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II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Multiethnic_societies,_competing_ideologies,_and_armed_conflict_in_Portuguese_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Multiethnic_societies,_competing_ideologies,_and_armed_conflict_in_Portuguese_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Multiethnic societies, competing ideologies, and armed conflict in Portuguese Africa</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Multiethnic_societies,_competing_ideologies,_and_armed_conflict_in_Portuguese_Africa-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Multiethnic societies, competing ideologies, and armed conflict in Portuguese Africa subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Multiethnic_societies,_competing_ideologies,_and_armed_conflict_in_Portuguese_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Settlement_subsidies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Settlement_subsidies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Settlement subsidies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Settlement_subsidies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Composition_of_the_Portuguese_Army" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Composition_of_the_Portuguese_Army"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Composition of the Portuguese Army</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Composition_of_the_Portuguese_Army-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intervention_by_Cold_War_powers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intervention_by_Cold_War_powers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Intervention by Cold War powers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intervention_by_Cold_War_powers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theatres_of_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theatres_of_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Theatres of war</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theatres_of_war-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Theatres of war subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Theatres_of_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Angola" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Angola"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Angola</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Angola-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Insurgent_attacks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Insurgent_attacks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Insurgent attacks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Insurgent_attacks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Portuguese_response" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Portuguese_response"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Portuguese response</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Portuguese_response-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Portuguese_Guinea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Portuguese_Guinea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Portuguese Guinea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Portuguese_Guinea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mozambique" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mozambique"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Mozambique</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mozambique-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Major_counter-insurgency_operations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Major_counter-insurgency_operations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Major counter-insurgency operations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Major_counter-insurgency_operations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_of_the_Organisation_of_African_Unity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_of_the_Organisation_of_African_Unity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Role of the Organisation of African Unity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_of_the_Organisation_of_African_Unity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Armament_and_tactics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Armament_and_tactics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Armament and tactics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Armament_and_tactics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Armament and tactics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Armament_and_tactics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Portugal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Portugal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Portugal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Portugal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Guerrilla_movements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Guerrilla_movements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Guerrilla movements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Guerrilla_movements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Opposition_in_Portugal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opposition_in_Portugal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Opposition in Portugal</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Opposition_in_Portugal-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Opposition in Portugal subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Opposition_in_Portugal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Radicalization_(early_1970s)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radicalization_(early_1970s)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Radicalization (early 1970s)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radicalization_(early_1970s)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carnation_Revolution_(1974)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carnation_Revolution_(1974)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Carnation Revolution (1974)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carnation_Revolution_(1974)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Aftermath</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Aftermath subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Impact_in_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_in_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Impact in Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact_in_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_governments_of_Angola_and_Mozambique" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_governments_of_Angola_and_Mozambique"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>New governments of