10-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> in S. Fishbane, S. Schoenfeld and A. Goldschlaeger (eds.), <i>Essays in the Social Scientific Study of Judaism and Jewish Society</i>, II, New York: Ktav, 1992, pp. 46–61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gupta-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gupta_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gupta_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gupta_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gupta_20-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gupta, Amita. <i>Going to School in South Asia</i>, 2007, Greenwood Publishing Group; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33553-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33553-2">978-0-313-33553-2</a>; pp. 73-76</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://koenraadelst.blogspot.in/2014/11/true-hindu-greatness.html">"True Hindu Greatness"</a>. 21 November 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=True+Hindu+Greatness&rft.date=2014-11-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fkoenraadelst.blogspot.in%2F2014%2F11%2Ftrue-hindu-greatness.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJain2018" class="citation web cs1">Jain, Richa (20 April 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theculturetrip.com/asia/india/articles/what-did-the-ancient-indian-education-system-look-like/">"What Did the Ancient Indian Education System Look Like?"</a>. <i>Culture Trip</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Culture+Trip&rft.atitle=What+Did+the+Ancient+Indian+Education+System+Look+Like%3F&rft.date=2018-04-20&rft.aulast=Jain&rft.aufirst=Richa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheculturetrip.com%2Fasia%2Findia%2Farticles%2Fwhat-did-the-ancient-indian-education-system-look-like%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brockington-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brockington_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brockington_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrockington2003" class="citation book cs1">Brockington, John (2003). "The Sanskrit Epics". In Flood, Gavin (ed.). <i>Blackwell companion to Hinduism</i>. <a href="/wiki/Blackwell_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackwell Publishing">Blackwell Publishing</a>. pp. 116–128. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-21535-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-21535-2"><bdi>0-631-21535-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Sanskrit+Epics&rft.btitle=Blackwell+companion+to+Hinduism&rft.pages=116-128&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-631-21535-2&rft.aulast=Brockington&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Scharfe-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Scharfe_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hartmut Scharfe (2002). <i>Education in Ancient India</i>. Brill Academic Publishers. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-12556-6" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-12556-6">90-04-12556-6</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMajumdarMajumdar1946" class="citation book cs1">Majumdar, Raychauduri; Majumdar, Datta (1946). <a href="/wiki/An_Advanced_History_of_India" title="An Advanced History of India"><i>An Advanced History of India</i></a>. London: Macmillan. p. 64.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Advanced+History+of+India&rft.place=London&rft.pages=64&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1946&rft.aulast=Majumdar&rft.aufirst=Raychauduri&rft.au=Majumdar%2C+Datta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">UNESCO World Heritage List. 1980. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/139">Taxila: Brief Description</a>. Retrieved 13 January 2007</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Britannica_Education-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_Education_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"History of Education", <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>, 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Encarta-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Encarta_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Nalanda" (2007). <i>Encarta</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Needham-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Needham_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Needham" title="Joseph Needham">Joseph Needham</a> (2004), <i>Within the Four Seas: The Dialogue of East and West</i>, Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-36166-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-36166-4">0-415-36166-4</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>When the men of Alexander the Great came to Taxila in India in the fourth century BC they found a university there the like of which had not been seen in Greece, a university which taught the Trayi Veda and the eighteen accomplishments and was still existing when the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hsien went there about AD 400.</p></blockquote></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HardyG-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HardyG_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HardyG_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jing Lin, <i>Education in Post-Mao China</i> (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1993)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kinney-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kinney_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kinney_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kinney, Anne B; <i>Representations of Childhood and Youth in Early China</i>, 2004, Stanford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-4731-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-4731-8">0-8047-4731-8</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4731-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4731-8">978-0-8047-4731-8</a> at pp. 14–15</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Foster, Philip; Purves, Alan: "Literacy and society with particular reference to the non-Western world" in <i>Handbook of Reading Research</i> by Rebecca Barr, P. David Pearson, Michael L. Kamil, Peter Mosenthal 2002, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2002; Originally published: New York : Longman, c. 1984 – c. 1991; p. 30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Coulson-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Coulson_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Coulson_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Coulson_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Coulson_33-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Coulson_33-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Coulson_33-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Coulson, Joseph: <i><a href="/wiki/Market_Education" title="Market Education">Market Education: The Unknown History</a></i>, 1999, Transaction Publishers; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56000-408-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-56000-408-8">1-56000-408-8</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56000-408-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56000-408-0">978-1-56000-408-0</a>; pp. 40–47</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cordasco-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cordasco_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cordasco_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cordasco_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cordasco_34-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Cordasco" title="Francesco Cordasco">Cordasco, Francesco</a>: <i>A Brief History of Education: A Handbook of Information on Greek, Roman, Medieval, Renaissance, and Modern Educational Practice</i>, 1976, Rowman & Littlefield; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8226-0067-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8226-0067-6">0-8226-0067-6</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8226-0067-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8226-0067-1">978-0-8226-0067-1</a>; at pp. 5, 6, & 9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hist-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hist_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hist_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Chiappetta, "Historiography and Roman Education", <i>History of Education Journal</i> 4, no. 4 (1953): 149–156.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HarrisWV-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HarrisWV_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HarrisWV_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Harris W.V. <i>Ancient literacy</i>, 1989, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., p. 158</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ox-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ox_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ox_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ox_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Oxford Classical Dictionary</i>, edited by Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth, Third Edition. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 1996</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quintilian, <i>Quintilian on Education</i>, translated by William M. Smail (New York: Teachers College Press, 1966).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yun Lee Too, <i>Education in Greek and Roman antiquity</i> (Boston: Brill, 2001).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. V. Harris, <i>Ancient literacy</i> (Harvard University Press, 1989) p. 328.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ._Wright2016" class="citation journal cs1">J. Wright, Brian (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/18281056">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Ancient Rome's Daily News Publication With Some Likely Implications For Early Christian Studies" TynBull 67.1"</a>. <i>Tyndale Bulletin</i>. <b>67</b> (1): 145–160. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.53751%2F001c.29414">10.53751/001c.29414</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:239948306">239948306</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tyndale+Bulletin&rft.atitle=%22Ancient+Rome%27s+Daily+News+Publication+With+Some+Likely+Implications+For+Early+Christian+Studies%22+TynBull+67.1&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=145-160&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.53751%2F001c.29414&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A239948306%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=J.+Wright&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F18281056&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLynch2021" class="citation journal cs1">Lynch, Sarah B. (May 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fheq.2021.7">"Marking Time, Making Community in Medieval Schools"</a>. <i>History of Education Quarterly</i>. <b>61</b> (2): 158–180. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fheq.2021.7">10.1017/heq.2021.7</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Education+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Marking+Time%2C+Making+Community+in+Medieval+Schools&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=158-180&rft.date=2021-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fheq.2021.7&rft.aulast=Lynch&rft.aufirst=Sarah+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252Fheq.2021.7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Riché, Pierre (1978): <i>Education and Culture in the Barbarian West: From the Sixth through the Eighth Century</i>, Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87249-376-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-87249-376-8">0-87249-376-8</a>, pp. 126–7, 282–98</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSouthern1982" class="citation book cs1">Southern, R.W. (1982). <i>Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century</i>. Harvard University Press. pp. 114, 115.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Renaissance+and+Renewal+in+the+Twelfth+Century&rft.pages=114%2C+115&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Southern&rft.aufirst=R.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Goffart, Walter. <i>The Narrators of Barbarian History (A.D. 550–800): Jordanes, Gregory of Tours, Bede, and Paul the Deacon</i> (Princeton University Press, 1988) pp. 238ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eleanor S. Duckett, <i>Alcuin, Friend of Charlemagne: His World and his Work</i> (1965)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_schools#Further_ambition" title="Carolingian schools">Carolingian schools#Further ambition</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoseph_W._Koterski2005" class="citation book cs1">Joseph W. Koterski (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1ty-KiM6vgC&pg=PA83"><i>Medieval Education</i></a>. Fordham U. Press. p. 83. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8232-2425-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8232-2425-8"><bdi>978-0-8232-2425-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Education&rft.pages=83&rft.pub=Fordham+U.+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8232-2425-8&rft.au=Joseph+W.