CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Constitution of the United Kingdom - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"8b664249-8158-4509-a11b-d4a36a0e6e4c","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom","wgTitle":"Constitution of the United Kingdom","wgCurRevisionId":1273343930,"wgRevisionId":1273343930,"wgArticleId":23987465,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Webarchive template wayback links","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Use dmy dates from February 2024","Articles containing Latin-language text","Wikipedia articles needing clarification from December 2020","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from January 2023","All articles with dead external links","Articles with dead external links from December 2023" ,"Articles with permanently dead external links","Commons category link is on Wikidata","Constitution of the United Kingdom","Government of the United Kingdom","Law of the United Kingdom","Politics of the United Kingdom","Uncodified constitutions"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom","wgRelevantArticleId":23987465,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength": 200000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q784210","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready", "wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.16"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Houses_of_Parliament_at_dusk.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="674"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Houses_of_Parliament_at_dusk.jpg/800px-Houses_of_Parliament_at_dusk.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="449"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Houses_of_Parliament_at_dusk.jpg/640px-Houses_of_Parliament_at_dusk.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="359"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Constitution of the United Kingdom - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom rootpage-Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages"><span>Special pages</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Constitution+of+the+United+Kingdom" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Constitution+of+the+United+Kingdom" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Constitution+of+the+United+Kingdom" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Constitution+of+the+United+Kingdom" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Principles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Principles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Principles</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Principles-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Principles subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Principles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Parliamentary_sovereignty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Parliamentary_sovereignty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Parliamentary sovereignty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Parliamentary_sovereignty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rule_of_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rule_of_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Rule of law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rule_of_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Democracy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Democracy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Democracy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Democracy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internationalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internationalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Internationalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internationalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sources-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sources subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Acts_of_Parliament" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Acts_of_Parliament"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Acts of Parliament</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Acts_of_Parliament-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Court_cases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Court_cases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Court cases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Court_cases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conventions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conventions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Conventions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conventions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Institutions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Institutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Institutions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Institutions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Institutions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Institutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Parliament" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Parliament"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Parliament</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Parliament-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Judiciary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Judiciary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Judiciary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Judiciary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Executive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Executive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Executive</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Executive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Local_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Local_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Local government</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Local_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Devolved_governments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Devolved_governments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Devolved governments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Devolved_governments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Human rights</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Administrative_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Administrative_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Administrative law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Administrative_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Worldwide_influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Worldwide_influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Worldwide influence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Worldwide_influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theory_and_reform" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theory_and_reform"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Theory and reform</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theory_and_reform-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Constitution of the United Kingdom</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 29 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-29" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">29 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryttisc_Grundriht" title="Bryttisc Grundriht – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Bryttisc Grundriht" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D8%A9" title="دستور المملكة المتحدة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="دستور المملكة المتحدة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%82%D1%83%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%92%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%96" title="Канстытуцыя Вялікабрытаніі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Канстытуцыя Вялікабрытаніі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="ब्रिटिश संबिधान – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="ब्रिटिश संबिधान" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9E%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE_%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Конституция на Обединеното кралство – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Конституция на Обединеното кралство" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storbritanniens_forfatning" title="Storbritanniens forfatning – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Storbritanniens forfatning" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%8D%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%BC%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%97%CE%BD%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%AD%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%92%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%BF%CF%85" title="Σύνταγμα του Ηνωμένου Βασιλείου – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Σύνταγμα του Ηνωμένου Βασιλείου" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constituci%C3%B3n_del_Reino_Unido" title="Constitución del Reino Unido – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Constitución del Reino Unido" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="قانون اساسی بریتانیا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="قانون اساسی بریتانیا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_du_Royaume-Uni" title="Constitution du Royaume-Uni – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Constitution du Royaume-Uni" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constituci%C3%B3n_do_Reino_Unido" title="Constitución do Reino Unido – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Constitución do Reino Unido" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%98%81%EA%B5%AD%EC%9D%98_%ED%97%8C%EB%B2%95" title="영국의 헌법 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="영국의 헌법" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A5%D5%AE_%D4%B2%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB_%D5%8D%D5%A1%D5%B0%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%A4%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Մեծ Բրիտանիայի Սահմանադրություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մեծ Բրիտանիայի Սահմանադրություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="यूनाइटेड किंगडम का संविधान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="यूनाइटेड किंगडम का संविधान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstitusi_Britania_Raya" title="Konstitusi Britania Raya – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Konstitusi Britania Raya" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costituzione_del_Regno_Unito" title="Costituzione del Regno Unito – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Costituzione del Regno Unito" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Az_Egyes%C3%BClt_Kir%C3%A1lys%C3%A1g_alkotm%C3%A1nya" title="Az Egyesült Királyság alkotmánya – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Az Egyesült Királyság alkotmánya" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%85_%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D2%AE%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%8D%D0%BD_%D1%85%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Их Британий Үндсэн хууль – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Их Британий Үндсэн хууль" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britse_grondwet" title="Britse grondwet – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Britse grondwet" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A4%E3%82%AE%E3%83%AA%E3%82%B9%E3%81%AE%E6%86%B2%E6%B3%95" title="イギリスの憲法 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="イギリスの憲法" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storbritannias_konstitusjon" title="Storbritannias konstitusjon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Storbritannias konstitusjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitui%C3%A7%C3%A3o_do_Reino_Unido" title="Constituição do Reino Unido – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Constituição do Reino Unido" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitu%C8%9Bia_Regatului_Unit" title="Constituția Regatului Unit – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Constituția Regatului Unit" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Конституция Великобритании – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Конституция Великобритании" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kushtetuta_e_Mbret%C3%ABris%C3%AB_s%C3%AB_Bashkuar" title="Kushtetuta e Mbretërisë së Bashkuar – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Kushtetuta e Mbretërisë së Bashkuar" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the United Kingdom – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Constitution of the United Kingdom" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birle%C5%9Fik_Krall%C4%B1k_Anayasas%C4%B1" title="Birleşik Krallık Anayasası – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Birleşik Krallık Anayasası" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%97_%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%97" title="Конституція Великої Британії – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Конституція Великої Британії" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%AA%E6%B3%95" title="英国宪法 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="英国宪法" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q784210#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&oldid=1273343930" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&id=1273343930&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FConstitution_of_the_United_Kingdom"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FConstitution_of_the_United_Kingdom"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Constitutions_of_the_United_Kingdom" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q784210" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Uncodified constitution of the UK</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Houses_of_Parliament_at_dusk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Houses_of_Parliament_at_dusk.jpg/400px-Houses_of_Parliament_at_dusk.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Houses_of_Parliament_at_dusk.jpg/600px-Houses_of_Parliament_at_dusk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Houses_of_Parliament_at_dusk.jpg/800px-Houses_of_Parliament_at_dusk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="575" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Parliament</a> is central to the United Kingdom's democratic constitution. In the <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Westminster" title="Palace of Westminster">Palace of Westminster</a> the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="House of Commons of the United Kingdom">House of Commons</a> represents the public in <a href="/wiki/Constituencies_of_the_Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Constituencies of the Parliament of the United Kingdom">650 UK constituencies</a> and chooses the <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">prime minister</a> at will. The <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a> remains unelected but can be overruled.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>constitution of the United Kingdom</b> comprises the written and unwritten arrangements that establish the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Northern_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland">United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</a> as a political body. Unlike in most countries, no official attempt has been made to <a href="/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">codify</a> such arrangements into a single document, thus it is known as an <a href="/wiki/Uncodified_constitution" title="Uncodified constitution">uncodified constitution</a>. This enables the constitution to be easily changed as no provisions are formally entrenched.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Supreme Court of the United Kingdom">Supreme Court of the United Kingdom</a> and its predecessor, the <a href="/wiki/Judicial_functions_of_the_House_of_Lords" title="Judicial functions of the House of Lords">Appellate Committee of the House of Lords</a>, have recognised and affirmed constitutional principles such as <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_sovereignty_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliamentary sovereignty in the United Kingdom">parliamentary sovereignty</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a>, and upholding <a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)" title="Internationalism (politics)">international law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also recognises that some <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Parliament_(UK)" class="mw-redirect" title="Act of Parliament (UK)">Acts of Parliament</a> have special constitutional status.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These include <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a>, which in 1215 required the King to call a "common counsel" (now called <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_England" title="Parliament of England">Parliament</a>) to represent the people, to hold courts in a fixed place, to guarantee fair trials, to guarantee free movement of people, to <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">free the church from the state</a>, and to guarantee rights of "common" people to use the land.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_1689" title="Bill of Rights 1689">Bill of Rights 1689</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Claim_of_Right_Act_1689" class="mw-redirect" title="Claim of Right Act 1689">Claim of Right Act 1689</a> cemented Parliament's position as the supreme law-making body, and said that the "election of members of Parliament ought to be free". The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Union" title="Treaty of Union">Treaty of Union</a> in 1706 and the <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707" title="Acts of Union 1707">Acts of Union 1707</a> united the Kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a>, Wales and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland" title="Kingdom of Scotland">Scotland</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1800" title="Acts of Union 1800">Acts of Union 1800</a> joined Ireland, but the <a href="/wiki/Irish_Free_State" title="Irish Free State">Irish Free State</a> separated after the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Irish_Treaty" title="Anglo-Irish Treaty">Anglo-Irish Treaty</a> in 1922, leaving Northern Ireland within the UK. After struggles for <a href="/wiki/Reform_Acts" title="Reform Acts">universal suffrage</a>, the UK guaranteed every adult citizen over 21 years the equal right to vote in the <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_(Equal_Franchise)_Act_1928" title="Representation of the People (Equal Franchise) Act 1928">Representation of the People (Equal Franchise) Act 1928</a>. After World War II, the UK became a founding member of the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a> to uphold human rights, and the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> to guarantee international peace and security. The UK was a member of the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>, joining <a href="/wiki/European_Community" class="mw-redirect" title="European Community">its predecessor</a> in 1973, but left in 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The UK is also a founding member of the <a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization</a> and the <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organization</a> to participate in regulating the global economy.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The leading institutions in the United Kingdom's constitution are Parliament, the judiciary, the executive, and regional and local governments, including the devolved legislatures and executives of Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Parliament is the supreme law-making body, and represents the people of the United Kingdom. The <a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="House of Commons of the United Kingdom">House of Commons</a> is elected by a democratic vote in the country's 650 constituencies. The <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a> is mostly appointed by cross-political party groups from the House of Commons, and can delay but not block legislation from the Commons.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To make a new <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Act of Parliament">Act of Parliament</a>, the highest form of law, both Houses must read, amend, or approve proposed legislation three times and the monarch must give consent. The judiciary interprets the law found in Acts of Parliament and develops the law established by previous cases. The highest court is the twelve-person Supreme Court, as it decides appeals from the Courts of Appeal in England, Wales, and <a href="/wiki/Courts_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Courts of Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a>, or the <a href="/wiki/Court_of_Session" title="Court of Session">Court of Session</a> in Scotland. UK courts cannot decide that Acts of Parliament are unconstitutional or invalidate them, but can declare that they are incompatible with the <a href="/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="European Convention on Human Rights">European Convention on Human Rights</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They can determine whether the acts of the executive are lawful. The executive is led by the <a href="/wiki/Prime_minister" title="Prime minister">prime minister</a>, who must maintain the confidence of a majority of the members of the House of Commons. The prime minister appoints the <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Cabinet of the United Kingdom">cabinet</a> of other ministers, who lead the executive departments, staffed by civil servants, such as the <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Health_and_Social_Care" title="Department of Health and Social Care">Department of Health and Social Care</a> which runs the <a href="/wiki/National_Health_Service" title="National Health Service">National Health Service</a>, or the <a href="/wiki/Department_for_Education" title="Department for Education">Department for Education</a> which funds schools and universities. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Monarchy of the United Kingdom">monarch</a> in their public capacity, known as the Crown, embodies the state. Laws can only be made by or with the authority of the Crown in Parliament, all judges sit in place of the Crown and all ministers act in the name of the Crown. The monarch is for the most part a ceremonial figurehead and has not refused assent to any new law since the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Militia_Bill" title="Scottish Militia Bill">Scottish Militia Bill</a> in 1708. The monarch is bound by <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_conventions_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Constitutional conventions of the United Kingdom">constitutional convention</a>. </p><p>Most constitutional questions arise in <a href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">judicial review</a> applications, to decide whether the decisions or acts of public bodies are lawful. Every public body can only act in accordance with the law, laid down in Acts of Parliament and the decisions of the courts. Under the <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Act_1998" title="Human Rights Act 1998">Human Rights Act 1998</a>, courts may review government action to decide whether the government has followed the statutory obligation on all public authorities to comply with the <a href="/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="European Convention on Human Rights">European Convention on Human Rights</a>. Convention rights include everyone's rights to life, <a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">liberty</a> against <a href="/wiki/Arbitrary_arrest_and_detention" title="Arbitrary arrest and detention">arbitrary arrest or detention</a>, <a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">torture</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Unfree_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Unfree labor">forced labour or slavery</a>, to a <a href="/wiki/Fair_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair trial">fair trial</a>, to privacy against unlawful surveillance, to freedom of expression, conscience and religion, to respect for private life, to freedom of association including joining <a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">trade unions</a>, and to freedom of assembly and protest.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile vcard hlist" style="width:20em;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Politics of the United Kingdom">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Politics of the United Kingdom">Politics of the United Kingdom</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_(2022,_lesser_arms).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Lesser arms of the United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_lesser_arms%29.svg/135px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_lesser_arms%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="135" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_lesser_arms%29.svg/203px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_lesser_arms%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_lesser_arms%29.svg/270px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_lesser_arms%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1567" data-file-height="1366" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Constitution</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:centre"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_1689" title="Bill of Rights 1689">Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Union" title="Treaty of Union">Treaty of Union</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707" title="Acts of Union 1707">Acts of Union</a>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_sovereignty_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliamentary sovereignty in the United Kingdom">Parliamentary sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Rule of law in the United Kingdom">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Separation of powers in the United Kingdom">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Principles">Other constitutional principles</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Monarchy of the United Kingdom">The Crown</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:centre"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_(2022,_variant_2).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_variant_2%29.svg/45px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_variant_2%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="41" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_variant_2%29.svg/68px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_variant_2%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_variant_2%29.svg/90px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_variant_2%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1371" /></a></span> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Monarchy of the United Kingdom">The Monarch</a></b> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_British_monarchs" title="List of British monarchs">list</a>)</li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/King_Charles_III" class="mw-redirect" title="King Charles III">King Charles III</a> </p><p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Prince_of_Wales%27s_feathers_Badge.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Prince of Wales's feathers" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Prince_of_Wales%27s_feathers_Badge.svg/30px-Prince_of_Wales%27s_feathers_Badge.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Prince_of_Wales%27s_feathers_Badge.svg/45px-Prince_of_Wales%27s_feathers_Badge.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Prince_of_Wales%27s_feathers_Badge.svg/60px-Prince_of_Wales%27s_feathers_Badge.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="339" data-file-height="383" /></a></span> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_the_British_throne" title="Succession to the British throne">Heir apparent</a></b></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/William,_Prince_of_Wales" title="William, Prince of Wales">William, Prince of Wales</a> </p> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_royal_family" title="British royal family">Royal family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_the_British_throne" title="Succession to the British throne">Succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_prerogative_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Royal prerogative in the United Kingdom">Prerogative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counsellor_of_State" title="Counsellor of State">Counsellors of State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Republicanism in the United Kingdom">Republicanism in the United Kingdom</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">Executive</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:centre"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Privy_Council_(United_Kingdom)" title="Privy Council (United Kingdom)">Privy Council</a></b></li></ul> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_(2022,_Crown_%26_Garter).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Royal_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_Crown_%26_Garter%29.svg/20px-Royal_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_Crown_%26_Garter%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Royal_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_Crown_%26_Garter%29.svg/30px-Royal_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_Crown_%26_Garter%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Royal_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_Crown_%26_Garter%29.svg/40px-Royal_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_Crown_%26_Garter%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="1199" /></a></span> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Charles_III" title="Charles III">Charles III</a><br /><b>(<a href="/wiki/King-in-Council" title="King-in-Council">King-in-Council</a>)</b> </p> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Government of the United Kingdom">HM Government</a></b></li></ul> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_(2022,_lesser_arms).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_lesser_arms%29.svg/30px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_lesser_arms%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="26" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_lesser_arms%29.svg/45px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_lesser_arms%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_lesser_arms%29.svg/60px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_lesser_arms%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1567" data-file-height="1366" /></a></span> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Cabinet of the United Kingdom">Cabinet</a></b> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_British_governments" title="List of British governments">list</a>)<br /></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Starmer_ministry" title="Starmer ministry">Starmer ministry</a> (<a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)" title="Labour Party (UK)">L</a>)<br /> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">Prime Minister</a></b> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of prime ministers of the United Kingdom">list</a>)<br /></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Keir_Starmer" title="Keir Starmer">Keir Starmer</a> (<a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)" title="Labour Party (UK)">L</a>)<br /> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Deputy_Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">Deputy Prime Minister</a></b><br /></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Angela_Rayner" title="Angela Rayner">Angela Rayner</a> (<a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)" title="Labour Party (UK)">L</a>)<br /> </p> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Departments_of_the_Government_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Departments of the Government of the United Kingdom">Departments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_government_ministers_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of government ministers of the United Kingdom">Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_agency" title="Executive agency">Agencies</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Legislatures_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Legislatures of the United Kingdom">Legislature</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:centre"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">UK Parliament</a></b></li></ul> <p>(<a href="/wiki/King-in-Parliament" title="King-in-Parliament">King-in-Parliament</a>)<br /> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Crowned_Portcullis.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Crowned portcullis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Crowned_Portcullis.svg/50px-Crowned_Portcullis.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Crowned_Portcullis.svg/75px-Crowned_Portcullis.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Crowned_Portcullis.svg/100px-Crowned_Portcullis.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="460" data-file-height="550" /></a></span> </p> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Monarchy of the United Kingdom">King</a></b></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Charles_III" title="Charles III">Charles III</a> </p> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a></b></li></ul> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:House_of_Lords_composition.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Composition diagram of the House of Lords" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/House_of_Lords_composition.svg/100px-House_of_Lords_composition.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="63" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/House_of_Lords_composition.svg/150px-House_of_Lords_composition.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/House_of_Lords_composition.svg/200px-House_of_Lords_composition.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="227" /></a></span> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Lord_Speaker" title="Lord Speaker">Lord Speaker</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/John_McFall,_Baron_McFall_of_Alcluith" title="John McFall, Baron McFall of Alcluith">The Lord McFall of Alcluith</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="House of Commons of the United Kingdom">House of Commons</a></b></li></ul> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:House_of_Commons_UK.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Composition diagram of the House of Commons" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/House_of_Commons_UK.svg/100px-House_of_Commons_UK.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="46" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/House_of_Commons_UK.svg/150px-House_of_Commons_UK.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/House_of_Commons_UK.svg/200px-House_of_Commons_UK.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="164" /></a></span> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_House_of_Commons_(United_Kingdom)" title="Speaker of the House of Commons (United Kingdom)">Speaker</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Lindsay_Hoyle" title="Lindsay Hoyle">Sir Lindsay Hoyle</a></li></ul> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Leader_of_the_Opposition_(United_Kingdom)" title="Leader of the Opposition (United Kingdom)">Leader of the Opposition</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Kemi_Badenoch" title="Kemi Badenoch">Kemi Badenoch</a> (<a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_(UK)" title="Conservative Party (UK)">C</a>)<br /></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_MPs_elected_in_the_2024_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="List of MPs elected in the 2024 United Kingdom general election">59th Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/His_Majesty%27s_Most_Loyal_Opposition" title="His Majesty's Most Loyal Opposition">Opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_(United_Kingdom)" title="Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)">MPs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_MPs_elected_in_the_2024_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="List of MPs elected in the 2024 United Kingdom general election">List of MPs</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Judiciaries_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Judiciaries of the United Kingdom">Judiciary</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:centre"><a href="/wiki/Charles_III" title="Charles III">Charles III</a><br /><b>(<a href="/wiki/Court_of_King%27s_Bench_(England)" title="Court of King's Bench (England)">King-on-the-Bench</a>)</b> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Supreme Court of the United Kingdom">Supreme Court</a></b></li></ul> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Badge_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Badge of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Badge_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/30px-Badge_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Badge_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/45px-Badge_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Badge_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/60px-Badge_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="691" /></a></span> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="President of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom">President</a></b></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Robert_Reed,_Baron_Reed_of_Allermuir" title="Robert Reed, Baron Reed of Allermuir">The Lord Reed</a> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Deputy_President_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Deputy President of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom">Deputy President</a></b></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Hodge,_Lord_Hodge" title="Patrick Hodge, Lord Hodge">The Lord Hodge</a> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Justice of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom">Justices of the Supreme Court</a></b></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judiciaries_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Judiciaries of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courts_of_England_and_Wales" title="Courts of England and Wales">England and Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courts_of_Scotland" title="Courts of Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courts_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Courts of Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_England" title="Bank of England">Bank of England</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:centre"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Governor_of_the_Bank_of_England" title="Governor of the Bank of England">Governor</a></b></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Bailey_(banker)" title="Andrew Bailey (banker)">Andrew Bailey</a> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Deputy_Governor_of_the_Bank_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Deputy Governor of the Bank of England">Deputy governors</a></b></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Monetary_Policy_Committee_(United_Kingdom)" title="Monetary Policy Committee (United Kingdom)">Monetary Policy Committee</a> </p> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_currencies" title="List of British currencies">Currencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banknotes_of_the_pound_sterling" title="Banknotes of the pound sterling">Banknotes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coins_of_the_pound_sterling" title="Coins of the pound sterling">Coins</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Elections in the United Kingdom">Elections</a> and <a href="/wiki/Referendums_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Referendums in the United Kingdom">referendums</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:centre"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constituencies_of_the_Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Constituencies of the Parliament of the United Kingdom">UK Parliament constituencies</a> (<a href="/wiki/2023_Periodic_Review_of_Westminster_constituencies" class="mw-redirect" title="2023 Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies">2023 Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of political parties in the United Kingdom">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_Parties,_Elections_and_Referendums_Act_2000" title="Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000">Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_and_Calling_of_Parliament_Act_2022" title="Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022">Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Parliament_constituencies_and_electoral_regions" title="Scottish Parliament constituencies and electoral regions">Scottish Parliament constituencies and electoral regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senedd_constituencies_and_electoral_regions" title="Senedd constituencies and electoral regions">Senedd constituencies and electoral regions</a></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_Kingdom_general_elections" title="List of United Kingdom general elections">UK general elections</a></b></div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="First Parliament of the United Kingdom">1801 co-option</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1802_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1802 United Kingdom general election">1802</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1806_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1806 United Kingdom general election">1806</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1807_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1807 United Kingdom general election">1807</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1812_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1812 United Kingdom general election">1812</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1818_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1818 United Kingdom general election">1818</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1820_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1820 United Kingdom general election">1820</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1826_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1826 United Kingdom general election">1826</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1830_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1830 United Kingdom general election">1830</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1831_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1831 United Kingdom general election">1831</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1832_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1832 United Kingdom general election">1832–33</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1835_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1835 United Kingdom general election">1835</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1837_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1837 United Kingdom general election">1837</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1841_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1841 United Kingdom general election">1841</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1847_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1847 United Kingdom general election">1847</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1852_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1852 United Kingdom general election">1852</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1857_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1857 United Kingdom general election">1857</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1859_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1859 United Kingdom general election">1859</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1865_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1865 United Kingdom general election">1865</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1868_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1868 United Kingdom general election">1868</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1874_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1874 United Kingdom general election">1874</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1880_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1880 United Kingdom general election">1880</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1885_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1885 United Kingdom general election">1885</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1886_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1886 United Kingdom general election">1886</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1892_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1892 United Kingdom general election">1892</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1895_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1895 United Kingdom general election">1895</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1900_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1900 United Kingdom general election">1900</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1906_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1906 United Kingdom general election">1906</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/January_1910_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="January 1910 United Kingdom general election">1910 (Jan–Feb)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/December_1910_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="December 1910 United Kingdom general election">1910 (Dec)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1918_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1918 United Kingdom general election">1918</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1922_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1922 United Kingdom general election">1922</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1923_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1923 United Kingdom general election">1923</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1924_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1924 United Kingdom general election">1924</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1929_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1929 United Kingdom general election">1929</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1931_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1931 United Kingdom general election">1931</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1935_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1935 United Kingdom general election">1935</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1945_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1945 United Kingdom general election">1945</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1950_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1950 United Kingdom general election">1950</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1951_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1951 United Kingdom general election">1951</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1955_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1955 United Kingdom general election">1955</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1959_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1959 United Kingdom general election">1959</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1964_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1964 United Kingdom general election">1964</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1966_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1966 United Kingdom general election">1966</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1970_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1970 United Kingdom general election">1970</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/February_1974_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="February 1974 United Kingdom general election">1974 (Feb)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/October_1974_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="October 1974 United Kingdom general election">1974 (Oct)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1979_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1979 United Kingdom general election">1979</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1983_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1983 United Kingdom general election">1983</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1987_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1987 United Kingdom general election">1987</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1992_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1992 United Kingdom general election">1992</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1997_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1997 United Kingdom general election">1997</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2001_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="2001 United Kingdom general election">2001</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2005_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="2005 United Kingdom general election">2005</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2010_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="2010 United Kingdom general election">2010</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2015_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="2015 United Kingdom general election">2015</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2017_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="2017 United Kingdom general election">2017</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2019_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="2019 United Kingdom general election">2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2024_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="2024 United Kingdom general election">2024</a></li></ul></div> <p><br /> </p> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><b>Endorsements</b></div> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endorsements_in_the_2010_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="Endorsements in the 2010 United Kingdom general election">2010</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Endorsements_in_the_2015_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="Endorsements in the 2015 United Kingdom general election">2015</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Endorsements_in_the_2017_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="Endorsements in the 2017 United Kingdom general election">2017</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Endorsements_in_the_2019_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="Endorsements in the 2019 United Kingdom general election">2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Endorsements_in_the_2024_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="Endorsements in the 2024 United Kingdom general election">2024</a></li></ul></div> <p><br /> </p> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><b>European Parliament elections (1979–2019)</b></div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/1979_European_Parliament_election_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="1979 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom">1979</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1984_European_Parliament_election_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="1984 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom">1984</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1989_European_Parliament_election_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="1989 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom">1989</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1994_European_Parliament_election_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="1994 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom">1994</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1999_European_Parliament_election_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="1999 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom">1999</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2004_European_Parliament_election_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="2004 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom">2004</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2009_European_Parliament_election_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="2009 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom">2009</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2014_European_Parliament_election_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="2014 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom">2014</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2019_European_Parliament_election_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="2019 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom">2019</a></li></ul></div> <p><br /> </p> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><b>Scottish Parliament elections</b></div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/1999_Scottish_Parliament_election" title="1999 Scottish Parliament election">1999</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2003_Scottish_Parliament_election" title="2003 Scottish Parliament election">2003</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2007_Scottish_Parliament_election" title="2007 Scottish Parliament election">2007</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2011_Scottish_Parliament_election" title="2011 Scottish Parliament election">2011</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2016_Scottish_Parliament_election" title="2016 Scottish Parliament election">2016</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2021_Scottish_Parliament_election" title="2021 Scottish Parliament election">2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Next_Scottish_Parliament_election" title="Next Scottish Parliament election">Next</a></li></ul></div> <p><br /> </p> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><b>Northern Ireland Assembly elections</b></div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/1998_Northern_Ireland_Assembly_election" title="1998 Northern Ireland Assembly election">1998</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2003_Northern_Ireland_Assembly_election" title="2003 Northern Ireland Assembly election">2003</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2007_Northern_Ireland_Assembly_election" title="2007 Northern Ireland Assembly election">2007</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2011_Northern_Ireland_Assembly_election" title="2011 Northern Ireland Assembly election">2011</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2016_Northern_Ireland_Assembly_election" title="2016 Northern Ireland Assembly election">2016</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2017_Northern_Ireland_Assembly_election" title="2017 Northern Ireland Assembly election">2017</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2022_Northern_Ireland_Assembly_election" title="2022 Northern Ireland Assembly election">2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Next_Northern_Ireland_Assembly_election" title="Next Northern Ireland Assembly election">Next</a></li></ul></div> <p><br /> </p> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><b>Senedd elections</b></div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/1999_National_Assembly_for_Wales_election" title="1999 National Assembly for Wales election">1999</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2003_National_Assembly_for_Wales_election" title="2003 National Assembly for Wales election">2003</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2007_National_Assembly_for_Wales_election" title="2007 National Assembly for Wales election">2007</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2011_National_Assembly_for_Wales_election" title="2011 National Assembly for Wales election">2011</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2016_National_Assembly_for_Wales_election" title="2016 National Assembly for Wales election">2016</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2021_Senedd_election" title="2021 Senedd election">2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Next_Senedd_election" title="Next Senedd election">Next</a></li></ul></div> <p><br /> </p> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><b>UK referendums</b></div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/1975_United_Kingdom_European_Communities_membership_referendum" title="1975 United Kingdom European Communities membership referendum">1975</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2011_United_Kingdom_Alternative_Vote_referendum" title="2011 United Kingdom Alternative Vote referendum">2011</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum" title="2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum">2016</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Devolution_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Devolution in the United Kingdom">Devolution</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:centre"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_relations_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Intergovernmental relations in the United Kingdom">Intergovernmental relations in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislative_consent_motion" title="Legislative consent motion">Legislative consent motions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_and_Heads_of_Devolved_Governments_Council" title="Prime Minister and Heads of Devolved Governments Council">Prime Minister and Heads of Devolved Governments Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Nations_and_Regions" title="Council of the Nations and Regions">Council of the Nations and Regions</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><b><a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a></b></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governance_of_England" title="Governance of England">Governance of England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_votes_for_English_laws" title="English votes for English laws">English votes for English laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_London_Authority" title="Greater London Authority">Greater London Authority</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1998_Greater_London_Authority_referendum" title="1998 Greater London Authority referendum">1998 referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_London_Authority_Act_1999" title="Greater London Authority Act 1999">Greater London Authority Act 1999</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Greater_London_Authority_Act_2007" title="Greater London Authority Act 2007">2007 Act</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Mayor_of_London" title="Mayor of London">Mayor of London</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sadiq_Khan" title="Sadiq Khan">Sadiq Khan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deputy_Mayor_of_London" title="Deputy Mayor of London">Mayoral cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_Assembly" title="London Assembly">London Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_Plan" title="London Plan">London Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_authority" class="mw-redirect" title="Combined authority">Combined authorities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Directly_elected_mayors_in_England#Combined_Authority_("Metro")_Mayors" title="Directly elected mayors in England">Metro mayors</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><b><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></b></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Act_1998" title="Northern Ireland Act 1998">Northern Ireland Act 1998</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_(St_Andrews_Agreement)_Act_2006" title="Northern Ireland (St Andrews Agreement) Act 2006">2006 Act</a>)</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/First_Minister_and_deputy_First_Minister_of_Northern_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="First Minister and deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland">First Minister</a> </b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_O%27Neill" title="Michelle O'Neill">Michelle O'Neill</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/First_Minister_and_deputy_First_Minister_of_Northern_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="First Minister and deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland">deputy First Minister</a> </b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emma_Little-Pengelly" title="Emma Little-Pengelly">Emma Little-Pengelly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Executive" title="Northern Ireland Executive">Executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Assembly" title="Northern Ireland Assembly">Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Northern_Ireland_Assembly" title="List of acts of the Northern Ireland Assembly">Act of the Northern Ireland Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Law of Northern Ireland">Law of Northern Ireland</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><b><a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a></b></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_devolution" title="Scottish devolution">Scottish devolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1997_Scottish_devolution_referendum" title="1997 Scottish devolution referendum">1997 referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_Act_1998" title="Scotland Act 1998">Scotland Act 1998</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Scotland_Act_2012" title="Scotland Act 2012">2012 Act</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scotland_Act_2016" title="Scotland Act 2016">2016 Act</a>)</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/First_Minister_of_Scotland" title="First Minister of Scotland">First Minister</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Swinney" title="John Swinney">John Swinney</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Government" title="Scottish Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Parliament" title="Scottish Parliament">Scottish Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_the_Scottish_Parliament" title="Act of the Scottish Parliament">Act of the Scottish Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_statutory_instrument" title="Scottish statutory instrument">Scottish statutory instrument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_law" title="Scots law">Scots law</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><b><a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a></b></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_devolution" title="Welsh devolution">Welsh devolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1997_Welsh_devolution_referendum" title="1997 Welsh devolution referendum">1997 referendum</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/2011_Welsh_devolution_referendum" title="2011 Welsh devolution referendum">2011 referendum on law-making powers</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Wales_Act_1998" title="Government of Wales Act 1998">Government of Wales Act 1998</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Government_of_Wales_Act_2006" title="Government of Wales Act 2006">2006 Act</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wales_Act_2014" title="Wales Act 2014">Wales Act 2014</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wales_Act_2017" title="Wales Act 2017">Wales Act 2017</a>)</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/First_Minister_of_Wales" title="First Minister of Wales">First Minister</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eluned_Morgan,_Baroness_Morgan_of_Ely" class="mw-redirect" title="Eluned Morgan, Baroness Morgan of Ely">Eluned Morgan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Government" title="Welsh Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senedd" title="Senedd">Senedd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Measure_of_the_National_Assembly_for_Wales" title="Measure of the National Assembly for Wales">Measure of the National Assembly for Wales</a> (1999–2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_Senedd_Cymru" title="Act of Senedd Cymru">Act of Senedd Cymru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_law" title="Welsh law">Welsh law</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_geography_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Administrative geography of the United Kingdom">Administration</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:centre"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><b><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_England" title="Local government in England">England</a></b></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_local_government_in_England" title="History of local government in England">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_England" title="Subdivisions of England">Subdivisions</a>: <a href="/wiki/Regions_of_England" title="Regions of England">Regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceremonial_counties_of_England" title="Ceremonial counties of England">Ceremonial counties</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_ceremonial_counties_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="List of ceremonial counties of England">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_and_non-metropolitan_counties_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England">Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_county" title="Metropolitan county">Metropolitan county</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-metropolitan_county" title="Non-metropolitan county">Non-metropolitan county</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_London" title="Greater London">Greater London</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitary_authorities_of_England" title="Unitary authorities of England">Unitary authorities</a> (<a href="/wiki/Template:Unitary_authorities_of_England" title="Template:Unitary authorities of England">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Districts_of_England" title="Districts of England">Districts</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_English_districts" title="List of English districts">list</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_borough" title="Metropolitan borough">Metropolitan Borough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-metropolitan_district" title="Non-metropolitan district">Non-metropolitan District</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_boroughs" title="London boroughs">London Borough</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_parish" title="Civil parish">Civil parishes</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_civil_parishes_in_England" title="List of civil parishes in England">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_counties_of_England" title="Historic counties of England">Historic counties</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><b><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Local government in Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></b></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_Northern_Ireland#History" title="Local government in Northern Ireland">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_Northern_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Subdivisions of Northern Ireland">Subdivisions</a>: <a href="/wiki/Counties_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Counties of Northern Ireland">Counties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Districts_of_Northern_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Districts of Northern Ireland">Districts</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><b><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_Scotland" title="Local government in Scotland">Scotland</a></b></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_local_government_in_Scotland" title="History of local government in Scotland">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_Scotland" title="Subdivisions of Scotland">Subdivisions</a>: <a href="/wiki/Sheriffdom" title="Sheriffdom">Sheriffdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_areas_of_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Council