Angola and Mozambique</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_governments_of_Angola_and_Mozambique-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_consequences_of_the_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_consequences_of_the_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Economic consequences of the war</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_consequences_of_the_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Films_about_the_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Films_about_the_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Films about the war</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Films_about_the_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Documentaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Documentaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Documentaries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Documentaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>General bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Portuguese Colonial War</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 34 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-34" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">34 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="حروب البرتغال الاستعمارية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حروب البرتغال الاستعمارية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_colonial_portuguesa" title="Guerra colonial portuguesa – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Guerra colonial portuguesa" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%AF%D9%87_%D9%BE%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C" title="سومورگه پورتاغال ساواشی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="سومورگه پورتاغال ساواشی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_colonial_portuguesa" title="Guerra colonial portuguesa – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Guerra colonial portuguesa" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugalsk%C3%A1_koloni%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_v%C3%A1lka" title="Portugalská koloniální válka – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Portugalská koloniální válka" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugiesischer_Kolonialkrieg" title="Portugiesischer Kolonialkrieg – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Portugiesischer Kolonialkrieg" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugali_koloniaals%C3%B5da" title="Portugali koloniaalsõda – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Portugali koloniaalsõda" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_colonial_portuguesa" title="Guerra colonial portuguesa – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Guerra colonial portuguesa" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koloniaj_Portugalaj_Militoj" title="Koloniaj Portugalaj Militoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Koloniaj Portugalaj Militoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%84" title="جنگ استعماری پرتغال – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنگ استعماری پرتغال" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerres_coloniales_portugaises" title="Guerres coloniales portugaises – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Guerres coloniales portugaises" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_colonial_portuguesa" title="Guerra colonial portuguesa – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Guerra colonial portuguesa" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8F%AC%EB%A5%B4%ED%88%AC%EA%B0%88_%EC%8B%9D%EB%AF%BC%EC%A7%80_%EC%A0%84%EC%9F%81" title="포르투갈 식민지 전쟁 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="포르투갈 식민지 전쟁" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Kolonial_Portugal" title="Perang Kolonial Portugal – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perang Kolonial Portugal" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_coloniale_portoghese" title="Guerra coloniale portoghese – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Guerra coloniale portoghese" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portug%C4%81les_koloni%C4%81lais_kar%C5%A1" title="Portugāles koloniālais karš – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Portugāles koloniālais karš" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portug%C3%A1l_gyarmati_h%C3%A1bor%C3%BA" title="Portugál gyarmati háború – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Portugál gyarmati háború" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%98%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Португалска колонијална војна – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Португалска колонијална војна" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugese_koloniale_oorlog" title="Portugese koloniale oorlog – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Portugese koloniale oorlog" 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href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_portugisiske_kolonikrigen" title="Den portugisiske kolonikrigen – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Den portugisiske kolonikrigen" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_Colonial_Portuguesa" title="Guerra Colonial Portuguesa – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Guerra Colonial Portuguesa" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C4%83zboiul_Colonial_Portughez" title="Războiul Colonial Portughez – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Războiul Colonial Portughez" data-language-autonym="Română" 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Africa</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Portuguese Colonial War<br />Guerra Colonial Portuguesa</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Decolonisation_of_Africa" title="Decolonisation of Africa">decolonisation of Africa</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Guerra_Colonial_Portuguesa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Guerra_Colonial_Portuguesa.jpg/300px-Guerra_Colonial_Portuguesa.