+Koterski&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQ1ty-KiM6vgC%26pg%3DPA83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stanley E. Porter, <i>Dictionary of biblical criticism and interpretation</i> (2007) p. 223</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/3000/oldest-university">"Oldest higher-learning institution, oldest university"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Oldest+higher-learning+institution%2C+oldest+university&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.guinnessworldrecords.com%2Fworld-records%2F3000%2Foldest-university&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Verger, Jacques: "Patterns", in: Ridder-Symoens, Hilde de (ed.): <i>A History of the University in Europe. Vol. I: Universities in the Middle Ages</i>, Cambridge University Press, 2003, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-54113-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-54113-8">978-0-521-54113-8</a>, pp. 35–76 (35)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Al-Hassani, S. T. S. (2011). <i>1001 inventions: Muslim heritage in our world</i>. Foundation for Science, Technology and Civilisation Ltd.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Modelski-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Modelski_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/George_Modelski" title="George Modelski">George Modelski</a>, <i>World Cities: –3000 to 2000</i>, Washington DC: FAROS 2000, 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9676230-1-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9676230-1-6">978-0-9676230-1-6</a>. See also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.washington.edu/modelski/">Evolutionary World Politics Homepage</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081228052839/http://faculty.washington.edu/modelski/">Archived</a> 28 December 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pedersen, J.; Rahman, Munibur; Hillenbrand, R. "Madrasa". <i>Encyclopaedia of Islam</i>, (2nd ed. 2010)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George Makdisi: "Madrasa and University in the Middle Ages", in: <i>Studia Islamica</i>, Vol. 32 (1970), S. 255–264 (264)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Alatas-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Alatas_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Alatas_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlatas2006" class="citation journal cs1">Alatas, Syed Farid (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/29439">"From Jami'ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue"</a>. <i>Current Sociology</i>. <b>54</b> (1): 112–32. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0011392106058837">10.1177/0011392106058837</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144509355">144509355</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Sociology&rft.atitle=From+Jami%27ah+to+University%3A+Multiculturalism+and+Christian%E2%80%93Muslim+Dialogue&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=112-32&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0011392106058837&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144509355%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Alatas&rft.aufirst=Syed+Farid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F29439&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuran1996" class="citation journal cs1">Kuran, Aptullah (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1523255">"A Spatial Study of Three Ottoman Capitals: Bursa, Edirne, and Istanbul Kuran, Aptullah"</a>. <i>Muqarnas</i>. <b>13</b>: 114–131. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22118993-90000360">10.1163/22118993-90000360</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1523255">1523255</a> – via JSTOR.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Muqarnas&rft.atitle=A+Spatial+Study+of+Three+Ottoman+Capitals%3A+Bursa%2C+Edirne%2C+and+Istanbul+Kuran%2C+Aptullah&rft.volume=13&rft.pages=114-131&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F22118993-90000360&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1523255%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Kuran&rft.aufirst=Aptullah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1523255&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Manuscrits-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Manuscrits_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2004/08/DJIAN/11470">"Les manuscrits trouvés à Tombouctou"</a> (in French). 1 August 2004.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Les+manuscrits+trouv%C3%A9s+%C3%A0+Tombouctou&rft.date=2004-08-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.monde-diplomatique.fr%2F2004%2F08%2FDJIAN%2F11470&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030803023357/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/05/0522_030527_timbuktu.html">"Reclaiming the Ancient Manuscripts of Timbuktu"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/05/0522_030527_timbuktu.html">the original</a> on 3 August 2003.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Reclaiming+the+Ancient+Manuscripts+of+Timbuktu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.nationalgeographic.com%2Fnews%2F2003%2F05%2F0522_030527_timbuktu.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorman2005" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Norman_(sinologist)" title="Jerry Norman (sinologist)">Norman, Jerry</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.askasia.org/teachers/essays/essay.php?no=101">"Chinese Writing: Transitions and Transformations"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 December</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chinese+Writing%3A+Transitions+and+Transformations&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Norman&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.askasia.org%2Fteachers%2Fessays%2Fessay.php%3Fno%3D101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KS-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-KS_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">K. S. Tom. [1989] (1989). <i>Echoes from Old China: Life, Legends and Lore of the Middle Kingdom</i>. University of Hawaii Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8248-1285-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8248-1285-9">0-8248-1285-9</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-yuan-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-yuan_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-yuan_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-yuan_62-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-yuan_62-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Yuan, Zheng. "Local Government Schools in Sung China: A Reassessment", <i>History of Education Quarterly</i> (Volume 34, Number 2; Summer 1994): 193–213; pp. 196–201.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuresh_Kant_Sharma2005" class="citation book cs1">Suresh Kant Sharma (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UMwUONSXKocC&pg=PA4"><i>Encyclopaedia of Higher Education: Historical survey-pre-independence period</i></a>. Mittal Publications. pp. 4ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-8324-013-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-8324-013-0"><bdi>978-81-8324-013-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Higher+Education%3A+Historical+survey-pre-independence+period&rft.pages=4ff&rft.pub=Mittal+Publications&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-81-8324-013-0&rft.au=Suresh+Kant+Sharma&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUMwUONSXKocC%26pg%3DPA4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadhakumud_Mookerji1990" class="citation book cs1">Radhakumud Mookerji (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mjFfqpq7HhkC&pg=PA587"><i>Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 587ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0423-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0423-4"><bdi>978-81-208-0423-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Indian+Education%3A+Brahmanical+and+Buddhist&rft.pages=587ff&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0423-4&rft.au=Radhakumud+Mookerji&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmjFfqpq7HhkC%26pg%3DPA587&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAryabhata" class="citation book cs1">Aryabhata. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rarebooksocietyofindia.org/book_archive/196174216674_10152986900816675.pdf"><i>Aryabhatiya</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aryabhatiya&rft.au=Aryabhata&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rarebooksocietyofindia.org%2Fbook_archive%2F196174216674_10152986900816675.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historydiscussion.net/history-of-india/medieval-age/hindu-education-in-the-medieval-times-india/6212">"Hindu Education in the Medieval Times | India"</a>. <i>History Discussion – Discuss Anything About History</i>. 14 July 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History+Discussion+%E2%80%93+Discuss+Anything+About+History&rft.atitle=Hindu+Education+in+the+Medieval+Times+%7C+India&rft.date=2016-07-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historydiscussion.net%2Fhistory-of-india%2Fmedieval-age%2Fhindu-education-in-the-medieval-times-india%2F6212&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/education/islamic-education-during-medieval-india/84833">"Islamic Education During Medieval India"</a>. <i>Your Article Library</i>. 16 June 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Your+Article+Library&rft.atitle=Islamic+Education+During+Medieval+India&rft.date=2016-06-16&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.yourarticlelibrary.com%2Feducation%2Fislamic-education-during-medieval-india%2F84833&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pankaj Goyal, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/t_es/t_es_goyal_education.htm">"Education in Pre-British India"</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">N Jayapalan, <i>History Of Education In India</i> (2005) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IDNeW78fedkC">excerpt and text search</a>; Ram Nath Sharma, <i>History of education in India</i> (1996) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yqtAAgS3NSEC">excerpt and text search</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Paglayan_179–198-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Paglayan_179–198_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Paglayan_179–198_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaglayan2021" class="citation journal cs1">Paglayan, Agustina S. (February 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0003055420000647">"The Non-Democratic Roots of Mass Education: Evidence from 200 Years"</a>. <i>American Political Science Review</i>. <b>115</b> (1): 179–198. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0003055420000647">10.1017/S0003055420000647</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-0554">0003-0554</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Political+Science+Review&rft.atitle=The+Non-Democratic+Roots+of+Mass+Education%3A+Evidence+from+200+Years&rft.volume=115&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=179-198&rft.date=2021-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0003055420000647&rft.issn=0003-0554&rft.aulast=Paglayan&rft.aufirst=Agustina+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS0003055420000647&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">US Dept of State 1962, 58</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-political-science-review/article/nondemocratic-roots-of-mass-education-evidence-from-200-years/8C8C594AA07996A00ED4BEFC66B133B7">“Education Must Be Combined with Productive Labor,” published in Red Flag, cited in US Dept of State 1962, 58; People’s Daily, cited in US Dept of State 1962, 59, cited in Paglayan 2021</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Storia_d'Italia-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Storia_d'Italia_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Storia_d'Italia_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><i>Storia d'Italia</i> (in Italian). Vol. 4. Torino: UTET. 7 August 1981. p. 122. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/88-02-03568-7" title="Special:BookSources/88-02-03568-7"><bdi>88-02-03568-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Storia+d%27Italia&rft.place=Torino&rft.pages=122&rft.pub=UTET&rft.date=1981-08-07&rft.isbn=88-02-03568-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Delle_Donne-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Delle_Donne_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Delle_Donne_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDelle_Donne2010" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Delle Donne, Fulvio (2010). <i>Storia dello Studium di Napoli in età sveva</i> (in Italian). Mario Adda Editore. pp. 9–10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8880828419" title="Special:BookSources/978-8880828419"><bdi>978-8880828419</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Storia+dello+Studium+di+Napoli+in+et%C3%A0+sveva&rft.pages=9-10&rft.pub=Mario+Adda+Editore&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-8880828419&rft.aulast=Delle+Donne&rft.aufirst=Fulvio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrme2006" class="citation book cs1">Orme, Nicholas (2006). <i>Medieval Schools</i>. New Haven & London: Yale University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Schools&rft.place=New+Haven+%26+London&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Orme&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John M. Jeep, <i>Medieval Germany: an encyclopedia</i> (2001) p. 308</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arthur A. Tilley, <i>Medieval France: A Companion to French Studies</i> (2010) p. 213</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William Boyd and Edmund King, <i>The History of Western Education</i> (10th ed. 1972), pp. 183–208</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David L. Ransel, "Ivan Betskoi and the Institutionalization of the Enlightenment in Russia". <i>Canadian-American Slavic Studies</i> 14.3 (1980): 327–338.