areas of Scotland">Council areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_community_council_areas_in_Scotland" title="List of community council areas in Scotland">Community council areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_civil_parishes_in_Scotland" title="List of civil parishes in Scotland">Civil parishes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shires_of_Scotland" title="Shires of Scotland">Shires of Scotland</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><b><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_Wales" title="Local government in Wales">Wales</a></b></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_local_government_in_Wales" title="History of local government in Wales">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preserved_counties_of_Wales" title="Preserved counties of Wales">Preserved counties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_Wales" title="Local government in Wales">Principal areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(Wales)" title="Community (Wales)">Communities</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_communities_in_Wales" title="List of communities in Wales">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_counties_of_Wales" title="Historic counties of Wales">Historic counties</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Crown_Dependencies" title="Crown Dependencies">Crown Dependencies</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:centre"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bailiwick_of_Guernsey" title="Bailiwick of Guernsey">Bailiwick of Guernsey</a> <br /></li></ul> <div class="hlist"><ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/Guernsey" title="Guernsey">Guernsey</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Alderney" title="Alderney">Alderney</a></li><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sark" title="Sark">Sark</a></span>)</li></ul></div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bailiwick_of_Jersey" class="mw-redirect" title="Bailiwick of Jersey">Bailiwick of Jersey</a></li></ul></div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Man" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></li></ul></div> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Islands" title="British Islands">British Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_Travel_Area" title="Common Travel Area">Common Travel Area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom%E2%80%93Crown_Dependencies_Customs_Union" title="United Kingdom–Crown Dependencies Customs Union">UK-CD Customs Union</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/British_Overseas_Territories" title="British Overseas Territories">Overseas Territories</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:centre"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Akrotiri_and_Dhekelia" title="Akrotiri and Dhekelia">Akrotiri and Dhekelia</a></span></li><li><a href="/wiki/Anguilla" title="Anguilla">Anguilla</a></li><li><br /><a href="/wiki/Bermuda" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/British_Antarctic_Territory" title="British Antarctic Territory">British Antarctic Territory</a></li><li><br /><a href="/wiki/British_Indian_Ocean_Territory" title="British Indian Ocean Territory">British Indian Ocean Territory</a></li><li><br /><a href="/wiki/British_Virgin_Islands" title="British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Cayman_Islands" title="Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a></li><li><br /><a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></li><li><br /><a href="/wiki/Montserrat" title="Montserrat">Montserrat</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Pitcairn_Islands" title="Pitcairn Islands">Pitcairn Islands</a></li><li><br /><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Saint_Helena,_Ascension_and_Tristan_da_Cunha" title="Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha">Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha</a></span><br /> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Saint_Helena" title="Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a></small></li><li><small><a href="/wiki/Ascension_Island" title="Ascension Island">Ascension Island</a></small></li><li><br /><small><a href="/wiki/Tristan_da_Cunha" title="Tristan da Cunha">Tristan da Cunha</a>)</small></li><li><br /><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands" title="South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</a></span></li><li><a href="/wiki/Turks_and_Caicos_Islands" title="Turks and Caicos Islands">Turks and Caicos Islands</a></li></ul></div> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Overseas_Territories_citizen" title="British Overseas Territories citizen">British Overseas Territories citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visa_requirements_for_British_Overseas_Territories_citizens" title="Visa requirements for British Overseas Territories citizens">Visa requirements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visa_policies_of_British_Overseas_Territories" title="Visa policies of British Overseas Territories">Visa policies</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Overseas_Territories_Act_2002" title="British Overseas Territories Act 2002">British Overseas Territories Act 2002</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UK%E2%80%93Overseas_Territories_Joint_Ministerial_Council" title="UK–Overseas Territories Joint Ministerial Council">UK-OT JMC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagos_Archipelago_sovereignty_dispute" title="Chagos Archipelago sovereignty dispute">Chagos Archipelago sovereignty dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_of_Gibraltar" title="Status of Gibraltar">Gibraltar sovereignty dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands_sovereignty_dispute" title="Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute">Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Foreign relations of the United Kingdom">Foreign relations</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:centre"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign,_Commonwealth_and_Development_Office" title="Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office">Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign policy of the United Kingdom">Foreign policy</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_the_foreign_relations_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom">history</a>)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of diplomatic missions of the United Kingdom">Diplomatic missions of</a> / <a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of diplomatic missions in the United Kingdom">in the United Kingdom</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_passport" title="British passport">UK passport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_National_(Overseas)_passport" title="British National (Overseas) passport">British National (Overseas) passport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visa_requirements_for_British_citizens" title="Visa requirements for British citizens">Visa requirements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom%E2%80%93Crown_Dependencies_Customs_Union" title="United Kingdom–Crown Dependencies Customs Union">UK–CD Customs Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visa_policy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Visa policy of the United Kingdom">Visa policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_trade_agreements_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Free trade agreements of the United Kingdom">Free trade agreements</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australia%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Australia–United Kingdom relations">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbados%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Barbados–United Kingdom relations">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgium%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Belgium–United Kingdom relations">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belize%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Belize–United Kingdom relations">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brunei%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Brunei–United Kingdom relations">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canada%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Canada–United Kingdom relations">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="China–United Kingdom relations">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Hong Kong–United Kingdom relations">Hong Kong</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Cyprus–United Kingdom relations">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Denmark–United Kingdom relations">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="France–United Kingdom relations">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Germany–United Kingdom relations">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="India–United Kingdom relations">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Israel–United Kingdom relations">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italy%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Italy–United Kingdom relations">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Japan–United Kingdom relations">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenya%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Kenya–United Kingdom relations">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysia%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Malaysia–United Kingdom relations">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malta%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Malta–United Kingdom relations">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netherlands%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Netherlands–United Kingdom relations">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="New Zealand–United Kingdom relations">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norway%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Norway–United Kingdom relations">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Russia–United Kingdom relations">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Saudi Arabia–United Kingdom relations">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singapore%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Singapore–United Kingdom relations">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Spain–United Kingdom relations">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="South Africa–United Kingdom relations">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestine%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Palestine–United Kingdom relations">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Pakistan–United Kingdom relations">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poland%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Poland–United Kingdom relations">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portugal%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Portugal–United Kingdom relations">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="United Kingdom–United States relations">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom%E2%80%93Zimbabwe_relations" title="United Kingdom–Zimbabwe relations">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ireland%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Ireland–United Kingdom relations">Ireland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Politics of Northern Ireland">politics of Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_Friday_Agreement" title="Good Friday Agreement">Good Friday Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_border" title="Republic of Ireland–United Kingdom border">UK–Ireland border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Protocol" title="Northern Ireland Protocol">Northern Ireland Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British%E2%80%93Irish_Council" title="British–Irish Council">British–Irish Council</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom%E2%80%93European_Union_relations" title="United Kingdom–European Union relations">European Union</a> (<a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_membership_of_the_European_Union" title="United Kingdom membership of the European Union">history</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brexit" title="Brexit">Brexit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Brexit_United_Kingdom_relations_with_the_European_Union" title="Post-Brexit United Kingdom relations with the European Union">Post-Brexit United Kingdom relations with the European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brexit_withdrawal_agreement" title="Brexit withdrawal agreement">UK–EU withdrawal agreement</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">The Commonwealth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Member_states_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations">member states</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_and_the_United_Nations" title="United Kingdom and the United Nations">United Kingdom and the United Nations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Permanent_members_of_the_United_Nations_Security_Council" title="Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council">P5</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G20" title="G20">G20</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_of_Seven" class="mw-redirect" title="Group of Seven">G7</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_Kingdom" title="Portal:United Kingdom">United Kingdom portal</a><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><div style="font-size:85%;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/England" title="England"><img alt="England" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/23px-Flag_of_England.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/35px-Flag_of_England.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/46px-Flag_of_England.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="480" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics_of_England" title="Category:Politics of England">England</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Empty_flag.svg/23px-Empty_flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Empty_flag.svg/35px-Empty_flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Empty_flag.svg/45px-Empty_flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Category:Politics of Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland"><img alt="Scotland" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/46px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics_of_Scotland" title="Category:Politics of Scotland">Scotland</a></span></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales"><img alt="Wales" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/23px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/35px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/46px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="480" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics_of_Wales" title="Category:Politics of Wales">Wales</a></li></ul></div></div></div><div class="hlist" style="text-align:center;font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_political_science#Politics_by_region" title="Outline of political science">Other countries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Politics_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Template:Politics of the United Kingdom"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Politics_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Template talk:Politics of the United Kingdom"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Politics_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Politics of the United Kingdom"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Principles">Principles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Principles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:London,_the_Houses_of_Parliament,_Sunlight_Opening_in_Fog,_by_Claude_Monet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/London%2C_the_Houses_of_Parliament%2C_Sunlight_Opening_in_Fog%2C_by_Claude_Monet.jpg/310px-London%2C_the_Houses_of_Parliament%2C_Sunlight_Opening_in_Fog%2C_by_Claude_Monet.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/London%2C_the_Houses_of_Parliament%2C_Sunlight_Opening_in_Fog%2C_by_Claude_Monet.jpg/465px-London%2C_the_Houses_of_Parliament%2C_Sunlight_Opening_in_Fog%2C_by_Claude_Monet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/London%2C_the_Houses_of_Parliament%2C_Sunlight_Opening_in_Fog%2C_by_Claude_Monet.jpg/620px-London%2C_the_Houses_of_Parliament%2C_Sunlight_Opening_in_Fog%2C_by_Claude_Monet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="889" /></a><figcaption>(<i><a href="/wiki/Houses_of_Parliament_(Monet_series)" title="Houses of Parliament (Monet series)">London, Houses of Parliament. The Sun Shining through the Fog</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Claude_Monet" title="Claude Monet">Claude Monet</a>, 1904). Parliament (from old French, <i>parler</i>, "to talk") is the UK's highest law-making body.</figcaption></figure> <p>Although the British constitution is not <a href="/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">codified</a>, the Supreme Court recognises constitutional principles,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and constitutional statutes,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which shape the use of political power. There are at least four main constitutional principles recognised by the courts. First, <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_sovereignty" title="Parliamentary sovereignty">parliamentary sovereignty</a> means that Acts of Parliament are the supreme source of law. Through the <a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">English Reformation</a>, the <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">Civil War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution_of_1688" class="mw-redirect" title="Glorious Revolution of 1688">Glorious Revolution of 1688</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707" title="Acts of Union 1707">Acts of Union 1707</a>, Parliament became the dominant branch of the state, above the judiciary, executive, monarchy, and church. Parliament can make or unmake any law, a fact that is usually justified by Parliament being democratically elected, and upholding the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a>, including human rights and international law.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Second, the rule of law has run through the constitution as a fundamental principle from the earliest times as "The king must [be] ... under the law, because the law makes the king" (<a href="/wiki/Henry_de_Bracton" title="Henry de Bracton">Henry de Bracton</a> in the 13th century). This principle was recognised in <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Petition_of_Right_1628" class="mw-redirect" title="Petition of Right 1628">Petition of Right 1628</a>. This means the government may only conduct itself according to legal authority, including respect for human rights.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Third, at least since <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_(Equal_Franchise)_Act_1928" title="Representation of the People (Equal Franchise) Act 1928">1928</a>, elections in which all capable adults participate have become a fundamental constitutional principle. Originally only wealthy, property-owning men held rights to vote for the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="House of Commons of the United Kingdom">House of Commons</a>, while the monarch, occasionally together with a hereditary <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a>, dominated politics. From 1832 onwards, adult citizens slowly obtained the right to <a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">universal suffrage</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fourth, the British constitution is bound to international law, as Parliament has chosen to increase its practical power in cooperation with other countries in international organisations, such as the <a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>, the <a href="/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="European Convention on Human Rights">European Convention on Human Rights</a>, the <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organization</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court</a>. However, the UK left membership of the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> in 2020 after a <a href="/wiki/Referendum" title="Referendum">referendum</a> <a href="/wiki/2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum" title="2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum">in 2016</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Parliamentary_sovereignty">Parliamentary sovereignty</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Parliamentary sovereignty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_sovereignty_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliamentary sovereignty in the United Kingdom">Parliamentary sovereignty in the United Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a>, and <a href="/wiki/European_Union_law" class="mw-redirect" title="European Union law">European Union law</a></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Parliamentary_sovereignty_sources2307" style="width: 350px; text-align: center; font-size: 80%; line-height: 1.5em; background-color: #fafafa; float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Clist_sovereignty" title="Template:Clist sovereignty"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Clist_sovereignty" title="Template talk:Clist sovereignty"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Clist_sovereignty" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Clist sovereignty"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Parliamentary_sovereignty_sources2307" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_sovereignty_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliamentary sovereignty in the United Kingdom">Parliamentary sovereignty</a> sources</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta 1215</a> cl 12</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_1689" title="Bill of Rights 1689">Bill of Rights 1689</a> arts 1–4</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Parliament_Act_1911" title="Parliament Act 1911">Parliament Act 1911</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Geo5/1-2/13/section/1">ss 1–2</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parliament_Act_1949" title="Parliament Act 1949">Parliament Act 1949</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Geo6/12-13-14/103/section/1">s 1</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Act_1946" title="United Nations Act 1946">United Nations Act 1946</a> s 1</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Act_1998" title="Human Rights Act 1998">Human Rights Act 1998</a> ss 3–6</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/European_Union_(Withdrawal_Agreement)_Act_2020" title="European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020"><span class="wrap">European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020</span></a> s 38(1)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_and_Calling_of_Parliament_Act_2022" title="Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022"><span class="wrap">Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022</span></a> s 2(1) <hr /></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Local_Government_Act_1972" title="Local Government Act 1972">Local Government Act 1972</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Scotland_Act_1998" title="Scotland Act 1998">Scotland Act 1998</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Wales_Act_1998" title="Government of Wales Act 1998">Government of Wales Act 1998</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Act_1998" title="Northern Ireland Act 1998">Northern Ireland Act 1998</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Greater_London_Authority_Act_1999" title="Greater London Authority Act 1999">Greater London Authority Act 1999</a> <hr /> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><b>Court judgments</b></div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/Stockdale_v_Hansard" title="Stockdale v Hansard">Stockdale v Hansard</a></i> (1839) 9A&E1</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/Pickin_v_British_Railways_Board" title="Pickin v British Railways Board">Pickin v British Railways Board</a></i> [1974] AC 765</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/Attorney_General_v_Jonathan_Cape_Ltd" title="Attorney General v Jonathan Cape Ltd">Attorney General v Jonathan Cape Ltd</a></i> [1975] 3 All ER 484</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/R_(Factortame_Ltd)_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Transport" title="R (Factortame Ltd) v Secretary of State for Transport">R (Factortame) v Transport Secretary</a></i> [1990] UKHL 7</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/R_v_Secretary_of_State_for_the_Home_Department,_ex_parte_Simms" title="R v Secretary of State for the Home Department, ex parte Simms">R (Simms) v Home Secretary</a></i> [1999] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/1999/33.html">UKHL 33</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/R_(Jackson)_v_Attorney_General" title="R (Jackson) v Attorney General">R (Jackson) v Attorney General</a></i> [2005] UKHL 56</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/R_(HS2_Action_Alliance_Ltd)_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Transport" title="R (HS2 Action Alliance Ltd) v Secretary of State for Transport"><span class="wrap">R (HS2 Action Alliance) v Transport Secretary</span></a></i> [2014] UKSC 3</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/R_(Miller)_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Exiting_the_European_Union" title="R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union">R (Miller) v Brexit Secretary</a></i> [2017] UKSC 5</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/R_(Miller)_v_The_Prime_Minister_and_Cherry_v_Advocate_General_for_Scotland" title="R (Miller) v The Prime Minister and Cherry v Advocate General for Scotland"><span class="wrap">R (Miller) v The Prime Minister and Cherry v Advocate General for Scotland</span></a></i> [2019] UKSC 24 <hr /> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><b>Repealed legislation</b></div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/European_Communities_Act_1972_(UK)" title="European Communities Act 1972 (UK)">European Communities Act 1972</a> s 2</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Act_2011" title="European Union Act 2011">European Union Act 2011</a> s 18</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>see <a href="/wiki/UK_constitutional_law" class="mw-redirect" title="UK constitutional law">UK constitutional law</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>Parliamentary sovereignty is often seen as a central element in the British constitution, although its extent is contested.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It means that an Act of Parliament is the highest form of law, but also that "Parliament cannot bind itself".<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historically, Parliament became sovereign through a series of power struggles between the monarch, the church, the courts, and the people. <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a> in 1215, which came from the conflict leading to the <a href="/wiki/First_Barons%27_War" title="First Barons' War">First Barons' War</a>, granted the right of Parliament to exist for "common counsel" before any tax,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> against the "<a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">divine right of kings</a>" to rule. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Common_land" title="Common land">Common land</a> was guaranteed to people to farm, graze, hunt or fish, though aristocrats continued to dominate politics. In the <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Supremacy_1534" class="mw-redirect" title="Act of Supremacy 1534">Act of Supremacy 1534</a>, <a href="/wiki/King_Henry_VIII" class="mw-redirect" title="King Henry VIII">King Henry VIII</a> asserted his divine right over the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> in Rome, declaring himself the supreme leader of the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a>. Then in the <i><a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Oxford%27s_case" title="Earl of Oxford's case">Earl of Oxford's case</a></i> in 1615,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Lord_Chancellor" title="Lord Chancellor">Lord Chancellor</a> (both the King's representative and head of the <a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">judiciary</a>) asserted the supremacy of the <a href="/wiki/Court_of_Chancery" title="Court of Chancery">Court of Chancery</a> over the common law courts, contradicting Sir <a href="/wiki/Edward_Coke" title="Edward Coke">Edward Coke</a>'s assertion that judges could declare statutes void if they went "against common right and reason".<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a> of 1688, the <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_1689" title="Bill of Rights 1689">Bill of Rights 1689</a> cemented Parliament's power over the monarch, and therefore over the church and courts. Parliament became "<a href="/wiki/Sovereign" title="Sovereign">sovereign</a>", and supreme. 18 years later however, the English Parliament abolished itself in order to create the new Parliament following on the Treaty of Union between England and Scotland, while the Scottish Parliament did likewise. Power struggles within Parliament continued between the aristocracy and <a href="/wiki/Common_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Common people">common people</a>. Outside Parliament, people from the <a href="/wiki/Chartists" class="mw-redirect" title="Chartists">Chartists</a> to the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_labour_law" title="United Kingdom labour law">trade unions</a> fought for the vote in the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="House of Commons of the United Kingdom">House of Commons</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Parliament_Act_1911" title="Parliament Act 1911">Parliament Act 1911</a> ensured the Commons would prevail in any conflict over the unelected <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Parliament_Act_1949" title="Parliament Act 1949">Parliament Act 1949</a> ensured the Lords could only delay legislation by one year,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and not delay any budgetary measure over a month.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a leading case, <i><a href="/wiki/R_(Jackson)_v_Attorney_General" title="R (Jackson) v Attorney General">R (Jackson) v Attorney General</a></i>, a group of pro-hunting protestors challenged the <a href="/wiki/Hunting_Act_2004" title="Hunting Act 2004">Hunting Act 2004</a>'s ban on fox hunting, arguing it was not a valid Act because it was passed avoiding the House of Lords, using the Parliament Acts. They argued that the 1949 Act itself was passed using the 1911 Act's power to override the Lords in two years. The claimants argued that this meant the 1949 Act should not be considered a valid law, because the 1911 Act was limited in scope and could not be used to amend its own limitation of the Lords' power. The House of Lords, sitting as the UK's highest court, rejected this argument, holding both the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_Act_1949" title="Parliament Act 1949">Parliament Act 1949</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hunting_Act_2004" title="Hunting Act 2004">Hunting Act 2004</a> to be valid. However, in <i><a href="/wiki/Obiter_dicta" class="mw-redirect" title="Obiter dicta">obiter dicta</a></i> Lord Hope argued that Parliamentary sovereignty "is no longer, if it ever was, absolute", and that the "rule of law enforced by the courts is the ultimate controlling factor on which our constitution is based", and cannot be used to defend unconstitutional Acts (as determined by the courts).<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is not yet a consensus on the meaning of "Parliamentary sovereignty", except that its legitimacy depends on the principle of "the democratic process".<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Methodist_Central_Hall_-_Great_Hall_with_pipe_organ.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Methodist_Central_Hall_-_Great_Hall_with_pipe_organ.jpg/220px-Methodist_Central_Hall_-_Great_Hall_with_pipe_organ.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Methodist_Central_Hall_-_Great_Hall_with_pipe_organ.jpg/330px-Methodist_Central_Hall_-_Great_Hall_with_pipe_organ.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Methodist_Central_Hall_-_Great_Hall_with_pipe_organ.jpg/440px-Methodist_Central_Hall_-_Great_Hall_with_pipe_organ.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>The UK has committed to <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a> as a "sovereign" member, to augment its power through cooperation, in the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> since 1945. The first <a href="/wiki/UN_General_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="UN General Assembly">UN General Assembly</a> was held at <a href="/wiki/Methodist_Central_Hall" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodist Central Hall">Methodist Central Hall</a>, opened by Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Clement_Attlee" title="Clement Attlee">Clement Attlee</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In recent history, Parliament's sovereignty has evolved in four main ways.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> First, since 1945 international cooperation meant Parliament augmented its power by working with, not dominating, other sovereign nations. While Parliament had nearly uncontested military power before, and so was thought by writers of the Imperial period to be able to "make or unmake any law whatever",<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the UK chose to join the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> in 1919, and after its failure, the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> in 1945, to participate in building a system of <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> in 1919 recalled that "peace can only be established if it is based upon social justice",<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/UN_Charter" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Charter">UN Charter</a>, "based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all its Members", said that "to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind", the UN would "reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights", and members should "live together in peace with one another as good neighbours". The <a href="/wiki/Bretton_Woods_Agreements_Act_1945" title="Bretton Woods Agreements Act 1945">Bretton Woods Agreements Act 1945</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Act_1946" title="United Nations Act 1946">United Nations Act 1946</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_Organisations_Act_1968" title="International Organisations Act 1968">International Organisations Act 1968</a> wrote the UK's funding and membership of the United Nations, the <a href="/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">International Monetary Fund</a>, the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a>, and other bodies, into law.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the UK bound itself to implement by order UN <a href="/wiki/Security_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Security Council">Security Council</a> resolutions, up to the actual use of force, in return for representation in the General Assembly and Security Council.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the UK has not always clearly followed <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it has accepted as a formal duty that its sovereignty would not be used unlawfully. Second, in 1950 the UK helped to write and joined the <a href="/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="European Convention on Human Rights">European Convention on Human Rights</a>. While that convention reflected norms and cases decided under British statutes and the <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> on <a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">civil liberties</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the UK accepted that people could appeal to the <a href="/wiki/European_Court_of_Human_Rights" title="European Court of Human Rights">European Court of Human Rights</a> in <a href="/wiki/Strasbourg" title="Strasbourg">Strasbourg</a>, if domestic remedies were not enough. In the <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Act_1998" title="Human Rights Act 1998">Human Rights Act 1998</a>, Parliament decided that the British judiciary should be required to apply human rights norms directly in determining British cases, to ensure a more speedy, human rights-based resolution to case law, and effectively influence human rights reasoning more. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Inauguration_EYE2014_Parlement_europ%C3%A9en_Strasbourg_9_mai_2014.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Inauguration_EYE2014_Parlement_europ%C3%A9en_Strasbourg_9_mai_2014.jpg/220px-Inauguration_EYE2014_Parlement_europ%C3%A9en_Strasbourg_9_mai_2014.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Inauguration_EYE2014_Parlement_europ%C3%A9en_Strasbourg_9_mai_2014.jpg/330px-Inauguration_EYE2014_Parlement_europ%C3%A9en_Strasbourg_9_mai_2014.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Inauguration_EYE2014_Parlement_europ%C3%A9en_Strasbourg_9_mai_2014.jpg/440px-Inauguration_EYE2014_Parlement_europ%C3%A9en_Strasbourg_9_mai_2014.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5760" data-file-height="3840" /></a><figcaption>From 1973 to 2020, the UK was a member state of the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> (and its predecessor organisation the <a href="/wiki/European_Communities" title="European Communities">European Communities</a>), which is committed to "<a href="/wiki/Human_dignity" class="mw-redirect" title="Human dignity">human dignity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">freedom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">equality</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a> and respect for <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Third, the UK became a member of the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> after the <a href="/wiki/European_Communities_Act_1972_(UK)" title="European Communities Act 1972 (UK)">European Communities Act 1972</a> and through its ratification of the <a href="/wiki/Maastricht_Treaty" title="Maastricht Treaty">Maastricht Treaty</a> in 1992. The idea of a Union had long been envisaged by European leaders, including <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a>, who in 1946 had called for a "<a href="/wiki/European_Federation" class="mw-redirect" title="European Federation">United States of Europe</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-19_September_1946_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19_September_1946-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9_October_1948_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9_October_1948-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/EU_law" class="mw-redirect" title="EU law">EU law</a> has long been held to prevail in any conflict between Acts of Parliament for the limited fields in which it operates,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but member states and citizens gain control over the scope of EU law, and so extend their sovereignty in international affairs, through joint representation in the <a href="/wiki/European_Parliament" title="European Parliament">European Parliament</a>, <a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_European_Union" title="Council of the European Union">Council of the European Union</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/European_Commission" title="European Commission">Commission</a>. This principle was tested in <i><a href="/wiki/R_(Factortame_Ltd)_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Transport" title="R (Factortame Ltd) v Secretary of State for Transport">R (Factortame Ltd) v Secretary of State for Transport</a></i>, where a fishing business claimed that it should not be required to have 75% of British shareholders, as the <a href="/wiki/Merchant_Shipping_Act_1988" title="Merchant Shipping Act 1988">Merchant Shipping Act 1988</a> said.<sup id="cite_ref-Factortame_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Factortame-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under EU law, the principle of <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_establishment" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom of establishment">freedom of establishment</a> states that nationals of any member state can freely incorporate and run a business across the EU without unjustified interference. The <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a> held that, because the EU law conflicted with the sections of the 1988 Act, those sections would not be enforced, and disapplied, because Parliament had not clearly expressed an intention to renounce the 1972 Act. According to <a href="/wiki/Lord_Bridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Bridge">Lord Bridge</a> "whatever limitation of its sovereignty Parliament accepted when it enacted the [1972 Act] was entirely voluntary".<sup id="cite_ref-Factortame_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Factortame-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was, therefore, the duty of the courts to apply EU law. </p><p>On the other hand, in <i><a href="/wiki/R_(HS2_Action_Alliance_Ltd)_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Transport" title="R (HS2 Action Alliance Ltd) v Secretary of State for Transport">R (HS2 Action Alliance Ltd) v Secretary of State for Transport</a></i> the Supreme Court held that certain fundamental principles of <a href="/wiki/British_constitutional_law" class="mw-redirect" title="British constitutional law">British constitutional law</a> would not be interpreted by the courts as having been given up by membership of the EU, or probably any international organisation.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Here a group protesting against the <a href="/wiki/High_Speed_2" title="High Speed 2">High Speed 2</a> rail line from London to Manchester and Leeds claimed that the government had not properly followed an Environmental Impact Assessment Directive by whipping a vote in Parliament to approve the plan. They argued that the Directive required open and free consultation, which was not fulfilled if a <a href="/wiki/Party_whip" class="mw-redirect" title="Party whip">party whip</a> compelled party members to vote. The Supreme Court unanimously held the Directive did not require that no party whip occurred, but if a conflict had existed a Directive would not be able to compromise the fundamental constitutional principle from the <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_1689" title="Bill of Rights 1689">Bill of Rights</a> that Parliament is free to organise its affairs. </p><p>Fourth, <a href="/wiki/Devolution_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Devolution in the United Kingdom">devolution in the United Kingdom</a> has meant Parliament gave the power to legislate on specific topics to nations and regions: the <a href="/wiki/Scotland_Act_1998" title="Scotland Act 1998">Scotland Act 1998</a> created the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Parliament" title="Scottish Parliament">Scottish Parliament</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Wales_Act_1998" title="Government of Wales Act 1998">Government of Wales Act 1998</a> created the <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Welsh Assembly">Welsh Assembly</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Act_1998" title="Northern Ireland Act 1998">Northern Ireland Act 1998</a> created a <a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Executive" title="Northern Ireland Executive">Northern Ireland Executive</a> following the historic <a href="/wiki/Good_Friday_Agreement" title="Good Friday Agreement">Good Friday Agreement</a>, to bring peace. In addition, the <a href="/wiki/Local_Government_Act_1972" title="Local Government Act 1972">Local Government Act 1972</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Greater_London_Authority_Act_1999" title="Greater London Authority Act 1999">Greater London Authority Act 1999</a> give more limited powers to local and London governments. Practically, but also constitutionally, it has become increasingly accepted that decisions should not be taken for the UK which would override, and run counter to, the will of regional governments. However, in <i><a href="/wiki/R_(Miller)_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Exiting_the_European_Union" title="R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union">R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union</a></i>, a group of people who sought to remain in the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> contested the government on whether the Prime Minister could trigger Article 50 to notify the <a href="/wiki/European_Commission" title="European Commission">European Commission</a> of the UK's intention to leave, without an <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Act of Parliament">Act of Parliament</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This followed the <a href="/wiki/Brexit_poll_of_2016" class="mw-redirect" title="Brexit poll of 2016">Brexit poll of 2016</a> where 51.9% of those voting voted to leave.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The claimants argued that, because <a href="/wiki/Brexit" title="Brexit">Brexit</a> would obliterate rights that Parliament had conferred through Acts of Parliament (such as the right of free movement of British citizens in the EU, the right to <a href="/wiki/Fair_competition" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair competition">fair competition</a> through merger control, and the right to vote for EU institutions) only Parliament could consent to notifying the intention to negotiate to leave under Article 50. They also argued that the <a href="/wiki/Sewel_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="Sewel Convention">Sewel Convention</a> for devolved assemblies, where the assembly passes a motion that the Westminster Parliament can legislate on a devolved matter before it does so, meant the UK could not negotiate to leave without the Scottish, Welsh or Northern Ireland legislatures' consent. The Supreme Court held that the government could not begin the process of leaving purely through <a href="/wiki/Royal_prerogative" title="Royal prerogative">royal prerogative</a>; Parliament must pass an Act enabling it to do so. However, the Sewel convention could not be enforced by courts, rather than observed.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This led Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Theresa_May" title="Theresa May">Theresa May</a> to procure the <a href="/wiki/European_Union_(Notification_of_Withdrawal)_Act_2017" title="European Union (Notification of Withdrawal) Act 2017">European Union (Notification of Withdrawal) Act 2017</a>, giving her power to notify the intention to leave the EU.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rule_of_law">Rule of law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Rule of law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Rule of law in the United Kingdom">Rule of law in the United Kingdom</a></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Rule_of_law_sources1134" style="width: 350px; text-align: center; font-size: 80%; line-height: 1.5em; background-color: #fafafa; float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Clist_rule_of_law" title="Template:Clist rule of law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Clist_rule_of_law" title="Template talk:Clist rule of law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Clist_rule_of_law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Clist rule of law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Rule_of_law_sources1134" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Rule of law sources</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/Entick_v_Carrington" title="Entick v Carrington">Entick v Carrington</a></i> [1765] EWHC KB J98</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/Malone_v_Metropolitan_Police_Commissioner" class="mw-redirect" title="Malone v Metropolitan Police Commissioner"><span class="wrap">Malone v Metropolitan Police Commissioner</span></a></i> (1984) 7 EHRR 14</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/McCann_v_UK" title="McCann v UK">McCann v UK</a></i> (1995) 21 EHRR 97</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/A_v_Home_Secretary" class="mw-redirect" title="A v Home Secretary">A v Home Secretary</a></i> [2004] UKHL 56</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/A_v_Home_Secretary_(No_2)" title="A v Home Secretary (No 2)">A v Home Secretary (No 2)</a></i> [2005] UKHL 71</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/R_(Corner_House_Research)_v_Serious_Fraud_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="R (Corner House Research) v Serious Fraud Office"><span class="wrap">R (Corner House Research) v Serious Fraud Office</span></a></i> [2008] UKHL 60</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=R_(Central_Electricity_Generating_Board)_v_Chief_Constable_of_Devon_and_Cornwall&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="R (Central Electricity Generating Board) v Chief Constable of Devon and Cornwall (page does not exist)"><span class="wrap">R (Central Electricity Generating Board) v Chief Constable of Devon and Cornwall</span></a></i> [1982] QB 458</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/UNISON_v_Lord_Chancellor" class="mw-redirect" title="UNISON v Lord Chancellor">UNISON v Lord Chancellor</a></i> [2017] UKSC 51</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Reform_Act_2005" title="Constitutional Reform Act 2005">Constitutional Reform Act 2005</a> s 1</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/M_v_Home_Office" title="M v Home Office">M v Home Office</a></i> [1994] 1 AC 377</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/R_(Fire_Brigades_Union)_v_Home_Secretary" class="mw-redirect" title="R (Fire Brigades Union) v Home Secretary"><span class="wrap">R (Fire Brigades Union) v Home Secretary</span></a></i> [1995] 2 AC 513</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>see <a href="/wiki/UK_constitutional_law" class="mw-redirect" title="UK constitutional law">UK constitutional law</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a> has been regarded as a fundamental principle of modern legal systems, including the UK.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been called "as important in a free society as the democratic franchise",<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and even "the ultimate controlling factor on which our constitution is based".<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like parliamentary sovereignty, its meaning and extent is disputed. The most widely accepted meanings speak of several factors: <a href="/wiki/Lord_Bingham_of_Cornhill" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Bingham of Cornhill">Lord Bingham of Cornhill</a>, formerly the highest judge in England and Wales, suggested the rule of law ought to mean that <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a> is clear and predictable, not subject to broad or unreasonable discretion, <a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">applies equally</a> to all people, with speedy and fair procedures for enforcement, protects fundamental <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a>, and works according to <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-661_Cambridge_Law_Journal_67_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-661_Cambridge_Law_Journal_67-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other definitions seek to exclude human rights and international law as relevant but largely stem from visions of pre-democratic scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Albert_Venn_Dicey" class="mw-redirect" title="Albert Venn Dicey">Albert Venn Dicey</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rule of law was explicitly recognised as a "constitutional principle" in section 1 of the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Reform_Act_2005" title="Constitutional Reform Act 2005">Constitutional Reform Act 2005</a>, which limited the judicial role of the <a href="/wiki/Lord_Chancellor" title="Lord Chancellor">Lord Chancellor</a> and recast the judicial appointments system to entrench independence, diversity and merit.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the statute gives no further definition, the practical meaning of the "rule of law" develops through case law. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:European_Court_of_Human_Rights.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ac/European_Court_of_Human_Rights.jpg/220px-European_Court_of_Human_Rights.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ac/European_Court_of_Human_Rights.jpg/330px-European_Court_of_Human_Rights.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ac/European_Court_of_Human_Rights.jpg/440px-European_Court_of_Human_Rights.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4109" data-file-height="2311" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/European_Court_of_Human_Rights" title="European Court of Human Rights">European Court of Human Rights</a>, following common law principles,<sup id="cite_ref-EWHC_KB_J98_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EWHC_KB_J98-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> protects the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a> by requiring people's liberty, privacy or other rights are not infringed by the government unless there is a clear legal basis and justification.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>At its core, the rule of law, in English and British law, has traditionally been the principle of "<a href="/wiki/Legality" title="Legality">legality</a>". This means that the state, government, and any person acting under government authority (including a corporation),<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> may only act according to law. In 1765, in <i><a href="/wiki/Entick_v_Carrington" title="Entick v Carrington">Entick v Carrington</a></i> a writer, <a href="/wiki/John_Entick" title="John Entick">John Entick</a>, claimed that the King's Chief Messenger, Nathan Carrington, had no legal authority to break into and ransack his home, and remove his papers. Carrington claimed he had authority from the Secretary of State, <a href="/wiki/George_Montagu-Dunk,_2nd_Earl_of_Halifax" title="George Montagu-Dunk, 2nd Earl of Halifax">Lord Halifax</a>, who issued a search "warrant", but there was no statute that gave Lord Halifax the authority to issue search warrants. <a href="/wiki/Lord_Camden_CJ" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Camden CJ">Lord Camden CJ</a> held that the "great end, for which men entered into society, was to secure their property", and that without any authority "every invasion of private property, be it ever so minute, is a trespass."<sup id="cite_ref-EWHC_KB_J98_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EWHC_KB_J98-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carrington acted unlawfully and had to pay damages. </p><p>Today this principle of legality is found throughout the <a href="/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="European Convention on Human Rights">European Convention on Human Rights</a>, which enables infringements of rights as a starting point only if "in accordance with the law".<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1979, in <i><a href="/wiki/Malone_v_Metropolitan_Police_Commissioner" class="mw-redirect" title="Malone v Metropolitan Police Commissioner">Malone v Metropolitan Police Commissioner</a></i> a man charged with <a href="/wiki/Handling_stolen_goods" class="mw-redirect" title="Handling stolen goods">handling stolen goods</a> claimed the police unlawfully tapped his phone, to get evidence. The only related statute, the <a href="/wiki/Post_Office_Act_1969" title="Post Office Act 1969">Post Office Act 1969</a> Schedule 5, stated there should be no interference in telecommunications unless the Secretary of State issued a warrant, but said nothing explicit about phone tapping. <a href="/wiki/Megarry_VC" class="mw-redirect" title="Megarry VC">Megarry VC</a> held there was no wrong at common law, and refused to interpret the statute in light of the right to privacy under the <a href="/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="European Convention on Human Rights">European Convention on Human Rights</a>, article 8.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On appeal, the European Court of Human Rights concluded the convention was breached because the statute did not "indicate with reasonable clarity the scope and manner of exercise of the relevant discretion conferred on the public authorities."<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The judgment, however, was overshadowed by the government swiftly passing a new Act to authorise phone tapping with a warrant.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By itself the principle of legality is not enough to alone preserve <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a> in the face of ever more intrusive statutory powers of surveillance by corporations or government. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lord_Bingham_of_Cornhill_(3704847298).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Lord_Bingham_of_Cornhill_%283704847298%29.jpg/220px-Lord_Bingham_of_Cornhill_%283704847298%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="332" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Lord_Bingham_of_Cornhill_%283704847298%29.jpg/330px-Lord_Bingham_of_Cornhill_%283704847298%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Lord_Bingham_of_Cornhill_%283704847298%29.jpg/440px-Lord_Bingham_of_Cornhill_%283704847298%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="816" data-file-height="1232" /></a><figcaption>The most broadly accepted meaning of the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a>, advocated by <a href="/wiki/Lord_Bingham_of_Cornhill" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Bingham of Cornhill">Lord Bingham of Cornhill</a>, includes the principle of <a href="/wiki/Legality" title="Legality">legality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a> and commitment to <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-661_Cambridge_Law_Journal_67_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-661_Cambridge_Law_Journal_67-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The rule of law requires the law be truly enforced, though enforcement bodies may have room for discretion. In <i><a href="/wiki/R_(Corner_House_Research)_v_Director_of_the_Serious_Fraud_Office" title="R (Corner House Research) v Director of the Serious Fraud Office">R (Corner House Research) v Director of the Serious Fraud Office</a></i>, a group campaigning against the <a href="/wiki/Arms_industry" title="Arms industry">arms trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corner_House_Research" class="mw-redirect" title="Corner House Research">Corner House Research</a>, claimed the <a href="/wiki/Serious_Fraud_Office_(United_Kingdom)" title="Serious Fraud Office (United Kingdom)">Serious Fraud Office</a> acted unlawfully by dropping an investigation into the UK–Saudi <a href="/wiki/Al-Yamamah_arms_deal" title="Al-Yamamah arms deal">Al-Yamamah arms deal</a>. It was alleged that <a href="/wiki/BAE_Systems_plc" class="mw-redirect" title="BAE Systems plc">BAE Systems plc</a> paid bribes to Saudi government figures.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The House of Lords held the SFO was entitled to take into account the public interest in not pursuing an investigation, including the security threats that might transpire. <a href="/wiki/Baroness_Hale" class="mw-redirect" title="Baroness Hale">Baroness Hale</a> remarked that the SFO had to consider "the principle that no-one, including powerful British companies who do business for powerful foreign countries, is above the law", but the decision reached was not unreasonable.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When enforcement or court proceedings do take place, they should proceed swiftly: anyone who is detained must be charged and put on trial or released.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>People must also be able to access justice in practice. In <i><a href="/wiki/R_(UNISON)_v_Lord_Chancellor" title="R (UNISON) v Lord Chancellor">R (UNISON) v Lord Chancellor</a></i> the Supreme Court held the government's imposition of £1200 in fees to bring an <a href="/wiki/Employment_tribunal" title="Employment tribunal">employment tribunal</a> claim undermined the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a>, and was void. The <a href="/wiki/Lord_Chancellor" title="Lord Chancellor">Lord Chancellor</a> had statutory authority to create fees for court services, but in the case of employment tribunals, his Order led to a 70% drop in claims against employers for breach of <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_labour_law" title="United Kingdom labour law">labour rights</a>, such as unfair dismissal, unlawful wage deductions or discrimination. <a href="/wiki/Lord_Reed" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Reed">Lord Reed</a> said the "constitutional right of access to the courts is inherent in the rule of law". Without access to courts, "laws are liable to become a dead letter, the work done by Parliament may be rendered nugatory, and the democratic election of Members of Parliament may become a meaningless charade."<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In principle every person is subject to the law, including government ministers, or corporate executives, who may be held in <a href="/wiki/Contempt_of_court" title="Contempt of court">contempt of court</a> for violating an order.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In other systems the idea of a <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a> is seen as an essential part of maintaining the rule of law. In theory, originally advocated by <a href="/wiki/Baron_de_Montesquieu" class="mw-redirect" title="Baron de Montesquieu">Baron de Montesquieu</a>, there should be a strict separation of the executive, legislature and judiciary.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While other systems, notably the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, attempted to put this into practice (e.g. requiring the executive does not come from the legislature), it is clear that modern political parties may undermine such a separation by capturing all three branches of government, and democracy has been maintained since the 20th century despite the fact that "there is no formal separation of powers in the United Kingdom".<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Reform_Act_2005" title="Constitutional Reform Act 2005">Constitutional Reform Act 2005</a> ended the practice of the <a href="/wiki/Lord_Chancellor" title="Lord Chancellor">Lord Chancellor</a> sitting as the head of the judiciary, while also being a Member of Parliament, and sitting in the cabinet. Since the <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Settlement_1700" class="mw-redirect" title="Act of Settlement 1700">Act of Settlement 1700</a>, there has been only one instance of a judge being removed, and a suspension cannot happen without the <a href="/wiki/Lord_Chief_Justice" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Chief Justice">Lord Chief Justice</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Lord_Chancellor" title="Lord Chancellor">Lord Chancellor</a> following a judge being subject to criminal proceedings.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is now a duty on all ministers to "uphold the continued independence of the judiciary", including against assault by powerful corporations or the media.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Democracy">Democracy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Democracy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Democracy_sources1840" style="width: 350px; text-align: center; font-size: 80%; line-height: 1.5em; background-color: #fafafa; float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Clist_democracy" title="Template:Clist democracy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Clist_democracy" title="Template talk:Clist democracy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Clist_democracy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Clist democracy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Democracy_sources1840" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Democracy sources</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights_1948" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948"><span class="wrap">Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948</span></a> <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights#Article_21">arts 21 and 29(2)</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/ECHR_1950" class="mw-redirect" title="ECHR 1950">ECHR 1950</a> Preamble and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/rms/090000168006377c">Prot 1, art 3</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Int_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights_1966" class="mw-redirect" title="Int Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966"><span class="wrap">Int Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966</span></a> <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights#Article_25">art 25</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Int_Covenant_on_Economic,_Social_and_Cultural_Rights_1966" class="mw-redirect" title="Int Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966"><span class="wrap">Int Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966</span></a>, <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Economic,_Social_and_Cultural_Rights#Article_4">art 4</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mathieu-Mohin_and_Clerfayt_v_Belgium&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mathieu-Mohin and Clerfayt v Belgium (page does not exist)">Mathieu-Mohin and Clerfayt v Belgium</a></i> (1987) 10 EHRR 1</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=X_v_Morgan-Grampian_Ltd&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="X v Morgan-Grampian Ltd (page does not exist)">X v Morgan-Grampian Ltd</a></i> [1991] AC 1</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/R_(UNISON)_v_Lord_Chancellor" title="R (UNISON) v Lord Chancellor">R (UNISON) v Lord Chancellor</a></i> [2017] UKSC 51</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Archie_v_Law_Association_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Archie v Law Association of Trinidad and Tobago (page does not exist)"><span class="wrap">Archie v Law Association of Trinidad and Tobago</span></a></i> [2018] UKPC 23</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/Ashby_v_White" title="Ashby v White">Ashby v White</a></i> (1703) 2 Ld Raym 938</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/Morgan_v_Simpson" title="Morgan v Simpson">Morgan v Simpson</a></i> [1975] QB 151</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/R_(Wilson)_v_Prime_Minister" title="R (Wilson) v Prime Minister">R (Wilson) v Prime Minister</a></i> [2018] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ukineuchallenge.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/260395-Judgment-10.12.2018-Version-for-publication.pdf">EWHC 3520 (Admin)</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Defenders_International_v_United_Kingdom" title="Animal Defenders International v United Kingdom"><span class="wrap">Animal Defenders International v United Kingdom</span></a></i> [2008] UKHL 15</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gorringe_v_Calderdale_MBC&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gorringe v Calderdale MBC (page does not exist)">Gorringe v Calderdale MBC</a></i> [2004] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/2004/15.html">UKHL 15</a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>see <a href="/wiki/UK_constitutional_law" class="mw-redirect" title="UK constitutional law">UK constitutional law</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:UK_Parliament_HDR.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/UK_Parliament_HDR.jpg/220px-UK_Parliament_HDR.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/UK_Parliament_HDR.jpg/330px-UK_Parliament_HDR.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/UK_Parliament_HDR.jpg/440px-UK_Parliament_HDR.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Parliament was recognised as a forum for the King for "common counsel" before <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The principle of a "democratic society", with a functioning <a href="/wiki/Representative_democracy" title="Representative democracy">representative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deliberative_democracy" title="Deliberative democracy">deliberative democracy</a>, that upholds <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a>, legitimises the fact of Parliamentary sovereignty,<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and it is widely considered that "democracy lies at the heart of the concept of the rule of law".