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Guerra_Colonial_Portuguesa.jpg/450px-Guerra_Colonial_Portuguesa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Guerra_Colonial_Portuguesa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="582" data-file-height="379" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>4 February 1961 – 25 April 1974<br />(13 years, 2 months and 3 weeks)</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Africa_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Portuguese Africa (disambiguation)">Portuguese Africa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Angola" title="Portuguese Angola">Angola</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Guinea" title="Portuguese Guinea">Guinea</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Mozambique" title="Portuguese Mozambique">Mozambique</a>)</div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carnation_Revolution" title="Carnation Revolution">Carnation Revolution</a></li> <li>Military stalemate<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Rebel political victory<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvor_Agreement" title="Alvor Agreement">Alvor Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusaka_Accord" title="Lusaka Accord">Lusaka Accord</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Territorial<br />changes</th><td> Portuguese <a href="/wiki/Overseas_province" title="Overseas province">overseas territories</a> in Africa become independent<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/23px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/35px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/45px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Estado_Novo_(Portugal)" title="Estado Novo (Portugal)">Portugal</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>Material support:</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Flag_of_Rhodesia_%281968%E2%80%931979%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Rhodesia_%281968%E2%80%931979%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Flag_of_Rhodesia_%281968%E2%80%931979%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Rhodesia_%281968%E2%80%931979%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Flag_of_Rhodesia_%281968%E2%80%931979%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Rhodesia_%281968%E2%80%931979%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Rhodesia" title="Rhodesia">Rhodesia</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/21px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/32px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/41px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg/22px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg/33px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg/44px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> (after 1972)<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /> </li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <b>Angola</b>:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Flag_of_MPLA.svg/23px-Flag_of_MPLA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Flag_of_MPLA.svg/35px-Flag_of_MPLA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Flag_of_MPLA.svg/45px-Flag_of_MPLA.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/MPLA" title="MPLA">MPLA</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_UNITA.svg/23px-Flag_of_UNITA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_UNITA.svg/35px-Flag_of_UNITA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_UNITA.svg/46px-Flag_of_UNITA.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1318" data-file-height="791" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/UNITA" title="UNITA">UNITA</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Bandeira_da_FNLA.svg/23px-Bandeira_da_FNLA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Bandeira_da_FNLA.svg/35px-Bandeira_da_FNLA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Bandeira_da_FNLA.svg/45px-Bandeira_da_FNLA.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/National_Liberation_Front_of_Angola" title="National Liberation Front of Angola">FNLA</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Cabinda_%28FLEC_propose%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cabinda_%28FLEC_propose%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Cabinda_%28FLEC_propose%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cabinda_%28FLEC_propose%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Cabinda_%28FLEC_propose%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cabinda_%28FLEC_propose%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Front_for_the_Liberation_of_the_Enclave_of_Cabinda" title="Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda">FLEC</a></li></ul> </div> <b>Guinea</b>:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Flag_of_PAIGC.svg/23px-Flag_of_PAIGC.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Flag_of_PAIGC.svg/35px-Flag_of_PAIGC.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Flag_of_PAIGC.svg/46px-Flag_of_PAIGC.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/PAIGC" class="mw-redirect" title="PAIGC">PAIGC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Struggle_Front_for_the_National_Independence_of_Guinea" title="Struggle Front for the National Independence of Guinea">FLING</a></li></ul> </div> <b>Mozambique</b>:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique"><img alt="Mozambique" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Flag_of_Mozambique_%281974%E2%80%931975%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mozambique_%281974%E2%80%931975%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Flag_of_Mozambique_%281974%E2%80%931975%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Mozambique_%281974%E2%80%931975%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Flag_of_Mozambique_%281974%E2%80%931975%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Mozambique_%281974%E2%80%931975%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/FRELIMO" title="FRELIMO">FRELIMO</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>Material support:</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a><sup id="cite_ref-:1_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /> (until 1972) </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Flag_of_Cuba.svg/22px-Flag_of_Cuba.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Flag_of_Cuba.svg/33px-Flag_of_Cuba.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Flag_of_Cuba.svg/44px-Flag_of_Cuba.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/35px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/46px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a><sup id="cite_ref-rodrigues_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rodrigues-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Flag_of_Yugoslavia_%281946-1992%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Yugoslavia_%281946-1992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Flag_of_Yugoslavia_%281946-1992%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Yugoslavia_%281946-1992%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Flag_of_Yugoslavia_%281946-1992%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Yugoslavia_%281946-1992%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia" title="Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg/22px-Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg/33px-Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg/44px-Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire">Zaire</a><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_Brazil_%281968%E2%80%931992%29.svg/22px-Flag_of_Brazil_%281968%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_Brazil_%281968%E2%80%931992%29.svg/33px-Flag_of_Brazil_%281968%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_Brazil_%281968%E2%80%931992%29.svg/43px-Flag_of_Brazil_%281968%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="504" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/23px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/35px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/45px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Oliveira_Salazar" title="António