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Danuta M. Gorecki, "The Commission of National Education and Civic Revival through Books in Eighteenth-Century Poland". <i>Journal of Library History</i> 15.2 (1980): 138–166.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carline, R. (1968). <i>Draw they must: A history of the teaching and examining of art</i>. London: Edward Arnold, p.30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kagan-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kagan_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Donald Kagan, Steven Ozment, Frank M Turner (2007). <i>Western Heritage: Since 1300</i> (AP Edition). Pearson Education, Inc. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-173292-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-173292-7">0-13-173292-7</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Skovgaard‐Petersen, Vagn (1997). "Forty years of research into the history of education in Denmark." <i>Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research</i> 41.3-4: 319-331.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2001" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Smith, Mark K. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://infed.org/ragged-schools-and-the-development-of-youth-work-and-informal-education/">"Ragged schools and the development of youth work and informal education"</a>. <i>The encyclopedia of pedagogy and informal education</i> – via infed.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ragged+schools+and+the+development+of+youth+work+and+informal+education&rft.btitle=The+encyclopedia+of+pedagogy+and+informal+education&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Mark+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Finfed.org%2Fragged-schools-and-the-development-of-youth-work-and-informal-education%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCummings,_A._J._Graham1997" class="citation book cs1">Cummings, A. J. Graham, ed. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZhaBz_5OZiUC&pg=RA3-PA78"><i>Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. pp. 78–79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780815303961" title="Special:BookSources/9780815303961"><bdi>9780815303961</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britain+in+the+Hanoverian+Age%2C+1714%E2%80%931837%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=78-79&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9780815303961&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZhaBz_5OZiUC%26pg%3DRA3-PA78&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLougee1974" class="citation journal cs1">Lougee, Carolyn C. (1974). "Noblesse, Domesticity, and Social Reform: The Education of Girls by Fenelon and Saint-Cyr". <i>History of Education Quarterly</i>. <b>14</b> (1): 87–114. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F367607">10.2307/367607</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/367607">367607</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147256679">147256679</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Education+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Noblesse%2C+Domesticity%2C+and+Social+Reform%3A+The+Education+of+Girls+by+Fenelon+and+Saint-Cyr&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=87-114&rft.date=1974&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A147256679%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F367607%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F367607&rft.aulast=Lougee&rft.aufirst=Carolyn+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Howard Clive Barnard, <i>Education and the French revolution</i> (1969).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Margaret Bradley, "Scientific Education for a New Society The Ecole Polytechnique 1795–1830". <i>History of Education</i> (1976) 5#1 (1976) pp: 11–24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kay Chadwick, "Education in secular France:(re) defining laïcité". <i>Modern & Contemporary France</i> (1997) 5#1 pp: 47–59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barnett B. Singer, "Jules Ferry and the laic revolution in French primary education". <i>Paedagogica Historica</i> (1975) 15#2 pp: 406–425.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Remi Clignet, "Inadequacies of the notion of assimilation in African education". <i>Journal of Modern African Studies</i> 8.3 (1970): 425–444. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/158852">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">B. Olatunji Oloruntimehin, "Education for Colonial Dominance in French West Africa from 1900 to the Second World War". <i>Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria</i> 7.2 (1974): 347–356.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James E. Genova, "Conflicted missionaries: power and identity in French West Africa during the 1930s". <i>The Historian</i> 66.1 (2004): 45–66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rice, Louisa (2013). "Between empire and nation: francophone West African students and decolonization". <i>Atlantic Studies</i> 10.1: 131–147.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">DeGorge, Barbara (2002). "The modernization of education: A case study of Tunisia and Morocco". <i>European Legacy</i> 7.5: 579–596.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tony Chafer, "Teaching Africans To Be French?: France's 'civilising mission' and the establishment of a public education system in French West Africa, 1903-30." <i>Africa</i> (2001): 190–209 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40761537">online</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gardinier, David E. (1974). "Schooling in the states of equatorial Africa". <i>Canadian Journal of African Studies/La Revue canadienne des études africaines</i> 8.3: 517–538.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heggoy, Alf Andrew and Paul J. Zingg (1976). "French education in revolutionary North Africa". <i>International Journal of Middle East Studies</i> 7.4: 571–578.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thuy-Phuong Nguyen, "The rivalry of the French and American educational missions during the Vietnam War". <i>Paedagogica Historica</i> 50.1–2 (2014): 27–41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">U.S. DOE 1959, 1, cited in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-political-science-review/article/nondemocratic-roots-of-mass-education-evidence-from-200-years/8C8C594AA07996A00ED4BEFC66B133B7">Paglayan 2021</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Moss, M. E. (2004). <i>Mussolini's fascist philosopher: Giovanni Gentile reconsidered</i>. New York: P. Lang.pp 26–73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnn.com/2019/11/06/europe/italy-climate-change-school-intl-scli-scn/index.html">"Italy to become first country to make learning about climate change compulsory for school students"</a>. CNN. 6 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Italy+to+become+first+country+to+make+learning+about+climate+change+compulsory+for+school+students&rft.pub=CNN&rft.date=2019-11-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2019%2F11%2F06%2Feurope%2Fitaly-climate-change-school-intl-scli-scn%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On the comparable situation in medieval Iceland, see Patzuk-Russell, Ryder. <i>The Development of Education in Medieval Iceland</i>, Berlin, Boston: Medieval Institute Publications, 2021. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9781501514180">10.1515/9781501514180</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Telhaug, Alfred Oftedal (1997). "Forty years of Norwegian research in the history of education". <i>Scandinavian journal of educational research</i> 41.3–4: 347–364.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristian" class="citation web cs1">Christian, Beck. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://folk.uio.no/cbeck/EDUCATION%20OTHERWISE%20IN%20NORWAY.htm">"Education Otherwise and Home Education in Norway"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Education+Otherwise+and+Home+Education+in+Norway&rft.aulast=Christian&rft.aufirst=Beck&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffolk.uio.no%2Fcbeck%2FEDUCATION%2520OTHERWISE%2520IN%2520NORWAY.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lararnashistoria.se/sites/www.lararnashistoria.se/files/artiklar/Folkskolan%20och%20grundskolan.pdf">"Folkskolan och grundskola"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>www.lararnashistoria.se</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 March</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.lararnashistoria.se&rft.atitle=Folkskolan+och+grundskola&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lararnashistoria.se%2Fsites%2Fwww.lararnashistoria.se%2Ffiles%2Fartiklar%2FFolkskolan%2520och%2520grundskolan.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Johansson, Ulla and Christina Florin (1993). "'Where the glorious laurels grow...': Swedish grammar schools as a means of social mobility and social reproduction." <i>History of Education</i> 22.2: 147-162.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pettersson, Lars ((1977)). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00708852.1977.10418947">"Some aspects of the expansion of education in Sweden." <i>Economy and History</i> 20.2: 69-91.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marshall, Bryon K. (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/367151">"Universal Social Dilemmas and Japanese Educational History: The Writings of R. P. Dore", <i>History of Education Quarterly</i>, 12#1, pp. 97–106.</a> <i><a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Platt, Brian (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3790485">"Japanese Childhood, Modern Childhood: The Nation-State, the School, and 19th-Century Globalization". <i>Journal of Social History</i>, 38#4, pp. 965–985.</a> <i><a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Uno, Kathleen S. (1999). <i>Passages to Modernity: Motherhood, Childhood, and Social Reform in Early 20th century Japan</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jones, Mark (2010). <i>Children as Treasures: Childhood and the Middle Class in Early 20th century Japan</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David S. Nivison and Arthur F. Wright, eds. <i>Confucianism in action</i> (1959) p. 302</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00generallinks/macaulay/txt_minute_education_1835.html">"Minute on Education (1835) by Thomas Babington Macaulay"</a>. <i>www.columbia.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 May</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.columbia.edu&rft.atitle=Minute+on+Education+%281835%29+by+Thomas+Babington+Macaulay&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.columbia.edu%2Fitc%2Fmealac%2Fpritchett%2F00generallinks%2Fmacaulay%2Ftxt_minute_education_1835.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Latika Chaudhary, "Land revenues, schools and literacy: A historical examination of public and private funding of education", <i>Indian Economic & Social History Review</i>, April–June 2010, Vol. 47 Issue 2, pp. 179–204</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">V. C. Bhutani, "Curzon'S Educational Reform in India", <i>Journal of Indian History</i>, 1973, Vol. 51 Issue 151, pp. 65–92</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://parents.education.govt.nz/secondary-school/your-child-at-school/leaving-school-before-the-age-of-16/">"Leaving school before the age of 16"</a>. <i>Education.govt.nz</i>. 24 May 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Education.govt.nz&rft.atitle=Leaving+school+before+the+age+of+16&rft.date=2017-05-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fparents.education.govt.nz%2Fsecondary-school%2Fyour-child-at-school%2Fleaving-school-before-the-age-of-16%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCreadie" class="citation book cs1">McCreadie, Marion. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyaustralia.org.au/ifhaa/schools/evelutio.htm"><i>The Evolution of Education in Australia</i></a>. IFHAA Australian Schools.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+Education+in+Australia&rft.pub=IFHAA+Australian+Schools&rft.aulast=McCreadie&rft.aufirst=Marion&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyaustralia.org.au%2Fifhaa%2Fschools%2Fevelutio.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-istanbuluniversity-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-istanbuluniversity_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.istanbul.edu.tr/english/?p=68">"History"</a>. <i>istanbul.edu.tr</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=istanbul.edu.tr&rft.atitle=History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.istanbul.edu.tr%2Fenglish%2F%3Fp%3D68&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dew-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dew_120-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dew_120-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wolf-Gazo, <i>John Dewey in Turkey: An Educational Mission</i>, 15–42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRepublic_of_Turkey_Ministry_of_National_Education" class="citation web cs1">Republic of Turkey Ministry of National Education. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071028090833/http://www.meb.gov.tr/Stats/apk2001ing/Section_0/AtaturksViewon.htm">"Atatürk's views on education"</a>. T.C. Government. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.meb.gov.tr/Stats/apk2001ing/Section_0/AtaturksViewon.htm">the original</a> on 28 October 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 November</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Atat%C3%BCrk%27s+views+on+education&rft.pub=T.C.+Government&rft.au=Republic+of+Turkey+Ministry+of+National+Education&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.meb.gov.tr%2FStats%2Fapk2001ing%2FSection_0%2FAtaturksViewon.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ernest Wolf-Gazo. "John Dewey in Turkey: An Educational Mission." <i>Journal of American Studies of Turkey</i> 3 (1996): 15-42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arnold Reisman, "German Jewish Intellectuals' Diaspora in Turkey: 1933–55." <i>The Historian</i> 69.3 (2007): 450-478.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arnold Reisman, "Jewish Refugees from Nazism, Albert Einstein, and the Modernization of Higher Education in Turkey (1933–1945)." <i>Aleph</i>, no. 7, (2007), pp. 253–81, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/40377865">online</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Benavot, Aaron, and Julia Resnik. "Lessons from the past: A comparative socio-historical analysis of primary and secondary education". in Joel Colton et al. eds. <i>Educating all children: A global agenda</i> (2006): 123–229. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Julia_Resnik/publication/316045536_Lessons_from_the_Past_A_Comparative_Socio-Historical_Analysis_of_Primary_and_Secondary_Education/links/58ee40c8a6fdcc61cc1251a2/Lessons-from-the-Past-A-Comparative-Socio-Historical-Analysis-of-Primary-and-Secondary-Education.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Connell, W. F. ed. <i>A History of Education in the Twentieth Century World</i> (1981), 478pp; global coverage</li> <li>Cubberley, Ellwood Patterson. <i>The History of Education: Educational Practice and Progress Considered as a Phase of the Development and Spread of Western Civilization</i> (1920) [The history of education : educational practice and progress considered as a phase of the development and spread of western civilization online]</li> <li>Foght, H.W. ed. <i>Comparative education</i> (1918), compares United States, England, Germany, France, Canada, and Denmark <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.81866">online</a></li> <li>Rebecca Marlow-Ferguson, Rebecca, ed. <i>World Education Encyclopedia: a survey of educational systems worldwide</i> (Gage, 4 vol 2002)</li> <li>Palmer, Joy A. et al. eds. <i>Fifty Major Thinkers on Education: From Confucius to Dewey</i> (2001)</li> <li>Palmer, Joy A. ed. <i>Fifty Modern Thinkers on Education: From Piaget to the Present Day</i> (2001)</li> <li>Peterson, Penelope et al. eds. <i>International Encyclopedia of Education</i> (3rd ed. 8 vol 2010) comprehensive coverage for every nation</li> <li>Pink, M. Alderton. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73580">Procrustes; or, the future of English education</a></i> United States: E. P. Dutton & Company, (1927)</li> <li>Watson Foster, ed. <i>The Encyclopaedia and Dictionary of Education</i> (London: 1921, 4 vol) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22The%20Encyclopaedia%20and%20Dictionary%20of%20Education%20%22">online free</a>; global coverage</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asia">Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Dharampal. (1983). <i>The beautiful tree: Indigenous Indian education in the eighteenth century</i>. New Delhi: Biblia Impex.</li> <li>Elman, Benjamin A., and Alexander Woodside. <i>Education and Society in Late Imperial China, 1600–1900</i> (U of California Press, 1994)</li> <li>Ghosh, Suresh Chandra. <i>The history of education in modern India, 1757-1998</i> (Orient Longman, 2000)</li> <li>Lee, Thomas H. C. <i>Education in traditional China: a history</i> (2000)</li> <li>Jayapalan N. <i>History Of Education In India</i> (2005) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IDNeW78fedkC">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Price, Ronald Francis. <i>Education in modern China</i> (Routledge, 2014)</li> <li>Sharma, Ram Nath. <i>History of education in India</i> (1996) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yqtAAgS3NSEC">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Swarup, Ram (1971). <i>The Hindu view of education</i>. New Delhi. Aditya Prakashan.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe_3">Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Anderson, Robert David. <i>European Universities from the Enlightenment to 1914</i>. (Oxford University Press, 2004)</li> <li>Begley, Ronald B. and Joseph W. Koterski. <i>Medieval Education</i> (2005)</li> <li>Bowen, James. <i>A History of Western Education: Vol 3: The Modern West, Europe and the New World</i>. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofwestern0002bowe/page/n5/mode/2up">vol 2 online</a>; also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofwestern0000bowe_h0l6">vol 3 online</a></li> <li>Boyd, William, and Edmund J. King. <i>The History of Western Education</i>. (11th ed, 1975) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofwestern0000boyd_q3e5">online</a></li> <li>Butts, R. Freeman. <i>A Cultural History of Western Education: Its Social and Intellectual Foundations</i> (2nd ed. 1955)</li> <li>Cook, T. G. <i>The History of Education in Europe</i> (1974)</li> <li>Cubberley, Ellwood. <i>The history of education</i> (1920) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyeducatio01cubbgoog">online</a> Strong on European developments</li> <li>Graff, Harvey J. <i>The Legacies of Literacy: Continuities and Contradictions in Western Culture and Society</i> (1987) from Middle Ages to present</li> <li>Hoyer, Timo. <i>Sozialgeschichte der Erziehung. Von der Antike bis in die Moderne.</i> [<i>Social History of Education. From Ancient to Modern Age</i>] (Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft Darmstadt, 2015)</li> <li>Lawson, John, and Harold Silver. <i>A social history of education in England</i> (Routledge, 2013)</li> <li>McCulloch, Gary. <i>The Struggle for the History of Education</i> (2011), Focus on Britain <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=CKmdgRVlHpMC">excerpt</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160311233147/http://samples.sainsburysebooks.co.uk/9781136811241_sample_867163.pdf">Chapter 1 covers historiography</a>.</li> <li>McCulloch, Gary. <i>Historical Research in Educational Settings</i> (2000); Textbook on how to write British educational history. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Historical-Research-Educational-Settings-McCulloch/dp/0335202543/">excerpt</a>; Good bibliography</li> <li>Ringer, Fritz. <i>Education and Society in Modern Europe</i> (1979); focus on Germany and France with comparisons to US and Britain</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSoysalStrang1989" class="citation journal cs1">Soysal, Yasemin Nuhoglu; Strang, David (1989). "Construction of the First Mass Education Systems in Nineteenth-Century Europe". <i>Sociology of Education</i>. <b>62</b> (4): 277–88. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2112831">10.2307/2112831</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2112831">2112831</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sociology+of+Education&rft.atitle=Construction+of+the+First+Mass+Education+Systems+in+Nineteenth-Century+Europe&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=277-88&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2112831&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2112831%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Soysal&rft.aufirst=Yasemin+Nuhoglu&rft.au=Strang%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sturt,_Mary" class="mw-redirect" title="Sturt, Mary">Sturt, Mary</a>. <i>The education of the people: A history of primary education in England and Wales in the nineteenth century</i> (Routledge, 2013)</li> <li>Toloudis, Nicholas. <i>Teaching Marianne and Uncle Sam: Public Education, State Centralization, and Teacher Unionism in France and the United States</i> (Temple University Press, 2012) 213, pp. *<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSorin-Avram2015" class="citation journal cs1">Sorin-Avram, Virtop (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.sbspro.2015.07.235">"Romanian Contemporary Approaches to the Continuous Training of History and Geography Teachers"</a>. <i>Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences</i>. <b>197</b>: 1774–81. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.sbspro.2015.07.235">10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.07.235</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Procedia+-+Social+and+Behavioral+Sciences&rft.atitle=Romanian+Contemporary+Approaches+to+the+Continuous+Training+of+History+and+Geography+Teachers&rft.volume=197&rft.pages=1774-81&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.sbspro.2015.07.235&rft.aulast=Sorin-Avram&rft.aufirst=Virtop&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.sbspro.2015.07.235&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Tröhler, Daniel. <i>Curriculum history or the educational construction of Europe in the long nineteenth century</i>. European Educational Research Journal 15(3):279-297. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317002808_Curriculum_history_or_the_educational_construction_of_Europe_in_the_long_nineteenth_century">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317002808_Curriculum_history_or_the_educational_construction_of_Europe_in_the_long_nineteenth_century</a></li> <li>Wardle, David. <i>English popular education 1780–1970</i> (Cambridge UP, 1970)</li> <li>Whitehead, Barbara J., ed. <i>Women's education in early modern Europe: a history, 1500–1800</i> (1999); specialized topics</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States_2">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_United_States:_Bibliography" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in the United States: Bibliography">History of education in the United States: Bibliography</a></div> <ul><li>Cremin, Lawrence A. <i>American Education: The Colonial Experience, 1607–1783</i> (1970); <i>American Education: The National Experience, 1783–1876</i>. (1980); <i>American Education: The Metropolitan Experience, 1876–1980</i> (1990); standard 3 vol detailed scholarly history</li> <li>Goldstein, Dana. <i>The Teacher Wars: A History of America's Most Embattled Profession</i> (2014)</li> <li>Herbst, Juergen. <i>The once and future school: Three hundred and fifty years of American secondary education</i> (1996).</li> <li>Parkerson Donald H., and Jo Ann Parkerson. <i>Transitions in American education: a social history of teaching</i> (2001) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/transitionsiname0000park">online</a></li> <li>Reese, William J. <i>America's Public Schools: From the Common School to No Child Left Behind</i> (Johns Hopkins U. Press, 2005)</li> <li>Thelin, John R. <i>A History of American Higher Education</i> (2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofamerica0000thel">online</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography">Historiography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Historiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Fuchs, Eckhardt et al. <i>The Transnational in the History of Education: Concepts and Perspectives</i> (Palgrave Macmillan, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Transnational-History-Education-Perspectives-Histories/dp/3030171671/">excerpt</a></li> <li>Gaither, Milton, "The Revisionists Revived: The Libertarian Historiography of Education", <i>History of Education Quarterly</i> 52 (Nov. 2012), 488–505.</li> <li>Goodman, Joyce, and Ian Grosvenor. "Educational research—history of education a curious case?" <i>Oxford Review of Education</i> 35:5, pp. 601–616.</li> <li>Herbst, Jurgen. "The history of education: state of the art at the turn of the century in Europe and North America". <i>Paedagogica Historica</i> 35.3 (1999): 737–747.</li> <li>King, Kelley. "How Educational Historians Establish Relevance", <i>American Educational History Journal</i> (2014) 41#1/2, pp. 1–19.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenry_Bompas_Smith1913" class="citation cs2">Henry Bompas Smith (1913), <i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Education_as_the_Training_of_Personality" class="extiw" title="s:Education as the Training of Personality">Education as the Training of Personality: an inaugural lecture</a></i> (1st ed.), Manchester: <a href="/wiki/Manchester_University_Press" title="Manchester University Press">Manchester University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/WDQ_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="WDQ (identifier)">Wikidata</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q19092326" class="extiw" title="d:Q19092326">Q19092326</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Education+as+the+Training+of+Personality%3A+an+inaugural+lecture&rft.place=Manchester&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1913&rft.au=Henry+Bompas+Smith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_Sullivan1920" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">James Sullivan (1920). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Education, History of"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_Americana_(1920)/Education,_History_of">"Education, History of" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Americana" title="Encyclopedia Americana">Encyclopedia Americana</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Education%2C+History+of&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Americana&rft.date=1920&rft.au=James+Sullivan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/60113">A student's history of education</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Frank_Pierrepont_Graves" title="Frank Pierrepont Graves">Frank Pierrepont Graves</a> (1869-1956).