<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The opposite of arbitrary power exercised by one person is "administration is in the hands of the many and not of the few".<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the preamble to the <a href="/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="European Convention on Human Rights">European Convention on Human Rights</a>, as drafted by British lawyers following <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, fundamental human rights and freedoms are themselves "best maintained ... by "an effective political democracy".<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, this "characteristic principle of democracy" is enshrined by the First Protocol, article 3, which requires the "right to free elections" to "ensure the free expression of the opinion of the people in the choice of the legislature".<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While there are many conceptions of democracy, such as "direct", "representative" or "deliberative", the dominant view in modern political theory is that democracy requires an active citizenry, not only in electing representatives, but in taking part in political life.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Its essence lies in not simply majority decision-making, nor referendums that can easily be used as a tool of manipulation,<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "but in the making of politically responsible decisions" and in "large-scale social changes maximising the freedom" of humankind.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The legitimacy of law in a democratic society depends upon a constant process of deliberative discussion and public debate, rather than the imposition of decisions.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also generally agreed that basic standards in political, social and economic rights are necessary to ensure everyone can play a meaningful role in political life.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For this reason, the rights to free voting in fair elections and "general welfare in a democratic society" have developed hand-in-hand with all human rights, and form a fundamental cornerstone of <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the UK's "modern democratic constitution",<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the principle of democracy is manifested through statutes and case law which guarantee the right to vote in fair elections, and through its use as a principle of interpretation by courts. In 1703, in the landmark case of <i><a href="/wiki/Ashby_v_White" title="Ashby v White">Ashby v White</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Lord_Holt_CJ" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Holt CJ">Lord Holt CJ</a> stated that the right of everyone "to give [their] vote at the election of a person to represent [them] in Parliament, there to concur to the making of laws, which are to bind [their] liberty and property, is a most transcendent thing, and of a high nature".<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has meant that the courts actively ensure that votes cast are counted and that democratic elections are conducted according to law. In <i><a href="/wiki/Morgan_v_Simpson" title="Morgan v Simpson">Morgan v Simpson</a></i> the <a href="/wiki/Court_of_Appeal" class="mw-redirect" title="Court of Appeal">Court of Appeal</a> held that if a vote "was conducted so badly that it was not substantially in accordance with the law, " then it would be declared void, and so would even minor irregularities that would affect the result.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A considerable body of regulation, for instance in the <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_Act_1983" title="Representation of the People Act 1983">Representation of the People Act 1983</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Political_Parties,_Elections_and_Referendums_Act_2000" title="Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000">Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000</a>, restrict spending or any foreign interference because, according to <a href="/wiki/Baroness_Hale" class="mw-redirect" title="Baroness Hale">Baroness Hale</a> "each person has equal value" and "we do not want our government or its policies to be decided by the highest spenders".<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More broadly, the concept of a "democratic society" and what is "necessary" for its functioning underpins the entire scheme of interpretation for the <a href="/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="European Convention on Human Rights">European Convention on Human Rights</a> as applied in British law, particularly after the <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Act_1998" title="Human Rights Act 1998">Human Rights Act 1998</a>, because each right can usually only be restricted if "in accordance with law" and as "necessary in a democratic society". The place of the social welfare state that is necessary to support democratic life is also manifested through the courts' interpretation. For instance, in <i>Gorringe v Calderdale MBC</i>, Lord Steyn, giving the leading judgement, said it was "necessary" to view the law of negligence in the context of "the contours of our social welfare state".<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More generally, the common law has been increasingly developed to be harmonious with statutory rights,<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and also in harmony with rights under <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internationalism">Internationalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Internationalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a>, <a href="/wiki/European_Union_law" class="mw-redirect" title="European Union law">European Union law</a>, and <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Internationalism_sources1539" style="width: 350px; text-align: center; font-size: 80%; line-height: 1.5em; background-color: #fafafa; float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Clist_international" title="Template:Clist international"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Clist_international" title="Template talk:Clist international"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Clist_international" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Clist international"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Internationalism_sources1539" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Internationalism sources</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta 1215</a>, ch 41</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/Case_of_Impositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Case of Impositions">Case of Impositions</a></i> (1606) 2 St Tr 371</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_1689" title="Bill of Rights 1689">Bill of Rights 1689</a> art 4</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/Pillans_v_Van_Mierop" title="Pillans v Van Mierop">Pillans v Van Mierop</a></i> (1765) 3 Burr 1663</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/Somerset_v_Stewart" title="Somerset v Stewart">Somerset v Stewart</a></i> (1772) 98 ER 499</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Saad_v_SS_for_the_Home_Department&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Saad v SS for the Home Department (page does not exist)">Saad v SS for the Home Department</a></i> [2001] EWCA Civ 2008</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=R_v_Lyons&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="R v Lyons (page does not exist)">R v Lyons</a></i> [2002] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/2002/44.html">UKHL 44</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/Kadi_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Kadi I">Kadi I</a></i> (2008) C-402/05, <i><a href="/wiki/Kadi_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Kadi II">Kadi II</a></i> (2013) C-584/10 P</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/Hounga_v_Allen" title="Hounga v Allen">Hounga v Allen</a></i> [2014] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2014/47.html">UKSC 47</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/R_(on_the_application_of_SG_and_others)_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Work_and_Pensions" title="R (on the application of SG and others) v Secretary of State for Work and Pensions">R (SG) v SS for Work and Pensions</a></i> [2015] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2015/16.html">UKSC 16</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Versailles_Treaty_1919" class="mw-redirect" title="Versailles Treaty 1919">Versailles Treaty 1919</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Act_1946" title="United Nations Act 1946">United Nations Act 1946</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights_1950" class="mw-redirect" title="European Convention on Human Rights 1950"><span class="wrap">European Convention on Human Rights 1950</span></a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/European_Communities_Act_1972_(UK)" title="European Communities Act 1972 (UK)"><span class="wrap">European Communities Act 1972 (repealed)</span></a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=World_Trade_Organization_(Immunities_and_Privileges)_Order_1995&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="World Trade Organization (Immunities and Privileges) Order 1995 (page does not exist)"><span class="wrap">World Trade Organization (Immunities and Privileges) Order 1995</span></a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Act_1998" title="Human Rights Act 1998">Human Rights Act 1998</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court_Act_2001" title="International Criminal Court Act 2001">International Criminal Court Act 2001</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Reform_and_Governance_Act_2010" title="Constitutional Reform and Governance Act 2010"><span class="wrap">Constitutional Reform and Governance Act 2010</span></a> ss 20-23</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>see <a href="/wiki/UK_constitutional_law" class="mw-redirect" title="UK constitutional law">UK constitutional law</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>Like other democratic countries,<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the principles of <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a> are a basic component of the British constitution, both as a primary tool of interpretation of domestic law and through the UK's consistent support and membership of major international organisations. As far back as <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a>, English law recognised the right to free movement of people for <a href="/wiki/International_trade" title="International trade">international trade</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1608, Sir <a href="/wiki/Edward_Coke" title="Edward Coke">Edward Coke</a> wrote confidently that international commercial law, or the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Lex_mercatoria" title="Lex mercatoria">lex mercatoria</a></i></span>, is part of the laws of the realm.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The constitutional crises of the 17th century centred upon Parliament halting the King's attempt to tax international trade without its consent.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly in the 18th century, <a href="/wiki/Lord_Holt_CJ" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Holt CJ">Lord Holt CJ</a> viewed international law as a general tool for interpretation of the common law,<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while <a href="/wiki/Lord_Mansfield" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Mansfield">Lord Mansfield</a> in particular did more than any other to affirm that the international <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">lex mercatoria</i></span> "is not the law of a particular country but the law of all nations",<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and "the law of merchants and the law of the land is the same".<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1774, in <i><a href="/wiki/Somerset_v_Stewart" title="Somerset v Stewart">Somerset v Stewart</a></i>, one of the most important cases in legal history, <a href="/wiki/Lord_Mansfield" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Mansfield">Lord Mansfield</a> held that <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a> was lawful "in no country" and therefore in common law.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In modern case law it has been consistently accepted that it "is a principle of legal policy that [British] law should conform to <a href="/wiki/Public_international_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Public international law">public international law</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a> stressed that "there is a strong presumption in favour of interpreting English law (whether common law or statute) in a way which does not place the United Kingdom in breach of an international obligation."<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in <i><a href="/wiki/Hounga_v_Allen" title="Hounga v Allen">Hounga v Allen</a></i> the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Supreme Court of the United Kingdom">Supreme Court</a> held that a young lady who had been illegally trafficked to the UK had a right to bring a race discrimination claim against her employers, even though she had herself been in violation of the <a href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_1971" title="Immigration Act 1971">Immigration Act 1971</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In doing so, the court unanimously drew upon international treaties signed by the UK, known as the <a href="/wiki/Palermo_protocols" class="mw-redirect" title="Palermo protocols">Palermo protocols</a>, as well as the European Convention on Human Rights, in interpreting the scope of the common law doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Illegality_in_English_law" title="Illegality in English law">illegality</a>, and held it was no bar for the claimant to assert her legal rights. It has been further debated whether the UK should adopt a theory of that sees international law as part of UK without any further act (a "<a href="/wiki/Monism_and_dualism_in_international_law" title="Monism and dualism in international law">monist</a>" theory), or whether it should still be required for international law principles to be translated into domestic law (a "dualist" theory).<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The current position in <a href="/wiki/European_Union_law" class="mw-redirect" title="European Union law">European Union law</a> is that while international law binds the EU, it cannot undermine fundamental principles of constitutional law or human rights.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EU_Flag_at_the_Stop_Trump_Rally_(32205545383).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/EU_Flag_at_the_Stop_Trump_Rally_%2832205545383%29.jpg/220px-EU_Flag_at_the_Stop_Trump_Rally_%2832205545383%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/EU_Flag_at_the_Stop_Trump_Rally_%2832205545383%29.jpg/330px-EU_Flag_at_the_Stop_Trump_Rally_%2832205545383%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/EU_Flag_at_the_Stop_Trump_Rally_%2832205545383%29.jpg/440px-EU_Flag_at_the_Stop_Trump_Rally_%2832205545383%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1936" data-file-height="1936" /></a><figcaption>In the Brexit referendum 51.9% voted to leave the European Union, and 48.1% to remain. Critics have filed complaints about the substantiality of the question.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Since the World Wars brought an end to the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> and physically destroyed large parts of the country, the UK has consistently supported organisations formed under <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a>. From the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> in 1919, the UK was a founding member of the <a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization</a>, which sets universal standards for people's rights at work. After the failure of the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> and following World War II, the UK became a founding member of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>, recognised by Parliament through the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Act_1946" title="United Nations Act 1946">United Nations Act 1946</a>, enabling any resolution of the Security Council except the use of force to be implemented by an Order in Council. Due the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a> in 1948, the continuation of the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (December 2020)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> lost substantial legitimacy under international law, and combined with independence movements this led to its rapid dissolution. </p><p>Two fundamental treaties, the <a href="/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights" title="International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights">International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights</a> and the <a href="/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Economic,_Social_and_Cultural_Rights" title="International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights">International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights</a> in 1966, saw the UK ratify most rights from the Universal Declaration. Codifying the <a href="/wiki/Ponsonby_Rule" title="Ponsonby Rule">Ponsonby Rule</a> from 1924, the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Reform_and_Governance_Act_2010" title="Constitutional Reform and Governance Act 2010">Constitutional Reform and Governance Act 2010</a> section 20 stipulates that a treaty is ratified once it is laid before Parliament for 21 days and no adverse resolution is passed against it.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Regionally, the UK participated in drafting the 1950 <a href="/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="European Convention on Human Rights">European Convention on Human Rights</a> which sought to guarantee basic standards of democracy and human rights to preserve peace in post-war Europe. At the same time, following long-held visions for European integration with the UK "at the centre",<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> democratic European countries sought to integrate their economies both to make war vain, and to advance social progress. </p><p>In 1972, the UK joined the <a href="/wiki/European_Communities" title="European Communities">European Communities</a> (reorganized and renamed the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> in 1992) and committed to implement <a href="/wiki/EU_law" class="mw-redirect" title="EU law">EU law</a> in which it participated, in the <a href="/wiki/European_Communities_Act_1972_(UK)" title="European Communities Act 1972 (UK)">European Communities Act 1972</a>. In 1995, the UK also became a founding member of the <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To ensure that the European Convention was directly applied by the courts, the <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Act_1998" title="Human Rights Act 1998">Human Rights Act 1998</a> was passed. Parliament also passed the <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court_Act_2001" title="International Criminal Court Act 2001">International Criminal Court Act 2001</a> to enable prosecution of war criminals, and subjected itself to the jurisdiction of the <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court</a>. In 2016 the UK voted in a <a href="/wiki/2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum" title="2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum">referendum</a> on whether to leave the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>, resulting—with a 72.2% turnout—in a margin of 51.9% favouring "leave" and 48.1% favouring "remain".<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some allegations were made of misconduct taking place in the campaigns in support of both referendum options, whilst authorities found nothing considered serious enough to affect results and little to chastise.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Due to the <a href="/wiki/Uncodified_constitution" title="Uncodified constitution">uncodified</a> nature of the Constitution, there is no entrenched source of constitutional law. However, over time three main bodies of sources have emerged. The main <a href="/wiki/Sources_of_law" title="Sources of law">sources of constitutional law</a> are Acts of Parliament, court cases, and conventions in the way that government, Parliament and the monarch act.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Acts_of_Parliament">Acts of Parliament</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Acts of Parliament"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Laws that touch on topics such as the structure of government, rights of citizens and the powers of devolved assemblies become constitutionally significant simply by their subject matter and the sovereignty of parliament meaning that the specifics of the law becoming legally binding.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This allows for the constitution to be amended whenever a law is made on a constitutionally significant topic. </p><p>Professor Robert Blackburn lists the following as recent constitutionally significant acts: </p> <ul><li>"The Parliament Acts (1911–49) that regulate the respective powers of the two Houses of Parliament.</li> <li>The Representation of the People Acts (1918) (as amended) providing for universal voting and other matters of political representation.</li> <li>The European Communities Act (1972) making the UK a legal partner in the European Union.</li> <li>The Scottish, Welsh and Northern Ireland devolution Acts of 1998 (as amended) creating an executive and legislature for each of those three nations in the UK.</li> <li>The Human Rights Act (1998) establishing a bill of rights and freedoms actionable by individuals through the courts."</li></ul> <p>and claims that recent developments have seen some acts ad hoc codification<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Court_cases">Court cases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Court cases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Via court cases, judges create common law when they decide legal proceedings. This means that in order to understand the common law, individual pieces of <a href="/wiki/Case_law" title="Case law">case law</a> must be examined, with earlier and higher court case law having precedent over newer and lower court case law.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conventions">Conventions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Conventions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Conventions are harder to pin down as being constitutionally significant due to be unwritten agreements without hard legal force, but they remain an integral element of the constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Elements such as the leader of the party with a majority becoming Prime Minister, the House of Lords not vetoing secondary legislation and judges remaining impartial on government policy are all conventions.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Institutions">Institutions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Institutions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Big_Ben_after_sunset.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Big_Ben_after_sunset.jpg/300px-Big_Ben_after_sunset.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Big_Ben_after_sunset.jpg/450px-Big_Ben_after_sunset.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Big_Ben_after_sunset.jpg/600px-Big_Ben_after_sunset.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="683" /></a><figcaption>The UK system of <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_system" title="Parliamentary system">parliamentary democracy</a> ensures that the executive, and the <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">prime minister</a>, is removable by a simple majority vote in the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="House of Commons of the United Kingdom">House of Commons</a>. The executive is bound to the rule of law, interpreted by the <a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">judiciary</a>, but the judiciary may not declare an Act of Parliament to be unconstitutional.</figcaption></figure> <p>While principles may be the basis of the UK constitution, the institutions of the state perform its functions in practice. First, <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Parliament</a> is the sovereign entity. Its two chambers legislate. In the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="House of Commons of the United Kingdom">House of Commons</a> each <a href="/wiki/Member_of_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Member of Parliament">Member of Parliament</a> is elected by a <a href="/wiki/First_past_the_post" class="mw-redirect" title="First past the post">simple plurality</a> in a democratic vote, although outcomes do not always accurately match people's preferences overall. Elections must be held within five years after the previous election of a Parliament, though historically they have tended to occur each four years.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Election spending is tightly controlled, foreign interference is prohibited, and donations and lobbying are limited in whatever form. The <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a> reviews and votes upon legislative proposals by the Commons. It can delay legislation by one year, and cannot delay at all if the proposed Act concerns money.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most Lords are appointed by the Prime Minister, through the King,<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on the advice of a Commission which, by convention, offers some balance between political parties. Ninety-two hereditary peers remain.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To become law, each <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Act of Parliament">Act of Parliament</a> must be read by both houses three times, and given <a href="/wiki/Royal_assent" title="Royal assent">royal assent</a> by the monarch. The Sovereign does not veto legislation, by <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_conventions_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Constitutional conventions of the United Kingdom">convention</a>, since <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Militia_Bill" title="Scottish Militia Bill">1708</a>. Second, the judiciary interprets the law. It can not strike down an Act of Parliament, but the judiciary ensures that any law which may violate fundamental rights has to be clearly expressed, to force politicians to openly confront what they are doing and "accept the political cost".<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Reform_Act_2005" title="Constitutional Reform Act 2005">Constitutional Reform Act 2005</a>, the judiciary is appointed by the <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Appointments_Commission" title="Judicial Appointments Commission">Judicial Appointments Commission</a> with cross-party and judicial recommendations, to protect judicial independence. Third, the executive branch of government is led by the <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">prime minister</a> who must be able to command a majority in the House of Commons. The Cabinet of Ministers is appointed by the Prime Minister to lead the main departments of state, such as the <a href="/wiki/HM_Treasury" title="HM Treasury">Treasury</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Foreign_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign Office">Foreign Office</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Health" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of Health">Department of Health</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Department_for_Education" title="Department for Education">Department for Education</a>. Officially the "<a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Monarchy of the United Kingdom">head of state</a>" is the monarch, but all <a href="/wiki/Prerogative_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Prerogative power">prerogative power</a> is exercised by the Prime Minister, subject to <a href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">judicial review</a>. Fourth, as the UK matured as a modern democracy, an extensive system of civil servants, and <a href="/wiki/Public_service" title="Public service">public service</a> institutions developed to deliver UK residents economic, social and legal rights. All public bodies, and private bodies that perform public functions, are bound by the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Parliament">Parliament</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Parliament"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Parliament_composition_sources1552" style="width: 350px; text-align: center; font-size: 80%; line-height: 1.5em; background-color: #fafafa; float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Clist_sovereignty" title="Template:Clist sovereignty"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Clist_sovereignty" title="Template talk:Clist sovereignty"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Clist_sovereignty" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Clist sovereignty"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Parliament_composition_sources1552" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Parliament composition sources</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_1689" title="Bill of Rights 1689">Bill of Rights 1689</a> arts 1-4</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Parliament_Act_1911" title="Parliament Act 1911">Parliament Act 1911</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Geo5/1-2/13/section/1">ss 1-2</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parliament_Act_1949" title="Parliament Act 1949">Parliament Act 1949</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Geo6/12-13-14/103/section/1">s 1</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Fixed-term_Parliaments_Act_2011" title="Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011">Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011</a> s 1(3)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/Ashby_v_White" title="Ashby v White">Ashby v White</a></i> (1703) 2 Ld Raym 938</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Defenders_International_v_UK" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal Defenders International v UK">Animal Defenders International v UK</a></i> [2011] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/eu/cases/ECHR/2011/191.html">ECHR 191</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=R_(Electoral_Commission)_v_UKIP&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="R (Electoral Commission) v UKIP (page does not exist)">R (Electoral Commission) v UKIP</a></i> [2010] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2010/40.html">UKSC 40</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Political_Parties,_Elections_and_Referendums_Act_2000" title="Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000"><span class="wrap">Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000</span></a> ss 12-69, 72-131, 149 and Schs 8-13</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_Act_1983" title="Representation of the People Act 1983">Representation of the People Act 1983</a> ss 71-115</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Communications_Act_2003" title="Communications Act 2003">Communications Act 2003</a> ss 319-333</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_Disqualification_Act_1957" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Commons Disqualification Act 1957"><span class="wrap">House of Commons Disqualification Act 1957</span></a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_Disqualification_Act_1975" title="House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975"><span class="wrap">House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975</span></a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Life_Peerages_Act_1958" title="Life Peerages Act 1958">Life Peerages Act 1958</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Eliz2/6-7/21/section/1">s 1</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords_Act_1999" title="House of Lords Act 1999">House of Lords Act 1999</a> ss 1-2</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Reform_Act_2005" title="Constitutional Reform Act 2005">Constitutional Reform Act 2005</a> s 24</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Re_Parliamentary_Election_for_Bristol_South_East&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Re Parliamentary Election for Bristol South East (page does not exist)"><span class="wrap">Re Parliamentary Election for Bristol South East</span></a></i> [1964] 2 QB 257</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>see <a href="/wiki/UK_constitutional_law" class="mw-redirect" title="UK constitutional law">UK constitutional law</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Parliament of the United Kingdom</a></div> <p>In the British constitution, <a href="/wiki/Parliament" title="Parliament">Parliament</a> sits at the apex of power. It emerged through a series of revolutions as the dominant body, over the <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Supremacy" title="Acts of Supremacy">church</a>, <a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Oxford%27s_case" title="Earl of Oxford's case">courts</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">monarch</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and within Parliament the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="House of Commons of the United Kingdom">House of Commons</a> emerged as the dominant chamber, over the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a> that traditionally represented the <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The central justification for <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_sovereignty" title="Parliamentary sovereignty">Parliamentary sovereignty</a> is usually thought to be its democratic nature, although it was only upon the <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_(Equal_Franchise)_Act_1928" title="Representation of the People (Equal Franchise) Act 1928">Representation of the People (Equal Franchise) Act 1928</a> that Parliament could be said to have finally become "democratic" in any modern sense (as property qualifications to vote were abolished for everyone over 21), and not until after the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a> that decolonisation, university constituencies and lowering of the voting age took place. Parliament's main functions are to legislate, to allocate money for public spending,<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and to scrutinise the government.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In practice many MPs are involved in <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_committees_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliamentary committees of the United Kingdom">Parliamentary committees</a> which investigate spending, policies, laws and their impact, and often report to recommend reform. For instance, the Modernisation Committee of the House of Commons in 2002 recommended publishing draft bills before they became law, and was later found to have been highly successful.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are 650 <a href="/wiki/Members_of_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Members of Parliament">Members of Parliament</a> (MPs) in the House of Commons, currently elected for terms of up to five years,<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 790 peers in the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a>. For a proposed Bill to become an Act, and law, it must be read three times in each chamber, and given <a href="/wiki/Royal_assent" title="Royal assent">royal assent</a> by the monarch. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:House_of_Commons_2010.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/House_of_Commons_2010.jpg/220px-House_of_Commons_2010.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/House_of_Commons_2010.jpg/330px-House_of_Commons_2010.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/House_of_Commons_2010.jpg/440px-House_of_Commons_2010.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4256" data-file-height="2832" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="House of Commons of the United Kingdom">House of Commons</a> is the most important body in the British constitution. Its <a href="/wiki/Members_of_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Members of Parliament">Members of Parliament</a> are democratically elected by constituencies across the UK, and the parties who have a majority in the Commons form the British government.</figcaption></figure> <p>Today, the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="House of Commons of the United Kingdom">House of Commons</a> is the primary organ of representative government. Section 1 of the <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_Act_1983" title="Representation of the People Act 1983">Representation of the People Act 1983</a> gives the right to all registered citizens of the United Kingdom, the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth</a> aged 18 and over to elect Members of Parliament to the House of Commons. Sections 3 and 4 exclude people who are convicted of an offence and in a penal institution, or detained under mental health laws.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These restrictions fall below European standards, which require that people who are convicted of very minor crimes (such as petty theft or drug offences) have the right to vote.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since 2013, everyone has to register individually to vote, instead of households being able to register collectively, but an annual household canvass is conducted to increase the number of registered people.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As far back as 1703, <i><a href="/wiki/Ashby_v_White" title="Ashby v White">Ashby v White</a></i> recognised the right to "vote at the election of a person to represent him or [her] in Parliament, there to concur to the making of laws, which are to bind his liberty and property" as "a most transcendent thing, and of an high nature".<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This originally meant that any interference in that right would lead to damages. If the denial of voting would have changed the result, or if a vote was "conducted so badly that it was not substantially in accordance with the law" the vote would have to be run again.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> So, in <i><a href="/wiki/Morgan_v_Simpson" title="Morgan v Simpson">Morgan v Simpson</a></i> the Court of Appeal declared that an election for a <a href="/wiki/Greater_London_Council" title="Greater London Council">Greater London Council</a> seat was not valid after it was found that 44 unstamped ballot papers were not counted. These common law principles predate statutory regulation, and therefore appear to apply to any vote, including elections and referendums.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Election spending is tightly controlled today by statute. A maximum of £20 million can be spent by political parties in national campaigns, plus £10,000 in each constituency.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Political advertisements on television are prohibited except for those in certain free time slots,<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although the internet remains largely unregulated. Any spending over £500 by third parties must be disclosed. While these rules are strict, they were held in <i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Defenders_International_v_UK" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal Defenders International v UK">Animal Defenders International v UK</a></i> to be compatible with the Convention because "each person has equal value" and "we do not want our government or its policies to be decided by the highest spenders."<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Foreign interference in voting is completely prohibited, including any "broadcasting" (also over the internet) "with intent to influence persons to give or refrain from giving their votes".<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Donations by foreign parties can be forfeited in their entirety to the <a href="/wiki/Electoral_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Electoral Commission">Electoral Commission</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Domestic donations are limited to registered parties, and must be reported, when they are over £7,500 nationally or £1,500 locally, to the <a href="/wiki/Electoral_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Electoral Commission">Electoral Commission</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The system for electing the Commons is based on constituencies, whose boundaries are <a href="/wiki/Sixth_Periodic_Review_of_Westminster_constituencies" class="mw-redirect" title="Sixth Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies">periodically reviewed</a> to even out populations.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There has been considerable debate about the <a href="/wiki/First-past-the-post" class="mw-redirect" title="First-past-the-post">first-past-the-post</a> system of voting the UK uses, as it tends to exclude minority parties. By contrast, in <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> voters may select preferences for candidates, although this system was rejected in a <a href="/wiki/2011_United_Kingdom_Alternative_Vote_referendum" title="2011 United Kingdom Alternative Vote referendum">2011 United Kingdom Alternative Vote referendum</a> staged by the Cameron-Clegg coalition. In the <a href="/wiki/European_Parliament" title="European Parliament">European Parliament</a>, voters choose a party from multi-member regional constituencies: this tends to give smaller parties much greater representation. In the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Parliament" title="Scottish Parliament">Scottish Parliament</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Welsh Parliament">Welsh Parliament</a> and <a href="/wiki/London_Assembly" title="London Assembly">London Assembly</a>, voters have the choice of both constituencies and a party list, which tends to reflect overall preferences best. To be elected as an MP, most people generally become members of <a href="/wiki/Political_parties" class="mw-redirect" title="Political parties">political parties</a>, and must be over 18 on the day of nomination to run for a seat,<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> be a qualifying Commonwealth or Irish citizen,<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> not be bankrupt,<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> found guilty of corrupt practices,<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or be a Lord, judge or employee of the civil service.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To limit the government's practical control over Parliament, the <a href="/wiki/Ministerial_and_other_Salaries_Act_1975" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministerial and other Salaries Act 1975">Ministerial and other Salaries Act 1975</a> restricts higher payment of salaries to a set number of MPs.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:House_of_Lords_2011.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/House_of_Lords_2011.jpg/220px-House_of_Lords_2011.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/House_of_Lords_2011.jpg/330px-House_of_Lords_2011.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/House_of_Lords_2011.jpg/440px-House_of_Lords_2011.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2700" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a> is a chamber mostly appointed by the <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">prime minister</a>, loosely based on the Lords' expertise, achievement, or political affiliation. Since the abolition of most <a href="/wiki/Hereditary_peer" title="Hereditary peer">hereditary peers</a>, there has been ongoing debate about whether or how to elect the House of Lords.</figcaption></figure> <p>Along with a hereditary monarch, the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a> remains an historical curiosity in the British constitution. Traditionally it represented the landed aristocracy, and political allies of the monarch or the government, and has only gradually and incompletely been reformed. Today, the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords_Act_1999" title="House of Lords Act 1999">House of Lords Act 1999</a> has abolished all but 92 hereditary peers, leaving most peers to be "life peers" appointed by the government under the <a href="/wiki/Life_Peerages_Act_1958" title="Life Peerages Act 1958">Life Peerages Act 1958</a>, law lords appointed under the <a href="/wiki/Appellate_Jurisdiction_Act_1876" title="Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876">Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lords_Spiritual" title="Lords Spiritual">Lords Spiritual</a> who are senior clergy of the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since 2005, senior judges can only sit and vote in the House of Lords after retirement.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The government carries out appointment of most peers, but since 2000 has taken advice from a seven-person House of Lords Appointments Commission with representatives from the Labour, Conservatives and Liberal-Democrat parties.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A peerage can always be disclaimed,<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and ex-peers may then run for Parliament.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since 2015, a peer may be suspended or expelled by the House.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In practice the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_Act_1949" title="Parliament Act 1949">Parliament Act 1949</a> greatly reduced the House of Lords' power, as it can only delay and cannot block legislation by one year, and cannot delay money bills at all.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several <a href="/wiki/Reform_of_the_House_of_Lords" title="Reform of the House of Lords">options for reform</a> have been debated. A <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords_Reform_Bill_2012" title="House of Lords Reform Bill 2012">House of Lords Reform Bill 2012</a> proposed to have 360 directly elected members, 90 appointed members, 12 bishops and an uncertain number of ministerial members. The elected Lords would have been elected by proportional representation for 15-year terms, through 10 regional constituencies on a <a href="/wiki/Single_transferable_vote" title="Single transferable vote">single transferable vote</a> system. However, the government withdrew support after backlash from Conservative backbenches. It has often been argued that if the Lords were elected by geographic constituencies and a party controlled both sides "there would be little prospect of effective scrutiny or revision of government business."<sup id="cite_ref-New_Statesman_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-New_Statesman-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A second option, like in the Swedish <a href="/wiki/Riksdag" title="Riksdag">Riksdag</a>, could simply be to abolish the House of Lords. This was done during the <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a> in 1649, but restored along with the monarchy in <a href="/wiki/Convention_Parliament_(1660)" title="Convention Parliament (1660)">1660</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-New_Statesman_144-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-New_Statesman-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A third proposed option is to elect peers by work and professional groups, so that health care workers elect peers with special health knowledge, people in education elect a fixed number of education experts, legal professionals elect legal representatives, and so on.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is argued to be necessary to improve the quality of legislation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Judiciary">Judiciary</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Judiciary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Judiciaries_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Judiciaries of the United Kingdom">Judiciaries of the United Kingdom</a></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Judiciary_composition_sources787" style="width: 350px; text-align: center; font-size: 80%; line-height: 1.5em; background-color: #fafafa; float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Clist_judiciary" title="Template:Clist judiciary"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Clist_judiciary" title="Template talk:Clist judiciary"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Clist_judiciary" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Clist judiciary"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Judiciary_composition_sources787" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Judiciary composition sources</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta 1297</a> ch XXIX</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Act_of_Settlement_1700" class="mw-redirect" title="Act of Settlement 1700">Act of Settlement 1700</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Judicature_Act_1875" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1875">Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1875</a> s 25(11)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Charter_of_the_United_Nations_1945" class="mw-redirect" title="Charter of the United Nations 1945">Charter of the United Nations 1945</a> arts 92-96</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="European Convention on Human Rights">European Convention on Human Rights</a> art 6</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Functioning_of_the_European_Union" title="Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union"><span class="wrap">Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union</span></a> arts 251-281</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Courts_and_Legal_Services_Act_1990" title="Courts and Legal Services Act 1990">Courts and Legal Services Act 1990</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Reform_Act_2005" title="Constitutional Reform Act 2005">Constitutional Reform Act 2005</a> ss 27A, 63-79</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Inquiries_Act_2005" title="Inquiries Act 2005">Inquiries Act 2005</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Senior_Courts_Act_1981" title="Senior Courts Act 1981">Senior Courts Act 1981</a> ss 11 and 33</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Courts_Act_2003" title="Courts Act 2003">Courts Act 2003</a> s 11</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/Re_Spectrum_Plus_Ltd" title="Re Spectrum Plus Ltd">Re Spectrum Plus Ltd</a></i> [2005] UKHL 41</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>see <a href="/wiki/UK_constitutional_law" class="mw-redirect" title="UK constitutional law">UK constitutional law</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom,_Court_1_Interior,_London,_UK_-_Diliff.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom%2C_Court_1_Interior%2C_London%2C_UK_-_Diliff.jpg/220px-Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom%2C_Court_1_Interior%2C_London%2C_UK_-_Diliff.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom%2C_Court_1_Interior%2C_London%2C_UK_-_Diliff.jpg/330px-Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom%2C_Court_1_Interior%2C_London%2C_UK_-_Diliff.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom%2C_Court_1_Interior%2C_London%2C_UK_-_Diliff.jpg/440px-Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom%2C_Court_1_Interior%2C_London%2C_UK_-_Diliff.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7289" data-file-height="5137" /></a><figcaption>Proceedings in the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Supreme Court of the United Kingdom">UK Supreme Court</a>, which moved to its modern home at <a href="/wiki/Middlesex_Guildhall" title="Middlesex Guildhall">Middlesex Guildhall</a> in 2009, are web-streamed live.</figcaption></figure> <p>The judiciary in the United Kingdom has the essential functions of upholding the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a>, democracy, and human rights. The highest court of appeal, renamed from the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a> officially from 2005, is the Supreme Court. The Lord Chancellor's role changed dramatically on 3 April 2006, as a result of the Constitutional Reform Act 2005. Due to the Constitutional Reform Act of 2005, the make up of the Judiciary is clearly demonstrated for the first time inside the Constitution. This form of enshrined law presents a new branch of government. An independent Supreme Court has been established, separate from the House of Lords and with its own independent appointments system, staff, budget and building.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Further aspects of this explores how independent the Judiciary has become. An Appointments Commission, responsible for selecting candidates to recommend for judicial appointment to the Secretary of State for Justice was established. The Judicial Appointments Commission ensures that merit remains the sole criterion for appointment and the appointments system is modern, open and transparent. In terms of scrutiny, A Judicial Appointment and Conduct Ombudsman, responsible for investigating and making recommendations concerning complaints about the judicial appointments process, and the handling of judicial conduct complaints within the scope of the Constitutional Reform Act, provides checks and balances to the Supreme Court.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_146-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Judiciary hears appeals from the whole UK in civil law matters, and for criminal law in England and Wales, and Northern Ireland. It does not hear criminal appeals from Scotland. The Supreme Court does however consider "devolution issues" where these may affect Scottish criminal law.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Since the 1966 <a href="/wiki/Practice_Statement" title="Practice Statement">Practice Statement</a>, the judiciary has acknowledged that while a system of precedent, that binds lower courts, is necessary to provide "at least some degree of certainty", the courts should update their jurisprudence and "depart from a previous decision when it appears right to do so."<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Litigation usually begins in a <a href="/wiki/County_Court_(England_and_Wales)" title="County Court (England and Wales)">County Court</a> or the <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Justice" title="High Court of Justice">High Court</a> for civil law issues,<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or a <a href="/wiki/Magistrates%27_court_(England_and_Wales)" title="Magistrates' court (England and Wales)">magistrates' court</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Crown_Court" title="Crown Court">Crown Court</a> for <a href="/wiki/English_criminal_law" title="English criminal law">criminal law</a> issues. There are also <a href="/wiki/Employment_tribunal" title="Employment tribunal">employment tribunals</a> for <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_labour_law" title="United Kingdom labour law">labour law</a> disputes,<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/First-tier_Tribunal" title="First-tier Tribunal">First-tier Tribunal</a> for public or regulatory disputes, ranging from immigration, to social security, to tax.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the High Court, Crown Court, or appeal tribunals, cases generally may appeal to the <a href="/wiki/Court_of_Appeal" class="mw-redirect" title="Court of Appeal">Court of Appeal</a> in England and Wales. In Scotland, the <a href="/wiki/Court_of_Session" title="Court of Session">Court of Session</a> has an Outer (first instance) and Inner (appeal) House. Appeals then go to the Supreme Court. Since the <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Act_1998" title="Human Rights Act 1998">Human Rights Act 1998</a>, courts have been expressly required to interpret law to be compatible with the <a href="/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="European Convention on Human Rights">European Convention on Human Rights</a>. This follows a longer tradition of courts interpreting the law to be compatible with <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a> obligations.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is generally accepted that the British courts do not merely apply but also create new law through their interpretative function: this is obvious in the <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Equity_(law)" title="Equity (law)">equity</a>, where there is no codified statutory basis for large parts of the law, such as <a href="/wiki/English_contract_law" title="English contract law">contracts</a>, <a href="/wiki/English_tort_law" title="English tort law">torts</a> or <a href="/wiki/English_trust_law" title="English trust law">trusts</a>. This also means an element of retroactivity,<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> since an application of developing rules may differ from at least one party's understanding of the law in any conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although formally the British judiciary may not declare an Act of Parliament "unconstitutional",<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in practice the judiciary's power to interpret the law so as to be compatible with human rights can render a statute inoperative, much like in other countries.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The courts do so sparingly because they recognise the importance of the democratic process. Judges may also sit from time to time on public inquiries.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Middlesex_Guildhall,_2012_(1).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Middlesex_Guildhall%2C_2012_%281%29.JPG/220px-Middlesex_Guildhall%2C_2012_%281%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Middlesex_Guildhall%2C_2012_%281%29.JPG/330px-Middlesex_Guildhall%2C_2012_%281%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Middlesex_Guildhall%2C_2012_%281%29.JPG/440px-Middlesex_Guildhall%2C_2012_%281%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="685" /></a><figcaption>The Supreme Court on <a href="/wiki/Parliament_Square" title="Parliament Square">Parliament Square</a>, London</figcaption></figure> <p>The independence of the judiciary is one of the cornerstones of the constitution, and means in practice that judges cannot be dismissed from office. Since the <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Settlement_1700" class="mw-redirect" title="Act of Settlement 1700">Act of Settlement 1700</a>, no judge has been removed, as to do so the King must act on address by both Houses of Parliament.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is very likely that a judge would never be dismissed, not merely because of formal rules but a "shared constitutional understanding" of the importance of the integrity of the legal system.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is reflected, for example, in the <i><a href="/wiki/Sub_judice" title="Sub judice">sub judice</a></i> rule that matters awaiting decision in court should not be prejudged in a Parliamentary debate.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Lord_Chancellor" title="Lord Chancellor">Lord Chancellor</a>, once head of the judiciary but now simply a government minister, also has a statutory duty to uphold the independence of the judiciary,<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for instance, against attacks upon their integrity by media, corporations, or the government itself. </p><p>Members of the judiciary can be appointed from among any member of the legal profession who has over 10 years of experience having rights of audience before a court: this usually includes barristers, but can also mean solicitors or academics.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Appointments should be made "solely on merit" but regard may be had to the need for diversity when two candidates have equal qualifications.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For appointments to the Supreme Court, a five-member Judicial Appointments Committee is formed including one Supreme Court judge, three members from the <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Appointments_Commission" title="Judicial Appointments Commission">Judicial Appointments Commission</a>, and one lay person.<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For other senior judges such as those on the Court of Appeal, or for the Lord Chief Justice, Master of the Rolls, or the heads of the High Court divisions, a similar five member panel with two judges is formed.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gender and ethnic diversity is lacking in the British judiciary compared to other developed countries, and potentially compromises the expertise and administration of justice.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Backing up the judiciary is a considerable body of administrative law. The <a href="/wiki/Contempt_of_Court_Act_1981" title="Contempt of Court Act 1981">Contempt of Court Act 1981</a> enables a court to hold anyone in contempt, and commit the person to imprisonment, for violating a court order, or behaviour that could compromise a fair judicial process. In practice this is enforced by the executive. The <a href="/wiki/Lord_Chancellor" title="Lord Chancellor">Lord Chancellor</a> heads the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Justice" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Justice">Ministry of Justice</a>, which performs various functions including administering the <a href="/wiki/Legal_Aid_Agency" title="Legal Aid Agency">Legal Aid Agency</a> for people who cannot afford access to the courts. In <i><a href="/wiki/R_(UNISON)_v_Lord_Chancellor" title="R (UNISON) v Lord Chancellor">R (UNISON) v Lord Chancellor</a></i> the government suffered scathing criticism for creating high fees that cut the number of applicants to employment tribunals by 70 per cent.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Attorney General of England and Wales, and in Scottish matters, the Advocate General for Scotland, and the <a href="/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_England_and_Wales" title="Solicitor General for England and Wales">Solicitor General for England and Wales</a> represent the Crown in litigation. The Attorney General also appoints the <a href="/wiki/Director_of_Public_Prosecutions" title="Director of Public Prosecutions">Director of Public Prosecutions</a> who heads the <a href="/wiki/Crown_Prosecution_Service" title="Crown Prosecution Service">Crown Prosecution Service</a>, which reviews cases submitted by the police for prosecution, and conducts them on behalf of the Crown.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Executive">Executive</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Executive"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/UK_government" class="mw-redirect" title="UK government">UK government</a>, <a href="/wiki/UK_monarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="UK monarchy">UK monarchy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_UK" class="mw-redirect" title="Prime Minister of the UK">Prime Minister of the UK</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_UK" class="mw-redirect" title="Cabinet of the UK">Cabinet of the UK</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Civil_Service_(United_Kingdom)" title="Civil Service (United Kingdom)">Civil Service (United Kingdom)</a></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Executive_composition_sources1309" style="width: 350px; text-align: center; font-size: 80%; line-height: 1.5em; background-color: #fafafa; float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Clist_executive" title="Template:Clist executive"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Clist_executive" title="Template talk:Clist executive"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Clist_executive" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Clist executive"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Executive_composition_sources1309" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Executive composition sources</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/Prohibitions_del_Roy" class="mw-redirect" title="Prohibitions del Roy">Prohibitions del Roy</a></i> [1607] EWHC J23 (KB)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/Five_Knights%27_case" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Knights' case">Five Knights' case</a></i> (1627) 3 How St Tr 1</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Petition_of_Right_1628" class="mw-redirect" title="Petition of Right 1628">Petition of Right 1628</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Habeas_Corpus_Act_1640" title="Habeas Corpus Act 1640">Habeas Corpus Act 1640</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_1689" title="Bill of Rights 1689">Bill of Rights 1689</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/aep/WillandMarSess2/1/2">art 4</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Crown_Estate_Act_1961" class="mw-redirect" title="Crown Estate Act 1961">Crown Estate Act 1961</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Sovereign_Grant_Act_2011" title="Sovereign Grant Act 2011">Sovereign Grant Act 2011</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/Burmah_Oil_Company_Ltd_v_Lord_Advocate" class="mw-redirect" title="Burmah Oil Company Ltd v Lord Advocate">Burmah Oil Company Ltd v Lord Advocate</a></i> [1965] AC 75</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/Rahmatullah_v_Foreign_Secretary" class="mw-redirect" title="Rahmatullah v Foreign Secretary">Rahmatullah v Foreign Secretary</a></i> [2012] UKSC 48</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Blackburn_v_AG&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Blackburn v AG (page does not exist)">Blackburn v AG</a></i> [1971] 1 WLR 1037</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/CCSU_v_Minister_for_the_Civil_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="CCSU v Minister for the Civil Service">CCSU v Minister for the Civil Service</a></i> [1985] AC 374</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/R_(Miller)_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Exiting_the_EU" class="mw-redirect" title="R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the EU"><span class="wrap">R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the EU</span></a></i> [2017] UKSC 5</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Youssef_v_Foreign_Secretary&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Youssef v Foreign Secretary (page does not exist)">Youssef v Foreign Secretary</a></i> [2016] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2016/3.html">UKSC 3</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Crown_Proceedings_Act_1947" title="Crown Proceedings Act 1947">Crown Proceedings Act 1947</a> ss 10-11 and 17</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Ministerial_and_other_Salaries_Act_1975" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministerial and other Salaries Act 1975">Ministerial and other Salaries Act 1975</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Reform_and_Governance_Act_2010" title="Constitutional Reform and Governance Act 2010"><span class="wrap">Constitutional Reform and Governance Act 2010</span></a> ss 3, 20-24</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Ministerial_Code" title="Ministerial Code">Ministerial Code</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ministers_of_the_Crown_Act_1975&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ministers of the Crown Act 1975 (page does not exist)">Ministers of the Crown Act 1975</a> ss 1-5</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_Information_Act_2000" title="Freedom of Information Act 2000">Freedom of Information Act 2000</a> ss 1-77 and Sch 1</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>see <a href="/wiki/UK_constitutional_law" class="mw-redirect" title="UK constitutional law">UK constitutional law</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pence_arrived_at_10_Downing_Street_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Pence_arrived_at_10_Downing_Street_%281%29.jpg/220px-Pence_arrived_at_10_Downing_Street_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Pence_arrived_at_10_Downing_Street_%281%29.jpg/330px-Pence_arrived_at_10_Downing_Street_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Pence_arrived_at_10_Downing_Street_%281%29.jpg/440px-Pence_arrived_at_10_Downing_Street_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1364" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Prime_minister" title="Prime minister">prime minister</a>, at <a href="/wiki/10_Downing_Street" title="10 Downing Street">10 Downing Street</a>, exercises political power of the British government, when they command majority support of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="House of Commons of the United Kingdom">House of Commons</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The executive branch, while subservient to Parliament and judicial oversight, exercises day to day power of the British government. The UK remains a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a>. The formal <a href="/wiki/Head_of_state" title="Head of state">head of state</a> is <a href="/wiki/Majesty" title="Majesty">His Majesty</a> <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Monarchy of the United Kingdom">King</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_III" title="Charles III">Charles III</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Hereditary" class="mw-redirect" title="Hereditary">hereditary</a> monarch since 2022. No Queen or King has withheld assent to any bill passed by Parliament <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Militia_Bill" title="Scottish Militia Bill">since 1708</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and all constitutional duties and power are accepted by binding convention to have shifted to the <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">prime minister</a>, Parliament or the courts.