de Oliveira Salazar">António Salazar</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Estado_Novo_(Portugal)" title="Estado Novo (Portugal)"><img alt="Estado Novo (Portugal)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/23px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/35px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/45px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Marcelo_Caetano" title="Marcelo Caetano">Marcelo Caetano</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Estado_Novo_(Portugal)" title="Estado Novo (Portugal)"><img alt="Estado Novo (Portugal)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/23px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/35px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/45px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Am%C3%A9rico_Tom%C3%A1s" title="Américo Tomás">Américo Tomás</a></li></ul> </div> <b>Angola</b>:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Estado_Novo_(Portugal)" title="Estado Novo (Portugal)"><img alt="Estado Novo (Portugal)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/23px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/35px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/45px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Francisco_da_Costa_Gomes" title="Francisco da Costa Gomes">Francisco Gomes</a></li></ul> </div> <b>Guinea</b>:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Estado_Novo_(Portugal)" title="Estado Novo (Portugal)"><img alt="Estado Novo (Portugal)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/23px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/35px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/45px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Arnaldo_Schulz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arnaldo Schulz (page does not exist)">Arnaldo Schulz</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Estado_Novo_(Portugal)" title="Estado Novo (Portugal)"><img alt="Estado Novo (Portugal)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/23px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/35px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/45px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Sp%C3%ADnola" title="António de Spínola">António de Spínola</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Estado_Novo_(Portugal)" title="Estado Novo (Portugal)"><img alt="Estado Novo (Portugal)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/23px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/35px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/45px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jos%C3%A9_Manuel_Bettencourt_Rodrigues&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="José Manuel Bettencourt Rodrigues (page does not exist)">Bettencourt Rodrigues</a></li></ul> </div> <b>Mozambique</b>:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Estado_Novo_(Portugal)" title="Estado Novo (Portugal)"><img alt="Estado Novo (Portugal)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/23px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/35px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/45px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Augusto_dos_Santos" title="António Augusto dos Santos">António dos Santos</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Estado_Novo_(Portugal)" title="Estado Novo (Portugal)"><img alt="Estado Novo (Portugal)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/23px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/35px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/45px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ka%C3%BAlza_de_Arriaga" title="Kaúlza de Arriaga">Kaúlza de Arriaga</a></li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <b>Angola</b>:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Flag_of_MPLA.svg/23px-Flag_of_MPLA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Flag_of_MPLA.svg/35px-Flag_of_MPLA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Flag_of_MPLA.svg/45px-Flag_of_MPLA.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Agostinho_Neto" title="Agostinho Neto">Agostinho Neto</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Flag_of_MPLA.svg/23px-Flag_of_MPLA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Flag_of_MPLA.svg/35px-Flag_of_MPLA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Flag_of_MPLA.svg/45px-Flag_of_MPLA.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Eduardo_dos_Santos" title="José Eduardo dos Santos">José dos Santos</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Flag_of_MPLA.svg/23px-Flag_of_MPLA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Flag_of_MPLA.svg/35px-Flag_of_MPLA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Flag_of_MPLA.svg/45px-Flag_of_MPLA.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BAcio_Lara" title="Lúcio Lara">Lúcio Lara</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_UNITA.svg/23px-Flag_of_UNITA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_UNITA.svg/35px-Flag_of_UNITA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_UNITA.svg/46px-Flag_of_UNITA.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1318" data-file-height="791" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Jonas_Savimbi" title="Jonas Savimbi">Jonas Savimbi</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Bandeira_da_FNLA.svg/23px-Bandeira_da_FNLA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Bandeira_da_FNLA.svg/35px-Bandeira_da_FNLA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Bandeira_da_FNLA.svg/45px-Bandeira_da_FNLA.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Holden_Roberto" title="Holden Roberto">Holden Roberto</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Cabinda_%28FLEC_propose%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cabinda_%28FLEC_propose%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Cabinda_%28FLEC_propose%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cabinda_%28FLEC_propose%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Cabinda_%28FLEC_propose%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cabinda_%28FLEC_propose%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lu%C3%ADs_Ranque-Franque&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Luís Ranque-Franque (page does not exist)">Luís Ranque-Franque</a></li></ul> </div> <b>Guinea</b>:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Flag_of_PAIGC.svg/23px-Flag_of_PAIGC.