</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_education_by_country" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:World_topic" title="Template:World topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:World_topic" title="Template talk:World topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:World_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:World topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_education_by_country" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History of education by country</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Albania" title="History of education in Albania">Albania</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Algeria">Algeria</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Angola" title="History of education in Angola">Angola</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Argentina" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Argentina">Argentina</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Austria" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Austria">Austria</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Azerbaijan" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Belgium">Belgium</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Belize" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Belize">Belize</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Benin" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Benin">Benin</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Bolivia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Brazil">Brazil</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Brunei" title="History of education in Brunei">Brunei</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Bulgaria" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Burundi" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Burundi">Burundi</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Cambodia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Canada" title="History of education in Canada">Canada</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Cape_Verde" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Chad" title="History of education in Chad">Chad</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_China" title="History of education in China">China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Cuba" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Cuba">Cuba</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Denmark" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Denmark">Denmark</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Egypt">Egypt</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Equatorial_Guinea" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Eritrea" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in the Federated States of Micronesia">Federated States of Micronesia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Finland" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Finland">Finland</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_France" title="History of education in France">France</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Germany">Germany</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Ghana" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Ghana">Ghana</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Guatemala" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Haiti" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Haiti">Haiti</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Iceland" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Iceland">Iceland</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in India">India</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Iran">Iran</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Italy">Italy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Japan" title="History of education in Japan">Japan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Kenya" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Kenya">Kenya</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Kosovo" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Kuwait" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Libya" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Libya">Libya</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Luxembourg" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Malaysia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Mali" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Mali">Mali</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Malta" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Malta">Malta</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Mauritania" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Mauritius" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Mexico">Mexico</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Mongolia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Montenegro" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Morocco" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Morocco">Morocco</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Mozambique" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Myanmar" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Namibia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Namibia">Namibia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Nepal" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Nepal">Nepal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_New_Zealand" title="History of education in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_North_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in North Korea">North Korea</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Norway">Norway</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Panama" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Panama">Panama</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Peru" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Peru">Peru</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_Philippines" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Poland">Poland</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Portugal" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Portugal">Portugal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Qatar" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Qatar">Qatar</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Rwanda" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Serbia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Serbia">Serbia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Seychelles" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Sierra_Leone" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Singapore" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Singapore">Singapore</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in South Africa">South Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_South_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in South Korea">South Korea</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_South_Sudan" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Spain" title="History of education in Spain">Spain</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Sri_Lanka" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Sudan" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Sudan">Sudan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Sweden">Sweden</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Taiwan" title="History of education in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Tanzania" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Thailand" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Thailand">Thailand</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Togo" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Togo">Togo</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Turkey">Turkey</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Turkmenistan" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of education in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of education in the United States">United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Uruguay" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Venezuela" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Yemen" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Yemen">Yemen</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Zimbabwe" class="mw-redirect" title="History of education in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Education" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Education" title="Template:Education"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Education" title="Template talk:Education"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Education" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Education"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Education" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"><div id="Overview" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Overview</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Education" title="Category:Education">General</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_education_terms" title="Glossary of education terms">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_education_articles" title="Index of education articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_education" title="Outline of education">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By perspective</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Educational_aims_and_objectives" title="Educational aims and objectives">Aims and objectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_anthropology" title="Educational anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_assessment" title="Educational assessment">Assessment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Educational_evaluation" title="Educational evaluation">Evaluation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Course_evaluation" title="Course evaluation">Course evaluation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standards-based_assessment" title="Standards-based assessment">Standards-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standardized_test" title="Standardized test">Standardized test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teacher_quality_assessment" title="Teacher quality assessment">Teacher quality</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_economics" title="Education economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_spending_on_education_as_percentage_of_GDP" title="List of countries by spending on education as percentage of GDP">Spending</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Free_education" title="Free education">Free education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuition_payments" title="Tuition payments">Tuition payments</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_sciences" title="Education sciences">Education sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_education" title="Evidence-based education">Evidence-based</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inclusion_(education)" title="Inclusion (education)">Inclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_leadership" title="Educational leadership">Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedagogy" title="Pedagogy">Pedagogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_policy" title="Education policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_in_education" title="Politics in education">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_psychology" title="Educational psychology">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_research" title="Educational research">Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_education" title="Right to education">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_education" title="Sociology of education">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_technology" title="Educational technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instructional_theory" title="Instructional theory">Instructional</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Instructional_design" title="Instructional design">Instructional design</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_education_by_subject" title="List of education by subject">By subject</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_education" title="Agricultural education">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Art education">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilingual_education" title="Bilingual education">Bilingual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_education" title="Business education">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemistry_education" title="Chemistry education">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_science_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer science education">Computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_education" title="Death education">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design_education" title="Design education">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_education" title="Economics education">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_education" title="Engineering education">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_education" title="Environmental