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the 17th century, the <a href="/wiki/Petition_of_Right" title="Petition of Right">Petition of Right</a> was asserted by Parliament to prevent any taxation by the monarch without Parliament's consent, and the <a href="/wiki/Habeas_Corpus_Act_1640" title="Habeas Corpus Act 1640">Habeas Corpus Act 1640</a> denied the monarch any power to arrest people for failing to pay taxes. </p><p>The monarch's continued assertion of the <a href="/wiki/Divine_right_to_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Divine right to rule">divine right to rule</a> led to <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_England" title="Charles I of England">Charles I</a> being executed in the <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a>, and finally the settlement of power in the <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_of_1689" class="mw-redirect" title="Bill of Rights of 1689">Bill of Rights of 1689</a>. Following the <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Union_1707" class="mw-redirect" title="Act of Union 1707">Act of Union 1707</a> and an early financial crisis as <a href="/wiki/South_Sea_Company" title="South Sea Company">South Sea Company</a> shares crashed, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Walpole" title="Robert Walpole">Robert Walpole</a> emerged as a dominant political figure. Leading the House of Commons from 1721 to 1742, Walpole is generally acknowledged to be the first <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">prime minister</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Primus_inter_pares" title="Primus inter pares">Primus inter pares</a></i>). The PM's modern functions include leading the dominant political party, setting policy priorities, creating Ministries and appointing ministers, judges, peers, and civil servants. The PM also has considerable control through the convention of <a href="/wiki/Collective_responsibility" title="Collective responsibility">collective responsibility</a> (that ministers must publicly support the government even when they privately disagree, or resign), and control over the government's communications to the public. </p><p>By contrast in law, as is necessary in a democratic society,<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the monarch is a figurehead with no political power,<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but a series of ceremonial duties, and considerable funding. Aside from <a href="/wiki/Finances_of_the_British_royal_family" title="Finances of the British royal family">private wealth and finance</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the monarchy is funded under the <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_Grant_Act_2011" title="Sovereign Grant Act 2011">Sovereign Grant Act 2011</a>, which reserves 25 per cent of the net revenue from the <a href="/wiki/Crown_Estate" title="Crown Estate">Crown Estate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Crown_Estate" title="Crown Estate">Crown Estate</a> is a public, government corporation,<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which in 2015 held £12 billion in investments, mostly land and property, and therefore generates income by charging <a href="/wiki/English_land_law" title="English land law">rent</a> to businesses or people for homes.<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The monarch's major ceremonial duties are to appoint the <a href="/wiki/Prime_minister" title="Prime minister">prime minister</a> who can command the majority of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="House of Commons of the United Kingdom">House of Commons</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to give royal assent to Acts of Parliament, and to dissolve Parliament upon the calling of an election.<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Minor ceremonial duties include giving an audience to the Prime Minister, as well as visiting ministers or diplomats from the Commonwealth, and acting on state occasions, such as delivering the "<a href="/wiki/Speech_from_the_throne" title="Speech from the throne">King's speech</a>" (written by the government, outlining its political platform) at the opening of Parliament. Public support for the monarchy remains high, with only 21% of the population preferring a republic instead. However, on the other hand, it has been argued that the UK should <a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_monarchy" title="Abolition of monarchy">abolish the monarchy</a>, on the ground that hereditary inheritance of political office has no place in a modern democracy. A referendum was held in Australia, in 1999 on <a href="/wiki/1999_Australian_republic_referendum" title="1999 Australian republic referendum">becoming a Republic</a>, but failed to get a majority.<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Barack_Obama_and_Opposition_leader_Jeremy_Corbyn.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Barack_Obama_and_Opposition_leader_Jeremy_Corbyn.jpg/220px-Barack_Obama_and_Opposition_leader_Jeremy_Corbyn.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Barack_Obama_and_Opposition_leader_Jeremy_Corbyn.jpg/330px-Barack_Obama_and_Opposition_leader_Jeremy_Corbyn.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Barack_Obama_and_Opposition_leader_Jeremy_Corbyn.jpg/440px-Barack_Obama_and_Opposition_leader_Jeremy_Corbyn.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2880" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption><i>U.S. President Barack Obama (R) meeting with Opposition leader Jeremy Corbyn (L)</i>:<br />The task of the <a href="/wiki/Official_Opposition_Shadow_Cabinet_(United_Kingdom)" title="Official Opposition Shadow Cabinet (United Kingdom)">official opposition</a>, currently led by <a href="/wiki/Rishi_Sunak" title="Rishi Sunak">Rishi Sunak</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_(UK)" title="Conservative Party (UK)">Conservative Party</a>, is to hold the government and the Prime Minister to account in and out of <a href="/wiki/Parliament" title="Parliament">Parliament</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Although called the <a href="/wiki/Royal_prerogative_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Royal prerogative in the United Kingdom">royal prerogative</a>, a series of important powers that were once vested in the king or queen are now exercised by government, and the <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">prime minister</a> in particular. These are powers of day-to-day management, but tightly constrained to ensure that executive power cannot usurp Parliament or the courts. In the <i><a href="/wiki/Case_of_Prohibitions" title="Case of Prohibitions">Case of Prohibitions</a></i> in 1607,<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it was held that the royal prerogative could not be used to determine court cases, and in the <i><a href="/wiki/Case_of_Proclamations" title="Case of Proclamations">Case of Proclamations</a></i> in 1610 it was held new prerogative powers could not be created by the executive.<sup id="cite_ref-EWHC_KB_J22_181-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EWHC_KB_J22-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is also clear that no exercise of the prerogative can compromise any right contained in an Act of Parliament. So, for instance, in <i><a href="/wiki/R_(Miller)_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Exiting_the_European_Union" title="R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union">R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union</a></i> the Supreme Court held that the Prime Minister could not notify the <a href="/wiki/European_Commission" title="European Commission">European Commission</a> of an intention to leave under <a href="/wiki/Article_50" class="mw-redirect" title="Article 50">Article 50</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_European_Union" title="Treaty on European Union">Treaty on European Union</a> without an Act of Parliament, because it could result in rights being withdrawn that were granted under the <a href="/wiki/European_Communities_Act_1972_(UK)" title="European Communities Act 1972 (UK)">European Communities Act 1972</a>, such as the right to work in other EU member states or vote in <a href="/wiki/European_Parliament" title="European Parliament">European Parliament</a> elections.<sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Though royal prerogative powers can be categorised in different ways,<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> there are around 15.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> First, the executive may create hereditary titles, confer honours and create peers.<sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Second, the executive can legislate by an Order in Council, though this has been called an 'anachronistic survival'.<sup id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Third, the executive can create and administer financial benefits schemes.<sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fourth, through the Attorney General the executive can stop prosecutions or pardon convicted offenders after taking advice.<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fifth, the executive may acquire more territory or alter limits of British territorial waters.<sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sixth, the executive may expel aliens and theoretically restrain people from leaving the UK.<sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seventh, the executive can sign treaties, although before it is considered ratified the treaty must be laid before Parliament for 21 days and there must be no resolution against it.<sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eighth, the executive governs the armed forces and can do "all those things in an emergency which are necessary for the conduct of war".<sup id="cite_ref-192" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The executive cannot declare war without Parliament by convention, and in any case has no hope in funding war without Parliament.<sup id="cite_ref-193" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ninth, the Prime Minister can appoint ministers, judges, public officials or royal commissioners. Tenth, the monarch needs to pay no tax, unless statute states it expressly.<sup id="cite_ref-194" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eleventh, the executive may by <a href="/wiki/Royal_charter" title="Royal charter">royal charter</a> create corporations, such as the BBC,<sup id="cite_ref-195" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and franchises for markets, ferries and fisheries.<sup id="cite_ref-196" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Twelfth, the executive has the right to mine precious metals, and to take treasure troves. Thirteenth, it may make coins. Fourteenth, it can print or license the authorised version of the Bible, Book of Common Prayer and state papers. And fifteenth, subject to modern <a href="/wiki/English_family_law" title="English family law">family law</a>, it may take guardianship of infants.<sup id="cite_ref-197" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to these royal prerogative powers, there are innumerable powers explicitly laid down in statutes enabling the executive to make legal changes. This includes a growing number of <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a> clauses, which enable a Secretary of State to alter provisions of primary legislation. For this reason it has often been argued that executive authority should be reduced, written into statute, and never used to deprive people of rights without Parliament. All uses of the prerogative, however, are subject to judicial review: in the <i><a href="/wiki/GCHQ_case" class="mw-redirect" title="GCHQ case">GCHQ case</a></i> the House of Lords held that no person could be deprived of legitimate expectations by use of the royal prerogative.<sup id="cite_ref-198" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Big_Ben_from_Trafalgar_Square.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Big_Ben_from_Trafalgar_Square.JPG/220px-Big_Ben_from_Trafalgar_Square.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Big_Ben_from_Trafalgar_Square.JPG/330px-Big_Ben_from_Trafalgar_Square.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Big_Ben_from_Trafalgar_Square.JPG/440px-Big_Ben_from_Trafalgar_Square.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3072" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Whitehall" title="Whitehall">Whitehall</a> hosts the major offices of the British government, led by <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Cabinet of the United Kingdom">cabinet</a> ministers. Facing towards <a href="/wiki/Big_Ben" title="Big Ben">Big Ben</a> is a statue of <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_England" title="Charles I of England">Charles I</a>, who was executed in 1649 following the <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Although the Prime Minister is the head of Parliament, His Majesty's Government is formed by a larger group of Members of Parliament, or peers. The "<a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Cabinet of the United Kingdom">cabinet</a>" is a still smaller group of 22 or 23 people, though only twenty ministers may be paid.<sup id="cite_ref-199" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each minister typically heads a Department or Ministry, which can be created or renamed by prerogative.<sup id="cite_ref-200" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cabinet committees are usually organised by the Prime Minister. Every minister is expected to follow collective responsibility,<sup id="cite_ref-201" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Ministerial_Code_2010" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministerial Code 2010">Ministerial Code 2010</a>. This includes rules that Ministers are "expected to behave in a way that upholds the highest standards of propriety", "give accurate and truthful information to Parliament", resign if they "knowingly mislead Parliament", to be "as open as possible", have no possible conflicts of interest and give a full list of interests to a permanent secretary, and only "remain in office for so long as they retain the confidence of the Prime Minister".<sup id="cite_ref-Crown_1046_202-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crown_1046-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Assisting ministers is a modern <a href="/wiki/Civil_Service_(United_Kingdom)" title="Civil Service (United Kingdom)">civil service</a> and network of government bodies, who are employed at the pleasure of the Crown.<sup id="cite_ref-Crown_1046_202-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crown_1046-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Civil Service Code requires civil servants to show "high standards of behaviour", uphold core values of "integrity, honesty, objectivity and impartiality", and never put themselves in a position that "might reasonably be seen to compromise their personal judgment or integrity".<sup id="cite_ref-203" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_Information_Act_2000" title="Freedom of Information Act 2000">Freedom of Information Act 2000</a>, it has been expected that government should be open about information, and should disclose it upon a request unless disclosure would compromise personal data, security or may run against the public interest.<sup id="cite_ref-204" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this way the trend has been to more open, transparent and accountable governance. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Local_government">Local government</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Local government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_England" title="Subdivisions of England">Subdivisions of England</a>, <a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_Scotland" title="Subdivisions of Scotland">Subdivisions of Scotland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_Wales" title="Local government in Wales">Local government in Wales</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Local government in Northern Ireland">Local government in Northern Ireland</a></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Regional_government_sources1516" style="width: 350px; text-align: center; font-size: 80%; line-height: 1.5em; background-color: #fafafa; float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Clist_regional_government" title="Template:Clist regional government"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Clist_regional_government" title="Template talk:Clist regional government"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Clist_regional_government" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Clist regional government"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Regional_government_sources1516" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Regional government sources</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Scotland_Act_1998" title="Scotland Act 1998">Scotland Act 1998</a> ss 2–78 and Schs 5–6</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Act" title="Northern Ireland Act">Northern Ireland Act</a> 1998 ss 1–6</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Wales_Act_2006" title="Government of Wales Act 2006">Government of Wales Act 2006</a> ss 5–93 and Schs 5–7</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Greater_London_Authority_Act_1999" title="Greater London Authority Act 1999">Greater London Authority Act 1999</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Local_Government_Act_1972" title="Local Government Act 1972">Local Government Act 1972</a> ss 1–18 and 101–144</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Local_Government_Finance_Act_1992" title="Local Government Finance Act 1992">Local Government Finance Act 1992</a> ss 52A–ZY</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Local_Government_Act_1999" title="Local Government Act 1999">Local Government Act 1999</a> ss 1–15</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Local_Democracy,_Economic_Development_and_Construction_Act_2009" title="Local Democracy, Economic Development and Construction Act 2009"><span class="wrap">Local Democracy, Economic Development and Construction Act 2009</span></a> s 107A and Sch 5A</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Localism_Act_2011" title="Localism Act 2011">Localism Act 2011</a> ss 1–5</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Cities_and_Local_Government_Devolution_Act_2016" title="Cities and Local Government Devolution Act 2016"><span class="wrap">Cities and Local Government Devolution Act 2016</span></a> s 15</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Town_and_Country_Planning_Act_1990" title="Town and Country Planning Act 1990">Town and Country Planning Act 1990</a> ss 65–223</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Planning_and_Compulsory_Purchase_Act_2004" title="Planning and Compulsory Purchase Act 2004"><span class="wrap">Planning and Compulsory Purchase Act 2004</span></a> ss 13–39</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Education_Act_1996" title="Education Act 1996">Education Act 1996</a> ss 3A–458</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Public_Libraries_and_Museums_Act_1964" title="Public Libraries and Museums Act 1964">Public Libraries and Museums Act 1964</a> ss 1–13</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Childcare_Act_2006" title="Childcare Act 2006">Childcare Act 2006</a> ss 6–13</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Highways_Act_1980" title="Highways Act 1980">Highways Act 1980</a> ss 25–31A</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/NHS_Act_2006" class="mw-redirect" title="NHS Act 2006">NHS Act 2006</a> ss 74–82</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/NHS_and_Community_Care_Act_1990" class="mw-redirect" title="NHS and Community Care Act 1990">NHS and Community Care Act 1990</a> ss 46–47</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carers_and_Disabled_Children_Act_2000&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Carers and Disabled Children Act 2000 (page does not exist)">Carers and Disabled Children Act 2000</a> s 1–6A</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_Protection_Act_1990" title="Environmental Protection Act 1990">Environmental Protection Act 1990</a> ss 45–73A</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Household_Recycling_Act_2003&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Household Recycling Act 2003 (page does not exist)">Household Recycling Act 2003</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Building_Act_1984" title="Building Act 1984">Building Act 1984</a> ss 59–106</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Housing_Act_1985" title="Housing Act 1985">Housing Act 1985</a> ss 8–43 and 166–8</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_Act_2002" title="Homelessness Act 2002">Homelessness Act 2002</a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>see <a href="/wiki/UK_constitutional_law" class="mw-redirect" title="UK constitutional law">UK constitutional law</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Siemens_Crystal_Building,_London.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Siemens_Crystal_Building%2C_London.jpg/220px-Siemens_Crystal_Building%2C_London.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Siemens_Crystal_Building%2C_London.jpg/330px-Siemens_Crystal_Building%2C_London.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Siemens_Crystal_Building%2C_London.jpg/440px-Siemens_Crystal_Building%2C_London.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4668" data-file-height="2709" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/London_Assembly" title="London Assembly">London Assembly</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mayor_of_London" title="Mayor of London">Mayor of London</a> work at <a href="/wiki/City_Hall,_London_(Newham)" title="City Hall, London (Newham)">City Hall</a>. The only <a href="/wiki/Region_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Region of England">region of England</a> with representation, it has limited powers including over transport, the environment and housing.<sup id="cite_ref-205" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The constitution of British regional governments is an uncodified patchwork of authorities, mayors, councils and devolved government.<sup id="cite_ref-206" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_Wales" title="Local government in Wales">Wales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_Scotland" title="Local government in Scotland">Scotland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Local government in Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greater_London_Authority" title="Greater London Authority">London</a> unified district or borough councils have local government powers, and since 1998 to 2006 new regional assemblies or Parliaments exercise extra powers devolved from Westminster. In <a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_England" title="Local government in England">England</a>, there are 55 unitary authorities in the larger towns (e.g. Bristol, Brighton, Milton Keynes) and 36 metropolitan boroughs (surrounding Liverpool, Manchester, Leeds, Birmingham, Sheffield, and Newcastle) which function as unitary local authorities. </p><p>In other parts of England, local government is split between two tiers of authority: 32 larger County Councils, and within those 192 District Councils, each sharing different functions. Since 1994, England has had <a href="/wiki/Regions_of_England" title="Regions of England">eight regions</a> for administrative purposes at Whitehall, yet these have no regional government or democratic assembly (like in London, Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland) after a 2004 referendum on <a href="/wiki/North_East_Assembly" title="North East Assembly">North East Assembly</a> failed. This means that England has among the most centralised, and disunified systems of governance in the Commonwealth and Europe. </p><p>Three main issues in local government are the authorities' financing, their powers, and the reform of governance structures. First, councils raise revenue from <a href="/wiki/Council_Tax" title="Council Tax">Council Tax</a> (charged on local residents according to property values in 1993<sup id="cite_ref-207" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) and <a href="/wiki/Business_rates" class="mw-redirect" title="Business rates">business rates</a> charged on businesses with operations in the locality. These powers are, compared to other countries, extreme in limiting local government autonomy, and taxes can be subjected to a local referendum if the Secretary of State determines they are excessive.<sup id="cite_ref-208" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In real terms since 2010, central government cut local council funding by nearly 50 per cent, and real spending fell by 21 per cent, as councils failed to make up cuts through business rates.<sup id="cite_ref-209" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unitary authorities and district councils are responsible for administering council tax and business rates.<sup id="cite_ref-210" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The duties of British local governments are also extremely limited compared to other countries, but also uncodified so that in 2011 the <a href="/wiki/Department_for_Communities_and_Local_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Department for Communities and Local Government">Department for Communities and Local Government</a> enumerated <a href="/wiki/Duties_of_local_government_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Duties of local government in the United Kingdom">1340 specific duties</a> of local authorities.<sup id="cite_ref-211" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Generally, the <a href="/wiki/Localism_Act_2011" title="Localism Act 2011">Localism Act 2011</a> section 1 states local authorities may do anything an individual person may do, unless prohibited by law, but this provision has little effect because human beings or <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_company_law" title="United Kingdom company law">companies</a> cannot tax or regulate other people in the way that governments must.<sup id="cite_ref-212" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Local_Government_Act_1972" title="Local Government Act 1972">Local Government Act 1972</a> section 101 says that a local authority can discharge its functions through a committee or any officer, and can transfer functions to another authority, while section 111 gives authorities the power to do anything including spending or borrowing 'which is calculated to facilitate, or is conducive or incidental to, the discharge of any of their functions'. However, the real duties of local council are found in hundreds of scattered Acts and statutory instruments. These include duties to administer <a href="/wiki/Planning_consent" class="mw-redirect" title="Planning consent">planning consent</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-213" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to carry out compulsory purchasing according to law,<sup id="cite_ref-214" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to administer school education,<sup id="cite_ref-215" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> libraries,<sup id="cite_ref-216" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> care for children,<sup id="cite_ref-217" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> roads or highway maintenance and local buses,<sup id="cite_ref-218" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> provide care for the elderly and disabled,<sup id="cite_ref-219" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> prevent pollution and ensure clean air,<sup id="cite_ref-220" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ensure collection, recycling and disposal of waste,<sup id="cite_ref-221" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> regulate building standards,<sup id="cite_ref-222" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>222<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> provide social and affordable housing,<sup id="cite_ref-223" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and shelters for the homeless.<sup id="cite_ref-224" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Local authorities do not yet have powers common in other countries, such as setting minimum wages, regulating rents, or borrowing and taxing as is necessary in the public interest, which frustrates objectives of pluralism, localism and autonomy.<sup id="cite_ref-225" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>225<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since 2009, authorities have been empowered to merge into 'combined authorities' and to have an <a href="/wiki/Directly_elected_mayors_in_England_and_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Directly elected mayors in England and Wales">elected mayor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-226" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-226"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>226<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has been done around Manchester, Sheffield, Liverpool, Newcastle, Leeds, Birmingham, the Tees Valley, Bristol and Peterborough. The functions of an elected mayor are not substantial, but can include those of Police and Crime Commissioners.<sup id="cite_ref-227" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-227"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>227<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Devolved_governments">Devolved governments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Devolved governments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Devolution_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Devolution in the United Kingdom">Devolution in the United Kingdom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_relations_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Intergovernmental relations in the United Kingdom">Intergovernmental relations in the United Kingdom</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Scottish_devolution" title="Scottish devolution">Scottish devolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Welsh_devolution" title="Welsh devolution">Welsh devolution</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Government" title="Scottish Government">Scottish Government</a>, <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Government" title="Welsh Government">Welsh Government</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Executive" title="Northern Ireland Executive">Northern Ireland Executive</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scotland_Parliament_Holyrood.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scotland_Parliament_Holyrood.jpg/220px-Scotland_Parliament_Holyrood.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scotland_Parliament_Holyrood.jpg/330px-Scotland_Parliament_Holyrood.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scotland_Parliament_Holyrood.jpg/440px-Scotland_Parliament_Holyrood.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Parliament" title="Scottish Parliament">Scottish Parliament</a> at <a href="/wiki/Holyrood,_Edinburgh" title="Holyrood, Edinburgh">Holyrood</a> has 129 MSPs with extensive powers, including taxation.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a> have their own devolved governments and national parliament, similar to state or provincial governments in other countries. The extent of devolution differs in each place. The <a href="/wiki/Scotland_Act_1998" title="Scotland Act 1998">Scotland Act 1998</a> created a unicameral <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Parliament" title="Scottish Parliament">Scottish Parliament</a> with 129 elected members each four years: 73 from single member constituencies with simple majority vote, and 56 from additional member systems of proportional representation. Under section 28, the Scottish Parliament can make any laws except for on 'reserved matters' listed in Schedule 5. These powers, reserved for the British Parliament, include foreign affairs, defence, finance, economic planning, home affairs, trade and industry, social security, employment, broadcasting, and equal opportunities. </p><p>By <a href="/wiki/Legislative_consent_motion" title="Legislative consent motion">convention</a>, members of the British Parliament from Scottish constituencies do not vote on issues that the Scottish Parliament has exercised power over.<sup id="cite_ref-228" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-228"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>228<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is the most powerful regional government so far. The <a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Act_1998" title="Northern Ireland Act 1998">Northern Ireland Act 1998</a> lists which matters are transferred to the Northern Ireland Assembly. The <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Wales_Act_1998" title="Government of Wales Act 1998">Government of Wales Act 1998</a> created a 60-member national assembly with elections every four years, and set out twenty fields of government competence, with some exceptions. The fields include agriculture, fisheries, forestry and rural development, economic development, education, environmental policy, health, highways and transport, housing, planning, and some aspects of social welfare.<sup id="cite_ref-229" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-229"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>229<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Supreme Court has tended to interpret these powers in favour of devolution.<sup id="cite_ref-230" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>230<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Human_rights">Human rights</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Human rights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Human rights in the United Kingdom">Human rights in the United Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Civil liberties in the United Kingdom">Civil liberties in the United Kingdom</a>, and <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_constitutional_law" title="United Kingdom constitutional law">United Kingdom constitutional law</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Home_Front_in_Britain,_1944_TR2323.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/The_Home_Front_in_Britain%2C_1944_TR2323.jpg/220px-The_Home_Front_in_Britain%2C_1944_TR2323.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/The_Home_Front_in_Britain%2C_1944_TR2323.jpg/330px-The_Home_Front_in_Britain%2C_1944_TR2323.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/The_Home_Front_in_Britain%2C_1944_TR2323.jpg/440px-The_Home_Front_in_Britain%2C_1944_TR2323.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5143" data-file-height="3401" /></a><figcaption>At <a href="/wiki/Speakers%27_Corner" title="Speakers' Corner">Speakers' Corner</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hyde_Park,_London" title="Hyde Park, London">Hyde Park, London</a>, here the people traditionally gather to exchange views, debate, and listen. Debating and free speech societies are found throughout the UK and make a regular part of TV.<sup id="cite_ref-231" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>231<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Codification of <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a> is recent, but before the <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Act_1998" title="Human Rights Act 1998">Human Rights Act 1998</a> and the <a href="/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="European Convention on Human Rights">European Convention on Human Rights</a>, British law had one of the world's longest human rights traditions. <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a> bound the King to require Parliament's consent before any tax, respect the right to a trial "by lawful judgment of his Peers, or by the Law of the Land", stated that "We will sell to no man, we will not deny or defer to any man either Justice or Right", guaranteed <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_movement" title="Freedom of movement">free movement</a> for people, and preserved <a href="/wiki/Common_land" title="Common land">common land</a> for everyone.<sup id="cite_ref-232" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-232"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>232<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a> the <a href="/wiki/Claim_of_Right_1689" title="Claim of Right 1689">Bill of Rights 1689</a> in England and Wales, and the <a href="/wiki/Claim_of_Rights_Act_1689" class="mw-redirect" title="Claim of Rights Act 1689">Claim of Rights Act 1689</a> in Scotland, enshrined principles of representative democracy, no tax without Parliament, freedom of speech in Parliament, and no "cruel and unusual punishment". By 1789, these ideas evolved and inspired both the <a href="/wiki/US_Bill_of_Rights" class="mw-redirect" title="US Bill of Rights">US Bill of Rights</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen" title="Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen">Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen</a> after the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolutions</a>. Although some labelled natural rights as "nonsense upon stilts",<sup id="cite_ref-233" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-233"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>233<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> more legal rights were slowly developed by Parliament and the courts. In 1792, <a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Mary Wollstonecraft</a> began the British movement for women's rights and equality,<sup id="cite_ref-234" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-234"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>234<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while movements behind the <a href="/wiki/Tolpuddle_Martyrs" title="Tolpuddle Martyrs">Tolpuddle Martyrs</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Chartists" class="mw-redirect" title="Chartists">Chartists</a> drove reform for labour and democratic freedom.<sup id="cite_ref-235" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-235"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>235<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Upon the catastrophe of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a>, the new <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a> order put the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights_1948" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948">Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948</a> at its centre, enshrining civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights.<sup id="cite_ref-236" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-236"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>236<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1950, the UK co-authored the <a href="/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="European Convention on Human Rights">European Convention on Human Rights</a>, enabling people to appeal to the <a href="/wiki/European_Court_of_Human_Rights" title="European Court of Human Rights">European Court of Human Rights</a> in <a href="/wiki/Strasbourg" title="Strasbourg">Strasbourg</a> even against Acts of Parliament: Parliament has always undertaken to comply with basic principles of <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-237" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-237"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>237<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because this appeals process was long, Parliament legislated to "bring rights home" with the <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Act_1998" title="Human Rights Act 1998">Human Rights Act 1998</a>, so that people can raise human rights claims in British courts based on the <a href="/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="European Convention on Human Rights">Convention</a> directly. The <a href="/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="European Convention on Human Rights">Convention</a> contains the rights to life, rights against torture, against forced labour, to marry, to an effective remedy, and the right to suffer no discrimination in those rights.<sup id="cite_ref-238" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-238"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>238<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most case law concerns the rights to <a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">liberty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Privacy" title="Privacy">privacy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">freedom of conscience</a> and <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_expression" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom of expression">freedom of expression</a>, and to <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_association" title="Freedom of association">freedom of association</a> and assembly.<sup id="cite_ref-239" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-239"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>239<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The UK also enshrines rights to fair labour standards, social security, and a multitude of <a href="/wiki/Social_and_economic_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Social and economic rights">social and economic rights</a> through its legislation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Administrative_law">Administrative law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Administrative law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_administrative_law" title="United Kingdom administrative law">United Kingdom administrative law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australian_administrative_law" title="Australian administrative law">Australian administrative law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canadian_administrative_law" title="Canadian administrative law">Canadian administrative law</a>, and <a href="/wiki/United_States_administrative_law" title="United States administrative law">United States administrative law</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Strand_by_night_(8859630213).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/The_Strand_by_night_%288859630213%29.jpg/300px-The_Strand_by_night_%288859630213%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/The_Strand_by_night_%288859630213%29.jpg/450px-The_Strand_by_night_%288859630213%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/The_Strand_by_night_%288859630213%29.jpg/600px-The_Strand_by_night_%288859630213%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4416" data-file-height="3312" /></a><figcaption>Any person in the UK who is significantly affected by a public body's act can challenge a decision by <a href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">judicial review</a>. The claims usually begin in the <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Justice" title="High Court of Justice">High Court</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Administrative law, through <a href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">judicial review</a>, is essential to hold executive power and public bodies accountable under the law. In practice, constitutional principles emerge through cases of judicial review, because every public body, whose decisions affect people's lives, is created and bound by law. A person can apply to the High Court to challenge a public body's decision if they have a "sufficient interest",<sup id="cite_ref-240" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-240"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>240<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> within three months of the grounds of the cause of action becoming known.<sup id="cite_ref-241" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-241"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>241<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By contrast, claims against public bodies in <a href="/wiki/English_tort_law" title="English tort law">tort</a> or <a href="/wiki/English_contract_law" title="English contract law">contract</a>, where the <a href="/wiki/Limitation_Act_1980" title="Limitation Act 1980">Limitation Act 1980</a> usually sets the period as 6 years.<sup id="cite_ref-242" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-242"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>242<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Almost any public body, or private bodies exercising public functions,<sup id="cite_ref-243" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-243"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>243<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> can be the target of judicial review, including a government department, a local council, any Minister, the Prime Minister, or any other body that is created by law. The only public body whose decisions cannot be reviewed is Parliament, when it passes an Act. Otherwise, a claimant can argue that a public body's decision was unlawful in five main types of case:<sup id="cite_ref-244" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-244"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>244<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (1) it exceeded the lawful power of the body, used its power for an improper purpose, or acted unreasonably,<sup id="cite_ref-245" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-245"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>245<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (2) it violated a legitimate expectation,<sup id="cite_ref-246" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-246"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>246<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (3) failed to exercise relevant and independent judgement,<sup id="cite_ref-247" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-247"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>247<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (4) exhibited bias or a <a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_interest" title="Conflict of interest">conflict of interest</a>, or failed to give a fair hearing,<sup id="cite_ref-248" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-248"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>248<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and (5) violated a human right.<sup id="cite_ref-249" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-249"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>249<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a remedy, a claimant can ask for the public body's decisions to be declared void and quashed (or <i><a href="/wiki/Certiorari" title="Certiorari">certiorari</a></i>), or it could ask for an order to make the body do something (or <i><a href="/wiki/Mandamus" title="Mandamus">mandamus</a></i>), or prevent the body from acting unlawfully (or <a href="/wiki/Writ_of_prohibition" title="Writ of prohibition">prohibition</a>). A court may also declare the parties' rights and duties, give an <a href="/wiki/Injunction" title="Injunction">injunction</a>, or compensation could also be payable in <a href="/wiki/English_tort_law" title="English tort law">tort</a> or <a href="/wiki/English_contract_law" title="English contract law">contract</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-250" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-250"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>250<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the constitution of the United Kingdom">History of the constitution of the United Kingdom</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214851843">.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="border-collapse:collapse"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="font-size:110%; background:lavender"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Constitutional documents</a> and events relevant to the status of the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> and its <a href="/wiki/Countries_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Countries of the United Kingdom">countries</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_(2022,_lesser_arms).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_lesser_arms%29.svg/130px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_lesser_arms%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="130" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_lesser_arms%29.svg/195px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_lesser_arms%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_lesser_arms%29.svg/260px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_lesser_arms%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1567" data-file-height="1366" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="font-size: 90%;"><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="text-align:center; background: lavender; font-size: 110%;"><span class="nowrap">          </span>List per year</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style=""> <div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; line-height:1.25em"><table><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Union" title="Treaty of Union">Treaty of Union</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1706</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707" title="Acts of Union 1707">Acts of Union</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1707</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_the_Crown_Act_1707" title="Succession to the Crown Act 1707">Succession to the Crown Act 1707</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1707</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Septennial_Act_1716" class="mw-redirect" title="Septennial Act 1716">Septennial Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1716</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Wales_and_Berwick_Act_1746" title="Wales and Berwick Act 1746">Wales and Berwick Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1746</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_1782" title="Constitution of 1782">Constitution of Ireland (1782)</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1782</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1800" title="Acts of Union 1800">Acts of Union 1800</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1800</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_Disqualification_Act" title="House of Commons Disqualification Act">HC (Disqualifications) Act 1801</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1801</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Reform_Act_1832" title="Reform Act 1832">Reform Act 1832</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1832</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Reform_Act_1832" title="Scottish Reform Act 1832">Scottish Reform Act 1832</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1832</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_(Ireland)_Act_1832" title="Representation of the People (Ireland) Act 1832">Irish Reform Act 1832</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1832</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">Judicial Committee Act 1833</td><td style="text-align:right;">1833</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">Judicial Committee Act 1843</td><td style="text-align:right;">1843</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">Judicial Committee Act 1844</td><td style="text-align:right;">1844</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Reform_Act_1867" title="Reform Act 1867">Representation of the People Act 1867</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1867</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_(Scotland)_Act_1868" title="Representation of the People (Scotland) Act 1868">Reform Act (Scotland) 1868</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1868</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_(Ireland)_Act_1868" title="Representation of the People (Ireland) Act 1868">Reform Act (Ireland) 1868</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1868</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Irish_Church_Act_1869" title="Irish Church Act 1869">Irish Church Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1869</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Royal_Titles_Act_1876" title="Royal Titles Act 1876">Royal Titles Act 1876</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1876</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Appellate_Jurisdiction_Act_1876" title="Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876">Appellate Jurisdiction Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1876</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_Act_1884" title="Representation of the People Act 1884">Reform Act 1884</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1884</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Interpretation_Act_1889" title="Interpretation Act 1889">Interpretation Act 1889</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1889</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Parliament_Act_1911" title="Parliament Act 1911">Parliament Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1911</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">Aliens Restriction Act</td><td style="text-align:right;">1914</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/British_Nationality_and_Status_of_Aliens_Act_1914" class="mw-redirect" title="British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act 1914">Status of Aliens Act 1914</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1914</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Ireland_Act_1914" title="Government of Ireland Act 1914">Government of Ireland Act 1914</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1914</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Church_Act_1914" title="Welsh Church Act 1914">Welsh Church Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1914</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Windsor#Background" title="House of Windsor">Royal Proclamation of 1917</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1917</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_Act_1918" title="Representation of the People Act 1918">Representation of the People Act 1918</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1918</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Church_of_England_Assembly_(Powers)_Act_1919" title="Church of England Assembly (Powers) Act 1919">Church of England Assembly (Powers) Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1919</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Ireland_Act_1920" title="Government of Ireland Act 1920">Government of Ireland Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1920</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Irish_Treaty" title="Anglo-Irish Treaty">Anglo-Irish Treaty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1921</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Church_of_Scotland_Act_1921" title="Church of Scotland Act 1921">Church of Scotland Act 1921</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1921</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Irish_Free_State_(Agreement)_Act_1922" title="Irish Free State (Agreement) Act 1922">Irish Free State (Agreement) Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1922</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Irish_Free_State_Constitution_Act_1922" title="Irish Free State Constitution Act 1922">Irish Free State Constitution Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1922</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">Ireland (Confirm. of Agreement) Act 1925</td><td style="text-align:right;">1925</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Balfour_Declaration_of_1926" title="Balfour Declaration of 1926">Balfour Declaration of 1926</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1926</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Royal_and_Parliamentary_Titles_Act_1927" title="Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927">Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1927</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_(Equal_Franchise)_Act_1928" title="Representation of the People (Equal Franchise) Act 1928">Representation of the People Act 1928</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1928</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">Eire (Confirmation of Agreement) Act 1929</td><td style="text-align:right;">1929</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Westminster_1931" title="Statute of Westminster 1931">Statute of Westminster</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1931</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">HM Declaration of Abdication Act 1936</td><td style="text-align:right;">1936</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Regency_Acts" title="Regency Acts">Regency Act 1937</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1937</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">Regency Act 1943</td><td style="text-align:right;">1943</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/British_Nationality_Act_1948" title="British Nationality Act 1948">British Nationality Act 1948</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1948</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_Act_1948" title="Representation of the People Act 1948">Representation of the People Act 1948</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1948</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Ireland_Act_1949" title="Ireland Act 1949">Ireland Act 1949</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1949</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Statute_of_the_Council_of_Europe" title="Statute of the Council of Europe">Statute of the Council of Europe</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1949</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">Parliament Act 1949</td><td style="text-align:right;">1949</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">Regency Act 1953</td><td style="text-align:right;">1953</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Royal_Style_and_Titles_Act" title="Royal Style and Titles Act">Royal Titles Act 1953</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1953</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="European Convention on Human Rights">European Convention on Human Rights</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1953</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Interpretation_Act_(Northern_Ireland)_1954" title="Interpretation Act (Northern Ireland) 1954">Interpretation Act (NI)</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1954</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">HC Disqualification Act 1957</td><td style="text-align:right;">1957</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Life_Peerages_Act_1958" title="Life Peerages Act 1958">Life Peerages Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1958</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Immigrants_Act_1962" title="Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1962">Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1962</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1962</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Peerage_Act_1963" title="Peerage Act 1963">Peerage Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1963</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Royal_Assent_Act_1967" title="Royal Assent Act 1967">Royal Assent Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1967</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Immigrants_Act_1968" title="Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1968">Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1968</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1968</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_1971" title="Immigration Act 1971">Immigration Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1971</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Accession_1972" title="Treaty of Accession 1972">EC Treaty of Accession</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1972</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_(Temporary_Provisions)_Act_1972" title="Northern Ireland (Temporary Provisions) Act 1972">NI (Temporary Provisions) Act</a></span></td><td style="text-align:right;">1972</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/European_Communities_Act_1972_(UK)" title="European Communities Act 1972 (UK)">European Communities Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1972</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Local_Government_Act_1972" title="Local Government Act 1972">Local Government Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1972</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Accession_of_the_United_Kingdom_to_the_European_Communities" title="Accession of the United Kingdom to the European Communities">UK joins the European Communities</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1973</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Local_Government_(Scotland)_Act_1973" title="Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973">Local Government (Scotland) Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1973</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/1973_Northern_Ireland_border_poll" title="1973 Northern Ireland border poll">NI border poll</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1973</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Constitution_Act_1973" title="Northern Ireland Constitution Act 1973">NI Constitution Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1973</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_Disqualification_Act_1975" title="House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975">House of Commons Disqualification Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1975</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Referendum_Act_1975" title="Referendum Act 1975">Referendum Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1975</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/1975_United_Kingdom_European_Communities_membership_referendum" title="1975 United Kingdom European Communities membership referendum">EC membership referendum</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1975</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Interpretation_Act_1978" title="Interpretation Act 1978">Interpretation Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1978</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Scotland_Act_1978" title="Scotland Act 1978">Scotland Act 1978</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1978</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Wales_Act_1978" title="Wales Act 1978">Wales Act 1978</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1978</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/1979_Scottish_devolution_referendum" title="1979 Scottish devolution referendum">Scottish devolution referendum</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1979</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/1979_Welsh_devolution_referendum" title="1979 Welsh devolution referendum">Welsh devolution referendum</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1979</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/British_Nationality_Act_1981" title="British Nationality Act 1981">British Nationality Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1981</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_Act_1983" title="Representation of the People Act 1983">Representation of the People Act 1983</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1983</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_Act_1985" title="Representation of the People Act 1985">Representation of the People Act 1985</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1985</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Single_European_Act" title="Single European Act">Single European Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1985</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Maastricht_Treaty" title="Maastricht Treaty">Maastricht Treaty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1993</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Local_Government_(Wales)_Act_1994" title="Local Government (Wales) Act 1994">Local Government (Wales) Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1994</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Local_Government_etc._(Scotland)_Act_1994" title="Local Government etc. (Scotland) Act 1994">Local Government etc. (Scotland) Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1994</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Referendums_(Scotland_%26_Wales)_Act_1997" class="mw-redirect" title="Referendums (Scotland & Wales) Act 1997">Referendums (Scotland & Wales) Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1997</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/1997_Scottish_devolution_referendum" title="1997 Scottish devolution referendum">Scottish devolution referendum</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1997</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/1997_Welsh_devolution_referendum" title="1997 Welsh devolution referendum">Welsh devolution referendum</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1997</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Good_Friday_Agreement" title="Good Friday Agreement">Good Friday Agreement</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1998</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Act_1998" title="Northern Ireland Act 1998">Northern Ireland Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1998</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Wales_Act_1998" title="Government of Wales Act 1998">Government of Wales Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1998</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Act_1998" title="Human Rights Act 1998">Human Rights Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1998</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Scotland_Act_1998" title="Scotland Act 1998">Scotland Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1998</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords_Act_1999" title="House of Lords Act 1999">House of Lords Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1999</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_Act_2000" title="Representation of the People Act 2000">Representation of the People Act 2000</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2000</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Political_Parties,_Elections_and_Referendums_Act_2000" title="Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000">Parties, Elections and Referendums Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2000</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Reform_Act_2005" title="Constitutional Reform Act 2005">Constitutional Reform Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2005</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Wales_Act_2006" title="Government of Wales Act 2006">Government of Wales Act 2006</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2006</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Act_2009" title="Northern Ireland Act 2009">Northern Ireland Act 2009</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2009</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lisbon" title="Treaty of Lisbon">Lisbon Treaty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2009</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Reform_and_Governance_Act_2010" title="Constitutional Reform and Governance Act 2010">Constitutional Reform and Governance Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2010</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_Voting_System_and_Constituencies_Act_2011" title="Parliamentary Voting System and Constituencies Act 2011">Parl. Voting System and Constituencies Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2011</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/2011_Welsh_devolution_referendum" title="2011 Welsh devolution referendum">Welsh devolution referendum</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2011</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/2011_United_Kingdom_Alternative_Vote_referendum" title="2011 United Kingdom Alternative Vote referendum">Alternative Vote referendum</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2011</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Act_2011" title="European Union Act 2011">European Union Act 2011</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2011</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Fixed-term_Parliaments_Act_2011" title="Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011">Fixed-term Parliaments Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2011</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Scotland_Act_2012" title="Scotland Act 2012">Scotland Act 2012</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2012</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_the_Crown_Act_2013" title="Succession to the Crown Act 2013">Succession to the Crown Act 2013</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2013</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/2014_Scottish_independence_referendum" title="2014 Scottish independence referendum">Scottish independence referendum</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2014</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords_Reform_Act_2014" title="House of Lords Reform Act 2014">House of Lords Reform Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2014</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Wales_Act_2014" title="Wales Act 2014">Wales Act 2014</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2014</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords_(Expulsion_and_Suspension)_Act_2015" title="House of Lords (Expulsion and Suspension) Act 2015">HL (Expulsion and Suspension) Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2015</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Recall_of_MPs_Act_2015" title="Recall of MPs Act 2015">Recall of MPs Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2015</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Referendum_Act_2015" title="European Union Referendum Act 2015">European Union Referendum Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2015</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum" title="2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum">EU membership referendum</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2016</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Scotland_Act_2016" title="Scotland Act 2016">Scotland Act 2016</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2016</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Wales_Act_2017" title="Wales Act 2017">Wales Act 2017</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2017</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/European_Union_(Notification_of_Withdrawal)_Act_2017" title="European Union (Notification of Withdrawal) Act 2017">EU (Notification of Withdrawal) Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2017</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_invocation_of_Article_50_of_the_Treaty_on_European_Union" title="United Kingdom invocation of Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union">Invocation of Article 50</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2017</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/European_Union_(Withdrawal)_Act_2018" title="European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018">European Union (Withdrawal) Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2018</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/European_Union_(Withdrawal)_Act_2019" title="European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2019">EU Withdrawal Act 2019</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2019</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/European_Union_(Withdrawal)_(No._2)_Act_2019" title="European Union (Withdrawal) (No. 2) Act 2019"> EU Withdrawal (No. 2) Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2019</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Parliamentary_General_Election_Act_2019" title="Early Parliamentary General Election Act 2019"> Early Parliamentary General Election Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2019</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/European_Union_(Withdrawal_Agreement)_Act_2020" title="European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020">EU (Withdrawal Agreement) Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2020</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Brexit" title="Brexit">UK leaves the European Union</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2020</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_Internal_Market_Act_2020" title="United Kingdom Internal Market Act 2020">UK Internal Market Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2020</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/European_Union_(Future_Relationship)_Act_2020" title="European Union (Future Relationship) Act 2020">EU (Future Relationship) Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2020</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_and_Calling_of_Parliament_Act_2022" title="Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022">Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2022</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Elections_Act_2022" title="Elections Act 2022">Elections Act</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">2022</td></tr></tbody></table></div> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="padding-right:0.3em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_Kingdom_constitutional_formation" title="Template:United Kingdom constitutional formation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_Kingdom_constitutional_formation" title="Template talk:United Kingdom constitutional formation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_Kingdom_constitutional_formation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United Kingdom constitutional formation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Ball_encouraging_Wat_Tyler_rebels_from_ca_1470_MS_of_Froissart_Chronicles_in_BL.