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Flag_of_PAIGC.svg/35px-Flag_of_PAIGC.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Flag_of_PAIGC.svg/46px-Flag_of_PAIGC.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Am%C3%ADlcar_Cabral" title="Amílcar Cabral">Amílcar Cabral</a> <a href="/wiki/Assassination" title="Assassination">†</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Flag_of_PAIGC.svg/23px-Flag_of_PAIGC.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Flag_of_PAIGC.svg/35px-Flag_of_PAIGC.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Flag_of_PAIGC.svg/46px-Flag_of_PAIGC.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Lu%C3%ADs_Cabral" title="Luís Cabral">Luís Cabral</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Flag_of_PAIGC.svg/23px-Flag_of_PAIGC.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Flag_of_PAIGC.svg/35px-Flag_of_PAIGC.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Flag_of_PAIGC.svg/46px-Flag_of_PAIGC.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_Bernardo_Vieira" title="João Bernardo Vieira">João Bernardo Vieira</a></li></ul> </div> <b>Mozambique</b>:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique"><img alt="Mozambique" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Flag_of_Mozambique_%281974%E2%80%931975%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mozambique_%281974%E2%80%931975%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Flag_of_Mozambique_%281974%E2%80%931975%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Mozambique_%281974%E2%80%931975%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Flag_of_Mozambique_%281974%E2%80%931975%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Mozambique_%281974%E2%80%931975%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Eduardo_Mondlane" title="Eduardo Mondlane">Eduardo Mondlane</a> <a href="/wiki/Assassination" title="Assassination">†</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique"><img alt="Mozambique" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Flag_of_Mozambique_%281974%E2%80%931975%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mozambique_%281974%E2%80%931975%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Flag_of_Mozambique_%281974%E2%80%931975%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Mozambique_%281974%E2%80%931975%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Flag_of_Mozambique_%281974%E2%80%931975%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Mozambique_%281974%E2%80%931975%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Joaquim_Chissano" title="Joaquim Chissano">Joaquim Chissano</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique"><img alt="Mozambique" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Flag_of_Mozambique_%281974%E2%80%931975%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mozambique_%281974%E2%80%931975%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Flag_of_Mozambique_%281974%E2%80%931975%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Mozambique_%281974%E2%80%931975%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Flag_of_Mozambique_%281974%E2%80%931975%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Mozambique_%281974%E2%80%931975%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Filipe_Samuel_Magaia" title="Filipe Samuel Magaia">Filipe Samuel Magaia</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique"><img alt="Mozambique" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Flag_of_Mozambique_%281974%E2%80%931975%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mozambique_%281974%E2%80%931975%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Flag_of_Mozambique_%281974%E2%80%931975%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Mozambique_%281974%E2%80%931975%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Flag_of_Mozambique_%281974%E2%80%931975%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Mozambique_%281974%E2%80%931975%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Samora_Machel" title="Samora Machel">Samora Machel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <p>1,400,000 total men mobilized for military and civilian support service.<sup id="cite_ref-journals.openedition.org_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-journals.openedition.org-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>50,000 positioned in Angola, Mozambique, and Guinea Bissau</li> <li>400,000 native African soldiers mobilized<sup id="cite_ref-journals.openedition.org_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-journals.openedition.org-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> Average of 107,000 men deployed every year.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <p>40–60,000 guerrillas<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>30,000 in Angola<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>10,000 in Portuguese Guinea</li> <li>10–15,000 in Mozambique</li></ul></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <p><b>~29,000 casualties</b> </p> <ul><li>8,831 Portuguese killed <ul><li>6,338 from mainland Portugal<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2,493 from Africa</li></ul></li> <li>7,447 Portuguese African troops executed by PAIGC<sup id="cite_ref-Lloyd-Jones,_Stewart_p._22_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lloyd-Jones,_Stewart_p._22-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Munslow,_Barry_1981_pp._109-113_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Munslow,_Barry_1981_pp._109-113-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> 15,507 wounded (physical and/or psychological)<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <p><b>41,000+ casualties</b> </p> <ul><li>41–46,000 killed <ul><li>25–30,000 in Angola<sup id="cite_ref-stats_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stats-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tom_Hartman_1984_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tom_Hartman_1984-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>~10,000 in Mozambique<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>~6,000 in Portuguese Guinea<sup id="cite_ref-warstat6_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-warstat6-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li>Unknown wounded</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-top:1px dotted #aaa;"> <b>Civilian killed: 70,000–110,000 civilians killed</b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>30–50,000 in Angola<sup id="cite_ref-stats_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stats-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tom_Hartman_1984_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tom_Hartman_1984-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>30–50,000 in Mozambique<sup id="cite_ref-stats_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stats-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>5,000 in Portuguese Guinea<sup id="cite_ref-warstat6_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-warstat6-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>At least 400 white settlers<sup id="cite_ref-Clodfelter_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clodfelter-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </div> Over 300,000 Portuguese nationals evacuated.