education">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthenics" title="Euthenics">Euthenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_education" title="Health education">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_education" title="Language education">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_education" title="Legal education">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_education" title="Mathematics education">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_education" title="Medical education">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_education_and_training" title="Military education and training">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_education" title="Music education">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nurse_education" title="Nurse education">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_education" title="Peace education">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performing_arts_education" title="Performing arts education">Performing arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_education" title="Philosophy education">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_education" title="Physical education">Physical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_education" title="Physics education">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reading" title="Reading">Reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_education" title="Religious education">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_education" title="Sex education">Sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teacher_education" title="Teacher education">Teacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_education" title="Technology education">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_education" title="Values education">Values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vocational_education" title="Vocational education">Vocational</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Alternative_education" title="Alternative education">Alternative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adult_education" title="Adult education">Adult education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autodidacticism" title="Autodidacticism">Autodidacticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_education" title="Democratic education">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_reform" title="Education reform">Education reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gifted_education" title="Gifted education">Gifted education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeschooling" title="Homeschooling">Homeschooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_education" title="Religious education">Religious education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_education" title="Special education">Special education</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/21st_century_skills" title="21st century skills">21st century skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloom%27s_taxonomy" title="Bloom's taxonomy">Bloom's taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_load" title="Cognitive load">Cognitive load</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_arrangement" title="Class arrangement">Class arrangement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curriculum" title="Curriculum">Curriculum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hidden_curriculum" title="Hidden curriculum">Hidden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curriculum_studies" title="Curriculum studies">Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curriculum_theory" title="Curriculum theory">Theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)" title="Learning theory (education)">Learning theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesson_plan" title="Lesson plan">Lesson plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedagogical_pattern" title="Pedagogical pattern">Pedagogical pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teacher_look" title="Teacher look">Teacher look</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teacher_retention" title="Teacher retention">Teacher retention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teaching_method" title="Teaching method">Teaching method</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_learning" title="Active learning">Active learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blended_learning" title="Blended learning">Blended learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemplative_education" title="Contemplative education">Contemplative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonstration_(teaching)" title="Demonstration (teaching)">Demonstration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialogic_learning" title="Dialogic learning">Dialogic learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiential_learning" title="Experiential learning">Experiential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_feedback" title="Corrective feedback">Feedback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_learning" title="Passive learning">Passive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peer_instruction" title="Peer instruction">Peer instruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalized_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Personalized learning">Personalized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenon-based_learning" title="Phenomenon-based learning">Phenomenon-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem-based_learning" title="Problem-based learning">Problem-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project-based_learning" title="Project-based learning">Project-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student-centered_learning" title="Student-centered learning">Student-centered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socratic_questioning" title="Socratic questioning">Socratic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teaching_philosophy" title="Teaching philosophy">Teaching philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Wikimedia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Subject:Education" class="extiw" title="b:Subject:Education">Books</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/education" class="extiw" title="wikt:education">Definitions</a></li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Education" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Education">Images</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Education" class="extiw" title="v:Education">Learning resources</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Portal:Education" class="extiw" title="n:Portal:Education">News</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Education" class="extiw" title="q:Education">Quotes</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Education" class="extiw" title="s:Education">Texts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"><div id="Stages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Educational_stage" title="Educational stage">Stages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Early_childhood_education" title="Early childhood education">Early childhood education</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Primary_education" title="Primary education">Primary education</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Secondary_education" title="Secondary education">Secondary education</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Tertiary_education" title="Tertiary education">Tertiary education</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:20%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Preschool" title="Preschool">Preschool</a><br />→</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Kindergarten" title="Kindergarten">Kindergarten</a><br />→</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:20%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Primary_school" title="Primary school">Primary school</a><br />→</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;text-align:center;width:50%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;">Infant<br />→</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;">Junior<br />→</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:20%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Secondary_school" title="Secondary school">Secondary school</a><br />→</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;text-align:center;width:50%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_school" title="Middle school">Middle school</a><br />→</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;">High school<br />→</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:40%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Higher_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher education">Higher education</a><br /> </td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Vocational_education" title="Vocational education">Vocational</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Further_education" title="Further education">Further</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Continuing_education" title="Continuing education">Continuing</a>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;text-align:center;width:50%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Undergraduate_education" title="Undergraduate education">Undergraduate</a><br />→</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Postgraduate_education" title="Postgraduate education">Postgraduate</a><br /> </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Education" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Education">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"><div id="Education_by_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Education by region</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Africa" title="Education in Africa">Education in Africa </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Algeria" title="Education in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Angola" title="Education in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Benin" title="Education in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Botswana" title="Education in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Burkina_Faso" title="Education in Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Burundi" title="Education in Burundi">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Cameroon" title="Education in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Cape_Verde" title="Education in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Central_African_Republic" title="Education in the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Chad" title="Education in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Comoros" title="Education in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Education in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Education in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Djibouti" title="Education in Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Egypt" title="Education in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Equatorial_Guinea" title="Education in Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Eritrea" title="Education in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Eswatini" title="Education in Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Ethiopia" title="Education in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Gabon" title="Education in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Gambia" title="Education in the Gambia">The Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Ghana" title="Education in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guinea" title="Education in Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="Education in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Ivory_Coast" title="Education in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kenya" title="Education in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Lesotho" title="Education in Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Liberia" title="Education in Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Libya" title="Education in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Madagascar" title="Education in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Malawi" title="Education in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Mali" title="Education in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Mauritania" title="Education in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Mauritius" title="Education in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Morocco" title="Education in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Mozambique" title="Education in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Namibia" title="Education in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Niger" title="Education in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Nigeria" title="Education in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Rwanda" title="Education in Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Senegal" title="Education in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Seychelles" title="Education in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Sierra_Leone" title="Education in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Somalia" title="Education in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_South_Africa" title="Education in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_South_Sudan" title="Education in