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/John_Ball_encouraging_Wat_Tyler_rebels_from_ca_1470_MS_of_Froissart_Chronicles_in_BL.jpg/220px-John_Ball_encouraging_Wat_Tyler_rebels_from_ca_1470_MS_of_Froissart_Chronicles_in_BL.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/John_Ball_encouraging_Wat_Tyler_rebels_from_ca_1470_MS_of_Froissart_Chronicles_in_BL.jpg/330px-John_Ball_encouraging_Wat_Tyler_rebels_from_ca_1470_MS_of_Froissart_Chronicles_in_BL.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/John_Ball_encouraging_Wat_Tyler_rebels_from_ca_1470_MS_of_Froissart_Chronicles_in_BL.jpg/440px-John_Ball_encouraging_Wat_Tyler_rebels_from_ca_1470_MS_of_Froissart_Chronicles_in_BL.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1424" data-file-height="1120" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Ball_(priest)" title="John Ball (priest)">John Ball</a>, a leader of the <a href="/wiki/Peasants%27_Revolt_of_1381" class="mw-redirect" title="Peasants' Revolt of 1381">Peasants' Revolt of 1381</a> following <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Labourers_1351" title="Statute of Labourers 1351">repression</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death_in_England" title="Black Death in England">Black Death</a>, preached that "matters goeth not well to pass in England, nor shall not do till <a href="/wiki/Common_ownership" title="Common ownership">everything be common</a>, and that there be no villains nor gentlemen, but that we may be all unied [<i><a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a></i>] together, and that the lords be no greater masters than we be."<sup id="cite_ref-251" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-251"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>251<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The history of the British constitution, though officially beginning in 1800,<sup id="cite_ref-252" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-252"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>252<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> traces back to a time long before the four nations of <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland" title="Northern Ireland">Ireland</a> were fully <a href="/wiki/Formation_of_the_United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Northern_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland">formed</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-253" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-253"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>253<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before the <a href="/wiki/Norman_Invasion" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman Invasion">Norman Invasion</a> of 1066, the written history of law was scant.<sup id="cite_ref-254" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-254"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>254<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the conquest, according to the legal record <a href="/wiki/Laws_of_Edward_the_Confessor" class="mw-redirect" title="Laws of Edward the Confessor">Laws of Edward the Confessor</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-255" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-255"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>255<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 1070 <a href="/wiki/William_the_Conqueror" title="William the Conqueror">William the Conqueror</a>, on the advice of the King's Council (<i><a href="/wiki/Curia_Regis" class="mw-redirect" title="Curia Regis">Curia Regis</a></i>), summoned nobles learned in the law from all parts of the country in order to learn the established laws and customs. After hearing from 12 men from each county on oath, he expressed the wish to establish Norse law as the common law in England under one <a href="/wiki/Monarch" title="Monarch">monarch</a>, because his ancestors and those of his Norman barons all came from Norway. He was, however, persuaded by those summoned, that the laws of the Britons, English and Picts should remain in force 'because it was hard to adopt laws and to judge according to those that they did not know'. It is recorded that 'Finally, by the counsel and at the request of his barons, he acquiesced' and authorised and confirmed the laws as they were under <a href="/wiki/Edward_the_Confessor" title="Edward the Confessor">Edward the Confessor</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Domesday_Book" title="Domesday Book">Domesday Book</a> was compiled in 1086 cataloguing all land and labour to levy <a href="/wiki/History_of_taxation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of taxation in the United Kingdom">taxes</a>. Just 12 per cent of people were free, while the feudal system made others serfs, slaves or bordars and cottars.<sup id="cite_ref-256" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-256"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>256<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_England" title="Henry II of England">Henry II</a>, who became the monarch in 1154, established the <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> by creating a unified system of law "common" to the country. </p><p>In 1190 <a href="/wiki/Richard_the_Lionheart" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard the Lionheart">Richard the Lionheart</a>, more closely tied with <a href="/wiki/List_of_popes" title="List of popes">the Pope</a> in Rome, joined the <a href="/wiki/Third_Crusade" title="Third Crusade">Third Crusade</a> to invade the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Land" title="Holy Land">Holy Land</a>, but at great cost. Taxes levied by Richard I,<sup id="cite_ref-257" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-257"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>257<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and his successor <a href="/wiki/John,_King_of_England" title="John, King of England">King John</a> to pay for the wars led to intense discontent, and the aristocracy forcing the King to sign <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a> 1215. This was a commitment to hold 'common counsel' before any taxation, hold courts at a fixed place, hold trials according to law or before an accused's peers, guarantee free movement of people for trade, and give back common land.<sup id="cite_ref-258" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-258"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>258<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Failure to abide by Magna Carta led to the <a href="/wiki/First_Barons%27_War" title="First Barons' War">First Barons' War</a>, and the popular legend of <a href="/wiki/Robin_Hood" title="Robin Hood">Robin Hood</a> emerged: a returned crusader who robbed from the rich to give to the poor.<sup id="cite_ref-259" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-259"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>259<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The commitments on common land were soon recast in the <a href="/wiki/Charter_of_the_Forest_1217" class="mw-redirect" title="Charter of the Forest 1217">Charter of the Forest 1217</a>, signed at St Paul's by <a href="/wiki/Henry_III_of_England" title="Henry III of England">Henry III</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-260" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-260"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>260<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These documents established that the monarch, even with apparent authority from <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>, was bound by law, and it remains 'the nearest approach to an irrepealable "fundamental statute" that England has ever had.'<sup id="cite_ref-261" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-261"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>261<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Throughout the <a href="/wiki/England_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="England in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Common_land" title="Common land">common land</a> was a source of welfare for common people, peasant labourers bound by a feudal system of control. In 1348, the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> struck England, and killed around a third of the population. As peasants lost their lords, and there was a shortage of workers, wages rose. The King and Parliament responded with the <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Labourers_1351" title="Statute of Labourers 1351">Statute of Labourers 1351</a> to freeze wage rises. This led to the <a href="/wiki/Peasants%27_Revolt_of_1381" class="mw-redirect" title="Peasants' Revolt of 1381">Peasants' Revolt of 1381</a>, where leaders demanded an end to feudalism, and for everything to be held in common.<sup id="cite_ref-262" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-262"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>262<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the revolt's violent repression, slavery and serfdom broke down,<sup id="cite_ref-263" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-263"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>263<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> yet most people remained without any substantial liberty, in political or economic rights. As sheep farming became more profitable than agricultural work, enclosures of common land dispossessed more people, who turned into paupers and were punished.<sup id="cite_ref-264" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-264"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>264<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a>, to seal a divorce from <a href="/wiki/Catherine_of_Aragon" title="Catherine of Aragon">Catherine of Aragon</a> and marry <a href="/wiki/Anne_Boleyn" title="Anne Boleyn">Anne Boleyn</a> (who he soon beheaded for supposed infidelity), the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> was declared separate from Rome in the <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Supremacy_1534" class="mw-redirect" title="Act of Supremacy 1534">Act of Supremacy 1534</a>, with the King as the head. The <a href="/wiki/Law_in_Wales_Act_1535" class="mw-redirect" title="Law in Wales Act 1535">Law in Wales Act 1535</a> united Wales and England in one administrative system, while the King became ever more despotic, executing the <a href="/wiki/Lord_Chancellor" title="Lord Chancellor">Lord Chancellor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sir_Thomas_More" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Thomas More">Sir Thomas More</a> in 1535, and <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_monasteries" title="Dissolution of the monasteries">Dissolution of the monasteries</a> and murdering those who resisted. After Henry VIII died, and power struggles following the death of his boy <a href="/wiki/Edward_VI" title="Edward VI">Edward VI</a> at age 15,<sup id="cite_ref-265" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-265"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>265<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I" title="Elizabeth I">Elizabeth I</a>, the daughter of Henry VIII and <a href="/wiki/Anne_Boleyn" title="Anne Boleyn">Anne Boleyn</a>, took the throne in 1558. Half a century of prosperity followed as Elizabeth I avoided wars, and founded <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_company_law" title="United Kingdom company law">corporations</a> including the <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a> to monopolise trade routes. Under her successor, James I, further companies were created to colonise North America, including the <a href="/wiki/London_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="London Company">London Company</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Company" title="Virginia Company">Virginia Company</a> in 1606, and the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Massachusetts Bay Company">Massachusetts Bay Company</a> in 1628. Many religious dissidents left England to settle the new world. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_023-Alle_de_bijsondere_en_particuliere_Ceremonien,_geschied_in_en_omtrent_de_Krooning_WILLIAM_de_III._en_MARIA_de_II.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_023-Alle_de_bijsondere_en_particuliere_Ceremonien%2C_geschied_in_en_omtrent_de_Krooning_WILLIAM_de_III._en_MARIA_de_II.jpeg/220px-Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_023-Alle_de_bijsondere_en_particuliere_Ceremonien%2C_geschied_in_en_omtrent_de_Krooning_WILLIAM_de_III._en_MARIA_de_II.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_023-Alle_de_bijsondere_en_particuliere_Ceremonien%2C_geschied_in_en_omtrent_de_Krooning_WILLIAM_de_III._en_MARIA_de_II.jpeg/330px-Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_023-Alle_de_bijsondere_en_particuliere_Ceremonien%2C_geschied_in_en_omtrent_de_Krooning_WILLIAM_de_III._en_MARIA_de_II.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_023-Alle_de_bijsondere_en_particuliere_Ceremonien%2C_geschied_in_en_omtrent_de_Krooning_WILLIAM_de_III._en_MARIA_de_II.jpeg/440px-Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_023-Alle_de_bijsondere_en_particuliere_Ceremonien%2C_geschied_in_en_omtrent_de_Krooning_WILLIAM_de_III._en_MARIA_de_II.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="5500" data-file-height="4752" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution_of_1688" class="mw-redirect" title="Glorious Revolution of 1688">Glorious Revolution of 1688</a> confirmed Parliament's supremacy over the monarch, represented by <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Second_Treatise_on_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Treatise on Government">Second Treatise on Government</a></i> (1689). This laid the foundations for a peaceful unification of England and Scotland in the <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Union_1707" class="mw-redirect" title="Act of Union 1707">Act of Union 1707</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>While Elizabeth I maintained a Protestant church, under her successor <a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James VI and I</a>, who unified the Scottish and English Crowns, religious and political tensions grew as he asserted a <a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_Kings" class="mw-redirect" title="Divine right of Kings">divine right of Kings</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-266" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-266"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>266<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This prompted a series of cases from Sir <a href="/wiki/Edward_Coke" title="Edward Coke">Edward Coke</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-267" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-267"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>267<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief Justice">Chief Justice</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Common_Pleas" class="mw-redirect" title="Common Pleas">Common Pleas</a> and then <a href="/wiki/Court_of_King%27s_Bench_(England)" title="Court of King's Bench (England)">King's Bench</a> courts, which denied that the King could pass judgment in legal proceedings,<sup id="cite_ref-268" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-268"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>268<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and held that the <a href="/wiki/Royal_prerogative" title="Royal prerogative">royal prerogative</a> was subject to the law and cannot be expanded.<sup id="cite_ref-EWHC_KB_J22_181-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EWHC_KB_J22-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coke CJ went even further in <i><a href="/wiki/Dr_Bonham%27s_case" class="mw-redirect" title="Dr Bonham's case">Dr Bonham's case</a></i>, holding that even that "the common law will control Acts of Parliament".<sup id="cite_ref-269" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-269"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>269<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though supported by some judges,<sup id="cite_ref-270" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-270"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>270<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the idea that common law courts could nullify Acts of Parliament was rejected, and the common law was formally placed under the King's control in the <i><a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Oxford%27s_case" title="Earl of Oxford's case">Earl of Oxford's case</a></i>, establishing that <a href="/wiki/Equity_(law)" title="Equity (law)">equity</a> (then administered by the <a href="/wiki/Lord_Chancellor" title="Lord Chancellor">Lord Chancellor</a> in the House of Lords) was above common law.<sup id="cite_ref-271" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-271"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>271<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Coke fell from favour,<sup id="cite_ref-272" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-272"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>272<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was removed from judicial office. When <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_England" title="Charles I of England">Charles I</a> succeeded to the throne in 1625, and more fervently asserted a divine right, including the ability to levy tax without Parliament,<sup id="cite_ref-273" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-273"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>273<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coke and others presented the <a href="/wiki/Petition_of_Right_1628" class="mw-redirect" title="Petition of Right 1628">Petition of Right 1628</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-274" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-274"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>274<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This demanded the King to abide by Magna Carta, levy no tax without Parliament, not arbitrarily commit people to prison, not have martial law in times of peace, and not billet soldiers in private homes. Charles I responded by shutting down or <a href="/wiki/Prorogation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Prorogation in the United Kingdom">proroguing Parliament</a> and taxing trade (or "<a href="/wiki/Ship_money" title="Ship money">ship money</a>") without authority. The country descended into the <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a> in 1642 culminating in the capture and execution of <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_England" title="Charles I of England">King Charles I</a> on <a href="/wiki/Whitehall" title="Whitehall">Whitehall</a> in 1649 by the <a href="/wiki/New_Model_Army" title="New Model Army">New Model Army</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-275" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-275"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>275<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cromwell, not wishing to become a King, became a <i>de facto</i> dictator. After his death,<sup id="cite_ref-276" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-276"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>276<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the monarchy was restored with <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_England" title="Charles II of England">Charles II</a> in 1660, but his successor <a href="/wiki/James_VII_and_II" class="mw-redirect" title="James VII and II">James VII and II</a> again attempted to assert divine right to rule. In 1688, <a href="/wiki/Parliament" title="Parliament">Parliament</a> 'invited' a replacement King and Queen, <a href="/wiki/William_and_Mary_of_Orange" class="mw-redirect" title="William and Mary of Orange">William and Mary of Orange</a>, and after a brief conflict forced James II out.<sup id="cite_ref-277" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-277"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>277<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Known as the <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a>, Parliament proclaimed a new <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_1689" title="Bill of Rights 1689">Bill of Rights 1689</a>, with a <a href="/wiki/Claim_of_Right_Act_1689" class="mw-redirect" title="Claim of Right Act 1689">Claim of Right Act 1689</a> in Scotland, that cemented <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_sovereignty" title="Parliamentary sovereignty">Parliamentary sovereignty</a>. As well as reaffirming Magna Carta, it says the 'pretended power of suspending laws or the execution of laws by regal authority without consent of Parliament is illegal', that 'election of members of Parliament ought to be free', and that 'Parliament ought to be held frequently'.<sup id="cite_ref-278" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-278"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>278<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The justification for government itself, encapsulated by <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> in his <i><a href="/wiki/Second_Treatise_on_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Treatise on Government">Second Treatise on Government</a></i> was the protection of people's rights: "lives, liberties and estates."<sup id="cite_ref-279" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-279"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>279<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_sovereignty" title="Parliamentary sovereignty">Parliamentary sovereignty</a> as the cornerstone of the new constitution, Parliament proceeded to set up a system of finance in the <a href="/wiki/Bank_of_England_Act_1694" title="Bank of England Act 1694">Bank of England Act 1694</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Settlement_1700" class="mw-redirect" title="Act of Settlement 1700">Act of Settlement 1700</a> created an independent system of justice: judges were salaried and could not be removed except by both Houses of Parliament, no member of the House of Commons could be paid by the Crown, and the Crown had to be Anglican. In 1703, <i><a href="/wiki/Ashby_v_White" title="Ashby v White">Ashby v White</a></i> established that the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_vote" class="mw-redirect" title="Right to vote">right to vote</a> was a constitutional right.<sup id="cite_ref-280" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-280"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>280<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707" title="Acts of Union 1707">Acts of Union 1707</a>, ratifying the Treaty of Union 1707, between the then-independent states of Scotland and England, resulted in them both merging their states to create a new state, Great Britain, and dissolving their parliaments to create a new Parliament, which gave Scottish electors representation in Westminster. The Treaty also stipulated that Scottish private law would continue under a Scottish court system.<sup id="cite_ref-281" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-281"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>281<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The new union was soon faced with disaster as in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Utrecht" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Utrecht">Treaty of Utrecht</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain_(1700%E2%80%931808)" title="History of Spain (1700–1808)">Spain</a> granted the <i><a href="/wiki/Asiento_de_Negros" title="Asiento de Negros">Asiento de Negros</a></i> to Britain, allowing British merchants to sell slaves in <a href="/wiki/Spanish_America" title="Spanish America">Spanish America</a>. The <a href="/wiki/South_Sea_Company" title="South Sea Company">South Sea Company</a>, incorporated to monopolise the <i>asiento</i> license, became the object of mass financial speculation, provoked by government ministers interested in its rising share price. When it transpired, contrary to promoters' stories, that no trade was done because the Spanish had revoked their promise the <a href="/wiki/South_Sea_Bubble" class="mw-redirect" title="South Sea Bubble">stock market crashed</a>, driving economic chaos.<sup id="cite_ref-282" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-282"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>282<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This was made worse by the decision of conservative politicians to endorse the company to take over the <a href="/wiki/National_debt" class="mw-redirect" title="National debt">national debt</a> as an alternative financier to the government over the <a href="/wiki/Whigs_(British_political_party)" title="Whigs (British political party)">Whig</a> dominated <a href="/wiki/Bank_of_England" title="Bank of England">Bank of England</a>. The result of the crash was that the <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Exchequer" title="Chancellor of the Exchequer">Chancellor of the Exchequer</a> was imprisoned in the <a href="/wiki/Tower_of_London" title="Tower of London">Tower of London</a> for his corruption, the <a href="/wiki/Postmaster_General" title="Postmaster General">Postmaster General</a> committed suicide, and the disgraced Lord Chancellor was replaced with <a href="/wiki/Lord_King_LC" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord King LC">Lord King LC</a> who promptly ruled that people in a position of trust must avoid any possibility of a conflict of interest.<sup id="cite_ref-283" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-283"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>283<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-284" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-284"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>284<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Out of the chaos, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Walpole" title="Robert Walpole">Robert Walpole</a> emerged as a stable political figure who for 21 years held a majority of the House of Commons, and is now considered the first "<a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">Prime Minister</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-285" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-285"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>285<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1765, <i><a href="/wiki/Entick_v_Carrington" title="Entick v Carrington">Entick v Carrington</a></i> established that the government could do nothing but that which was empowered by law,<sup id="cite_ref-286" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-286"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>286<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the first teacher of English law, <a href="/wiki/William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">William Blackstone</a> represented the standard view in his <i><a href="/wiki/Commentaries_on_the_Laws_of_England" title="Commentaries on the Laws of England">Commentaries on the Laws of England</a></i> that <a href="/wiki/Slavery_at_common_law" title="Slavery at common law">slavery</a> was unlawful and that "the spirit of liberty is so deeply ingrained in our constitution" any person enslaved in England must be freed. However, the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a> had accelerated to the <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">North American colonies</a>. In 1772, when <a href="/wiki/Lord_Mansfield" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Mansfield">Lord Mansfield</a> ruled in <i><a href="/wiki/Somerset_v_Stewart" title="Somerset v Stewart">Somerset v Stewart</a></i> that slavery was unlawful at common law,<sup id="cite_ref-287" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-287"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>287<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this set off a wave of outrage in the southern colonies of America, whose economies were heavily dependent on slavery. Together with northern colonies' grievances over taxation without representation, this led to the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">declaration of independence</a> in 1776.<sup id="cite_ref-288" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-288"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>288<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The British military failed to hold control. Instead, it began settling <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> from 1788.<sup id="cite_ref-289" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-289"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>289<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1789, the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> broke out, and the French King was deposed with demands for "liberty, equality and fraternity". The British aristocracy reacted with repression on free speech and association to forestall any similar movement.<sup id="cite_ref-290" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-290"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>290<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While figures like <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a> called natural rights "nonsense upon stilts",<sup id="cite_ref-291" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-291"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>291<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Mary Wollstonecraft</a> called for <i><a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_the_Rights_of_Woman" title="A Vindication of the Rights of Woman">A Vindication of the Rights of Woman</a></i> as well as men, arguing that unjust gender and class oppression flowed from "the respect paid to property... as from a poisoned fountain".<sup id="cite_ref-292" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-292"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>292<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While successful in the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a> in defeating France, and cementing union with Ireland in the <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Union_1800" class="mw-redirect" title="Act of Union 1800">Act of Union 1800</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-293" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-293"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>293<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> liberty, freedom and democracy were scarcely protected in the new "United Kingdom". </p><p>During this time, with the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engine</a> the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> had begun. Poverty had also accelerated through the <a href="/wiki/Speenhamland_system" title="Speenhamland system">Speenhamland system</a> of <a href="/wiki/Poor_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Poor laws">poor laws</a> by subsidising employers and landowners with parish rates. The <a href="/wiki/Corn_Laws" title="Corn Laws">Corn Laws</a> from 1815 further impoverished people by fixing prices to maintain landowner profits.<sup id="cite_ref-294" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-294"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>294<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the <a href="/wiki/Great_Reform_Act_1832" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Reform Act 1832">Great Reform Act 1832</a> extended the vote slightly, only those with property had any representation in Parliament. The <a href="/wiki/1833_Slavery_Abolition_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="1833 Slavery Abolition Act">1833 Slavery Abolition Act</a> abolished slavery within the British Empire, compensating slave owners and made ex-slaves in the colonies work for their owners for four to six years as indentured servants without pay; this was abolished in 1838 after public outcry. With the <a href="/wiki/Poor_Law_Amendment_Act_1834" title="Poor Law Amendment Act 1834">Poor Law Amendment Act 1834</a>, further punishment for poverty was inflicted as people were put into work houses if found to be unemployed. In <i><a href="/wiki/R_v_Lovelass" title="R v Lovelass">R v Lovelass</a></i> a group of agricultural workers who formed a trade union were prosecuted and sentenced to be transported to Australia under the <a href="/wiki/Unlawful_Oaths_Act_1797" class="mw-redirect" title="Unlawful Oaths Act 1797">Unlawful Oaths Act 1797</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-295" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-295"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>295<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> triggering mass protests. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chartist_meeting_on_Kennington_Common_by_William_Edward_Kilburn_1848_-_restoration1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Chartist_meeting_on_Kennington_Common_by_William_Edward_Kilburn_1848_-_restoration1.jpg/220px-Chartist_meeting_on_Kennington_Common_by_William_Edward_Kilburn_1848_-_restoration1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Chartist_meeting_on_Kennington_Common_by_William_Edward_Kilburn_1848_-_restoration1.jpg/330px-Chartist_meeting_on_Kennington_Common_by_William_Edward_Kilburn_1848_-_restoration1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Chartist_meeting_on_Kennington_Common_by_William_Edward_Kilburn_1848_-_restoration1.jpg/440px-Chartist_meeting_on_Kennington_Common_by_William_Edward_Kilburn_1848_-_restoration1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2797" data-file-height="1990" /></a><figcaption>Demanding democratic reform, the <a href="/wiki/Chartists" class="mw-redirect" title="Chartists">Chartists</a> met on <a href="/wiki/Kennington_Common" title="Kennington Common">Kennington Common</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>A movement called <a href="/wiki/Chartism" title="Chartism">Chartism</a> grew demanding the right to vote for everyone in free and fair elections. As the <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">great famine</a> hit Ireland and millions migrated to the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, Chartists staged a mass march from <a href="/wiki/Kennington_Common" title="Kennington Common">Kennington Common</a> to Parliament in 1848 as <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">revolutions</a> broke out across Europe, and the <i><a href="/wiki/Communist_Manifesto" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist Manifesto">Communist Manifesto</a></i> was drafted by German revolutionary <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> and Manchester factory owner <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a>. While the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a> distracted from social reform and <a href="/wiki/Viscount_Palmerston" title="Viscount Palmerston">Viscount Palmerston</a> opposed anything,<sup id="cite_ref-296" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-296"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>296<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> of 1860 to 1865 ended <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_US" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the US">slavery in the US</a>, and the UK gradually enabled greater political freedom. </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Second_Reform_Act_1867" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Reform Act 1867">Second Reform Act 1867</a> more middle class property owners were enfranchised, the <a href="/wiki/Elementary_Education_Act_1870" title="Elementary Education Act 1870">Elementary Education Act 1870</a> provided free primary school, and the <a href="/wiki/Trade_Union_Act_1871" title="Trade Union Act 1871">Trade Union Act 1871</a> enabled free association without criminal penalty.<sup id="cite_ref-297" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-297"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>297<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_Act_1884" title="Representation of the People Act 1884">Representation of the People Act 1884</a> reduced the property qualification further, so that around one third of men in Britain could vote. However, the act did not establish universal suffrage; 40% of men and all women could not vote.<sup id="cite_ref-298" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-298"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>298<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cook_299-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cook-299"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>299<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the start of the 20th century, Britain underwent vast social and constitutional change, beginning with an attempt by the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a> to suppress British trade unions.<sup id="cite_ref-300" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-300"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>300<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response, the labour movement organised to support representatives in Parliament, and in the <a href="/wiki/1906_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1906 United Kingdom general election">1906 general election</a> won 29 seats and supported the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party" title="Liberal Party">Liberal Party</a>'s programme of reform. This included a legal guarantee of the right of unions to collectively bargain and strike for fair wages,<sup id="cite_ref-301" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-301"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>301<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an old age pension,<sup id="cite_ref-302" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-302"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>302<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a system of minimum wages,<sup id="cite_ref-303" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-303"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>303<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Budget" title="People's Budget">People's Budget</a> with higher taxes on the wealthy to fund spending. After a <a href="/wiki/January_1910_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="January 1910 United Kingdom general election">further election</a> brought by the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a> blocking reform, Parliament pass a <a href="/wiki/National_Insurance" title="National Insurance">National Insurance</a> system for welfare,<sup id="cite_ref-304" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-304"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>304<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_Act_1911" title="Parliament Act 1911">Parliament Act 1911</a> prevented the House of Lords blocking legislation for more than two years, and removed the right to delay any money bills.<sup id="cite_ref-305" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-305"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>305<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite this, the Liberal government, against the opposition of Labour, armed for and entered the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a>. At the end of the War, with millions dead, Parliament passed the <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_Act_1918" title="Representation of the People Act 1918">Representation of the People Act 1918</a> which enabled every adult male the vote, although it was only after the mass protest of the <a href="/wiki/Suffragettes" class="mw-redirect" title="Suffragettes">Suffragettes</a> that the <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_(Equal_Franchise)_Act_1928" title="Representation of the People (Equal Franchise) Act 1928">Representation of the People (Equal Franchise) Act 1928</a> enabled all women to vote, and that the UK became democratic. The War also triggered uprising in Ireland, and an <a href="/wiki/Irish_War_of_Independence" title="Irish War of Independence">Irish War of Independence</a> leading to the partition of the island between the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a> in the south and <a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Ireland_Act_1920" title="Government of Ireland Act 1920">Government of Ireland Act 1920</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Versailles_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Versailles Treaty">Versailles Treaty</a> at the end of the War demanded German reparations, beggaring the country through the 1920s and upon the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> leading to a fascist collapse under <a href="/wiki/Hitler" class="mw-redirect" title="Hitler">Hitler</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-306" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-306"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>306<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The failed international law system, was replaced following the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a> with the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> where the UK held a permanent seat on the <a href="/wiki/UN_Security_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Security Council">UN Security Council</a>. However the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> began to crumble as decolonization occurred <a href="/wiki/Decolonization_of_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Decolonization of Asia">in Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Decolonisation_of_Africa" title="Decolonisation of Africa">Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Decolonization_of_the_Americas" title="Decolonization of the Americas">the Americas</a>. To prevent any recurrence of <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a> and <a href="/wiki/War" title="War">war</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a> was established to draft the <a href="/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="European Convention on Human Rights">European Convention on Human Rights</a> in 1950. Further it was seen that the only way to prevent conflict was through economic integration. The <a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">European Economic Community</a>, which became the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> in 1992, was supported by <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> with the UK to be "at the centre",<sup id="cite_ref-9_October_1948_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9_October_1948-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although it did not enter until the <a href="/wiki/European_Communities_Act_1972_(UK)" title="European Communities Act 1972 (UK)">European Communities Act 1972</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Empire_evolution3.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/British_Empire_evolution3.gif/220px-British_Empire_evolution3.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/British_Empire_evolution3.gif/330px-British_Empire_evolution3.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/British_Empire_evolution3.gif/440px-British_Empire_evolution3.gif 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="625" /></a><figcaption>The evolution of the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>. After the end of the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>, the Empire was gradually dismantled via a process of <a href="/wiki/Decolonisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Decolonisation">decolonisation</a>, with the majority of former British colonies choosing to join the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth of Nations</a>. The Commonwealth is open to any country committed to peace, liberty, equality, and development, as stipulated in the <a href="/wiki/Harare_Declaration" title="Harare Declaration">Harare Declaration</a> of 1991.</figcaption></figure> <p>Under <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher" title="Margaret Thatcher">Margaret Thatcher</a>, significant cuts were made to public services, labour rights, and the powers of local government, including abolishing the <a href="/wiki/Greater_London_Council" title="Greater London Council">Greater London Council</a>. However some powers were restored with extensive devolution of power in the <a href="/wiki/Scotland_Act_1998" title="Scotland Act 1998">Scotland Act 1998</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Act_1998" title="Northern Ireland Act 1998">Northern Ireland Act 1998</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greater_London_Authority_Act_1999" title="Greater London Authority Act 1999">Greater London Authority Act 1999</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Wales_Act_2006" title="Government of Wales Act 2006">Government of Wales Act 2006</a>. After many years of <a href="/wiki/Armed_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="Armed conflict">armed conflict</a> in Northern Ireland, the <a href="/wiki/Good_Friday_Agreement" title="Good Friday Agreement">Good Friday Agreement</a> of 1998 brought peace. The <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Act_1998" title="Human Rights Act 1998">Human Rights Act 1998</a> empowered courts to apply <a href="/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="European Convention on Human Rights">Convention</a> rights without the need for claimants to take cases to the <a href="/wiki/Strasbourg_court" class="mw-redirect" title="Strasbourg court">Strasbourg court</a>. The <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords_Act_1999" title="House of Lords Act 1999">House of Lords Act 1999</a> reduced but did not eliminate hereditary peers. Since a <a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008" class="mw-redirect" title="Financial crisis of 2007–2008">financial crisis of 2007–2008</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-307" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-307"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>307<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a Conservative and Liberal Democrat coalition launched a programme of "<a href="/wiki/Austerity" title="Austerity">austerity</a>" cuts, and cemented their term in the <a href="/wiki/Fixed-term_Parliaments_Act_2011" title="Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011">Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011</a>. After 2015, however, early elections were held anyway in 2017, following a <a href="/wiki/2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum" title="2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum">referendum on EU membership</a> that resulted in 51.89 per cent of people favouring to leave, and 48.11 per cent of voters favouring to remain. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Worldwide_influence">Worldwide influence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Worldwide influence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom#Worldwide_influence" title="History of the constitution of the United Kingdom">History of the constitution of the United Kingdom § Worldwide influence</a></div> <p>Aspects of the British constitution were adopted in the constitutions and legal systems of other countries around the world, particularly those that were part of, or formerly part of, the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> including the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and those countries that adopted the <a href="/wiki/Westminster_parliamentary_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Westminster parliamentary system">Westminster parliamentary system</a>. The British constitution is the source of the modern concepts of the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_sovereignty" title="Parliamentary sovereignty">parliamentary sovereignty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Judicial_independence" title="Judicial independence">judicial independence</a> and adoption of British constitutional principles propagated their spread around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-Kopstein2014_308-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kopstein2014-308"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>308<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-309" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-309"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>309<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-310" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-310"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>310<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-311" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-311"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>311<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the oldest constitutional systems in the world, dating back over one thousand years, it is characterised by the stability of its governing institutions, its capacity to absorb change, a <a href="/wiki/Bicameral_legislature" class="mw-redirect" title="Bicameral legislature">bicameral legislature</a> and the concept of <a href="/wiki/Responsible_government" title="Responsible government">responsible government</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-312" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-312"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>312<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theory_and_reform">Theory and reform</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Theory and reform"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_reform_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Constitutional reform in the United Kingdom">Constitutional reform in the United Kingdom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_theory" title="Constitutional theory">Constitutional theory</a></div> <p>The legal scholar <a href="/wiki/Eric_Barendt" title="Eric Barendt">Eric Barendt</a> argues that the uncodified nature of the United Kingdom constitution does not mean it should not be characterised as a "constitution", but also claims that the lack of an effective <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a>, and the fact that <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_sovereignty" title="Parliamentary sovereignty">parliamentary sovereignty</a> allows Parliament to overrule fundamental rights, makes it to some extent a "façade" constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-bar_313-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bar-313"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>313<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Lord_Scarman" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Scarman">Lord Scarman</a> presents a spirited argument for a written constitution for the UK, but still refers to the <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_1689" title="Bill of Rights 1689">1688 compromise</a> and resulting Acts of Parliament as a constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-314" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-314"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>314<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A. V. Dicey identified that ultimately "the electorate are politically sovereign," and Parliament is legally sovereign.<sup id="cite_ref-315" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-315"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>315<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Barendt argues that the greater political party discipline in the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="House of Commons of the United Kingdom">House of Commons</a> that has evolved since Dicey's era, and the reduction in checks on governmental power, has led to an excessively powerful government that is not legally constrained by the observance of fundamental rights.<sup id="cite_ref-bar_313-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bar-313"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>313<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A Constitution would impose limits on what Parliament could do. To date, the Parliament of the UK has no limit on its power other than the possibility of extra-parliamentary action (by the people) and of other sovereign states (pursuant to treaties made by Parliament and otherwise). <span class="citation-needed-content" style="padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); border:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle, #c8ccd1);">It has been commented by Dicey that formally, the British Parliament was limited by the terms of the international treaties that created it in the first place. His comment that it would be imprudent for the British Parliament to try and abolish Scots Law for example, has been criticised judicially as "cynical" but was written in the high Victorian era when Parliament was grappling with the concept of Irish Home Rule, strongly opposed by many politicians at the time.</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Dubious claims about the UK Parliament being limited, no source for Dicey's comments, which would go against what he says in cited, reliable sources. (January 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Proponents of a codified constitution argue it would strengthen the legal protection of democracy and freedom.<sup id="cite_ref-316" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-316"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>316<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a strong advocate of the "unwritten constitution", Dicey highlighted that English rights were embedded in the general English <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> of personal liberty, and "the institutions and manners of the nation".<sup id="cite_ref-317" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-317"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>317<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Opponents of a codified constitution argue that the country is not based on a founding document that tells its citizens who they are and what they can do. There is also a belief that any unwarranted encroachment on the spirit of constitutional authority would be stiffly resisted by the British people, a perception expounded by the 19th century American judge <a href="/wiki/Joseph_P._Bradley" title="Joseph P. Bradley">Justice Bradley</a> in the course of delivering his opinion in a case heard in Louisiana in 1873: "England has no written constitution, it is true; but it has an unwritten one, resting in the acknowledged, and frequently declared, privileges of Parliament and the people, to violate which in any material respect would produce a revolution in an hour."<sup id="cite_ref-318" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-318"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>318<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)" title="Labour Party (UK)">Labour</a> government under prime minister <a href="/wiki/Tony_Blair" title="Tony Blair">Tony Blair</a> instituted constitutional reforms in the late 1990s and early-to-mid 2000s.<sup id="cite_ref-319" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-319"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>319<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The effective incorporation of the <a href="/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="European Convention on Human Rights">European Convention on Human Rights</a> into British law through the <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Act_1998" title="Human Rights Act 1998">Human Rights Act 1998</a> has granted citizens specific <a href="/wiki/Positive_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive rights">positive rights</a> and given the judiciary some power to enforce them. The courts can advise Parliament of <a href="/wiki/Primary_legislation" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary legislation">primary legislation</a> that conflicts with the Act by means of "<a href="/wiki/Declarations_of_Incompatibility" class="mw-redirect" title="Declarations of Incompatibility">Declarations of Incompatibility</a>" – however Parliament is not bound to amend the law nor can the judiciary void any statute – and it can refuse to enforce, or "strike down", any incompatible <a href="/wiki/Secondary_legislation" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary legislation">secondary legislation</a>. Any actions of government authorities that violate Convention rights are illegal except if mandated by an Act of Parliament. </p><p>Changes also include the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Reform_Act_2005" title="Constitutional Reform Act 2005">Constitutional Reform Act 2005</a> which alters the structure of the House of Lords to separate its judicial and legislative functions. For example, the legislative, judicial and executive functions of the <a href="/wiki/Lord_Chancellor" title="Lord Chancellor">Lord Chancellor</a> are now shared between the Lord Chancellor (executive), <a href="/wiki/Lord_Chief_Justice" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Chief Justice">Lord Chief Justice</a> (judicial) and the newly created post of <a href="/wiki/Lord_Speaker" title="Lord Speaker">Lord Speaker</a> (legislative). The role of <a href="/wiki/Law_Lord" class="mw-redirect" title="Law Lord">Law Lord</a> (a member of the judiciary in the House of Lords) was abolished by transferring them to the new <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Supreme Court of the United Kingdom">Supreme Court of the United Kingdom</a> in October 2009. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Brown" title="Gordon Brown">Gordon Brown</a> launched a "<a href="/wiki/Governance_of_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Governance of Britain">Governance of Britain</a>" process when he took over as PM in 2007. This was an ongoing process of constitutional reform with the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Justice_(United_Kingdom)" title="Ministry of Justice (United Kingdom)">Ministry of Justice</a> as lead ministry. The Constitutional Reform and Governance Act 2010 is a piece of constitutional legislation. It enshrines in statute the impartiality and integrity of the British Civil Service and the principle of open and fair recruitment. It enshrines in law the <a href="/wiki/Ponsonby_Rule" title="Ponsonby Rule">Ponsonby Rule</a> which requires that treaties are laid before Parliament before they can be ratified. </p><p>The Coalition Government formed in May 2010 proposed a series of further constitutional reforms in their coalition agreement. Consequently, the <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_Voting_System_and_Constituencies_Act_2011" title="Parliamentary Voting System and Constituencies Act 2011">Parliamentary Voting System and Constituencies Act 2011</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Fixed-term_Parliaments_Act_2011" title="Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011">Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011</a> were passed, though the government of <a href="/wiki/Boris_Johnson" title="Boris Johnson">Boris Johnson</a> subsequently <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_and_Calling_of_Parliament_Act_2022" title="Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022">repealed</a> the latter in 2022. The Acts were intended to reduce the number of MPs in the House of Commons from 650 to 600, change the way the UK is divided into parliamentary constituencies, introduce <a href="/wiki/2011_United_Kingdom_Alternative_Vote_referendum" title="2011 United Kingdom Alternative Vote referendum">a referendum on changing the system used to elect MPs</a> and take the power to dissolve Parliament away from the monarch. The Coalition also promised to introduce law on the reform of the House of Lords. In the referendum, the Alternative Vote system was rejected by 67% to 33%, and therefore all reforms regarding the voting system were dropped.<sup id="cite_ref-320" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-320"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>320<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conservatives forced the government to drop House of Lords reforms, and the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Democrats_(UK)" title="Liberal Democrats (UK)">Liberal Democrats</a> said they would refuse to support changes to the boundaries of constituencies, as they believed such changes favoured the Conservatives. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/UK_human_rights_law" class="mw-redirect" title="UK human rights law">UK human rights law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UK_administrative_law" class="mw-redirect" title="UK administrative law">UK administrative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UK_labour_law" class="mw-redirect" title="UK labour law">UK labour law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_land_law" title="English land law">English land law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_contract_law" title="English contract law">English contract law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_trust_law" title="English trust law">English trust law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Committee" title="Constitution Committee">House of Lords Constitution Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_and_Constitutional_Reform_Select_Committee" title="Political and Constitutional Reform Select Committee">Political and Constitutional Reform Select Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_in_the_Making" title="Parliament in the Making">Parliament in the Making</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Commission_on_the_Constitution_(United_Kingdom)" title="Royal Commission on the Constitution (United Kingdom)">Royal Commission on the Constitution (United Kingdom)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_Inquiry" title="Power Inquiry">Power Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_constitution_of_England" title="Ancient constitution of England">Ancient constitution of England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_constitutional_law" title="United Kingdom constitutional law">United Kingdom constitutional law</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-auto-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Parliament_Act_1911" title="Parliament Act 1911">Parliament Act 1911</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parliament_Act_1949" title="Parliament Act 1949">Parliament Act 1949</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKing2007" class="citation book cs1">King, Anthony (2007). <i>The British Constitution</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+British+Constitution&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <i><a href="/wiki/R_(Miller)_v_Prime_Minister" class="mw-redirect" title="R (Miller) v Prime Minister">R (Miller) v Prime Minister</a></i> [2019] UKSC 41 (Parliamentary sovereignty), <i><a href="/wiki/R_(UNISON)_v_Lord_Chancellor" title="R (UNISON) v Lord Chancellor">R (UNISON) v Lord Chancellor</a></i> [2017] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2017/51.html">UKSC 51</a>, [67] ff (rule of law), <i><a href="/wiki/R_(Animal_Defenders_International)_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Culture_Media_and_Sport" class="mw-redirect" title="R (Animal Defenders International) v Secretary of State for Culture Media and Sport">R (Animal Defenders International) v Secretary of State for Culture Media and Sport</a></i> [2008] UKHL 15, [48] (democracy), <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=R_v_Lyons&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="R v Lyons (page does not exist)">R v Lyons</a></i> [2002] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/2002/44.html">UKHL 44</a>, [27] (international law).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/R_(HS2_Action_Alliance_Ltd)_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Transport" title="R (HS2 Action Alliance Ltd) v Secretary of State for Transport">R (HS2 Action Alliance Ltd) v Secretary of State for Transport</a></i> [2014] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2014/3.html">UKSC 3</a>, [207]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta_1215" class="mw-redirect" title="Magna Carta 1215">Magna Carta 1215</a> clauses 1 ("the English church shall be free"), 12 and 14 (no tax "unless by common counsel of our kingdom"), 17 ("Common pleas shall ... be held in some fixed place"), 39–40 ("To no one will we sell, to no one will we refuse or delay, right or justice"), 41 ("merchants shall have safe and secure <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_movement_for_workers_in_the_European_Union" title="Freedom of movement for workers in the European Union">exit from England, and entry to England</a>"), and 47–48 (land taken by the King "shall forthwith be <a href="/wiki/Charter_of_the_Forest" title="Charter of the Forest">disafforested</a>").</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/European_Communities_Act_1972_(UK)" title="European Communities Act 1972 (UK)">European Communities Act 1972</a> and the <a href="/wiki/European_Union_(Withdrawal)_Act_2018" title="European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018">European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> (1919) <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_International_Labour_Office" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Constitution of the International Labour Office">Part XIII</a> and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=General_Treaty_on_Tariffs_and_Trade&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="General Treaty on Tariffs and Trade (page does not exist)">General Treaty on Tariffs and Trade</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Act_1998" title="Human Rights Act 1998">Human Rights Act 1998</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="European Convention on Human Rights">European Convention on Human Rights</a> arts 2 (life), 3 (torture), 4 (servitude), 5 (liberty), 6 (fair trial), 8 (privacy), 9 (conscience and religion), 10 (expression), 11 (association and assembly).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. W. Bradley, K. D. Ewing and C. J. S. Knight, <i>Constitutional and Administrative Law</i> (2018) chs 1–6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/R_(HS2_Action_Alliance_Ltd)_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Transport" title="R (HS2 Action Alliance Ltd) v Secretary of State for Transport">R (HS2 Action Alliance Ltd) v Secretary of State for Transport</a></i> [2014] UKSC 3, [207] per Lord Neuberger and Lord Mance, "The United Kingdom has no written constitution, but we have a number of constitutional instruments. They include <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Petition_of_Right_1628" class="mw-redirect" title="Petition of Right 1628">Petition of Right 1628</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_1689" title="Bill of Rights 1689">Bill of Rights</a> and (in Scotland) the <a href="/wiki/Claim_of_Rights_Act_1689" class="mw-redirect" title="Claim of Rights Act 1689">Claim of Rights Act 1689</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Settlement_1701" title="Act of Settlement 1701">Act of Settlement 1701</a> and the two <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_of_1707" class="mw-redirect" title="Acts of Union of 1707">Acts of Union of 1707</a>. The <a href="/wiki/European_Communities_Act_1972_(UK)" title="European Communities Act 1972 (UK)">European Communities Act 1972</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Act_1998" title="Human Rights Act 1998">Human Rights Act 1998</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Reform_Act_2005" title="Constitutional Reform Act 2005">Constitutional Reform Act 2005</a> may now be added to this list." Also see Laws LJ in <i><a href="/wiki/Thoburn_v_Sunderland_City_Council" title="Thoburn v Sunderland City Council">Thoburn v Sunderland City Council</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="/w/index.php?title=T._Bingham&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="T. Bingham (page does not exist)">T. Bingham</a>, <i>The Rule of Law</i> (2008)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <i><a href="/wiki/Entick_v_Carrington" title="Entick v Carrington">Entick v Carrington</a></i> [1765] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWHC/KB/1765/J98.html">EWHC KB J98</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=T._Bingham&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="T. Bingham (page does not exist)">T. Bingham</a>, <i>The Rule of Law</i> (2008)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Great_Reform_Act_1832" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Reform Act 1832">Great Reform Act 1832</a> (common property qualification rules for all boroughs and counties), <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_Act_1867" class="mw-redirect" title="Representation of the People Act 1867">Representation of the People Act 1867</a> (extended the franchise to around <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span> of men), <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_Act_1884" title="Representation of the People Act 1884">Representation of the People Act 1884</a> (extended the male franchise), <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_Act_1918" title="Representation of the People Act 1918">Representation of the People Act 1918</a> (enabled all men to vote over 21, and women over 30 with property), and <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_(Equal_Franchise)_Act_1928" title="Representation of the People (Equal Franchise) Act 1928">Representation of the People (Equal Franchise) Act 1928</a> (enabled equal suffrage of men at women age 21). The <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_Act_1948" title="Representation of the People Act 1948">Representation of the People Act 1948</a> further abolished multiple votes for graduates of London, Cambridge and Oxford, and other <a href="/wiki/University_constituencies" class="mw-redirect" title="University constituencies">University constituencies</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_Act_1969" title="Representation of the People Act 1969">Representation of the People Act 1969</a> lowered the voting age to 18. Restrictions on prisoner voting were inserted by the <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_Act_1983" title="Representation of the People Act 1983">Representation of the People Act 1983</a>. British citizens abroad can vote under the <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_Act_1985" title="Representation of the People Act 1985">Representation of the People Act 1985</a>, but millions of UK residents, who pay taxes but do not have citizenship, cannot vote.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See the <a href="/wiki/Appropriation_Act_1923" class="mw-redirect" title="Appropriation Act 1923">Appropriation Act 1923</a> Sch 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In the <a href="/wiki/2016_Brexit_referendum" class="mw-redirect" title="2016 Brexit referendum">2016 Brexit referendum</a> a majority of voters favoured leaving the EU, and membership of the EU formally ended on 31 January 2020. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerraudin2019" class="citation web cs1">Perraudin, Frances (13 December 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2019/dec/13/general-election-boris-johnson-act-swiftly-brexit-deal-back-to-mps">"Brexit: Boris Johnson to act swiftly in bringing deal back to MPs"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Brexit%3A+Boris+Johnson+to+act+swiftly+in+bringing+deal+back+to+MPs&rft.date=2019-12-13&rft.aulast=Perraudin&rft.aufirst=Frances&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fpolitics%2F2019%2Fdec%2F13%2Fgeneral-election-boris-johnson-act-swiftly-brexit-deal-back-to-mps&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See generally <a href="/w/index.php?title=A._W._Bradley&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="A. W. Bradley (page does not exist)">A. W. Bradley</a>, "The Sovereignty of Parliament – Form or Substance?" in J Jowell, <i>The Changing Constitution</i> (7th ed., 2011) ch. 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">cf A. W. Bradley and K. D. Ewing, <i>Constitutional and Administrative Law</i> (2015) 65, it "is not possible to predict the outcome of changes made by Parliament to the 'manner and form' of the legislative process since, depending on the nature and reasons for such changes, the courts might still be influenced by a deep-seated belief in the proposition that Parliament cannot bind itself."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a> ch. 12, "No scutage [tax on knight's land or fee] nor aid shall be imposed on our kingdom, unless by common counsel of our kingdom ..."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Oxford%27s_case" title="Earl of Oxford's case">Earl of Oxford's case</a></i> (1615) 21 ER 485, Lord Ellesmere LC, "when a Judgment is obtained by Oppression, Wrong and a hard Conscience, the Chancellor will frustrate and set it aside, not for any error or Defect in the Judgment, but for the hard Conscience of the Party."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Dr_Bonham%27s_case" class="mw-redirect" title="Dr Bonham's case">Dr Bonham's case</a></i> (1610) 8 Co Rep 114a</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Parliament_Act_1949" title="Parliament Act 1949">Parliament Act 1949</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Geo6/12-13-14/103/section/1">s 1</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Parliament_Act_1911" title="Parliament Act 1911">Parliament Act 1911</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Geo5/1-2/13/section/1">s 1</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">[2005] UKHL 56, [120] "Parliamentary sovereignty is an empty principle if legislation is passed which is so absurd or so unacceptable that the populace at large refuses to recognise it as law".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">cf <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=R_(Simms)_v_Secretary_of_State_for_the_Home_Department&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="R (Simms) v Secretary of State for the Home Department (page does not exist)">R (Simms) v Secretary of State for the Home Department</a></i> [1999] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/1999/33.html">UKHL 33</a>, [2000] 2 AC 115, 131, <a href="/wiki/Lord_Hoffmann" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Hoffmann">Lord Hoffmann</a>, "Parliamentary sovereignty means that Parliament can, if it chooses, legislate contrary to fundamental principles of human rights. ... The constraints upon its exercise by Parliament are ultimately political, not legal. But the principle of legality means that Parliament must squarely confront what it is doing and accept the political cost. Fundamental rights cannot be overridden by general or ambiguous words. This is because there is too great a risk that the full implications of their unqualified meaning may have passed unnoticed in the democratic process. In the absence of express language or necessary implication to the contrary, the courts, therefore, presume that even the most general words were intended to be subject to the basic rights of the individual. In this way the courts of the United Kingdom, though acknowledging the sovereignty of Parliament, apply principles of constitutionality little different from those which exist in countries where the power of the legislature is expressly limited by a constitutional document."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">cf <a href="/wiki/Leslie_Stephen" title="Leslie Stephen">Leslie Stephen</a>, <i>The Science of Ethics</i> (1882) 145, "Lawyers are apt to speak as though the legislature were omnipotent, as they do not require to go beyond its decisions. It is, of course, omnipotent in the sense that it can make whatever laws it pleases, inasmuch as a law means any rule which has been made by the legislature. But from the scientific point of view, the power of the legislature is of course strictly limited. It is limited, so to speak, both from within and from without; from within, because the legislature is the product of a certain social condition, and determined by whatever determines the society; and from without, because the power of imposing laws is dependent upon the instinct of subordination, which is itself limited. If a legislature decided that all blue-eyed babies should be murdered, the preservation of blue-eyed babies would be illegal; but legislators must go mad before they could pass such a law, and subjects be idiotic before they could submit to it."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/A._V._Dicey" title="A. V. Dicey">A. V. Dicey</a>, <i>The Law of the Constitution</i> (1885) 39–40, Parliament has "under the English constitution, the right to make or unmake any law whatever; and further... no person or body is recognised by the law of England as having a right to override or set aside the legislation of Parliament."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> (1919) <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_International_Labour_Office" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Constitution of the International Labour Office">Part XIII</a>: Constitution of the <a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See the <a href="/wiki/International_Organisations_Act_1968" title="International Organisations Act 1968">International Organisations Act 1968</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2005/20/contents">ss. 1–8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Act_1946" title="United Nations Act 1946">United Nations Act 1946</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Geo6/9-10/45/section/1">s. 1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See for example <a href="/wiki/Legality_of_the_Iraq_War" title="Legality of the Iraq War">Legality of the Iraq War</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For instance, preceding art. 8 of that convention, see <i><a href="/wiki/Entick_v_Carrington" title="Entick v Carrington">Entick v Carrington</a></i> [1765] EWHC KB J98. On <a href="/wiki/Article_11_of_the_European_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="Article 11 of the European Convention on Human Rights">art. 11</a>, see <i><a href="/wiki/Crofter_Hand_Woven_Harris_Tweed_Co_Ltd_v_Veitch" title="Crofter Hand Woven Harris Tweed Co Ltd v Veitch">Crofter Hand Woven Harris Tweed Co Ltd v Veitch</a></i> [1941] UKHL 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_European_Union" title="Treaty on European Union">Treaty on European Union</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Consolidated_version_of_the_Treaty_on_European_Union/Title_I:_Common_Provisions#Article_2" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Consolidated version of the Treaty on European Union/Title I: Common Provisions">art. 2</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19_September_1946-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19_September_1946_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">e.g. "Speech at the University of Zurich" (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://winstonchurchill.org/resources/speeches/1946-1963-elder-statesman/united-states-of-europe">19 September 1946</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9_October_1948-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-9_October_1948_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-9_October_1948_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">e.g. "Speech to the 69th Annual Conservative Party Conference at Llandudno" (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblio.com/book/winston-churchills-9-october-1948-speech/d/472181237">9 October 1948</a>). See J. Danzig, "Winston Churchill: A founder of the European Union" (10 November 2013) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eu-rope.ideasoneurope.eu/2013/11/10/winston-churchill-a-founder-of-the-european-union/">EU ROPE</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Van_Gend_en_Loos_v_Nederlandse_Administratie_der_Belastingen" title="Van Gend en Loos v Nederlandse Administratie der Belastingen">Van Gend en Loos v Nederlandse Administratie der Belastingen</a></i> (1963) Case 26/62, [94] member states "have limited their sovereign rights, albeit within limited fields, and have thus created a body of law which binds both their nationals and themselves" on the "basis of reciprocity".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Factortame-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Factortame_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Factortame_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>R v Secretary of State for Transport, ex parte Factortame Ltd</i> [1990] UKHL 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=R_(on_the_application_of_HS2_Action_Alliance_Ltd)_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Transport&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="R (on the application of HS2 Action Alliance Ltd) v Secretary of State for Transport (page does not exist)">R (on the application of HS2 Action Alliance Ltd) v Secretary of State for Transport</a></i> [2014] UKSC 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/R_(Miller)_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Exiting_the_European_Union" title="R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union">R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union</a></i> [2017] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2017/5.html">UKSC 5</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="/wiki/Opinion_polling_for_the_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum#Post–referendum_polling" title="Opinion polling for the United Kingdom European Union membership referendum">Opinion polling for the United Kingdom European Union membership referendum § Post–referendum polling</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/R_(Miller)_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Exiting_the_European_Union" title="R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union">R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union</a></i> [2017] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2017/5.html">UKSC 5</a>, 146. "Judges, therefore, are neither the parents nor the guardians of political conventions; they are merely observers. As such, they can recognise the operation of a political convention in the context of deciding a legal question (as in the Crossman diaries case – <i><a href="/wiki/Attorney_General_v_Jonathan_Cape_Ltd" title="Attorney General v Jonathan Cape Ltd">Attorney General v Jonathan Cape Ltd</a></i> [1976] 1 QB 752), but they cannot give legal rulings on its operation or scope, because those matters are determined within the political world. As Professor Colin Munro has stated, 'the validity of conventions cannot be the subject of proceedings in a court of law' – (1975) 91 LQR 218, 228."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">cf. <i><a href="/wiki/MacCormick_v_Lord_Advocate" title="MacCormick v Lord Advocate">MacCormick v Lord Advocate</a></i> 1953 SC 396, Lord Cooper, "The principle of the unlimited sovereignty of Parliament is a distinctively English principle which has no counterpart in Scottish constitutional law." However this view was disapproved in <i><a href="/wiki/R_(Miller)_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Exiting_the_European_Union" title="R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union">R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union</a></i> [2017] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2017/5.html">UKSC 5</a>, [43]: "Parliamentary sovereignty is a fundamental principle of the UK constitution", and at [50]: "it is a fundamental principle of the UK constitution that, unless primary legislation permits it, the Royal prerogative does not enable ministers to change statute law or common law ... This is, of course, just as true in relation to Scottish, Welsh or Northern Irish law."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">cf <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i> (330 BCE) 3.16, "It is more proper that law should govern than any one of the citizens".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=X_v_Morgan-Grampian_Ltd&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="X v Morgan-Grampian Ltd (page does not exist)">X v Morgan-Grampian Ltd</a></i> [1991] AC 1, 48, per Lord Bridge, "The maintenance of the rule of law is in every way as important in a free society as the democratic franchise. In our society the rule of law rests upon twin foundations: the sovereignty of the Queen in Parliament in making the law and the sovereignty of the Queen's courts in interpreting and applying the law."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/R_(Jackson)_v_Attorney_General" title="R (Jackson) v Attorney General">R (Jackson) v Attorney General</a></i> [2005] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/2005/56.html">UKHL 56</a>, [104] per Lord Hope</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-661_Cambridge_Law_Journal_67-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-661_Cambridge_Law_Journal_67_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-661_Cambridge_Law_Journal_67_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/T_Bingham" class="mw-redirect" title="T Bingham">T Bingham</a>, "The Rule of Law" (2007), 66(1) <i>Cambridge Law Journal</i> 67, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4500873">4500873</a>; and see also <a href="/w/index.php?title=T._Bingham&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="T. Bingham (page does not exist)">T. Bingham</a>, <i>Rule of Law</i> (2008) 8, "all persons and authorities within the state, whether public or <a href="/wiki/Privately_held_company" title="Privately held company">private</a> should be bound by and entitled to the benefit of laws publicly made, taking effect (generally) in the future and publicly administered in the courts." <a href="/wiki/Lord_Bingham" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Bingham">Lord Bingham</a>, "The Rule of Law and the Sovereignty of Parliament" (31 October 2007), <a href="/wiki/King%27s_College,_London" class="mw-redirect" title="King's College, London">King's College, London</a>, also remarked, "democracy lies at the heart of the concept of the rule of law".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/A._V._Dicey" title="A. V. Dicey">A. V. Dicey</a>, <i>Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution</i> (3rd edn 1889) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/introductiontos04dicegoog#page/n206/mode/2up">Part II, ch IV, 189</a>, first "absolute supremacy or predominance of regular law as opposed to the influence of arbitrary power", second "equality before the law, or the equal subjection of all classes to the ordinary law of the land administered by the ordinary law courts" and third, "principles of private law have with us been by the action of the courts and Parliament so extended as to determine the position of the Crown and of its servants". See also J. Raz, "The Rule of Law and its Virtue" (1977) 93 <i>Law Quarterly Review</i> 195. Contrast D. Lino, "The Rule of Law and the Rule of Empire: A. V. Dicey in Imperial Context" (2018) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1468-2230.12363">81(5) <i>Modern Law Review</i> 739</a>. Previously, discourse among international finance followed a restrictive ideal: M Stephenson, "Rule of Law as a Goal of Development Policy" (2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTLAWJUSTINST/0,,contentMDK:20763583~menuPK:1989584~pagePK:210058~piPK:210062~theSitePK:1974062,00.html"><i>World Bank Research</i></a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Reform_Act_2005" title="Constitutional Reform Act 2005">Constitutional Reform Act 2005</a> ss. 1, 63–65 and Schs 8 and 12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EWHC_KB_J98-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EWHC_KB_J98_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EWHC_KB_J98_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Entick_v_Carrington" title="Entick v Carrington">Entick v Carrington</a></i> [1765] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWHC/KB/1765/J98.html">EWHC KB J98</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Malone_v_United_Kingdom" title="Malone v United Kingdom">Malone v United Kingdom</a></i> (1984) 7 EHRR 14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Tom_Bingham,_Baron_Bingham_of_Cornhill" title="Tom Bingham, Baron Bingham of Cornhill">T. Bingham</a>, <i>Rule of Law</i> (2008) 8, "all persons and authorities within the state, whether <a href="/wiki/Public" title="Public">public</a> or private should be bound by and entitled to the benefit of laws publicly made, taking effect (generally) in the future and publicly administered in the courts."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="European Convention on Human Rights">European Convention on Human Rights</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/European_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Human_Rights_and_Fundamental_Freedoms#Article_8_–_Right_to_respect_for_private_and_family_life¹" class="extiw" title="wikisource:European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms">art 8</a> "(1) Everyone has the right to respect for his private and family life, his home and his correspondence. (2) There shall be no interference by a public authority with the exercise of this right except such as is <a href="/wiki/Legality" title="Legality">in accordance with the law</a> and is <a href="/wiki/Necessary_in_a_democratic_society" title="Necessary in a democratic society">necessary in a democratic society</a> in the interests of national security, public safety or the economic well-being of the country, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Malone v Metropolitan Police Commissioner</i> [1979] Ch 344</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Malone v United Kingdom</i> [1984] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/eu/cases/ECHR/1984/10.html">ECHR 10</a>, (1984) 7 EHRR 14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Originally the <a href="/wiki/Interception_of_Communications_Act_1985" title="Interception of Communications Act 1985">Interception of Communications Act 1985</a>, and now the <a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_Investigatory_Powers_Act_2000" title="Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000">Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000</a> ss 1–11, as amended by the <a href="/wiki/Data_Retention_and_Investigatory_Powers_Act_2014" title="Data Retention and Investigatory Powers Act 2014">Data Retention and Investigatory Powers Act 2014</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/R_(Corner_House_Research)_v_Director_of_the_Serious_Fraud_Office" title="R (Corner House Research) v Director of the Serious Fraud Office">R (Corner House Research) v Director of the Serious Fraud Office</a></i> [2008] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/2008/60.html">UKHL 60</a>, [2]–[7]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/R_(Corner_House_Research)_v_Director_of_the_Serious_Fraud_Office" title="R (Corner House Research) v Director of the Serious Fraud Office">R (Corner House Research) v Director of the Serious Fraud Office</a></i> [2008] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/2008/60.html">UKHL 60</a>, [55]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <i><a href="/wiki/A_v_Home_Secretary" class="mw-redirect" title="A v Home Secretary">A v Home Secretary</a></i> [2004] UKHL 56, Lord Nicholls, "indefinite imprisonment without charge or trial is anathema in any country which observes the rule of law".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/R_(UNISON)_v_Lord_Chancellor" title="R (UNISON) v Lord Chancellor">R (UNISON) v Lord Chancellor</a></i> [2017] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2017/51.html">UKSC 51</a>, [66]–[68]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">e.g. <i><a href="/wiki/M_v_Home_Office" title="M v Home Office">M v Home Office</a></i> [1993] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/1993/5.html">UKHL 5</a>, holding the Home Secretary, <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Baker,_Baron_Baker_of_Dorking" title="Kenneth Baker, Baron Baker of Dorking">Kenneth Baker</a>, in contempt of court for failing to return a <a href="/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire">Zaire</a> teacher to the UK on refugee status, despite a High Court judge ordering it be done.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Montesquieu, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_the_Laws" class="mw-redirect" title="The Spirit of the Laws">The Spirit of the Laws</a></i> (1748) Book XI, ch 6, 'When legislative power is united with executive power in a single person or in a single body of the magistracy, there is no liberty.'</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. W Bradley, K. D. Ewing, and C. J. S. Knight, <i>Constitutional and Administrative Law</i> (2014) 94. cf <a href="/wiki/W_Bagehot" class="mw-redirect" title="W Bagehot">W Bagehot</a>, <i>The English Constitution</i> 65, the "efficient secret" of the UK constitution was "the close union, the nearly complete fusion, of the legislative and executive powers".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Reform_Act_2005" title="Constitutional Reform Act 2005">Constitutional Reform Act 2005</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2005/4/part/4/chapter/3">ss 108–9</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Reform_Act_2005" title="Constitutional Reform Act 2005">Constitutional Reform Act 2005</a> s 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">cf A. Bradley, "The Sovereignty of Parliament – Form or Substance?" in Jowell, <i>The Changing Constitution</i> (7th ed. 2011) 35, "A further question is whether the democratic process in the UK works so well as to justify the absence of any limit on the authority of Parliament to legislate." This criticises <a href="/wiki/A._V._Dicey" title="A. V. Dicey">A. V. Dicey</a>, <i>The Law of the Constitution</i> (10th ed. 1959) 73, who said "The electors in the long run can always enforce their will", on the basis that executive dominance over Parliament might require revisions of the extent of the concept.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Lord_Bingham" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Bingham">Lord Bingham</a>, "The Rule of Law and the Sovereignty of Parliament" (31 October 2007), speech given at <a href="/wiki/King%27s_College,_London" class="mw-redirect" title="King's College, London">King's College, London</a>. It is also considered that the rule of law is necessary for democracy, e.g. <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=X_v_Morgan-Grampian_Ltd&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="X v Morgan-Grampian Ltd (page does not exist)">X v Morgan-Grampian Ltd</a></i> [1991] AC 1, 48, per <a href="/wiki/Lord_Bridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Bridge">Lord Bridge</a>, "The maintenance of the rule of law is in every way as important in a free society as the democratic franchise." <a href="/wiki/Lord_Woolf" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Woolf">Lord Woolf</a> [1995] PL 57, "Our Parliamentary democracy is based on the Rule of Law. ... If Parliament did the unthinkable then I would say that the courts would also be required to act in a manner which would be unprecedented." <i><a href="/wiki/Reference_on_Quebec" class="mw-redirect" title="Reference on Quebec">Reference on Quebec</a></i> (1998) 161 DLR (4th) 385, 416, "democracy in any real sense of the word cannot exist without the rule of law." <i><a href="/wiki/R_(UNISON)_v_Lord_Chancellor" title="R (UNISON) v Lord Chancellor">R (UNISON) v Lord Chancellor</a></i> [2017] UKSC 51, [68] "Without such access [to courts], laws are liable to become a dead letter, the work done by Parliament may be rendered nugatory, and the democratic election of Members of Parliament may become a meaningless charade."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War" title="History of the Peloponnesian War">History of the Peloponnesian War</a></i> (c. 411 BC) Book 2, para 37. Contrast <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></i>, Book V, Parts 3 and 4, translated by D. P. Chase (favouring aristocracy, by equating it with appointment according to "excellence", supposedly), and <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">The Republic</a></i>, Book IV, Part V, 139, translated by D. Lee (arguing that philosopher kings should rule over a rigid hierarchy where there was "no interchange of jobs").</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="European Convention on Human Rights">European Convention on Human Rights</a> (1950), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/rms/0900001680063765">Preamble</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mathieu-Mohin_and_Clerfayt_v_Belgium&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mathieu-Mohin and Clerfayt v Belgium (page does not exist)">Mathieu-Mohin and Clerfayt v Belgium</a></i> (1987) 10 EHRR 1, [47] on the <a href="/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="European Convention on Human Rights">European Convention on Human Rights</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/rms/090000168006377c">Protocol 1, art 3</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Gettysburg_Address" title="Gettysburg Address">Gettysburg Address</a></i> (1863) "that government of the people, by the people, for the people shall not perish from the Earth".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">cf A. J. Zurcher, "The Hitler Referenda" (1935), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1947171">29(1) <i>American Political Science Review</i> 91</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=F._L._Neumann&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="F. L. Neumann (page does not exist)">F. L. Neumann</a>, <i>The Democratic and the Authoritarian State</i> (1957) 186–193</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/J._Habermas" class="mw-redirect" title="J. Habermas">J. Habermas</a>, <i>Between Facts and Norms</i> (1996) 135, "the only law that counts as legitimate is one that could be rationally accepted by all citizens in a discursive process of opinion- and will-formation."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">e.g. <a href="/wiki/R._Dworkin" class="mw-redirect" title="R. Dworkin">R. Dworkin</a>, "Constitutionalism and Democracy" (1995), 3(1) <i>European Journal of Philosophy</i> 2–11, 4_5, a constitutional democracy means: (1) "a majority or plurality of people" (2) "all citizens have the moral independence necessary to participate in the political decision as free moral agents" (3) "the political process is such as to treat all citizens with equal concern". <a href="/wiki/David_Feldman_(lawyer)" class="mw-redirect" title="David Feldman (lawyer)">D. Feldman</a>, <i>Civil Liberties and Human Rights in England and Wales</i> (2002) 32–33 "it would be perverse to argue that there is anything undemocratic about a restriction on the capacity of decision-makers to interfere with the rights which are fundamental to democracy itself". See also <i><a href="/wiki/Matadeen_v_Pointu" title="Matadeen v Pointu">Matadeen v Pointu</a></i> [1999] 1 AC 98, Lord Hoffmann, "Their Lordships do not doubt that such a principle [of equality] is one of the building blocks of democracy and necessarily permeates any democratic constitution."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a> (1948) <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights#Article_21" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Universal Declaration of Human Rights">arts 21 and 29(2)</a>, <a href="/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights_1966" class="mw-redirect" title="International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966">International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights#Article_25" class="extiw" title="wikisource:International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights">art 25</a>, <a href="/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Economic,_Social_and_Cultural_Rights_1966" class="mw-redirect" title="International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966">International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966</a>, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Economic,_Social_and_Cultural_Rights#Article_4" class="extiw" title="wikisource:International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights">art 4</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Archie_v_Law_Association_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Archie v Law Association of Trinidad and Tobago (page does not exist)">Archie v Law Association of Trinidad and Tobago</a></i> [2018] UKPC 23, [18] Lady Hale, "A vital element in any modern democratic constitution is the independence of the judiciary from the other arms of government, the executive and the legislature. This is crucial to maintaining the rule of law: the judges must be free to interpret and apply the law, in accordance with their judicial oaths, not only in disputes between private persons but also in disputes between private persons and the state. The state, in the shape of the executive, is as much subject to the rule of law as are private persons." cf K. D. Ewing, "The Resilience of the Political Constitution" [2013] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://static1.squarespace.com/static/56330ad3e4b0733dcc0c8495/t/56b26ec8ab48de0e424c1921/1454534345473/GLJ_Vol_14_No_12_Ewing.pdf">14(12) <i>German Law Journal</i> 2111</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201030195001/https://static1.squarespace.com/static/56330ad3e4b0733dcc0c8495/t/56b26ec8ab48de0e424c1921/1454534345473/GLJ_Vol_14_No_12_Ewing.pdf">Archived</a> 30 October 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 2116, suggesting the current political constitution of the UK is not necessarily the same as a fully democratic constitution.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Ashby_v_White" title="Ashby v White">Ashby v White</a></i> (1703) 2 Ld Raym 938, dissent approved by the House of Lords.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Morgan_v_Simpson" title="Morgan v Simpson">Morgan v Simpson</a></i> [1975] QB 151</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Defenders_International_v_United_Kingdom" title="Animal Defenders International v United Kingdom">Animal Defenders International v United Kingdom</a></i> [2008] UKHL 15, [48] and see also [2013] ECHR 362</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gorringe_v_Calderdale_Metropolitan_Borough_Council&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gorringe v Calderdale Metropolitan Borough Council (page does not exist)">Gorringe v Calderdale Metropolitan Borough Council</a></i> [2004] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/2004/15.html">UKHL 15</a>, [2]. See also <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=O%27Rourke_v_Camden_London_Borough_Council&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="O'Rourke v Camden London Borough Council (page does not exist)">O'Rourke v Camden London Borough Council</a></i> [1998] AC 188, "the [Housing] Act [1985] is a scheme of social welfare, intended to confer benefits at the public expense on grounds of public policy".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">e.g. <i><a href="/wiki/Johnson_v_Unisys_Limited" class="mw-redirect" title="Johnson v Unisys Limited">Johnson v Unisys Limited</a></i> [2001] UKHL 13, and <i><a href="/wiki/Gisda_Cyf_v_Barratt" title="Gisda Cyf v Barratt">Gisda Cyf v Barratt</a></i> [2010] UKSC 41, [39]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, for example, J Lobel, "The Limits of Constitutional Power: Conflicts between Foreign Policy and International Law" (1985), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1073073">71(7) <i>Virginia Law Review</i> 1071</a>. <a href="/wiki/J._Habermas" class="mw-redirect" title="J. Habermas">J. Habermas</a>, "The Constitutionalization of International Law and the Legitimation Problems of a Constitution for World Society" (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://static1.squarespace.com/static/58d6b5ff86e6c087a92f8f89/t/593e01365016e1368cca4eb9/1497235766970/02.+Habermas.pdf">15(4) <i>Constellations</i> 444</a>. In Germany, see <a href="/wiki/Basic_Law_for_the_Federal_Republic_of_Germany" title="Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany">Basic Law</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Basic_Law_for_the_Federal_Republic_of_Germany#Article_25" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany">§ 25</a>, "The general rules of international law shall be an integral part of federal law. They shall take precedence over the laws and directly create rights and duties for the inhabitants of the federal territory." In the EU, see <i><a href="/wiki/Kadi_and_Al_Barakaat_International_Foundation_v_Council_and_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Kadi and Al Barakaat International Foundation v Council and Commission">Kadi and Al Barakaat International Foundation v Council and Commission</a></i> (2008) C-402/05, holding that international law binds EU law unless it requires an act that would run contrary to basic human rights.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">e.g. <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a>, ch 41, "All merchants shall have a safe and secure exit from England, and entry to England, with the right to tarry there and to move about as well by land as by water, for buying and selling by the ancient and right customs, quit from all evil tolls, except (in time of war) such merchants as are of the land at war with us ..."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Coke, 1 <i>Institutes</i> 182</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <i><a href="/wiki/Bate%27s_case" class="mw-redirect" title="Bate's case">Bate's case</a></i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Case_of_Impositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Case of Impositions">Case of Impositions</a></i> (1606) 2 St Tr 371. John Bate claimed he did not need to pay a duty on imported currants imposed by the Crown, contrary to the Confirmation of Charters, Weirs, Taxation Act 1371, 45 Edw 3 c. 4, which prohibited indirect taxation without the consent of Parliament. The <a href="/wiki/Exchequer_of_Pleas" title="Exchequer of Pleas">Court of Exchequer</a> held the Crown could impose the duty as he pleased to regulate trade. The Court could not go behind the King's statement that the duty was indeed imposed for the purpose of regulating trade. Then, the <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Case_of_Ship_Money&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Case of Ship Money (page does not exist)">Case of Ship Money</a></i> or <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=R_v_Hampden&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="R v Hampden (page does not exist)">R v Hampden</a></i> (1637) 3 St Tr 825 held that the King could raise money from trade without Parliament. This was reversed by the <a href="/wiki/Ship_Money_Act_1640" title="Ship Money Act 1640">Ship Money Act 1640</a>, and after the Civil War and Glorious Revolution, once again by the <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_1689" title="Bill of Rights 1689">Bill of Rights 1689</a> art 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lethulier%27s_Case&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lethulier's Case (page does not exist)">Lethulier's Case</a></i> (1692) 2 Salk 443, "we take notice of the laws of merchants that are general, not of those that are particular."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Luke_v_Lyde" title="Luke v Lyde">Luke v Lyde</a></i> (1759) 97 Eng Rep 614, 618; (1759) 2 Burr 882, 887</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Pillans_v_Van_Mierop" title="Pillans v Van Mierop">Pillans v Van Mierop</a></i> (1765) 3 Burr 1663</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Somerset_v_Stewart" title="Somerset v Stewart">Somerset v Stewart</a></i> (1772) 98 ER 499, "The state of slavery is of such a nature, that it is incapable of now being introduced by Courts of Justice upon mere reasoning or inferences from any principles, natural or political; it must take its rise from positive law; the origin of it can in no country or age be traced back to any other source: immemorial usage preserves the memory of positive law long after all traces of the occasion; reason, authority, and time of its introduction are lost ..."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Saad_v_Secretary_of_State_for_the_Home_Department&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Saad v Secretary of State for the Home Department (page does not exist)">Saad v Secretary of State for the Home Department</a></i> [2001] EWCA Civ 2008, [15] Lord Phillips MR, quoting <i>Bennion on Statutory Interpretation</i> (3rd ed) p. 630 that: "It is a principle of legal policy that the municipal law should conform to public international law. The court, when considering, in relation to the facts of the instant case, which of the opposing constructions of the enactment would give effect to the legislative intention, should presume that the legislator intended to observe this principle."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=R_v_Lyons&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="R v Lyons (page does not exist)">R v Lyons</a></i> [2002] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/2002/44.html">UKHL 44</a>, [27] <a href="/wiki/Lord_Hoffmann" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Hoffmann">Lord Hoffmann</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Hounga_v_Allen" title="Hounga v Allen">Hounga v Allen</a></i> [2014] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2014/47.html">UKSC 47</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See further <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=R_(SG)_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Work_and_Pensions&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="R (SG) v Secretary of State for Work and Pensions (page does not exist)">R (SG) v Secretary of State for Work and Pensions</a></i> [2015] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2015/16.html">UKSC 16</a>, on the benefits cap, <a href="/wiki/Lord_Kerr" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Kerr">Lord Kerr</a>, dissenting, at [247]-[257] argued the dualist theory of international law should be abandoned, and international law should be directly effective in UK law.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Kadi_and_Al_Barakaat_International_Foundation_v_Council_and_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Kadi and Al Barakaat International Foundation v Council and Commission">Kadi and Al Barakaat International Foundation v Council and Commission</a></i> (2008) C-402/05</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Presumed violations of <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> standards of free and fair voting; see the Venice Commission, Code of Practice on Referendums (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/default.aspx?pdffile=CDL-AD(2007)008rev-cor-e">2007</a>) on asking questions with concrete, determinative choices.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For principles of treaty interpretation, see the <a href="/wiki/Vienna_Convention_on_the_Law_of_Treaties" title="Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties">Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties</a> (1969).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">e.g. <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a>, "Speech to the 69th Annual Conservative Party Conference at Llandudno" (9 October 1948). See J. Danzig, "Winston Churchill: A founder of the European Union" (10 November 2013), EU ROPE</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">cf <a href="/w/index.php?title=World_Trade_Organization_(Immunities_and_Privileges)_Order_1995&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="World Trade Organization (Immunities and Privileges) Order 1995 (page does not exist)">World Trade Organization (Immunities and Privileges) Order 1995</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On the post-referendum debate, see <i><a href="/wiki/R_(Miller)_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Exiting_the_European_Union" title="R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union">R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union</a></i> [2017] UKSC 5 and <a href="/wiki/European_Union_(Notification_of_Withdrawal)_Act_2017" title="European Union (Notification of Withdrawal) Act 2017">European Union (Notification of Withdrawal) Act 2017</a> s 1, giving power to the PM to notify intention to negotiate to leave the EU.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See House of Commons, Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee, <i>Disinformation and 'fake news': Interim Report</i> (29 July 2018) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201719/cmselect/cmcumeds/363/36302.htm">HC 363</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electoral_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Electoral Commission">Electoral Commission</a>, <i>Report of an investigation in respect of Vote Leave Limited, Mr Darren Grimes, BeLeave, Veterans for Britain</i> (17 July 2018). Litigated in <i><a href="/wiki/R_(Wilson)_v_Prime_Minister" title="R (Wilson) v Prime Minister">R (Wilson) v Prime Minister</a></i> [2018] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ukineuchallenge.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/260395-Judgment-10.12.2018-Version-for-publication.pdf">EWHC 3520 (Admin)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190116153032/https://www.ukineuchallenge.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/260395-Judgment-10.12.2018-Version-for-publication.pdf">Archived</a> 16 January 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, and see E McGaughey, "Could Brexit be Void?" (2018) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3232632"><i>King's Law Journal</i></a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Attorney_General_v_Jonathan_Cape_Ltd" title="Attorney General v Jonathan Cape Ltd">Attorney General v Jonathan Cape Ltd</a></i> [1975] 3 All ER 484 (on the legal nature of conventions)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaves2022" class="citation web cs1">Haves, Emily (4 July 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lordslibrary.parliament.uk/uk-constitution-proposals-and-ministerial-responsibility/#heading-4">"UK Constitution: Proposals and ministerial responsibility"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=UK+Constitution%3A+Proposals+and+ministerial+responsibility&rft.date=2022-07-04&rft.aulast=Haves&rft.aufirst=Emily&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flordslibrary.parliament.uk%2Fuk-constitution-proposals-and-ministerial-responsibility%2F%23heading-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190401113644/https://www.bl.uk/magna-carta/articles/britains-unwritten-constitution">"British Library"</a>. <i>www.bl.uk</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/magna-carta/articles/britains-unwritten-constitution">the original</a> on 1 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.bl.uk&rft.atitle=British+Library&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bl.uk%2Fmagna-carta%2Farticles%2Fbritains-unwritten-constitution&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://law.gov.wales/how-power-exercised-within-uk">"How power is exercised within the UK | Law Wales"</a>. <i>law.gov.wales</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=law.gov.wales&rft.atitle=How+power+is+exercised+within+the+UK+%7C+Law+Wales&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flaw.gov.wales%2Fhow-power-exercised-within-uk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://consoc.org.uk/the-constitution-explained/the-uk-constitution/">"The UK constitution"</a>. <i>The Constitution Society</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Constitution+Society&rft.atitle=The+UK+constitution&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fconsoc.org.uk%2Fthe-constitution-explained%2Fthe-uk-constitution%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUCL2021" class="citation web cs1">UCL (8 November 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/constitution-unit/explainers/what-are-constitutional-conventions">"What are constitutional conventions?"</a>. <i>The Constitution Unit</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Constitution+Unit&rft.atitle=What+are+constitutional+conventions%3F&rft.date=2021-11-08&rft.au=UCL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucl.ac.uk%2Fconstitution-unit%2Fexplainers%2Fwhat-are-constitutional-conventions&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_and_Calling_of_Parliament_Act_2022" title="Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022">Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022</a> s 4. The <a href="/wiki/Parliament_Act_1911" title="Parliament Act 1911">Parliament Act 1911</a> similarly set elections to take place at a maximum of each five years, but elections usually occurred in a fourth year. Before this the maximum was seven years, but in practice governments called votes sooner. From 2011 until its repeal in 2022 the <a href="/wiki/Fixed-term_Parliaments_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Fixed-term Parliaments Act">Fixed-term Parliaments Act</a> fixed the timespan between elections at five years. By contrast, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> has elections each 3 years, and the US has presidential elections each 4 years.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Parliament_Act_1911" title="Parliament Act 1911">Parliament Act 1911</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parliament_Act_1949" title="Parliament Act 1949">Parliament Act 1949</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Life_Peerages_Act_1958" title="Life Peerages Act 1958">Life Peerages Act 1958</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Eliz2/6-7/21/section/1">s 1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords_Act_1999" title="House of Lords Act 1999">House of Lords Act 1999</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1999/34/section/2">ss 1-2</a>, or 90 plus the "<a href="/wiki/Lord_Great_Chamberlain" title="Lord Great Chamberlain">Lord Great Chamberlain</a>" and the "<a href="/wiki/Earl_Marshal" title="Earl Marshal">Earl Marshal</a>".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/1999/33.html"><i>Secretary of State for the Home Department, Ex Parte Simms Secretary of State for the Home Department, Ex Parte O'Brien, R v. [1999] UKHL 33; [2000] 2 AC 115; [1999] 3 All ER 400; [1999] 3 WLR 328 (8th July, 1999)</i></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 June</span> 2024</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Secretary+of+State+for+the+Home+Department%2C+Ex+Parte+Simms+Secretary+of+State+for+the+Home+Department%2C+Ex+Parte+O%27Brien%2C+R+v.+%5B1999%5D+UKHL+33%3B+%5B2000%5D+2+AC+115%3B+%5B1999%5D+3+All+ER+400%3B+%5B1999%5D+3+WLR+328+%288th+July%2C+1999%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bailii.org%2Fuk%2Fcases%2FUKHL%2F1999%2F33.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Following <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta_1215" class="mw-redirect" title="Magna Carta 1215">Magna Carta 1215</a>, see the <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Supremacy_1534" class="mw-redirect" title="Acts of Supremacy 1534">Acts of Supremacy 1534</a>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Oxford%27s_case" title="Earl of Oxford's case">Earl of Oxford's case</a></i> (1615) 21 ER 485, and the <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_1689" title="Bill of Rights 1689">Bill of Rights 1689</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This was represented by the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_Act_1911" title="Parliament Act 1911">Parliament Act 1911</a>, following the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Budget" title="People's Budget">People's Budget</a> of 1909.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_1689" title="Bill of Rights 1689">Bill of Rights 1689</a> art 4, levying money for the Crown without Parliament's consent is illegal. Each year a Supply and Appropriation (Anticipation and Adjustments) Bill, typically passed in March, provides money on account to fund activities from the start of the new financial year. A Supply and Appropriation (Main Estimates) Bill, typically passed in July, authorises issue of money from the <a href="/wiki/Consolidated_Fund" title="Consolidated Fund">Consolidated Fund</a> for the balance of the grant of estimates for the financial year, with a detailed schedule of total net resources, capital and cash authorised for each department.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="/wiki/JS_Mill" class="mw-redirect" title="JS Mill">JS Mill</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Considerations_on_Representative_Government" title="Considerations on Representative Government">Considerations on Representative Government</a></i> (1861) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/considerations00mill/page/96">ch 5</a>. AW Bradley, KD Ewing and CJS Knight, <i>Constitutional and Administrative Law</i> (2018) ch 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">HC Modernisation Committee (2001–02) HC 1168, recommended publishing draft bills, and (2005–06) HC 1097, 'one of the most successful Parliamentary innovations of the last ten years' and 'should become more widespread'.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_and_Calling_of_Parliament_Act_2022" title="Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022">Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022</a> s 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Mental_Health_Act_1983" title="Mental Health Act 1983">Mental Health Act 1983</a> or <a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminal_Procedure_(Insanity)_Act_1964&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Criminal Procedure (Insanity) Act 1964 (page does not exist)">Criminal Procedure (Insanity) Act 1964</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <i><a href="/wiki/Hirst_v_United_Kingdom_(No_2)" title="Hirst v United Kingdom (No 2)">Hirst v United Kingdom (No 2)</a></i> [2005] ECHR 681 (blanket disqualification of convicted prisoners from voting breached ECHR Prot 1, art 3. After this the UK failed to change its laws. <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Green_v_United_Kingdom&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Green v United Kingdom (page does not exist)">Green v United Kingdom</a></i> [2010] ECHR 868 reaffirmed the position. HL Paper 103, HC 924 (2013-14) recommended prisoners serving under 12 months should be entitled to vote. Parliament still did not act. <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=McHugh_v_UK&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="McHugh v UK (page does not exist)">McHugh v UK</a></i> [2015] ECHR 155, reaffirmed breach but awarded no compensation or costs. However, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Moohan_v_Lord_Advocate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Moohan v Lord Advocate (page does not exist)">Moohan v Lord Advocate</a></i> [2014] UKSC 67 and <i>Moohan v UK</i> (13 June 2017) App No 22962/15, denial of prisoner voting in the Scottish independent referendum was not a breach of art 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Electoral_Registration_and_Administration_Act_2013" title="Electoral Registration and Administration Act 2013">Electoral Registration and Administration Act 2013</a> ss 1-5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(1703) 2 Ld Raym 938</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Morgan_v_Simpson" title="Morgan v Simpson">Morgan v Simpson</a></i> [1975] QB 151, per Lord Denning MR</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">cf <i><a href="/wiki/R_(Wilson)_v_Prime_Minister" title="R (Wilson) v Prime Minister">R (Wilson) v Prime Minister</a></i> [2018] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ukineuchallenge.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/260395-Judgment-10.12.2018-Version-for-publication.pdf">EWHC 3520 (Admin)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190116153032/https://www.ukineuchallenge.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/260395-Judgment-10.12.2018-Version-for-publication.pdf">Archived</a> 16 January 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, and E McGaughey, 'Could Brexit be Void?' (2018) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3232632">King's Law Journal</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/PPERA_2000" class="mw-redirect" title="PPERA 2000">PPERA 2000</a> ss 72-131 and Schs 8-13, in referendums, the limit has traditionally been set at £600,000 for the official campaigns on each side.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Communications_Act_2003" title="Communications Act 2003">Communications Act 2003</a> ss 319-333.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Defenders_International_v_United_Kingdom" title="Animal Defenders International v United Kingdom">Animal Defenders International v United Kingdom</a></i> [2008] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/2008/15.html">UKHL 15</a>, [48] per <a href="/wiki/Baroness_Hale" class="mw-redirect" title="Baroness Hale">Baroness Hale</a>. Confirmed in [2013] ECHR 362.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_Act_1983" title="Representation of the People Act 1983">Representation of the People Act 1983</a> ss 92. Furthermore, any "trading" with hostile foreign parties with whom the UK is "at war" may lead to seven years in prison. <a href="/wiki/Trading_with_the_Enemy_Act_1939" title="Trading with the Enemy Act 1939">Trading with the Enemy Act 1939</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Geo6/2-3/89/contents">c 89</a>) ss 1-2, seven years prison for trading with an enemy who is "at war with His majesty".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=R_(Electoral_Commission)_v_City_of_Westminster_Magistrate%27s_Court_and_UKIP&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="R (Electoral Commission) v City of Westminster Magistrate's Court and UKIP (page does not exist)">R (Electoral Commission) v City of Westminster Magistrate's Court and UKIP</a></i> [2010] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2010/40.html">UKSC 40</a>, holding that a partial forfeiture of £349,216 donations by a non-UK resident was appropriate.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Political_Parties,_Elections_and_Referendums_Act_2000" title="Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000">Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000</a> ss 12-69 and 149</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_Constituencies_Act_1986" title="Parliamentary Constituencies Act 1986">Parliamentary Constituencies Act 1986</a>, setting up the <a href="/wiki/Boundary_commissions_(United_Kingdom)" title="Boundary commissions (United Kingdom)">Boundary Commission</a>. See also, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=R_(McWhirter)_v_Home_Secretary&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="R (McWhirter) v Home Secretary (page does not exist)">R (McWhirter) v Home Secretary</a></i> (21 October 1969) The Times, elector in Enfield sought mandamus ('we command') to require Home Secretary to perform statutory duty of laying before Parliament Commission reports with draft orders in Council.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Electoral Administration Act 2006 s 17</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Act of Settlement 1700 s 3 unless 'qualifying Commonwealth and Irish citizens, British Nationality Act 1981 Sch 7 and Electoral Administration Act 2006 s 18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Insolvency Act 1986 s 426A(5)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">RPA 1983 ss 160 and 173</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_Disqualification_Act_1975" title="House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975">House of Commons Disqualification Act 1957</a> ss 1 and 5 and <a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_Disqualification_Act_1975" title="House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975">House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975</a> give further exceptions.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ministerial and Other Salaries Act 1975 ss 1-2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords_Act_1999" title="House of Lords Act 1999">House of Lords Act 1999</a> ss 1-2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Reform_Act_2005" title="Constitutional Reform Act 2005">Constitutional Reform Act 2005</a> s 24</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lordsappointments.independent.gov.uk/the-commission-2">Lords Appointments webpage</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Now confirmed in the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords_Reform_Act_2014" title="House of Lords Reform Act 2014">House of Lords Reform Act 2014</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peerages_Act_1963&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peerages Act 1963 (page does not exist)">Peerages Act 1963</a> and <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Re_Parliamentary_Election_for_Bristol_South_East&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Re Parliamentary Election for Bristol South East (page does not exist)">Re Parliamentary Election for Bristol South East</a></i> [1964] 2 QB 257, Viscount Stansgate or <a href="/wiki/Tony_Benn" title="Tony Benn">Tony Benn</a> challenged the law disqualifying peers standing for Parliament.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords_(Expulsion_and_Suspension)_Act_2015" title="House of Lords (Expulsion and Suspension) Act 2015">House of Lords (Expulsion and Suspension) Act 2015</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Parliament_Act_1911" title="Parliament Act 1911">Parliament Act 1911</a> ss 1-3 and <a href="/wiki/Parliament_Act_1949" title="Parliament Act 1949">Parliament Act 1949</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-New_Statesman-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-New_Statesman_144-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-New_Statesman_144-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">An Act abolishing the House of Lords 1649, reading "The Commons of England assembled in Parliament, finding by too long experience that the House of Lords is useless and dangerous to the people of England to be continued, have thought fit to ordain and enact, and be it ordained and enacted by this present Parliament, and by the authority of the same, that from henceforth the House of Lords in Parliament shall be and is hereby wholly abolished and taken away; and that the Lords shall not from henceforth meet or sit in the said House called the Lords' House, or in any other house or place whatsoever..." See also <a href="/wiki/Tony_Benn" title="Tony Benn">T Benn</a>, 'We should abolish the House of Lords, not reform it' (12 July 2012) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newstatesman.com/blogs/politics/2012/07/we-should-abolish-house-lords-not-reform-it">New Statesman</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">cf GDH Cole, <i>Self-Government in Industry</i> (5th edn 1920) ch V, 134-135. S Webb, <i>Reform of the House of Lords</i> (1917) Fabian Tract No. 183, 7, at 12, preferring a chamber of around 100 people elected by proportional representation. E McGaughey, 'A Twelve Point Plan for Labour, and A Manifesto for Labour Law' (2017) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://poseidon01.ssrn.com/delivery.php?ID=205126070092108092095112099103123124010072088081034085126098066112090120064073098027058000043015059013097071014084105109066000013069041040016025029084099083117085022081058091027001109080026073090028090115086066126021103099101028116090099103112005004065&EXT=pdf#page=13">46(1) Industrial Law Journal 169</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200806013821/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2846060#page=13">Archived</a> 6 August 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto1-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_146-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_146-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2005/4/contents">"Constitutional Reform Act 2005"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Constitutional+Reform+Act+2005&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.legislation.gov.uk%2Fukpga%2F2005%2F4%2Fcontents&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Practice Statement [1966] 3 All ER 77</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This has three divisions: the Administrative, Family and King's Bench divisions.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Employment_Tribunals_Act_1996" title="Employment Tribunals Act 1996">Employment Tribunals Act 1996</a>, appealing to the <a href="/wiki/Employment_Appeal_Tribunal" title="Employment Appeal Tribunal">Employment Appeal Tribunal</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Tribunals,_Courts_and_Enforcement_Act_2007" title="Tribunals, Courts and Enforcement Act 2007">Tribunals, Courts and Enforcement Act 2007</a>, appealing to the appropriate <a href="/wiki/Upper_Tribunal" title="Upper Tribunal">Upper Tribunal</a> division.