South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Sudan" title="Education in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tanzania" title="Education in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Togo" title="Education in Togo">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tunisia" title="Education in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Uganda" title="Education in Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Zambia" title="Education in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Zimbabwe" title="Education in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">States with limited<br />recognition</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (page does not exist)">Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Somaliland" title="Education in Somaliland">Somaliland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Dependencies and<br />other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_the_Canary_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in the Canary Islands (page does not exist)">Canary Islands</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Ceuta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Ceuta (page does not exist)">Ceuta</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Melilla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Melilla (page does not exist)">Melilla</a>  <span style="font-size:85%;">(Spain)</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Madeira&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Madeira (page does not exist)">Madeira</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Portugal)</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Mayotte&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Mayotte (page does not exist)">Mayotte</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_R%C3%A9union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Réunion (page does not exist)">Réunion</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(France)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Saint_Helena" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Ascension_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Ascension Island (page does not exist)">Ascension Island</a> / <a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tristan_da_Cunha" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Tristan da Cunha">Tristan da Cunha</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(United Kingdom)</span></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_Asia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Asia" title="Education in Asia">Education in Asia </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Afghanistan" title="Education in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Armenia" title="Education in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Azerbaijan" title="Education in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bahrain" title="Education in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bangladesh" title="Education in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bhutan" title="Education in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Brunei" title="Education in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Cambodia" title="Education in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_China" title="Education in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Cyprus" title="Education in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_East_Timor" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in East Timor">East Timor (Timor-Leste)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Egypt" title="Education in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Education in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_India" title="Education in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Indonesia" title="Education in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Iran" title="Education in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Iraq" title="Education in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Israel" title="Education in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Japan" title="Education in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Jordan" title="Education in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kazakhstan" title="Education in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_North_Korea" title="Education in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_South_Korea" title="Education in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kuwait" title="Education in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Education in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Laos" title="Education in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Lebanon" title="Education in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Malaysia" title="Education in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Maldives" title="Education in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Mongolia" title="Education in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Myanmar" title="Education in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Nepal" title="Education in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Oman" title="Education in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Pakistan" title="Education in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Philippines" title="Education in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Qatar" title="Education in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Russia" title="Education in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Education in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Singapore" title="Education in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Education in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Syria" title="Education in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tajikistan" title="Education in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Thailand" title="Education in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Turkey" title="Education in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Turkmenistan" title="Education in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Education in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Uzbekistan" title="Education in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Vietnam" title="Education in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Yemen" title="Education in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with<br />limited recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Northern_Cyprus" title="Education in Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_State_of_Palestine" title="Education in the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Taiwan" title="Education in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br />other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_the_British_Indian_Ocean_Territory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in the British Indian Ocean Territory (page does not exist)">British Indian Ocean Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Christmas_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Christmas Island (page does not exist)">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (page does not exist)">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Hong_Kong" title="Education in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Macau" title="Education in Macau">Macau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Asia" title="Category:Asia">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Asia" title="Portal:Asia">Asia portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Europe">Education in Europe </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Albania" title="Education in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Andorra" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Armenia" title="Education in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Austria" title="Education in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Azerbaijan" title="Education in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Belarus" title="Education in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Belgium" title="Education in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bulgaria" title="Education in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Croatia" title="Education in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Cyprus" title="Education in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Education in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Denmark" title="Education in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Estonia" title="Education in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Finland" title="Education in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_France" title="Education in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Education in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Germany" title="Education in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Greece" title="Education in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Hungary" title="Education in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Iceland" title="Education in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Education in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Italy" title="Education in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kazakhstan" title="Education in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Latvia" title="Education in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Liechtenstein" title="Education in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Lithuania" title="Education in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Luxembourg" title="Education in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Malta" title="Education in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Moldova" title="Education in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Monaco" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Montenegro" title="Education in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Netherlands" title="Education in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_North_Macedonia" title="Education in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Norway" title="Education in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Poland" title="Education in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Portugal" title="Education in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Romania" title="Education in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Russia" title="Education in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_San_Marino" title="Education in San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Serbia" title="Education in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Slovakia" title="Education in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Slovenia" title="Education in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Spain" title="Education in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Sweden" title="Education in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Switzerland" title="Education in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Turkey" title="Education in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Ukraine" title="Education in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Education in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States with limited<br />recognition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kosovo" title="Education in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Northern_Cyprus" title="Education in Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Transnistria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Transnistria (page does not exist)">Transnistria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies and<br />other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_%C3%85land" title="Education in Åland">Åland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Faroe_Islands" title="Education in the Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Gibraltar" title="Education in Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guernsey" title="Education in Guernsey">Guernsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Isle_of_Man" title="Education in the Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Jersey" title="Education in Jersey">Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Svalbard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Svalbard (page does not exist)">Svalbard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_European_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in the European Union">European Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_North_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Education in North America</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Education in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Bahamas" title="Education in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Barbados" title="Education in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Belize" title="Education in Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Canada" title="Education in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Costa_Rica" title="Education in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Cuba" title="Education in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Dominica" title="Education in Dominica">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Education in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_El_Salvador" title="Education