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2014/47.html"><i>Hounga v Allen & Anor [2014] UKSC 47</i></a>, 30 July 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 June</span> 2024</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hounga+v+Allen+%26+Anor+%5B2014%5D+UKSC+47&rft.date=2014-07-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bailii.org%2Fuk%2Fcases%2FUKSC%2F2014%2F47.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKahn-Freund1976" class="citation journal cs1">Kahn-Freund, Otto (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4505935">"The Impact of Constitutions on Labour Law"</a>. <i>The Cambridge Law Journal</i>. <b>35</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">240–</span>271. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0008197300012022">10.1017/S0008197300012022</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0008-1973">0008-1973</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4505935">4505935</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Cambridge+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Impact+of+Constitutions+on+Labour+Law&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E240-%3C%2Fspan%3E271&rft.date=1976&rft.issn=0008-1973&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4505935%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0008197300012022&rft.aulast=Kahn-Freund&rft.aufirst=Otto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4505935&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <i><a href="/wiki/Re_Spectrum_Plus_Ltd" title="Re Spectrum Plus Ltd">Re Spectrum Plus Ltd</a></i> [2005] UKHL 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <i><a href="/wiki/Pickin_v_British_Railways_Board" title="Pickin v British Railways Board">Pickin v British Railways Board</a></i> [1974] AC 765</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/R_(Simms)_v_SS_for_the_Home_Department" class="mw-redirect" title="R (Simms) v SS for the Home Department">R (Simms) v SS for the Home Department</a></i> [1999] UKHL 33, per <a href="/wiki/Lord_Hoffmann" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Hoffmann">Lord Hoffmann</a>, "In this way the courts of the United Kingdom, though acknowledging the sovereignty of Parliament, apply principles of constitutionality little different from those which exist in countries where the power of the legislature is expressly limited by a constitutional document."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Inquiries_Act_2005" title="Inquiries Act 2005">Inquiries Act 2005</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See now the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Reform_Act_2005" title="Constitutional Reform Act 2005">Constitutional Reform Act 2005</a> s 33 and <a href="/wiki/Senior_Courts_Act_1981" title="Senior Courts Act 1981">Senior Courts Act 1981</a> s 11(3)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">AW Bradley, KD Ewing and CJS Knight, <i>Constitutional and Administrative Law</i> (2014) 329, 'whatever the theoretical position, there are a number of reasons which help to ensure that these latter powers are unlikely ever to be used, with the security of judicial tenure relying not so much on legal rules as on a shared constitutional understanding which these rules reflect.'</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Codified in 1963, updated in 1972 and 2001, HC Deb (15 December 2001) col 1012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Reform_Act_2005" title="Constitutional Reform Act 2005">Constitutional Reform Act 2005</a> s 3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Courts_and_Legal_Services_Act_1990" title="Courts and Legal Services Act 1990">Courts and Legal Services Act 1990</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This was not always true: <a href="/wiki/H_Laski" class="mw-redirect" title="H Laski">H Laski</a> (1932) 168-9, between 1832 and 1906, 'Out of 139 judges appointed, 80 were members of the House of Commons at the time of their nomination; 11 others had been candidates for Parliament', and that of the 80, '63 were appointed by their own party while in office'.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/CRA_2005" class="mw-redirect" title="CRA 2005">CRA 2005</a> s 27A and SI 2013/2193. See also <a href="/w/index.php?title=Judicial_Appointments_Regulations_2013&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Judicial Appointments Regulations 2013 (page does not exist)">Judicial Appointments Regulations 2013</a> (SI 2192)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/CRA_2005" class="mw-redirect" title="CRA 2005">CRA 2005</a> ss 70-79</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">cf 'Baroness Brenda Hale: "I often ask myself 'why am I here?'" (17 September 2010) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/law/2010/sep/16/uk-supreme-court-judiciary">Guardian</a> "I'm quite embarrassed to be the only justice to tick a lot of the diversity boxes, for example the gender one, the subject areas in which I'm interested (which are not ones that most of my colleagues have had much to do with up until now), the fact that I went to a non-fee-paying school and the fact that I wasn't a practitioner for any great length of time. I'm different from most of my colleagues in a number of respects (and they're probably at least as conscious of this as I am). I think we could do with more of that sort of diversity."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">[2017] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2017/51.html">UKSC 51</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See the <a href="/wiki/Prosecution_of_Offences_Act_1985" title="Prosecution of Offences Act 1985">Prosecution of Offences Act 1985</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Anne,_Queen_of_Great_Britain" title="Anne, Queen of Great Britain">Queen Anne</a> withheld <a href="/wiki/Royal_assent" title="Royal assent">royal assent</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Militia_Bill" title="Scottish Militia Bill">Scottish Militia Bill</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See R Blackburn, 'Monarchy and the personal prerogatives' [2004] Public Law 546, explaining that the "personal prerogative" of the monarch is a set of powers that must be exercised according to law, and must follow the advice of the Prime Minister, or in accordance with Parliament and the courts.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">n.b. the Monarch continued to withhold royal assent for laws in British colonies leading, for example, to the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/US_Declaration_of_Independence" class="mw-redirect" title="US Declaration of Independence">US Declaration of Independence</a> in 1776.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">cf <a href="/wiki/W_Bagehot" class="mw-redirect" title="W Bagehot">W Bagehot</a>, <i>The English Constitution</i> (<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_English_Constitution_(1894)">1867</a>) 111, suggesting the monarch has a right to be consulted, to encourage and to warn.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <i><a href="/wiki/Sunday_Times_Rich_List_2015" title="Sunday Times Rich List 2015">Sunday Times Rich List 2015</a></i> estimated the Queen's personal wealth at £340 million, making her the 302nd richest person in the UK: H Nianias, 'The Queen drops off the top end of the Sunday Times Rich List for the first time since its inception' (26 April 2015) The Independent</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Sovereign_Grant_Act_2011" title="Sovereign Grant Act 2011">Sovereign Grant Act 2011</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2011/15/crossheading/the-sovereign-grant">ss 1-6</a>. This was raised from 15% by <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2017/438/article/2/made">SI 2017/438</a> art 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Crown_Estate_Act_1961" class="mw-redirect" title="Crown Estate Act 1961">Crown Estate Act 1961</a> s 1, up to eight Crown Estate Commissioners are appointed by the monarch on PM advice.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">'Crown Estate makes record £304m Treasury payout' (28 June 2016) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-36643314">BBC News</a>. See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://map.whoownsengland.org/">map.whoownsengland.org</a> and the colour purple for the <a href="/wiki/Crown_Estate" title="Crown Estate">Crown Estate</a>. This includes (1) retail property such as <a href="/wiki/Regent_Street" title="Regent Street">Regent Street</a> in London, commercial property in Oxford, Milton Keynes, Nottingham, Newcastle, etc., and a right to receive 23% of the income from the Duchy of Lancaster's Savoy Estate in London (2) 116,000 hectares of agricultural land and forests, together with minerals and residential and commercial property (3) rights to extract minerals covers some 115,500 hectares (4) 55% of the UK's foreshore, and all of the UK's seabed from mean low water to the 12-nautical-mile (22 km) limit, plus sovereign rights of the UK in the seabed and its resources vested by the <a href="/wiki/Continental_Shelf_Act_1964_(United_Kingdom)" title="Continental Shelf Act 1964 (United Kingdom)">Continental Shelf Act 1964</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/I_Jennings" class="mw-redirect" title="I Jennings">I Jennings</a>, <i>Cabinet Government</i> (3rd edn 1959) ch 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Fixed-term_Parliaments_Act_2011" title="Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011">Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The vote was 45.13% in favour of becoming a republic, but on a model of having a directly elected president. 54..87% of voters opposed this. See [2000] Public Law 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://yougov.co.uk/topics/politics/articles-reports/2018/05/18/who-are-monarchists">"Who are the monarchists? | YouGov"</a>. <i>yougov.co.uk</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 September</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=yougov.co.uk&rft.atitle=Who+are+the+monarchists%3F+%7C+YouGov&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fyougov.co.uk%2Ftopics%2Fpolitics%2Farticles-reports%2F2018%2F05%2F18%2Fwho-are-monarchists&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWHC/KB/1607/J23.html"><i>Prohibitions, Case of [1607] EWHC KB J23</i></a>, 1 November 1607<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 June</span> 2024</span>, <q>true it was, that God had endowed His Majesty with excellent science, and great endowments of nature; but His Majesty was not learned in the laws of his realm of England, and causes which concern the life, or inheritance, or goods, or fortunes of his subjects.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prohibitions%2C+Case+of+%5B1607%5D+EWHC+KB+J23&rft.date=1607-11-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bailii.org%2Few%2Fcases%2FEWHC%2FKB%2F1607%2FJ23.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EWHC_KB_J22-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EWHC_KB_J22_181-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EWHC_KB_J22_181-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Case_of_Proclamations" title="Case of Proclamations">Case of Proclamations</a></i> [1610] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWHC/KB/1610/J22.html">EWHC KB J22</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/R_(Miller)_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Exiting_the_EU" class="mw-redirect" title="R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the EU">R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the EU</a></i> [2017] UKSC 5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">cf AW Bradley, KD Ewing and CJS Knight, <i>Constitutional and Administrative Law</i> (2018) ch 10 258-265, listing 9 categories.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">HC Deb (21 April 1993) col 490 and HC 422 (2003–04) Treasury Solicitor, suggesting an exhaustive catalogue of powers is probably not possible, but listing major categories.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Subject to the <a href="/wiki/Life_Peerages_Act_1958" title="Life Peerages Act 1958">Life Peerages Act 1958</a> and <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords_Act_1999" title="House of Lords Act 1999">House of Lords Act 1999</a> s 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <i><a href="/wiki/R_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Foreign_and_Commonwealth_Affairs,_ex_p_Bancoult_(No_2)" class="mw-redirect" title="R v Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, ex p Bancoult (No 2)">R v Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, ex p Bancoult (No 2)</a></i> [2008] UKHL 61, [69] per Lord Bingham</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=R_(Lain)_v_Criminal_Injuries_Compensation_Board&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="R (Lain) v Criminal Injuries Compensation Board (page does not exist)">R (Lain) v Criminal Injuries Compensation Board</a></i> [1967] 2 QB 864, 886. <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=R_(Harrison)_v_Home_Secretary&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="R (Harrison) v Home Secretary (page does not exist)">R (Harrison) v Home Secretary</a></i> [1988] 3 All ER 86. <i><a href="/wiki/R_(FBU)_v_Home_Secretary" class="mw-redirect" title="R (FBU) v Home Secretary">R (FBU) v Home Secretary</a></i> [1995] 2 AC 513, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Re_Lord_Bishop_of_Natal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Re Lord Bishop of Natal (page does not exist)">Re Lord Bishop of Natal</a></i> (1864) 3 Moo PC (NS) 115</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allen (1862) 1 B&S 850 and <a href="/wiki/Criminal_Appeal_Act_1995" class="mw-redirect" title="Criminal Appeal Act 1995">Criminal Appeal Act 1995</a> s 16</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">e.g. the Island of <a href="/wiki/Rockall" title="Rockall">Rockall</a> was seized in 1955, and later recognised in the <a href="/wiki/Island_of_Rockall_Act_1972" title="Island of Rockall Act 1972">Island of Rockall Act 1972</a>. See <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=R_(Lye)_v_Kent_JJ&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="R (Lye) v Kent JJ (page does not exist)">R (Lye) v Kent JJ</a></i> [1967] 2 QB 153 on alterations.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nissan_v_AG&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nissan v AG (page does not exist)">Nissan v AG</a></i> [1970] AC 179, now regulated by <a href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_1971" title="Immigration Act 1971">Immigration Act 1971</a> s 33(5). The power of expulsion is considered 'doubtful' outside statute: AW Bradley, KD Ewing and CJS Knight, <i>Constitutional and Administrative Law</i> (2018) ch 10, 261</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Reform_and_Governance_Act_2010" title="Constitutional Reform and Governance Act 2010">Constitutional Reform and Governance Act 2010</a> s 20, codifying the previous <a href="/wiki/Ponsonby_Rule" title="Ponsonby Rule">Ponsonby Rule</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Burmah_Oil_Co_Ltd_v_Lord_Advocate" title="Burmah Oil Co Ltd v Lord Advocate">Burmah Oil Co Ltd v Lord Advocate</a></i> [1965] AC 75, 101</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This convention was established through the Iraq war, where Parliament backed an invasion contrary to <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a> in 2003, and a vote against an invasion of Syria in 2013.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bank_voor_Handel_en_Scheepvaart_NV_v_Administrator_of_Hungarian_Property&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart NV v Administrator of Hungarian Property (page does not exist)">Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart NV v Administrator of Hungarian Property</a></i> [1954] AC 584</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">e.g. MoJ, Rev of the Exec Royal Prer Powers (2009) 23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spook_Erection_Ltd_v_Environment_Secretary&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Spook Erection Ltd v Environment Secretary (page does not exist)">Spook Erection Ltd v Environment Secretary</a></i> [1989] QB 300 (beneficiary of market franchise not entitled to Crown's exemption from planning control)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">e.g. <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Butler_v_Freeman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Butler v Freeman (page does not exist)">Butler v Freeman</a></i> (1756) Amb 302, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=In_re_a_Local_Authority&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="In re a Local Authority (page does not exist)">In re a Local Authority</a></i> [2003] EWHC 2746, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scott_v_Scott&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Scott v Scott (page does not exist)">Scott v Scott</a></i> [1913] AC 417.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Civil_Service_Unions_v_Minister_for_the_Civil_Service" title="Council of Civil Service Unions v Minister for the Civil Service">Council of Civil Service Unions v Minister for the Civil Service</a></i> [1985] AC 374</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ministerial_Salaries_Act_1975" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministerial Salaries Act 1975">Ministerial Salaries Act 1975</a>. See also, recognising the PM's position, the <a href="/wiki/Chequers_Estate_Act_1917" title="Chequers Estate Act 1917">Chequers Estate Act 1917</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chevening_Estate_Act_1959" class="mw-redirect" title="Chevening Estate Act 1959">Chevening Estate Act 1959</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ministerial_and_other_Pensions_and_Salaries_Act_1991&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ministerial and other Pensions and Salaries Act 1991 (page does not exist)">Ministerial and other Pensions and Salaries Act 1991</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ministers_of_the_Crown_Act_1975&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ministers of the Crown Act 1975 (page does not exist)">Ministers of the Crown Act 1975</a> s 5. Under the <a href="/wiki/Crown_Proceedings_Act_1947" title="Crown Proceedings Act 1947">Crown Proceedings Act 1947</a> s 17 the Minister for Civil Service (i.e. the PM) maintains a list of govt departments (for the purpose of proceedings against the Crown).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <i><a href="/wiki/AG_v_Jonathan_Cape_Ltd" class="mw-redirect" title="AG v Jonathan Cape Ltd">AG v Jonathan Cape Ltd</a></i> [1976] QB 752, suggesting the duty of confidentiality expires after a number of years out of government.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Crown_1046-202"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Crown_1046_202-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Crown_1046_202-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Reform_and_Governance_Act_2010" title="Constitutional Reform and Governance Act 2010">Constitutional Reform and Governance Act 2010</a> s 3, putting management of the civil service into statute. Civil Service Management Code s 11.1.1, civil servants employed at pleasure of the Crown, theoretically lacking a wrongful dismissal remedy according to somewhat outdated case law: <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dunn_v_R&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dunn v R (page does not exist)">Dunn v R</a></i> [1896] 1 QB 116 and <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Riordan_v_War_Office&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Riordan v War Office (page does not exist)">Riordan v War Office</a></i> [1959] 1 WLR 1046, but under the <a href="/wiki/Employment_Rights_Act_1996" title="Employment Rights Act 1996">Employment Rights Act 1996</a> s 191, civil servants expressly have the right to claim <a href="/wiki/Unfair_dismissal" title="Unfair dismissal">unfair dismissal</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This is elaborated upon in a much larger Civil Service Management Code. See also the <a href="/wiki/Prevention_of_Corruption_Act_1906" title="Prevention of Corruption Act 1906">Prevention of Corruption Act 1906</a> and 1916. The <a href="/wiki/Osmotherly_Rules" title="Osmotherly Rules">Osmotherly Rules</a> guide civil servants on how to answer questions from Parliament committees.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_Information_Act_2000" title="Freedom of Information Act 2000">Freedom of Information Act 2000</a> ss 1 and 21-44. Sch 1 lists public bodies that are subject. The BBC can only be required to disclose information held for non-journalistic purposes, to protect freedom of expression: <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sugar_v_BBC&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sugar v BBC (page does not exist)">Sugar v BBC</a></i> [2012] UKSC 4 and <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=BBC_v_Information_Commissioner&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="BBC v Information Commissioner (page does not exist)">BBC v Information Commissioner</a></i> [2009] UKHL 9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Greater_London_Authority_Act_1999" title="Greater London Authority Act 1999">Greater London Authority Act 1999</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1999/29/contents">ss 31, 141, 180 and 333</a> (with highly limited powers except in transport)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See S Bailey, <i>Cross on Local Government Law</i> (2004). J Loughlin (ed), <i>The Oxford Handbook of Local and Regional Democracy</i> (2012). <a href="/wiki/S_Webb" class="mw-redirect" title="S Webb">S Webb</a>, <i>English Local Government</i> (1929) Volumes I–X.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Local_Government_Finance_Act_1992" title="Local Government Finance Act 1992">Local Government Finance Act 1992</a> set up property value bands, but despite proposals in 1995, these have never been altered despite drastic shifts in house prices.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Local_Government_Finance_Act_1992" title="Local Government Finance Act 1992">Local Government Finance Act 1992</a> ss 52ZA-ZY, introduced by the <a href="/wiki/Localism_Act_2011" title="Localism Act 2011">Localism Act 2011</a>. Also under ss 52A-Y in Wales the Secretary can cap council tax if deemed excessive.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">N Amin-Smith and D Phillips, 'English council funding: what's happened and what's next?' (2019) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ifs.org.uk/uploads/BN250-English-council-funding-whats-happened-and-whats-next.pdf">IFS, BN 250</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201103134750/https://www.ifs.org.uk/uploads/BN250-English-council-funding-whats-happened-and-whats-next.pdf">Archived</a> 3 November 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See further <a href="/wiki/Local_Government_Finance_Act_1992" title="Local Government Finance Act 1992">Local Government Finance Act 1992</a> ss 65-68. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Council_Tax_(Administration_and_Enforcement)_Regulations_1992&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Council Tax (Administration and Enforcement) Regulations 1992 (page does not exist)">Council Tax (Administration and Enforcement) Regulations 1992</a> regs 8-31</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/7542/18927821.xls">DCLG duties</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/7543/18927851.xls">other duties</a>. Having an uncodified constitution means laws can be amended and changed easily, the rules are not entrenched</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Localism_Act_2011" title="Localism Act 2011">Localism Act 2011</a> ss 1-5, which add that the Secretary of State can remove restrictions through secondary legislation.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Town_and_Country_Planning_Act_1990" title="Town and Country Planning Act 1990">Town and Country Planning Act 1990</a> ss 65-223</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Planning_and_Compulsory_Purchase_Act_2004" title="Planning and Compulsory Purchase Act 2004">Planning and Compulsory Purchase Act 2004</a> ss 13-39</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Education_Act_1996" title="Education Act 1996">Education Act 1996</a> ss 3A-458</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Public_Libraries_and_Museums_Act_1964" title="Public Libraries and Museums Act 1964">Public Libraries and Museums Act 1964</a> ss 1-13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Childcare_Act_2006" title="Childcare Act 2006">Childcare Act 2006</a> ss 6-13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Highways_Act_1980" title="Highways Act 1980">Highways Act 1980</a> ss 25-31A</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">eg<a href="/wiki/NHS_Act_2006" class="mw-redirect" title="NHS Act 2006">NHS Act 2006</a> ss 74-82. <a href="/wiki/NHS_and_Community_Care_Act_1990" class="mw-redirect" title="NHS and Community Care Act 1990">NHS and Community Care Act 1990</a> ss 46-47. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Carers_and_Disabled_Children_Act_2000&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Carers and Disabled Children Act 2000 (page does not exist)">Carers and Disabled Children Act 2000</a> s 1-6A</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_Protection_Act_1990" title="Environmental Protection Act 1990">Environmental Protection Act 1990</a> ss 45-73A</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">e.g. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Household_Recycling_Act_2003&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Household Recycling Act 2003 (page does not exist)">Household Recycling Act 2003</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Building_Act_1984" title="Building Act 1984">Building Act 1984</a> ss 59-106</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">e.g. <a href="/wiki/Housing_Act_1985" title="Housing Act 1985">Housing Act 1985</a> ss 8-43 and 166-8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_Act_2002" title="Homelessness Act 2002">Homelessness Act 2002</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">cf Widdicombe Committee, Committee of Inquiry into the Conduct of Local Authority Business (1986) Cmnd 9797</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Local Democracy, Economic Development and Construction Act 2009 s 107A and Sch 5A</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Cities_and_Local_Government_Devolution_Act_2016" title="Cities and Local Government Devolution Act 2016">Cities and Local Government Devolution Act 2016</a> s 15. cf M Elliot, <i>Public Law</i> (2016) 320, 'The net result, over time, will be a patchwork of combined authorities with elected mayors, supplying a mezzanine layer of government that sits between individual local authorities and central government.' HC 369 (2015-16) [53] criticised the lack of actual public consultation in creating combined authorities. See also <a href="/wiki/2012_English_mayoral_referendums" title="2012 English mayoral referendums">2012 English mayoral referendums</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_lord_mayoralties_and_lord_provostships_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of lord mayoralties and lord provostships in the United Kingdom">List of lord mayoralties and lord provostships in the United Kingdom</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">cf Sir Kenneth Calman Report, Serving Scotland Better (2009)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Wales_Act_1998" title="Government of Wales Act 1998">Government of Wales Act 1998</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2006/32/schedule/5">Sch 5</a> listing (1) agriculture, fisheries, forestry and rural development) (2) ancient monuments and historic buildings (3) culture (4) economic development (5) education and training (6) environment (7) fire and rescue services and promotion of fire safety (8) food (9) health and health services (10) highways and transport (11) housing (12) local government (13) National Assembly for Wales (14) public administration (15) social welfare (16) sport and recreation (17) tourism (18) town and country planning (19) water and flood defence (20) Welsh language.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agricultural_Sector_(Wales)_Bill_-_Reference_by_the_Attorney_General_for_England_and_Wales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Agricultural Sector (Wales) Bill - Reference by the Attorney General for England and Wales (page does not exist)">Agricultural Sector (Wales) Bill - Reference by the Attorney General for England and Wales</a></i> [2014] UKSC 43</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The oldest free speech and debating society in the world is <a href="/wiki/Cogers" title="Cogers">Cogers</a> (est 1755), while <a href="/wiki/The_Cambridge_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="The Cambridge Union">The Cambridge Union</a> was established in 1815, and the <a href="/wiki/Oxford_Union" title="Oxford Union">Oxford Union</a> in 1823. Most universities have student debating societies.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a> clauses 12 (no tax without consent), 39 (fair trial), 40 (justice), 41 (free movement of merchants), and 47 (disafforesting common land). The <a href="/wiki/Petition_of_Right_1628" class="mw-redirect" title="Petition of Right 1628">Petition of Right 1628</a> reasserted these values from Magna Carta against <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_England" title="Charles I of England">King Charles I</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/J_Bentham" class="mw-redirect" title="J Bentham">J Bentham</a>, <i>Anarchical Fallacies; Being an Examination of the Declarations of Rights Issued During the French Revolution</i> (1789) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/1921#Bentham_0872-02_6149">art II</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">M Wollstonecraft</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_the_Rights_of_Woman:_with_Strictures_on_Political_and_Moral_Subjects" class="mw-redirect" title="A Vindication of the Rights of Woman: with Strictures on Political and Moral Subjects">A Vindication of the Rights of Woman: with Strictures on Political and Moral Subjects</a></i> (1792). See also <a href="/wiki/Olympe_de_Gouges" title="Olympe de Gouges">O de Gouges</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Woman_and_of_the_Female_Citizen" title="Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen">Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen</a></i> (1791)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Turning points were the <a href="/wiki/Second_Reform_Act_1867" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Reform Act 1867">Second Reform Act 1867</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Trade_Union_Act_1871" title="Trade Union Act 1871">Trade Union Act 1871</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Though a UN General Assembly Declaration, not a treaty, the rights are binding <i><a href="/wiki/Jus_cogens" class="mw-redirect" title="Jus cogens">jus cogens</a></i> norms in international law, since two treaties, the <a href="/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights" title="International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights">International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights</a> and the <a href="/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Economic,_Social_and_Cultural_Rights" title="International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights">International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights</a> of 1966 recast the UDHR.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This is qualified, as in the <a href="/wiki/EU" class="mw-redirect" title="EU">EU</a>, by the position that international law must be compatible with basic principles of the UK constitution: see <i><a href="/wiki/R_(HS2_Action_Alliance_Ltd)_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Transport" title="R (HS2 Action Alliance Ltd) v Secretary of State for Transport">R (HS2 Action Alliance Ltd) v Secretary of State for Transport</a></i> [2014] UKSC 3 (for the UK), <i><a href="/wiki/Kadi_and_Al_Barakaat_International_Foundation_v_Council_and_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Kadi and Al Barakaat International Foundation v Council and Commission">Kadi and Al Barakaat International Foundation v Council and Commission</a></i> (2008) C-402/05 (for the EU) and <i><a href="/wiki/Re_W%C3%BCnsche_Handelsgesellschaft" class="mw-redirect" title="Re Wünsche Handelsgesellschaft">Re Wünsche Handelsgesellschaft</a></i> (22 October 1986) BVerfGE 73, 339 (first setting out the basic concepts).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="European Convention on Human Rights">ECHR</a> arts 2 (right to life). Article 3 (right against torture). Article 4, right against forced labour, see <i><a href="/wiki/Somerset_v_Stewart" title="Somerset v Stewart">Somerset v Stewart</a></i> (1772) 98 ER 499. Articles 12-14 are the right to marriage, effectiveness and to equal treatment.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="European Convention on Human Rights">ECHR</a> arts 5-11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Senior_Courts_Act_1981" title="Senior Courts Act 1981">Senior Courts Act 1981</a> s 31(3)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Civil_Procedure_Rules" title="Civil Procedure Rules">Civil Procedure Rules</a> rule 54.5 claims can be made up to 'three months after the grounds to make the claim first arose', but the period can be shorter if legislation says so.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Limitation_Act_1980" title="Limitation Act 1980">Limitation Act 1980</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1980/58/part/I">ss 2 and 5</a>. But under s 11, the period is three years for personal injury or death, under s 11A ten years for defective products, and under s 15 twelve years to recover land.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/R_(Datafin)_v_Panel_on_Takeovers_and_Mergers" class="mw-redirect" title="R (Datafin) v Panel on Takeovers and Mergers">R (Datafin) v Panel on Takeovers and Mergers</a></i> [1987] QB 815</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Different books and cases categorise the grounds to review administrative discretion differently, as do different fields of law such as <a href="/wiki/Directors%27_duties" title="Directors' duties">directors' duties</a> in <a href="/wiki/UK_company_law" class="mw-redirect" title="UK company law">UK company law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Unfair_dismissal" title="Unfair dismissal">unfair dismissal</a> in <a href="/wiki/UK_labour_law" class="mw-redirect" title="UK labour law">UK labour law</a> or implied terms in <a href="/wiki/English_contract_law" title="English contract law">English contract law</a>. Lord Diplock in the <i><a href="/wiki/GCHQ_case" class="mw-redirect" title="GCHQ case">GCHQ case</a></i> said the grounds were "illegality", "irrationality" and "procedural impropriety". A Le Sueur, M Sunkin and J Murkens, <i>Public Law Text, Cases, and Materials</i> (3rd edn 2016) ch 16 follows this. It is often, however, unclear how a procedural requirement of the law can be separated from substance, and it was thought that "irrationality" is too restrictive. AW Bradley, KD Ewing and CJS Knight, <i>Constitutional and Administrative Law</i> (2014) ch 24 now suggests substantive grounds, legitimate expectations and procedural grounds. In <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=R_(Baker)_v_Devon_CC&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="R (Baker) v Devon CC (page does not exist)">R (Baker) v Devon CC</a></i> [1995] 1 All ER 73, 88, <a href="/wiki/Sir_Robin_Cooke" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Robin Cooke">Sir Robin Cooke</a> said 'The administrator must act fairly, reasonably and according to law. That is the essence and the rest is mainly machinery.' M Elliott and R Thomas, <i>Public Law</i> (3rd edn 2017) ch 12 generally follows this. Another categorisation of <a href="/wiki/Lord_Bingham_of_Cornhill" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Bingham of Cornhill">Lord Bingham of Cornhill</a>, <i>Rule of Law</i> (2010) was 'Ministers and public officers at all levels must exercise the powers conferred on them in good faith, fairly, for the purposes for which the powers were conferred, without exceeding the limits of such powers and not unreasonably.' Contrast the <a href="/wiki/Companies_Act_2006" title="Companies Act 2006">Companies Act 2006</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2006/46/part/10/chapter/2">ss 171-177</a>, codifying directors' duties.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Ridge_v_Baldwin" title="Ridge v Baldwin">Ridge v Baldwin</a></i> [1964] AC 40 (following law). <i><a href="/wiki/Padfield_v_Minister_of_Agriculture" title="Padfield v Minister of Agriculture">Padfield v Minister of Agriculture</a></i> [1968] AC 997 (improper purpose), <i><a href="/wiki/R_v_Home_Secretary_ex_p_Venables_and_Thompson" class="mw-redirect" title="R v Home Secretary ex p Venables and Thompson">R v Home Secretary ex p Venables and Thompson</a></i> [1998] AC 407 (irrelevant consideration).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Associated_Provincial_Picture_Houses_v_Wednesbury_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Associated Provincial Picture Houses v Wednesbury Corporation">Associated Provincial Picture Houses v Wednesbury Corporation</a></i> [1948] 1 KB 223 (unreasonableness loosely defined); <i><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Civil_Service_Unions_v_Minister_for_the_Civil_Service" title="Council of Civil Service Unions v Minister for the Civil Service">Council of Civil Service Unions v Minister for the Civil Service</a></i> [1985] AC 374 (legitimate expectation rejected). <i><a href="/wiki/R_v_North_and_East_Devon_Health_Authority,_ex_p_Coughlan" class="mw-redirect" title="R v North and East Devon Health Authority, ex p Coughlan">R v North and East Devon Health Authority, ex p Coughlan</a></i> [2001] QB 213 (legitimate expectation upheld)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/R_(Corner_House_Research)_v_Director_of_the_Serious_Fraud_Office" title="R (Corner House Research) v Director of the Serious Fraud Office">R (Corner House Research) v Director of the Serious Fraud Office</a></i> [2008] UKHL 60 (independent judgement)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Porter_v_Magill" title="Porter v Magill">Porter v Magill</a></i> [2001] UKHL 67 (bias). <i><a href="/wiki/R_v_Bow_Street_Stipendiary_Magistrate,_ex_p_Pinochet_(No_2)" class="mw-redirect" title="R v Bow Street Stipendiary Magistrate, ex p Pinochet (No 2)">R v Bow Street Stipendiary Magistrate, ex p Pinochet (No 2)</a></i> [2000] 1 AC 119 (possibility of a conflict of interest).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Act_1998" title="Human Rights Act 1998">Human Rights Act 1998</a> ss 3-6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Senior_Courts_Act_1981" title="Senior Courts Act 1981">Senior Courts Act 1981</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1981/54/section/31">s 31(1)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-251"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/J_Froissart" class="mw-redirect" title="J Froissart">J Froissart</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Froissart%27s_Chronicles" title="Froissart's Chronicles">Froissart's Chronicles</a></i> (1385) translated by GC Macaulay (1895) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/chroniclesfrois00macagoog#page/n290/mode/2up">251–252</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1800" title="Acts of Union 1800">Acts of Union 1800</a> unified the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Kingdom of Great Britain</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ireland" title="Kingdom of Ireland">Kingdom of Ireland</a>, while the <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707" title="Acts of Union 1707">Acts of Union 1707</a> unified England and Wales with Scotland, but did not yet officially use the name 'United Kingdom'.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See AW Bradley, KD Ewing and CJS Knight, <i>Constitutional and Administrative Law</i> (2018) ch 2, 32-48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/F_Pollock" class="mw-redirect" title="F Pollock">F Pollock</a> and <a href="/wiki/FW_Maitland" class="mw-redirect" title="FW Maitland">FW Maitland</a>, <i>The history of English law before the time of Edward I</i> (1899) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/cu31924017857974#page/n45/mode/2up">Book I, ch I, 1</a>, 'Such is the unity of all history that anyone who endeavours to tell a piece of it must feel that his first sentence tears a seamless web.' But see <a href="/wiki/FW_Maitland" class="mw-redirect" title="FW Maitland">FW Maitland</a>, <i>The constitutional history of England</i> (1909) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/constitutionalh00mait#page/6/mode/2up">6</a>, explaining pre-Norman collections of laws, and the <a href="/wiki/Witan" title="Witan">Witan</a> assembly to advise the King, a precursor to Parliament.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-255"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://earlyenglishlaws.ac.uk/laws/texts/synopsis/ECf1.html">"Laws of Edward the Confessor"</a>. 26 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Laws+of+Edward+the+Confessor&rft.date=2022-05-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fearlyenglishlaws.ac.uk%2Flaws%2Ftexts%2Fsynopsis%2FECf1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">DD McGarry, <i>Medieval History and Civilization</i> (1976) 242, 12% free, 30% serfs, 35% bordars and cottars, 9% slaves.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-257"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">T Purser, <i>Medieval England, 1042-1228</i> (2004) 161, this included a 25% tax on income and property, all the year's wool, and all churches gold and silver, to pay a ransom after Richard I was captured when returning from the crusades by <a href="/wiki/Henry_VI,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor">Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a> clauses 12 (Parliament), 17 (court), 39 (fair trial), 41 (free movement), 47 (common land).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-259"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="/wiki/William_Langland" title="William Langland">W Langland</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Piers_Plowman" title="Piers Plowman">Piers Plowman</a></i> (1370) <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Piers_Ploughman_(Wright)/Passus_5">Passus 5, 3278</a>, "But I kan rymes of Robyn Hood" is the first mention of the tales, notably in the run up to the <a href="/wiki/Peasants%27_revolt_of_1381" class="mw-redirect" title="Peasants' revolt of 1381">Peasants' revolt of 1381</a>. As ballads and poems evolved, see <a href="/wiki/John_Stow" title="John Stow">John Stow</a>, <i>Annales of England</i> (1592)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Charter_of_the_Forest_1217" class="mw-redirect" title="Charter of the Forest 1217">Charter of the Forest 1217</a>. This allowed, for example, in clause 9, 'Every freeman shall at his own pleasure provide agistment' or grazing rights, and in clause 12, 'Henceforth every freeman, in his wood or on his land that he has in the forest, may with impunity make a mill, fish-preserve, pond, marl-pit, ditch, or arable in cultivated land outside coverts, provided that no injury is thereby given to any neighbour.'</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-261"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pollock and Maitland (1899) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/cu31924017857974#page/n217/mode/2up">Book I, 173</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-262"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J Froissart, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Chronicles_of_Froissart" class="mw-redirect" title="The Chronicles of Froissart">The Chronicles of Froissart</a></i> (1385) translated by GC Macaulay (1895) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/chroniclesfrois00macagoog#page/n290/mode/2up">250–52</a>, "What have we deserved, or why should we be kept thus in servage? We be all come from one father and one mother, <a href="/wiki/Adam_and_Eve" title="Adam and Eve">Adam and Eve</a>: whereby can they say or shew that they be greater lords than we be, saving by that they cause us to win and labour for that they dispend? They are clothed in <a href="/wiki/Velvet" title="Velvet">velvet</a> and camlet furred with grise, and we be vestured with poor cloth: they have their wines, spices and good bread, and we have the drawing out of the chaff and drink water: they dwell in fair houses, and we have the pain and travail, rain and wind in the fields; and by that that cometh of our labours they keep and maintain their estates: we be called their bondmen, and without we do readily them service, we be <a href="/wiki/Corporal_punishment" title="Corporal punishment">beaten</a>; and we have no sovereign to whom we may complain, nor that will hear us nor do us right."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-263"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">EP Cheyney, 'The Disappearance of English Serfdom' (1900) 15(57) English Historical Review 20 and <a href="/wiki/A_Fitzherbert" class="mw-redirect" title="A Fitzherbert">A Fitzherbert</a>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surueyenge&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Surueyenge (page does not exist)">Surueyenge</a></i> (1546) 31, servitude was 'the greatest inconvenience that nowe is suffred by the lawe. That is to have any christen man bounden to an other, and to have the rule of his body, landes, and goodes, that his wyfe, children, and servantes have laboured for, all their life tyme, to be so taken, lyke as it were extorcion or bribery'.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="/wiki/Inclosure_Acts" class="mw-redirect" title="Inclosure Acts">Inclosure Acts</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vagrancy_Act_1547&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vagrancy Act 1547 (page does not exist)">Vagrancy Act 1547</a>. cf <a href="/wiki/T_More" class="mw-redirect" title="T More">T More</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Utopia_(More_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Utopia (More book)">Utopia</a></i> (1516) Book I, "wherever it is found that the sheep of any soil yield a softer and richer wool than ordinary, there the nobility and gentry, and even those holy men, the abbots not contented with the old rents which their farms yielded... stop the course of agriculture, destroying houses and towns, reserving only the churches, and enclose grounds that they may lodge their sheep in them... Stop the rich from cornering markets and establishing virtual monopolies. Reduce the number of people who are kept doing nothing. Revive agriculture and the wool industry, so that there is plenty of honest, useful work for the great army of unemployed – by which I mean not only existing thieves, but tramps and idle servants who are bound to become thieves eventually."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On his behalf <a href="/wiki/Edward_Seymour,_1st_Duke_of_Somerset" title="Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset">Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset</a> ruled as <a href="/wiki/Lord_Protector" title="Lord Protector">Lord Protector</a> until he was replaced and executed by <a href="/wiki/John_Dudley,_1st_Duke_of_Northumberland" title="John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland">John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland</a>. <a href="/wiki/Somerset_House" title="Somerset House">Somerset House</a> was transferred to the crown, and Elizabeth was allowed to live there by <a href="/wiki/Mary,_Queen_of_Scots" title="Mary, Queen of Scots">Mary, Queen of Scots</a> as she killed <a href="/wiki/Lady_Jane_Grey" title="Lady Jane Grey">Lady Jane Grey</a> (1554) and ruled until 1558. Mary then died without children, after killing hundreds of Protestants.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-266"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James, <i><a href="/wiki/The_True_Law_of_Free_Monarchies" title="The True Law of Free Monarchies">The True Law of Free Monarchies</a></i> (1598)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-267"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Coke had already reported on many significant constitutional judgments, often adding his own style, including <i><a href="/wiki/Heydon%27s_Case" title="Heydon's Case">Heydon's Case</a></i> (1584) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWHC/Exch/1584/J36.html">76 ER 637</a>, that the task of a court in construing any statute is to find its mischief and the intention of Parliament, and <i><a href="/wiki/Semayne%27s_Case" class="mw-redirect" title="Semayne's Case">Semayne's Case</a></i> (1604) 5 Coke Rep 91, that nobody can enter another's property without lawful authority and that "the house of every one is to him as his castle and fortress, as well for his defence against injury and violence as for his repose." See also <i><a href="/wiki/Calvin%27s_Case" title="Calvin's Case">Calvin's Case</a></i> <i>Calvin's Case</i> (1572) , <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.commonlii.org/uk/cases/EngR/1572/64.pdf">77 ER 377</a> that a person born in Scotland is entitled to all rights in England.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-268"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Case_of_Prohibitions" title="Case of Prohibitions">Case of Prohibitions</a></i> [1607] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWHC/KB/1607/J23.html">EWHC J23 (KB)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-269"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(1610) 77 Eng Rep 638</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">e.g. <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Day_v_Savadge&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Day v Savadge (page does not exist)">Day v Savadge</a></i> (1614) Hob 85, 80 ER 235, Hobart CJ, 'even an Act of Parliament, made against natural equity, as to make a man judge in his own case, is void in itself, for jura nutrae sunt immutabilia, and they are leges legu.' <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=R_v_Love&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="R v Love (page does not exist)">R v Love</a></i> (1653) 5 State Tr 825, 828, Keble J, 'Whatsoever is not consonant to the law of God, or to right reason which is maintained by scripture... be it Acts of Parliament, customs, or any judicial acts of the Court, it is not the law of England.' <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=City_of_London_v_Wood&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="City of London v Wood (page does not exist)">City of London v Wood</a></i> (1701) 12 Mod 669 per <a href="/wiki/Holt_CJ" class="mw-redirect" title="Holt CJ">Holt CJ</a>. cf <a href="/wiki/W_Blackstone" class="mw-redirect" title="W Blackstone">W Blackstone</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Commentaries_on_the_Laws_of_England" title="Commentaries on the Laws of England">Commentaries on the Laws of England</a></i> (1765) "if the parliament will positively enact a thing to be done which is unreasonable, I know of no power that can control it..." In the US, Coke CJ's argument was applied in <i><a href="/wiki/Marbury_v_Madison" class="mw-redirect" title="Marbury v Madison">Marbury v Madison</a></i> 5 US (1 Cranch) 137 (1803).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-271"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(1615) 21 ER 485</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-272"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-272">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Compounded by a ruling in <i>Peacham's Case</i> (1614) that held it would not be treason to advocate the King's death.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-273"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <i><a href="/wiki/Five_Knights%27_case" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Knights' case">Five Knights' case</a></i> (1627) 3 How St Tr 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-274"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-274">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Petition_of_Right_1628" class="mw-redirect" title="Petition of Right 1628">Petition of Right 1628</a> (<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Petition_of_Right">3 Cha. 1. c. 1</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-275"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-275">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Debates on the proper nature of liberty were held at the <a href="/wiki/Putney_debates" class="mw-redirect" title="Putney debates">Putney debates</a>, October to November 1647, summarised in ASP Woodhouse, <i>Puritanism and Liberty</i> (1938) <a href="//archive.org/details/puritanismlibert00grea/page/52" class="extiw" title="iarchive:puritanismlibert00grea/page/52">52</a>. By contrast, a bitter opponent of the civil war was <a href="/w/index.php?title=T_Hobbes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="T Hobbes (page does not exist)">T Hobbes</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a></i> (<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Leviathan" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Leviathan">1651</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-276"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Cromwell" title="Richard Cromwell">Richard Cromwell</a>, Oliver's son, briefly succeeded but lacking support swiftly renounced power after 9 months.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-277"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-277">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The conflict ended at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Boyne" title="Battle of the Boyne">Battle of the Boyne</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-278"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_1689" title="Bill of Rights 1689">Bill of Rights 1689</a> and <a href="/wiki/Claim_of_Right_1689" title="Claim of Right 1689">Claim of Right 1689</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/aep/WillandMarSess2/1/2">arts 2, 8 and 13</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-279"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-279">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Second_Treatise_on_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Treatise on Government">Second Treatise on Government</a></i> (1689) <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government/Book_II#Chap._IX._Of_the_Ends_of_Political_Society_and_Government.">ch IX</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-280"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(1703) 92 ER 126, per <a href="/wiki/Holt_CJ" class="mw-redirect" title="Holt CJ">Holt CJ</a> confirmed by the House of Lords.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-281"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/aep/Ann/6/11">"Union with Scotland Act 1706"</a>. <i>legislation.gov.uk</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 November</span> 2020</span>. <q>Articles 18 and 19</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=legislation.gov.uk&rft.atitle=Union+with+Scotland+Act+1706&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.legislation.gov.uk%2Faep%2FAnn%2F6%2F11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-282"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/A_Smith" class="mw-redirect" title="A Smith">A Smith</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a></i> (1776) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/smith-an-inquiry-into-the-nature-and-causes-of-the-wealth-of-nations-cannan-ed-vol-2#Smith_0206-02_591">Book V, ch 1, §107</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-283"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Keech_v_Sandford" title="Keech v Sandford">Keech v Sandford</a></i> [1726] EWHC J76, an <a href="/wiki/English_trust_law" title="English trust law">English trust law</a> case following Lord Macclesfield LC, disgraced by his role on the South Sea Company, impeached by the House of Lords and found guilty of taking bribes in 1725. <i>Keech</i> reversed <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bromfield_v_Wytherley&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bromfield v Wytherley (page does not exist)">Bromfield v Wytherley</a></i> (1718) Prec Ch 505 that a fiduciary could take money from a trust and keep profits if they restored the principal afterwards.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-284"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-284">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Attorney_General_v_Davy" title="Attorney General v Davy">Attorney General v Davy</a></i> (1741) 26 ER 531 established that any body of assembled people can do a corporate act by a majority.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-285"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walpole's tenure lasted from 1721-1742.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-286"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-286">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Entick_v_Carrington" title="Entick v Carrington">Entick v Carrington</a></i> [1765] EWHC KB J98</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-287"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(1772) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.commonlii.org/int/cases/EngR/1772/57.pdf">98 ER 499</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Stewart_(customs_official)" title="Charles Stewart (customs official)">Charles Stewart</a> from <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>, <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a> had bought <a href="/wiki/James_Somerset" title="James Somerset">James Somerset</a> as a slave and taken him to <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>. With the help of <a href="/wiki/Abolitionists" class="mw-redirect" title="Abolitionists">abolitionists</a>, Somerset escaped and sued for a writ of <i><a href="/wiki/Habeas_corpus" title="Habeas corpus">habeas corpus</a></i> (that "holding his body" had been unlawful). <a href="/wiki/Lord_Mansfield" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Mansfield">Lord Mansfield</a>, after declaring he should "<a href="/wiki/Let_justice_be_done_whatever_be_the_consequence" class="mw-redirect" title="Let justice be done whatever be the consequence">let justice be done whatever be the consequence</a>", held that slavery was "so odious" that nobody could take "a slave by force to be sold" for any "reason whatever".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-288"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-288">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">AW Blumrosen, 'The Profound Influence in America of Lord Mansfield's Decision in Somerset v Stuart' (2007) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/twlr13&div=28&id=&page=">13 Texas Wesleyan Law Review 645</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-289"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-289">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Using the <a href="/wiki/Transportation_Act_1717" class="mw-redirect" title="Transportation Act 1717">Transportation Act 1717</a> and then the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Transportation_Act_1790&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Transportation Act 1790 (page does not exist)">Transportation Act 1790</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-290"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See the <a href="/wiki/Combination_Acts" class="mw-redirect" title="Combination Acts">Combination Acts</a>, etc.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-291"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-291">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/J_Bentham" class="mw-redirect" title="J Bentham">J Bentham</a>, <i>Anarchical Fallacies; Being an examination of the Declaration of Rights issued during the French Revolution</i> (1796)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-292"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-292">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M Wollstonecraft, <i><a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_the_Rights_of_Woman" title="A Vindication of the Rights of Woman">A Vindication of the Rights of Woman</a></i> (1792) <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Vindication_of_the_Rights_of_Woman/Chapter_IX">ch IX</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-293"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-293">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Union_with_Ireland_Act_1800" class="mw-redirect" title="Union with Ireland Act 1800">Union with Ireland Act 1800</a> arts 3-4 gave Irish representation at Westminster.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-294"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-294">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/T_Malthus" class="mw-redirect" title="T Malthus">T Malthus</a>, <i>An Essay on the Principle of Population</i> (1798) supported this, arguing that working class "vice" and overpopulation was the cause of poverty.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-295"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-295">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(1834) 172 ER 1380</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-296"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-296">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Letter to <a href="/wiki/John_Russell,_1st_Earl_Russell" title="John Russell, 1st Earl Russell">Lord Russell</a> (October 1862) 'Power in the Hands of the Masses throws the Scum of the Community to the Surface. ... Truth and Justice are soon banished from the Land.'</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-297"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-297">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See also the <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_and_Protection_of_Property_Act_1875" class="mw-redirect" title="Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act 1875">Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act 1875</a> and <i><a href="/wiki/Allen_v_Flood" title="Allen v Flood">Allen v Flood</a></i> [1898] AC 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-298"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-298">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPilkington1999" class="citation book cs1">Pilkington, Colin (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oSYdxnZrzqUC&q=representation+of+the+people+1884&pg=PA134"><i>The Politics today companion to the British Constitution</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Manchester_University_Press" title="Manchester University Press">Manchester University Press</a>. p. 134. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-5303-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-5303-0"><bdi>978-0-7190-5303-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics+today+companion+to+the+British+Constitution&rft.pages=134&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-5303-0&rft.aulast=Pilkington&rft.aufirst=Colin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoSYdxnZrzqUC%26q%3Drepresentation%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bpeople%2B1884%26pg%3DPA134&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cook-299"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cook_299-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCook2005" class="citation book cs1">Cook, Chris (2005). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/routledgecompani00cook"><i>The Routledge Companion to Britain in the Nineteenth Century, 1815-1914</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/routledgecompani00cook/page/n80">68</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35970-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35970-2"><bdi>978-0-415-35970-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+Companion+to+Britain+in+the+Nineteenth+Century%2C+1815-1914&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-415-35970-2&rft.aulast=Cook&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Froutledgecompani00cook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-300"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-300">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Taff_Vale_Railway_Co_v_Amalgamated_Society_of_Railway_Servants" class="mw-redirect" title="Taff Vale Railway Co v Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants">Taff Vale Railway Co v Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants</a></i> [1901] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/1901/1.html">UKHL 1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-301"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-301">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Trade_Disputes_Act_1906" title="Trade Disputes Act 1906">Trade Disputes Act 1906</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-302"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-302">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Old_Age_Pensions_Act_1908" title="Old Age Pensions Act 1908">Old Age Pensions Act 1908</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-303"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-303">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Trade_Boards_Act_1909" title="Trade Boards Act 1909">Trade Boards Act 1909</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-304"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-304">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/National_Insurance_Act_1911" title="National Insurance Act 1911">National Insurance Act 1911</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-305"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-305">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Parliament_Act_1949" title="Parliament Act 1949">Parliament Act 1949</a> reduced the power to delay to one year.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-306"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-306">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Predicted by <a href="/wiki/JM_Keynes" class="mw-redirect" title="JM Keynes">JM Keynes</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Economic_Consequences_of_the_Peace" title="The Economic Consequences of the Peace">The Economic Consequences of the Peace</a></i> (1919)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-307"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-307">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">JC Coffee, 'What Went Wrong? An Initial Inquiry into the Causes of the 2008 Financial Crisis' (2009) 9(1) Journal of Corporate Law Studies 1. For problems starting in US regulation, see E Warren, 'Product Safety Regulation as a Model for Financial Services Regulation' (2008) 43(2) Journal of Consumer Affairs 452, and contrast the Consumer Credit Act 1974 or the Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Directive 93/13/EEC arts 3-6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kopstein2014-308"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kopstein2014_308-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKopsteinLichbachHanson2014" class="citation book cs1">Kopstein, Jeffrey; Lichbach, Mark; Hanson, Stephen E., eds. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L2jwAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA37"><i>Comparative Politics: Interests, Identities, and Institutions in a Changing Global Order</i></a> (4, revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">37–</span>39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-99138-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-99138-4"><bdi>978-1-139-99138-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comparative+Politics%3A+Interests%2C+Identities%2C+and+Institutions+in+a+Changing+Global+Order&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E37-%3C%2Fspan%3E39&rft.edition=4%2C+revised&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-139-99138-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL2jwAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-309"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-309">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHostettler2011" class="citation book cs1">Hostettler, John (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Eh7bCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA23"><i>Champions of the rule of law</i></a>. Waterside Press. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-904380-68-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-904380-68-9"><bdi>978-1-904380-68-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Champions+of+the+rule+of+law&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Waterside+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-904380-68-9&rft.aulast=Hostettler&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEh7bCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-310"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-310">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTerrill2015" class="citation book cs1">Terrill, Richard J. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xZ3hCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA20"><i>World Criminal Justice Systems: A Comparative Survey</i></a> (revised ed.). Routledge. p. 20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1317228820" title="Special:BookSources/978-1317228820"><bdi>978-1317228820</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+Criminal+Justice+Systems%3A+A+Comparative+Survey&rft.pages=20&rft.edition=revised&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1317228820&rft.aulast=Terrill&rft.aufirst=Richard+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxZ3hCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-311"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-311">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.judiciary.gov.uk/about-the-judiciary/the-judiciary-the-government-and-the-constitution/jud-acc-ind/independence/">"Independence"</a>. Courts and Tribunals Judiciary<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 November</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Independence&rft.pub=Courts+and+Tribunals+Judiciary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.judiciary.gov.uk%2Fabout-the-judiciary%2Fthe-judiciary-the-government-and-the-constitution%2Fjud-acc-ind%2Findependence%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-312"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-312">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMc_Manamon2012" class="citation thesis cs1">Mc Manamon, Anthony (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://etheses.bham.ac.uk/id/eprint/3749/"><i>The House of Lords and the British political tradition</i></a> (Ph.D. thesis). University of Birmingham.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=The+House+of+Lords+and+the+British+political+tradition&rft.degree=Ph.D.&rft.inst=University+of+Birmingham&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Mc+Manamon&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fetheses.bham.ac.uk%2Fid%2Feprint%2F3749%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bar-313"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bar_313-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bar_313-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarendt1997" class="citation journal cs1">Barendt, Eric (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130415151256/http://ojls.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/17/1/137?maxtoshow=&HITS=80&hits=80&RESULTFORMAT=1&andorexacttitle=and&andorexacttitleabs=and&andorexactfulltext=and&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&sortspec=relevance&fdate=1/1/1997&resourcetype=HWCIT">"Is there a United Kingdom Constitution"</a>. <i>Oxford Journal of Legal Studies</i>. <b>137</b>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ojls.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/17/1/137?maxtoshow=&HITS=80&hits=80&RESULTFORMAT=1&andorexacttitle=and&andorexacttitleabs=and&andorexactfulltext=and&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&sortspec=relevance&fdate=1%2F1%2F1997&resourcetype=HWCIT">the original</a> on 15 April 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 October</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Journal+of+Legal+Studies&rft.atitle=Is+there+a+United+Kingdom+Constitution&rft.volume=137&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Barendt&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fojls.oxfordjournals.org%2Fcgi%2Freprint%2F17%2F1%2F137%3Fmaxtoshow%3D%26HITS%3D80%26hits%3D80%26RESULTFORMAT%3D1%26andorexacttitle%3Dand%26andorexacttitleabs%3Dand%26andorexactfulltext%3Dand%26searchid%3D1%26FIRSTINDEX%3D0%26sortspec%3Drelevance%26fdate%3D1%252F1%252F1997%26resourcetype%3DHWCIT&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-314"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-314">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScarman2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Leslie_Scarman,_Baron_Scarman" title="Leslie Scarman, Baron Scarman">Scarman, Leslie</a> (20 July 2003). "Why Britain Needs a Written Constitution". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091230084320/http://www.unlockdemocracy.org.uk/charter88archive/pubs/sovlecs/scarman.html"><i>Charter88 Sovereignty lecture</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Charter88" class="mw-redirect" title="Charter88">Charter88</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unlockdemocracy.org.uk/charter88archive/pubs/sovlecs/scarman.html">the original</a> on 30 December 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 January</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Why+Britain+Needs+a+Written+Constitution&rft.btitle=Charter88+Sovereignty+lecture&rft.pub=Charter88&rft.date=2003-07-20&rft.aulast=Scarman&rft.aufirst=Leslie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unlockdemocracy.org.uk%2Fcharter88archive%2Fpubs%2Fsovlecs%2Fscarman.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-315"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-315">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDicey1915" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/A._V._Dicey" title="A. V. Dicey">Dicey, A.V.</a> (1915). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontos04dicegoog"><i>Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution</i></a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers" title="Macmillan Publishers">Macmillan Publishers</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontos04dicegoog/page/n88">70</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Study+of+the+Law+of+the+Constitution&rft.place=London&rft.pages=70&rft.pub=Macmillan+Publishers&rft.date=1915&rft.aulast=Dicey&rft.aufirst=A.V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintroductiontos04dicegoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-316"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-316">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbbott2006" class="citation book cs1">Abbott, Lewis F. (2006). "Five: "The Legal Protection of Democracy & Freedom: The Case for a New Written Constitution & Bill of Rights"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xwN-MIMtE6sC"><i>British Democracy: Its Restoration & Extension</i></a>. ISR. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-906321-31-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-906321-31-7"><bdi>978-0-906321-31-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Five%3A+%22The+Legal+Protection+of+Democracy+%26+Freedom%3A+The+Case+for+a+New+Written+Constitution+%26+Bill+of+Rights%22&rft.btitle=British+Democracy%3A+Its+Restoration+%26+Extension&rft.pub=ISR&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-906321-31-7&rft.aulast=Abbott&rft.aufirst=Lewis+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxwN-MIMtE6sC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-317"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-317">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDicey2009" class="citation book cs1">Dicey, A. V. (May 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SBNxu6y9t8EC&pg=PA193"><i>Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution</i></a>. Lightning Source. p. 193. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4446-4096-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4446-4096-0"><bdi>978-1-4446-4096-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Study+of+the+Law+of+the+Constitution&rft.pages=193&rft.pub=Lightning+Source&rft.date=2009-05&rft.isbn=978-1-4446-4096-0&rft.aulast=Dicey&rft.aufirst=A.+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSBNxu6y9t8EC%26pg%3DPA193&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-318"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-318">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradley" class="citation web cs1">Bradley, Joseph P. (dissenting). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/83/36">"Slaughter-House Cases 83 U.S. 36 (1873)"</a>. <i>Legal Information Institute</i>. Cornell University Law School<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 July</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Legal+Information+Institute&rft.atitle=Slaughter-House+Cases+83+U.S.+36+%281873%29&rft.aulast=Bradley&rft.aufirst=Joseph+P.+%28dissenting%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fsupremecourt%2Ftext%2F83%2F36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-319"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-319">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dawn Oliver noted the absence of a 'master plan or coherent programme for reform of the UK constitution' and considered that the reforms were 'pragmatic responses to political pressures and perceived problems, on an ad hoc, incremental basis': as quoted by Mitchell, James, <i>The Westminster Model and the State of Unions</i>, Parliamentary Affairs, Vol. 63, No. 1 (Jan 2010), p. 85</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-320"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-320">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-13297573">"Vote 2011: UK rejects alternative vote"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 7 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Vote+2011%3A+UK+rejects+alternative+vote&rft.date=2011-05-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fuk-politics-13297573&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>Articles</dt></dl> <ul><li>A Blick, '<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyandpolicy.org/policy-papers/papers/magna-carta-and-contemporary-constitutional-change">Magna Carta and contemporary constitutional change</a>' (2015) History and Policy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/V_Bogdanor" class="mw-redirect" title="V Bogdanor">V Bogdanor</a>, T Khaitan and S Vogenauer, 'Should Britain have a written constitution?' (2007) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bc177601-a-62cb3a1a-s-sites.googlegroups.com/site/spcuvm/lecturas/6.InglaterraConstituci%C3%B3n.pdf?attachauth=ANoY7cpqTT3HDvowSmnRXHBwNtT3CTTYlAk80MCbbvAJoPOTAeIDpotkR2mfhskJZuwvoBE3iODQGdRoQlgP5qVCz2e2AuM7H8IJ3IUIz1lQc6ny-jtkAe9tBO5NwsKwns1_QaDMQWozehUDg6omLWF3mcckCmE_mqoEW15ihxMBbvHBirsM3bmpKIt875fDrbk6zdb2Jc8bd6TiHzocfZrgTOxkfsCq5t6Qu7ep2BxyMNX0CR7qTkqvTRYOu8Kl1X7IYqFqbnvN&attredirects=0">78(4) Political Quarterly 499</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged December 2023">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li>Briggs, Asa, “Trollope, Bagehot, and the English Constitution,” in Briggs, <i>Victorian People</i> (1955) pp. 87–115. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/victorianpeoplea000327mbp/page/n9/mode/2up">online</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KD_Ewing" class="mw-redirect" title="KD Ewing">KD Ewing</a>, 'The Resilience of the Political Constitution' (2013) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://static1.squarespace.com/static/56330ad3e4b0733dcc0c8495/t/56b26ec8ab48de0e424c1921/1454534345473/GLJ_Vol_14_No_12_Ewing.pdf">14(12) German Law Journal 2111</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201030195001/https://static1.squarespace.com/static/56330ad3e4b0733dcc0c8495/t/56b26ec8ab48de0e424c1921/1454534345473/GLJ_Vol_14_No_12_Ewing.pdf">Archived</a> 30 October 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>JAW Griffith, 'The Political Constitution' (1979) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1468-2230.1979.tb01506.x">42(1) Modern Law Review 1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F_Kessler" class="mw-redirect" title="F Kessler">F Kessler</a>, 'Natural Law, Justice and Democracy—Some Reflections on Three Types of Thinking About Law and Justice' (1944) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://scholar.google.co.uk/&httpsredir=1&article=11601&context=journal_articles">19 Tulane Law Review 32</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Hoffmann" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Hoffmann">Lord Hoffmann</a>, (2013) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.ox.ac.uk/sites/files/oxlaw/law_news_2013.pdf">17 Oxford Law News 8-9</a>, from a tribute at St John's Smith Square on 5 June 2013</li> <li><a href="/wiki/O_Kahn-Freund" class="mw-redirect" title="O Kahn-Freund">O Kahn-Freund</a>, 'Autobiographical Memories of the Weimar Republic: A Conversation with Wolfgang Luthardt' (February 1978) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2783260">KCL Law School Research Paper No. 2016-34</a></li> <li>J Laws, 'Law and Democracy' [1995] Public Law 72</li> <li><a href="/wiki/S_Webb" class="mw-redirect" title="S Webb">S Webb</a>, 'Socialism: true and false. A lecture delivered to the Fabian Society' (21 January 1894) Fabian Tract, 51</li> <li><a href="/wiki/S_Webb" class="mw-redirect" title="S Webb">S Webb</a>, 'The reform of the House of Lords' (1917) Fabian Tract, 183</li></ul> <dl><dt>Books</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/W_Bagehot" class="mw-redirect" title="W Bagehot">W Bagehot</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_English_Constitution" title="The English Constitution">The English Constitution</a></i> (1867)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Bingham_of_Cornhill" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Bingham of Cornhill">Lord Bingham of Cornhill</a>, <i>Rule of Law</i> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/AV_Dicey" class="mw-redirect" title="AV Dicey">AV Dicey</a>, <i>Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution</i> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/introductiontos04dicegoog#page/n6/mode/2up">3rd edn 1889</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/H_Arendt" class="mw-redirect" title="H Arendt">H Arendt</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Eichmann_in_Jerusalem:_A_Report_on_the_Banality_of_Evil" class="mw-redirect" title="Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil">Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil</a></i> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J_Froissart" class="mw-redirect" title="J Froissart">J Froissart</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Froissart%27s_Chronicles" title="Froissart's Chronicles">Froissart's Chronicles</a></i> (1385) translated by GC Macaulay (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/chroniclesfrois00macagoog#page/n12/mode/2up">1895</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/I_Jennings" class="mw-redirect" title="I Jennings">I Jennings</a>, <i>A Federation for Western Europe</i> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/federationforwes031229mbp#page/n5/mode/2up/search/Kingdom">1940</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J_Locke" class="mw-redirect" title="J Locke">J Locke</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i> (<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government">1689</a>) <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government/Book_II">Book II, An Essay Concerning the True Origin, Extent, and End of Civil Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FW_Maitland" class="mw-redirect" title="FW Maitland">FW Maitland</a>, <i>The Constitutional History of England</i> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/constitutionalhi029314mbp#page/n5/mode/2up">CUP 1919</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/JS_Mill" class="mw-redirect" title="JS Mill">JS Mill</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a></i> (<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/On_Liberty">1859</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/JS_Mill" class="mw-redirect" title="JS Mill">JS Mill</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Considerations_on_Representative_Government" title="Considerations on Representative Government">Considerations on Representative Government</a></i> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/considerations00mill#page/n7/mode/2up">1861</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/T_More" class="mw-redirect" title="T More">T More</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Utopia_(More_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Utopia (More book)">Utopia</a></i> (1516) translated by <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Burnet" title="Gilbert Burnet">Gilbert Burnet</a> (<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Utopia_(1901)">1901</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/FL_Neumann" class="mw-redirect" title="FL Neumann">FL Neumann</a>, <i>Behemoth: The Structure and Practice of National Socialism, 1933-1944</i> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/FL_Neumann" class="mw-redirect" title="FL Neumann">FL Neumann</a>, <i>The Democratic and the Authoritarian State: Essays in Political and Legal Theory</i> (1957)</li> <li>C Turpin and A Tomkins, <i>British Government and the Constitution</i> (7th edition, CUP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/S_Webb" class="mw-redirect" title="S Webb">S Webb</a> and <a href="/wiki/B_Webb" class="mw-redirect" title="B Webb">B Webb</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Democracy" title="Industrial Democracy">Industrial Democracy</a></i> (1890)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/S_Webb" class="mw-redirect" title="S Webb">S Webb</a>, <i>English Local Government</i> (1906 through 1929) Volumes I–X</li></ul> <dl><dt>Textbooks</dt></dl> <ul><li>AW Bradley, <a href="/wiki/KD_Ewing" class="mw-redirect" title="KD Ewing">KD Ewing</a> and CJS Knight, <i>Constitutional and Administrative Law</i> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/H_Kelsen" class="mw-redirect" title="H Kelsen">H Kelsen</a>, <i>Principles of International Law</i> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015021919280;view=1up;seq=11">1952</a>)</li> <li>A Le Sueur, M Sunkin and J Murkens, <i>Public Law Text, Cases, and Materials</i> (3rd edn 2016)</li> <li>M Elliott and R Thomas, <i>Public Law</i> (3rd edn 2017)</li></ul> <dl><dt>Other papers</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/C_Gearty" class="mw-redirect" title="C Gearty">C Gearty</a>, '<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071107083307/http://www.justice.org.uk/images/pdfs/arejudgesnowoutoftheirdepth.pdf">Are judges now out of their depth?</a>' (2007)</li> <li>D Jenkins, '<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100621061922/http://law.vanderbilt.edu/publications/journal-of-transnational-law/archives/volume-36-number-3/download.aspx?id=1875">From Unwritten to Written: Transformation in the British Common-Law Constitution</a>'</li> <li>J McEldowney, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051221073913/http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/ld200203/ldselect/ldconst/168/16809.htm#note92">Report on the British constitution and proposed European constitution</a> (2003) Written evidence to the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_Committee_(House_of_Lords)" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution Committee (House of Lords)">House of Lords Select Committee on the Constitution</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPike1907" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Luke_Owen_Pike" title="Luke Owen Pike">Pike, Luke Owen</a> (1907). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:en:The Public Records and The Constitution"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/en:The_Public_Records_and_The_Constitution"><i>The Public Records and The Constitution</i> </a></span>. London: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Public+Records+and+The+Constitution&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1907&rft.aulast=Pike&rft.aufirst=Luke+Owen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Portal:Constitution of the United Kingdom">Constitution of the United Kingdom</a></b></div></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/UK_Constitution_and_Government" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:UK Constitution and Government">UK Constitution and Government</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Constitutions_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Constitutions of the United Kingdom">Constitutions of the United Kingdom</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://consoc.org.uk/the-constitution-explained/the-uk-constitution/">The UK constitution - The Constitution Society</a>, consoc.org.uk</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/constitution-unit/explainers/what-uk-constitution">What is the UK Constitution? | The Constitution Unit - UCL – University College London</a>, ucl.ac.uk</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/magna-carta/articles/britains-unwritten-constitution">Britain's unwritten constitution | The British Library</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190401113644/https://www.bl.uk/magna-carta/articles/britains-unwritten-constitution">Archived</a> 1 April 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, bl.uk</li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/15px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/23px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/30px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span> Works related to <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_International_Encyclop%C3%A6dia/Constitution" class="extiw" title="wikisource:The New International Encyclopædia/Constitution">The New International Encyclopædia/Constitution</a> at Wikisource</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gov.uk/government/policies/reforming-the-constitution-and-political-system">Cabinet Office - Constitutional Reform</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/politics/constitution">Guardian Special Report – Constitutional Reform</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ukconstitutionallaw.org/category/constitutional-reform/">United Kingdom Constitutional Law Association blog on Constitutional Reform</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141211140036/http://www.consoc.org.uk/other-content/about-us/discover-the-facts/what-is-the-british-constitution/">The Constitution Society feature on What is the British Constitution?</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150415081918/https://constitutionuk.com/">LSE - A New UK Constitution</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://constitution-unit.com/about">UCL Constitution Unit - About</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://centreonconstitutionalchange.ac.uk">ESRC Centre on Constitutional Change</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.democraticaudit.com">Democratic Audit UK</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.parliament.uk/business/publications/research/notes-on-parliament-and-constitution/">The Parliamentary and Constitution Centre</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://conlawfiles.org/chronology/">Constitutional Law Chronology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/United_Kingdom_2013?lang=en">Full Constitution of England - Constitute Project</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://laws.londoninternational.ac.uk/2015/03/16/constitutional-statutes/">Constitutional Statutes</a>: including discussion of later cases e.g. <i>Robinson v Secretary of State for Northern Ireland</i> [2002] UKHL 32, <i>BH v Lord Advocate</i> [2012] UKSC 24, <i>R (HS2 Action Alliance Ltd) v Secretary of State for Transport</i> [2014] UKSC 3.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Constitutions_of_Europe131" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Constitutions_of_Europe" title="Template:Constitutions of Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Constitutions_of_Europe" title="Template talk:Constitutions of Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Constitutions_of_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Constitutions of Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Constitutions_of_Europe131" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">Constitutions</a> of <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Albania" title="Constitution of Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Andorra" title="Constitution of Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Armenia" title="Constitution of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Austria" title="Constitution of Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Azerbaijan" title="Constitution of Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Belarus" title="Constitution of Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Belgium" title="Constitution of Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Bulgaria" title="Constitution of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Croatia" title="Constitution of Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Cyprus" title="Constitution of Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Czech_Republic" title="Constitution of the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Denmark" title="Constitution of Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Estonia" title="Constitution of Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Finland" title="Constitution of Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_France" title="Constitution of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Georgia_(country)" title="Constitution of Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_Law_for_the_Federal_Republic_of_Germany" title="Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Greece" title="Constitution of Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Hungary" title="Constitution of Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Iceland" title="Constitution of Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Ireland" title="Constitution of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Italy" title="Constitution of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Kazakhstan" title="Constitution of Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Latvia" title="Constitution of Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Liechtenstein" title="Constitution of Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Lithuania" title="Constitution of Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Luxembourg" title="Constitution of Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Malta" title="Constitution of Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Moldova" title="Constitution of Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Monaco" title="Constitution of Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Montenegro" title="Constitution of Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Netherlands" title="Constitution of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_North_Macedonia" title="Constitution of North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Norway" title="Constitution of Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Poland" title="Constitution of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Portugal" title="Constitution of Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Romania" title="Constitution of Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Russia" title="Constitution of Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_San_Marino" title="Constitution of San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Serbia" title="Constitution of Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Slovakia" title="Constitution of Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Slovenia" title="Constitution of Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Spain" title="Constitution of Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Federal_Constitution" title="Swiss Federal Constitution">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Turkey" title="Constitution of Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Ukraine" title="Constitution of Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_Law_of_Vatican_City_State" title="Fundamental Law of Vatican City State">Vatican City</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States with limited<br />recognition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Abkhazia" title="Constitution of Abkhazia">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Kosovo" title="Constitution of Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Northern_Cyprus" title="Constitution of Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_South_Ossetia" title="Constitution of South Ossetia">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Transnistria" title="Constitution of Transnistria">Transnistria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies and<br />other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_%C3%85land" title="Constitution of Åland">Åland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Faroe_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Gibraltar" title="Constitution of Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Guernsey" title="Constitution of Guernsey">Guernsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Isle_of_Man" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Jersey" title="Constitution of Jersey">Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Svalbard" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of Svalbard">Svalbard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaties_of_the_European_Union" title="Treaties of the European Union">European Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Law_of_the_United_Kingdom153" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:UK_law" title="Template:UK law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:UK_law" title="Template talk:UK law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:UK_law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:UK law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Law_of_the_United_Kingdom153" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Law of the United Kingdom">Law of the United Kingdom</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Common fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_sovereignty_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliamentary sovereignty in the United Kingdom">Parliamentary sovereignty</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Constitutional law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">English law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Law of Northern Ireland">Law of Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_law" title="Scots law">Scots law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_law" title="Welsh law">Welsh law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Civil liberties in the United Kingdom">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_company_law" title="United Kingdom company law">Company</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_insolvency_law" title="United Kingdom insolvency law">insolvency law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_competition_law" title="United Kingdom competition law">Competition law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_labour_law" title="United Kingdom labour law">Labour law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_commercial_law" title="United Kingdom commercial law">Commercial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retained_EU_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Retained EU law">Retained EU law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Parallel fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Delict_(Scots_law)" title="Delict (Scots law)">Scots delict</a> and <a href="/wiki/English_tort_law" title="English tort law">English tort law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_contract_law" title="Scots contract law">Scots</a> and <a href="/wiki/English_contract_law" title="English contract law">English contract law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_property_law" title="Scots property law">Scots</a> and <a href="/wiki/English_land_law" title="English land law">English land law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_trust_law" title="English trust law">Trusts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_administrative_law" title="Scots administrative law">Scots</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_administrative_law" title="United Kingdom administrative law">English administrative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_criminal_law" title="Scottish criminal law">Scots</a> and <a href="/wiki/English_criminal_law" title="English criminal law">English criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_family_law" title="Scots family law">Scots</a> and <a href="/wiki/English_family_law" title="English family law">English family law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_civil_procedure" title="Scots civil procedure">Scots</a> and <a href="/wiki/Civil_Procedure_Rules" title="Civil Procedure Rules">English civil procedure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Law of the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_legal_system" title="Australian legal system">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Canada" title="Law of Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_law" class="mw-redirect" title="European Union law">European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Hong_Kong" title="Law of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_India" title="Law of India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Law of the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_New_Zealand" title="Law of New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_law" title="Anglo-Saxon law">Anglo-Saxon law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equity_(law)" title="Equity (law)">Equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:English_case_law" title="Category:English case law">English case law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_services_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Legal services in the United Kingdom">Legal services in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_law_(British)" title="Penal law (British)">British penal law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Law_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Law of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom law category</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="English_law132" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:English_law" title="Template:English law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:English_law" title="Template talk:English law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:English_law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:English law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="English_law132" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">English law</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Core subjects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">UK Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_administrative_law" title="United Kingdom administrative law">Administrative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_criminal_law" title="English criminal law">Criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_contract_law" title="English contract law">Contract law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_tort_law" title="English tort law">Tort law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy_in_English_law" title="Privacy in English law">Privacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_property_law" title="English property law">Property law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_trust_law" title="English trust law">Trust law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retained_EU_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Retained EU law">Retained EU law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:English_case_law" title="Category:English case law">Case law</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Scale_of_justice_2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg/50px-Scale_of_justice_2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="51" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg/75px-Scale_of_justice_2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg/100px-Scale_of_justice_2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="204" data-file-height="208" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Further subjects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_company_law" title="United Kingdom company law">Company law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_competition_law" title="United Kingdom competition law">Competition law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_labour_law" title="United Kingdom labour law">Labour law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_commercial_law" title="United Kingdom commercial law">Commercial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_procedure_in_England_and_Wales" title="Civil procedure in England and Wales">Civil procedure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_family_law" title="English family law">Family law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courts_of_England_and_Wales" title="Courts of England and Wales">Courts of England and Wales</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Law of the United Kingdom">UK-wide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Law of Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_law" title="Scots law">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_law" title="Welsh law">Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Law of the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Canada" title="Law of Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Hong_Kong" title="Law of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_India" title="Law of India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_New_Zealand" title="Law of New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Singapore" title="Law of Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_law" title="Anglo-Saxon law">Anglo-Saxon law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equity_(law)" title="Equity (law)">Equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloody_Code" title="Bloody Code">Bloody Code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hue_and_cry" title="Hue and cry">Hue and cry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Category:English_law" title="Category:English law">Category</a></b></li> <li><b> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Portal</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_Kingdom_articles631" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_Kingdom_topics" title="Template:United Kingdom topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_Kingdom_topics" title="Template talk:United Kingdom topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_Kingdom_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United Kingdom topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_Kingdom_articles631" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> articles</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the United Kingdom">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_British_history" title="Timeline of British history">Chronology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formation_of_the_United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Northern_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland">Formation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_England_and_Scotland_Act_1603" title="Union of England and Scotland Act 1603">Union of England and Scotland Act 1603</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Union" title="Treaty of Union">Treaty of Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707" title="Acts of Union 1707">Acts of Union 1707</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_with_Scotland_(Amendment)_Act_1707" title="Union with Scotland (Amendment) Act 1707">Union with Scotland (Amendment) Act 1707</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_era" title="Georgian era">Georgian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwardian_era" title="Edwardian era">Edwardian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_the_First_World_War" title="History of the United Kingdom during the First World War">First World War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_Britain" title="Interwar Britain">Interwar</a></li> <li>Second World War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United Kingdom home front during World War II">civilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II">military</a></li></ul></li> <li>Postwar <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postwar_Britain_(1945%E2%80%931979)" class="mw-redirect" title="Postwar Britain (1945–1979)">political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history_of_Postwar_Britain_(1945%E2%80%931979)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social history of Postwar Britain (1945–1979)">social</a></li></ul></li> <li>Since 1979 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_(1979%E2%80%93present)" title="Political history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)">political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_(1979%E2%80%93present)" title="Social history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)">social</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economic history of the United Kingdom">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_foreign_relations_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)" title="International relations (1814–1919)">1814–1919</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_law_enforcement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of law enforcement in the United Kingdom">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Maritime history of the United Kingdom">Maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mass_surveillance_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of mass surveillance in the United Kingdom">Mass surveillance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Military history of the United Kingdom">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_taxation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of taxation in the United Kingdom">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of women in the United Kingdom">Women's history</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Geography of the United Kingdom">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_geography_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Administrative geography of the United Kingdom">Administrative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counties_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Counties of the United Kingdom">Counties of the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Countries_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Countries of the United Kingdom">Countries of the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Dependencies" title="Crown Dependencies">Crown Dependencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Overseas_Territories" title="British Overseas Territories">Overseas territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_status_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="City status in the United Kingdom">City status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_towns_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of towns in the United Kingdom">Towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_that_have_gained_independence_from_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of countries that have gained independence from the United Kingdom">Former colonies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Geography of the United Kingdom">Physical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Isles" title="British Isles">British Isles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terminology_of_the_British_Isles" title="Terminology of the British Isles">terminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Climate of the United Kingdom">Climate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Climate change in the United Kingdom">change</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastline_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Coastline of the United Kingdom">Coastline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Great_Britain" title="Geology of Great Britain">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_and_lochs_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of lakes and lochs of the United Kingdom">Lakes and lochs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_mountains_and_hills_in_the_British_Isles" title="Lists of mountains and hills in the British Isles">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of rivers of the United Kingdom">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of volcanoes in the United Kingdom">Volcanoes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_renewable_resources_produced_and_traded_by_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of renewable resources produced and traded by the United Kingdom">Resources</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Agriculture in the United Kingdom">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Energy in the United Kingdom">Energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiesel_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Biodiesel in the United Kingdom">biodiesel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coal_mining_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Coal mining in the United Kingdom">coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Geothermal power in the United Kingdom">geothermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_fracturing_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic fracturing in the United Kingdom">hydraulic frac.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Hydroelectricity in the United Kingdom">hydroelectricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_United_Kingdom#Ocean_power" title="Renewable energy in the United Kingdom">marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_oil" title="North Sea oil">North Sea oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Renewable energy in the United Kingdom">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Solar power in the United Kingdom">solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Wind power in the United Kingdom">wind</a></li></ul></li> <li>Fishing <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_England" title="Fishing industry in England">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_Scotland" title="Fishing industry in Scotland">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_Wales" title="Fishing industry in Wales">Welsh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_and_shooting_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Hunting and shooting in the United Kingdom">Hunting</a></li> <li>Materials <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Forestry in the United Kingdom">forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Mining in the United Kingdom">mining</a></li></ul></li> <li>Wildlife <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_Great_Britain" title="Fauna of Great Britain">fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="Flora of Great Britain and Ireland">flora</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Politics of the United Kingdom">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Corruption in the United Kingdom">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devolution_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Devolution in the United Kingdom">Devolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Elections in the United Kingdom">Elections</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/UK_parliamentary_by-elections" title="UK parliamentary by-elections">By-elections</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Foreign relations of the United Kingdom">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Human rights in the United Kingdom">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the United Kingdom">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciaries_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Judiciaries of the United Kingdom">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Law of the United Kingdom">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Law enforcement in the United Kingdom">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Local government in the United Kingdom">Local government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Monarchy of the United Kingdom">Monarchy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_monarchs" title="List of British monarchs">monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Republicanism in the United Kingdom">republicanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_nationality_law" title="British nationality law">Nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Parliament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="House of Commons of the United Kingdom">House of Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of political parties in the United Kingdom">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_female_leaders_of_British_political_parties" title="List of female leaders of British political parties">Female party leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_scandals_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of political scandals in the United Kingdom">Political scandals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Official_Opposition_Shadow_Cabinet_(United_Kingdom)" title="Official Opposition Shadow Cabinet (United Kingdom)">Shadow Cabinet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Government of the United Kingdom">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Cabinet of the United Kingdom">Cabinet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_governments" title="List of British governments">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Service_(United_Kingdom)" title="Civil Service (United Kingdom)">Civil service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Departments_of_the_Government_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Departments of the Government of the United Kingdom">Departments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunak_ministry" title="Sunak ministry">Ministers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_government_ministers_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of government ministers of the United Kingdom">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of prime ministers of the United Kingdom">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/British_Armed_Forces" title="British Armed Forces">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/His_Majesty%27s_Naval_Service" title="His Majesty's Naval Service">His Majesty's Naval Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Army" title="British Army">British Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Air_Force" title="Royal Air Force">Royal Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="United Kingdom and weapons of mass destruction">Weapons of mass destruction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economy of the United Kingdom">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of banks in the United Kingdom">Banks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_England" title="Bank of England">Bank of England</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budget_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Budget of the United Kingdom">Budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economic geography of the United Kingdom">Economic geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_trade_agreements_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Free trade agreements of the United Kingdom">Free trade agreements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Income in the United Kingdom">Income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Manufacturing in the United Kingdom">Manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pound_sterling" title="Pound sterling">Pound sterling <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Science and technology in the United Kingdom">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_stock_exchanges_in_the_United_Kingdom,_the_British_Crown_Dependencies_and_United_Kingdom_Overseas_Territories" title="List of stock exchanges in the United Kingdom, the British Crown Dependencies and United Kingdom Overseas Territories">Stock exchanges</a> (<a href="/wiki/London_Stock_Exchange" title="London Stock Exchange">London Exchange</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Taxation in the United Kingdom">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Telecommunications in the United Kingdom">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Tourism in the United Kingdom">Tourism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Transport in the United Kingdom">Transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_transport_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Air transport in the United Kingdom">Air transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bus_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Bus transport">Bus transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Driving_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Driving in the United Kingdom">Driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roads_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Roads in the United Kingdom">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Rail transport in the United Kingdom">Rail transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Society of the United Kingdom">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Cannabis in the United Kingdom">Cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Crime in the United Kingdom">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Demographics of the United Kingdom">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Drug policy of the United Kingdom">Drug policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Education in the United Kingdom">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_inequality_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Environmental inequality in the United Kingdom">Environmental inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Environmental issues in the United Kingdom">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Health in the United Kingdom">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Homelessness in the United Kingdom">Homelessness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_England" title="Homelessness in England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_Scotland" title="Homelessness in Scotland">Scotland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Housing in the United Kingdom">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunger_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Hunger in the United Kingdom">Hunger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_immigration_to_the_United_Kingdom" title="Modern immigration to the United Kingdom">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_innovations_and_discoveries" title="List of British innovations and discoveries">Innovation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Languages of the United Kingdom">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_regions_by_life_expectancy" title="List of British regions by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_health_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Mental health in the United Kingdom">Mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Poverty in the United Kingdom">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Prostitution in the United Kingdom">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Public holidays in the United Kingdom">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Racism in the United Kingdom">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_care_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Social care in the United Kingdom">Social care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Social class in the United Kingdom">Social class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Suicide in the United Kingdom">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_basic_income_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Universal basic income in the United Kingdom">Universal basic income (UBI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Water supply and sanitation in the United Kingdom">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Waste in the United Kingdom">Waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_state_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Welfare state in the United Kingdom">Welfare state</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Culture of the United Kingdom">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Art of the United Kingdom">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_Save_the_King" title="God Save the King">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Cinema of the United Kingdom">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_cuisine" title="British cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wine_from_the_United_Kingdom" title="Wine from the United Kingdom">Wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_national_identity" title="British national identity">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_literature" title="British literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Mass media in the United Kingdom">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Music of the United Kingdom">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Religion in the United Kingdom">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Sport in the United Kingdom">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_symbols_of_the_United_Kingdom,_the_Channel_Islands_and_the_Isle_of_Man" title="List of national symbols of the United Kingdom, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man">Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Theatre of the United Kingdom">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_the_British" class="mw-redirect" title="Stereotypes of the British">Stereotypes of the British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of World Heritage Sites in the United Kingdom">World Heritage Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglosphere" title="Anglosphere">Anglosphere</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Countries_of_the_United_Kingdom0" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Countries_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Countries of the United Kingdom">Countries of the United Kingdom</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_England" title="History of England">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_society" title="English society">social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_English_history" title="Timeline of English history">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_England" title="Geography of England">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_England" title="Politics of England">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_England" title="Economy of England">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_England" title="Tourism in England">tourism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_England" title="Education in England">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_England" title="Healthcare in England">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_England" title="Homelessness in England">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_England" title="Culture of England">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_England" title="Religion in England">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_England" title="National symbols of England">Symbols</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Northern_Ireland" title="History of Northern Ireland">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland#Geography_and_climate" title="Northern Ireland">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Politics of Northern Ireland">Politics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Assembly" title="Northern Ireland Assembly">Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Executive" title="Northern Ireland Executive">Executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Minister_and_deputy_First_Minister_of_Northern_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="First Minister and deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland">First Minister and deputy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Law of Northern Ireland">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Economy of Northern Ireland">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tourist_attractions_in_Ireland" title="List of tourist attractions in Ireland">tourism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Education in Northern Ireland">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_and_Social_Care_(Northern_Ireland)" title="Health and Social Care (Northern Ireland)">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Culture of Northern Ireland">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Religion in Northern Ireland">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland#Symbols" title="Northern Ireland">Symbols</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Scotland" title="History of Scotland">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Scottish_history" title="Timeline of Scottish history">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Scotland" title="Geography of Scotland">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Scotland" title="Politics of Scotland">Politics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Parliament" title="Scottish Parliament">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Government" title="Scottish Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Minister_of_Scotland" title="First Minister of Scotland">First Minister</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_law" title="Scots law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Scotland" title="Economy of Scotland">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Scotland" title="Tourism in Scotland">tourism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Scotland" title="Education in Scotland">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Scotland" title="Healthcare in Scotland">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_Scotland" title="Homelessness in Scotland">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Scotland" title="Culture of Scotland">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Scotland" title="Religion in Scotland">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Scotland" title="National symbols of Scotland">Symbols</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wales" title="History of Wales">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Wales" title="Geography of Wales">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Wales" title="Politics of Wales">Politics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Senedd" title="Senedd">Senedd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Government" title="Welsh Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Minister_of_Wales" title="First Minister of Wales">First Minister</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_law" title="Welsh law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Wales" title="Economy of Wales">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Wales" title="Tourism in Wales">tourism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Wales" title="Education in Wales">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Wales" title="Healthcare in Wales">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Wales" title="Culture of Wales">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Wales" title="Religion in Wales">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Wales" title="National symbols of Wales">Symbols</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Outline of the United Kingdom">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_United_Kingdom%E2%80%93related_articles" title="Index of United Kingdom–related articles">Index</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_Kingdom" title="Category:United Kingdom">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_Kingdom" title="Portal:United Kingdom">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/21px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/42px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_Kingdom" title="Portal:United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/21px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/32px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/41px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/19px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/29px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/38px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics</a></li></ul></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&oldid=1273343930">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&oldid=1273343930</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Constitution of the United Kingdom">Constitution of the United Kingdom</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Government_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Government of the United Kingdom">Government of the United Kingdom</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Law_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Law of the United Kingdom">Law of the United Kingdom</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Politics_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Politics of the United Kingdom">Politics of the United Kingdom</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Uncodified_constitutions" title="Category:Uncodified constitutions">Uncodified constitutions</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_February_2024" title="Category:Use dmy dates from February 2024">Use dmy dates from February 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Latin-language text">Articles containing Latin-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_clarification_from_December_2020" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from December 2020">Wikipedia articles needing clarification from December 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_January_2023" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from January 2023">Articles with unsourced statements from January 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_December_2023" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from December 2023">Articles with dead external links from December 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_permanently_dead_external_links" title="Category:Articles with permanently dead external links">Articles with permanently dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link is on Wikidata">Commons category link is on Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 1 February 2025, at 21:51<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" width="88" height="31"><img src="/w/resources/assets/mediawiki_compact.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="25" height="25" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="mw-page-title-main">Constitution of the United Kingdom</span></div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbles mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbles"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-article mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-article"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-history mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-history"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-star mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-star"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikiText mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-wikiText"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-edit mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-edit"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>29 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-7c5dd74596-zjs28","wgBackendResponseTime":136,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.884","walltime":"2.335","ppvisitednodes":{"value":21674,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":645513,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":168549,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":22,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":66,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":449559,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1651.058 1 -total"," 22.09% 364.684 1 Template:Reflist"," 10.96% 180.969 1 Template:Politics_of_the_United_Kingdom"," 10.73% 177.116 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 9.18% 151.531 7 Template:Navbox"," 9.14% 150.830 1 Template:Constitution_of_Europe"," 9.10% 150.223 2 Template:Lang"," 8.67% 143.189 1 Template:Europe_topic"," 8.35% 137.934 11 Template:Cite_book"," 7.21% 118.998 1 Template:United_Kingdom_topics"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.787","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":27188970,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-7c5dd74596-xmtnn","timestamp":"20250217232023","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Constitution of the United Kingdom","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q784210","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q784210","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2003-02-13T05:57:46Z","dateModified":"2025-02-01T21:51:57Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/5\/57\/Houses_of_Parliament_at_dusk.jpg","headline":"principles, institutions and law of political governance in the United Kingdom"}</script> </body> </html>