in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Grenada" title="Education in Grenada">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guatemala" title="Education in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Haiti" title="Education in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Honduras" title="Education in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Jamaica" title="Education in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Mexico" title="Education in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Nicaragua" title="Education in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Panama" title="Education in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" title="Education in Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Saint_Lucia" title="Education in Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" title="Education in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Education in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_States" title="Education in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Dependencies and<br />other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Anguilla" title="Education in Anguilla">Anguilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Aruba" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Aruba">Aruba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bermuda" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Bermuda">Bermuda</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Bonaire&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Bonaire (page does not exist)">Bonaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Education in the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Cayman_Islands" title="Education in the Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Cura%C3%A7ao&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Curaçao (page does not exist)">Curaçao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Greenland" title="Education in Greenland">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guadeloupe" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Martinique&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Martinique (page does not exist)">Martinique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Montserrat" title="Education in Montserrat">Montserrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Education in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Saint Barthélemy (page does not exist)">Saint Barthélemy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_the_Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in the Collectivity of Saint Martin (page does not exist)">Saint Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Saint Pierre and Miquelon (page does not exist)">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Saba_(island)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Saba (island) (page does not exist)">Saba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Sint_Eustatius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Sint Eustatius (page does not exist)">Sint Eustatius</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Sint_Maarten&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Sint Maarten (page does not exist)">Sint Maarten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Turks_and_Caicos_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in the Turks and Caicos Islands">Turks and Caicos Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in the United States Virgin Islands">United States Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_Oceania" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Education in Oceania</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Australia" title="Education in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Education in the Federated States of Micronesia">Federated States of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Fiji" title="Education in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kiribati" title="Education in Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Marshall_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in the Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Nauru" title="Education in Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_New_Zealand" title="Education in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Palau" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Palau">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Education in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Samoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Samoa">Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Solomon_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Solomon Islands (page does not exist)">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tonga" title="Education in Tonga">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tuvalu" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Vanuatu" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Associated states<br />of New Zealand</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Cook_Islands" title="Education in the Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Niue" title="Education in Niue">Niue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies<br />and other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_American_Samoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Christmas_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Christmas Island (page does not exist)">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (page does not exist)">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Easter_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Easter Island (page does not exist)">Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_French_Polynesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guam" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Hawaii" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_New_Caledonia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in New Caledonia (page does not exist)">New Caledonia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Norfolk_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Norfolk Island (page does not exist)">Norfolk Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" title="Education in the Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Pitcairn_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in the Pitcairn Islands">Pitcairn Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tokelau" title="Education in Tokelau">Tokelau</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Wallis_and_Futuna&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Wallis and Futuna (page does not exist)">Wallis and Futuna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_South_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Education in South America</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Argentina" title="Education in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bolivia" title="Education in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Brazil" title="Education in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Chile" title="Education in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Colombia" title="Education in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Ecuador" title="Education in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guyana" title="Education in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Paraguay" title="Education in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Peru" title="Education in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Suriname" title="Education in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Uruguay" title="Education in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Venezuela" title="Education in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br />other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Falkland_Islands" title="Education in the Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_French_Guiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in French Guiana">French Guiana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (page does not exist)"><span style="white-space:normal;">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/School.svg/16px-School.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/School.svg/24px-School.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/School.svg/32px-School.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Schools" title="Portal:Schools">Schools portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Education" title="Category:Education">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Education" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Education">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&oldid=1258774589">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&oldid=1258774589</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_education" title="Category:History of education">History of education</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_science_by_discipline" title="Category:History of science by discipline">History of science by discipline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_education_in_Europe" title="Category:History of education in Europe">History of education in Europe</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_French-language_sources_(fr)" title="Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)">CS1 French-language sources (fr)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Italian-language_sources_(it)" title="Category:CS1 Italian-language sources (it)">CS1 Italian-language sources (it)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_British_English_from_March_2021" title="Category:Use British English from March 2021">Use British English from March 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_March_2021" title="Category:Use dmy dates from March 2021">Use dmy dates from March 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_March_2021" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from March 2021">Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from March 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_February_2022" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from February 2022">Articles with unsourced statements from February 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_April_2015" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2015">Articles with unsourced statements from April 2015</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_lacking_reliable_references" title="Category:All articles lacking reliable references">All articles lacking reliable references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_lacking_reliable_references_from_February_2021" title="Category:Articles lacking reliable references from February 2021">Articles lacking reliable references from February 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_January_2012" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from January 2012">Articles with unsourced statements from January 2012</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_September_2012" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from September 2012">Articles with unsourced statements from September 2012</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Danish-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Danish-language text">Articles containing Danish-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_incorporating_a_citation_from_the_Encyclopedia_Americana_with_a_Wikisource_reference" title="Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the Encyclopedia Americana with a Wikisource reference">Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the Encyclopedia Americana with a Wikisource reference</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 21 November 2024, at 15:31<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_education&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-fn5x6","wgBackendResponseTime":188,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.946","walltime":"2.304","ppvisitednodes":{"value":35177,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":365885,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":23406,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":251,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":276533,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":2,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1953.822 1 -total"," 28.66% 560.056 1 Template:Reflist"," 20.81% 406.595 1 Template:Education"," 20.70% 404.347 1 Template:Navbox_with_collapsible_groups"," 16.12% 314.927 6 Template:Navbox"," 13.15% 256.991 103 Template:Iso2country"," 12.91% 252.208 1 Template:World_topic"," 9.32% 182.121 17 Template:Cite_web"," 8.24% 161.085 1 Template:Asia_topic"," 7.07% 138.178 1 Template:Europe_topic"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.980","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":24983264,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"1 1 Henry Bompas Smith\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-int.codfw.main-849f99967d-tzsnj","timestamp":"20241124152543","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"History of education","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_education","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q861408","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q861408","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2005-06-17T06:36:52Z","dateModified":"2024-11-21T15:31:29Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/c\/c0\/MANNapoli_124545_plato%27s_academy_mosaic_enh_crop.jpg","headline":"aspect of history"}</script> </body> </html>