</td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output 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style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Portuguese_colonial_campaigns" title="Template:Campaignbox Portuguese colonial campaigns"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Portuguese_colonial_campaigns" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Portuguese colonial campaigns"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Portuguese_colonial_campaigns" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Portuguese colonial campaigns"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Portuguese_colonial_campaigns" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire"><span class="wrap">Portuguese colonial campaigns</span></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>15th century</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_conquest_of_Ceuta" title="Portuguese conquest of Ceuta">Morocco (1415)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Ceuta_(1419)" title="Siege of Ceuta (1419)">Morocco (1419)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tangier_(1437)" title="Battle of Tangier (1437)">Morocco (1437)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_conquest_of_Ksar_es-Seghir" title="Portuguese conquest of Ksar es-Seghir">Morocco (1458)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tangier_(1463%E2%80%931464)" title="Siege of Tangier (1463–1464)">Morocco (1463–64)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anfa_expedition_(1468)" title="Anfa expedition (1468)">Morocco (1468)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Asilah" title="Conquest of Asilah">Morocco (1471)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_conquest_of_Tangier" title="Portuguese conquest of Tangier">Morocco (1471)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guinea" title="Battle of Guinea">Guinea (1478)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaouia_expedition" title="Chaouia expedition">Morocco (1487)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Graciosa_(1489)" title="Siege of Graciosa (1489)">Morocco (1489)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Targa_expedition_(1490)" title="Targa expedition (1490)">Morocco (1490)</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>16th century</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Luso-Malabarese_War" title="First Luso-Malabarese War">India (1500–1513)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mers-el-K%C3%A9bir_(1501)" title="Battle of Mers-el-Kébir (1501)">Algeria (1501)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pandarane" title="Battle of Pandarane">India (1504)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mombasa_(1505)" title="Battle of Mombasa (1505)">East Africa (1505)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk%E2%80%93Portuguese_conflicts" title="Mamluk–Portuguese conflicts">Indian Ocean (1505–17)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Anjadiva_(1506)" title="Siege of Anjadiva (1506)">India (1506)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cannanore" title="Battle of Cannanore">India (1506)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Barawa" title="Battle of Barawa">East Africa (1507)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Cannanore_(1507)" title="Siege of Cannanore (1507)">India (1507)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Socotra" title="Battle of Socotra">Socotra (1507)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Muscat_(1507)" title="Capture of Muscat (1507)">Arabia (1507)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_conquest_of_Hormuz" title="Portuguese conquest of Hormuz">Persian Gulf (1507–15)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dabul" title="Battle of Dabul">India (1508)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Diu" title="Battle of Diu">India (1509)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_conquest_of_Goa" title="Portuguese conquest of Goa">India (1510)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Malacca_(1511)" title="Capture of Malacca (1511)">Malaysia (1511)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Azemmour" title="Battle of Azemmour">Morocco (1513)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tednest" title="Battle of Tednest">Morocco (1514)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Alcaides" title="Battle of the Alcaides">Morocco (1514)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_of_Marrakesh_(1515)" title="Raid of Marrakesh (1515)">Morocco (1515)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mamora_(1515)" title="Battle of Mamora (1515)">Morocco (1515)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_expedition_to_Doukkala_(1516)" title="Portuguese expedition to Doukkala (1516)">Morocco (1516)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zeila" title="Battle of Zeila">East Africa (1517)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Goa_(1517)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Goa (1517)">Goa (1517)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pago" title="Battle of Pago">Malaysia (1520)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhalese%E2%80%93Portuguese_conflicts" title="Sinhalese–Portuguese conflicts">Sri Lanka (1520–1658)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Aceh_(1521)" title="Battle of Aceh (1521)">Sumatra (1521)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_invasion_of_Bahrain" title="Portuguese invasion of Bahrain">Bahrain (1521)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Bintan_(1521)" title="Attack on Bintan (1521)">Insulindia (1521)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tunmen" title="Battle of Tunmen">China (1521)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedir_expedition_(1522)" title="Pedir expedition (1522)">Sumatra (1522)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ash-Shihr_(1523)" title="Battle of Ash-Shihr (1523)">Arabia (1523)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Muar_River" title="Battle of Muar River">Malaysia (1523)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acehnese_conquest_of_Pasai" title="Acehnese conquest of Pasai">Sumatra (1523–24)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lingga" title="Battle of Lingga">Insulindia (1525)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Bintan" title="Siege of Bintan">Insulindia (1526)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Calicut_(1526)" title="Siege of Calicut (1526)">India (1526)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Sunda_Kelapa" title="Conquest of Sunda Kelapa">Java (1527)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Aceh_(1528)" title="Battle of Aceh (1528)">Sumatra (1528)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mombasa_(1528)" title="Battle of Mombasa (1528)">East Africa (1528)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Bahrain_(1529)" title="Siege of Bahrain (1529)">Persian Gulf (1529)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ternatean%E2%80%93Portuguese_conflicts" title="Ternatean–Portuguese conflicts">Moluccas (1530–1607)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Diu_(1531)" title="Siege of Diu (1531)">India (1531)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Agadir_(1533)" title="Siege of Agadir (1533)">Morocco (1533)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Reishahr" title="Battle of Reishahr">Persian Gulf (1534)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Malacca_(1534)" title="Battle of Malacca (1534)">Malaysia (1534)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1535)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1535)">Tunis (1535)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ugentana" title="Battle of Ugentana">Malaysia (1535)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ugentana_(1536)" title="Battle of Ugentana (1536)">Malaysia (1536)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tidore" title="Battle of Tidore">Moluccas (1536)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iguape_War" title="Iguape War">Brazil (1534–1536)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Beadala_(1538)" title="Battle of Beadala (1538)">India (1538)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Diu_(1538)" title="Siege of Diu (1538)">India (1538)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Portuguese_conflicts_(1538%E2%80%931560)" title="Ottoman–Portuguese conflicts (1538–1560)">Indian Ocean (1538–60)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Suakin_(1541)" title="Battle of Suakin (1541)">Red Sea (1541)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Jeddah_(1541)" title="Attack on Jeddah (1541)">Red Sea (1541)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_El_Tor" title="Battle of El Tor">Red Sea (1541)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Suez_(1541)" title="Battle of Suez (1541)">Red Sea (1541)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Massawa_(1541)" title="Battle of Massawa (1541)">Ethiopia (1541)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian%E2%80%93Adal_War" title="Ethiopian–Adal War">Ethiopia (1542)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Benadir" title="Battle of Benadir">East Africa (1542)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ba%C3%A7ente" title="Battle of Baçente">Ethiopia (1542)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jarte" title="Battle of Jarte">Ethiopia (1542)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Hill_of_the_Jews" title="Battle of the Hill of the Jews">Ethiopia (1542)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wofla" title="Battle of Wofla">Ethiopia (1542)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wayna_Daga" title="Battle of Wayna Daga">Ethiopia (1543)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Campar_(1543)" title="Siege of Campar (1543)">Malaysia (1543)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Jailolo" title="Attack on Jailolo">Insulindia (1545)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Diu_(1546)" title="Siege of Diu (1546)">India (1546)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bharuch" title="Battle of Bharuch">India (1547)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Perlis_River" title="Battle of Perlis River">Malaysia (1547)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Aden_(1548)" title="Capture of Aden (1548)">Arabia (1548)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_al-Shihr_(1548)" title="Battle of al-Shihr (1548)">Arabia (1548)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jailolo_(1550)" title="Siege of Jailolo (1550)">Jailolo (1550)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Qatif_(1551)" title="Siege of Qatif (1551)">Persian Gulf (1551)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Malacca_(1551)" title="Siege of Malacca (1551)">Malaysia (1551)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_campaign_against_Hormuz" title="Ottoman campaign against Hormuz">Arabia (1552–54)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Gulf_of_Oman" title="Battle of the Gulf of Oman">Gulf of Oman (1554)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Thatta" class="mw-redirect" title="Sack of Thatta">Pakistan (1557)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Kotte_(1557%E2%80%931558)" title="Siege of Kotte (1557–1558)">Sri Lanka (1557–58)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rio_de_Janeiro_(1558)" title="Battle of Rio de Janeiro (1558)">Brazil (1558)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_conquest_of_Daman" title="Portuguese conquest of Daman">India (1559)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_invasion_of_the_Jaffna_kingdom_(1560)" title="Portuguese invasion of the Jaffna kingdom (1560)">Jaffna (1560)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Moji" title="Siege of Moji">Japan (1561)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Coast_(1562)" title="Battle of Cape Coast (1562)">Gold Coast (1562)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Mazagan_(1562)" title="Siege of Mazagan (1562)">Morocco (1562)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Pe%C3%B1%C3%B3n_de_V%C3%A9lez_de_la_Gomera" class="mw-redirect" title="Conquest of Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera">Morocco (1564)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fukuda_Bay" title="Battle of Fukuda Bay">Japan (1565)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rio_de_Janeiro_(1567)" title="Battle of Rio de Janeiro (1567)">Brazil (1567)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Malacca_(1568)" title="Siege of Malacca (1568)">Malacca (1568)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martim_Afonso_de_Sousa%27s_expedition_to_Brazil" title="Martim Afonso de Sousa's expedition to Brazil">Brazil (1569-73)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Aceh_(1569)" title="Battle of Aceh (1569)">Sumatra (1569)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Gambia_River_(1570)" title="Battle of the Gambia River (1570)">Gambia (1570)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Goa_(1570%E2%80%931571)" title="Siege of Goa (1570–1571)">Goa (1570–1571)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Chaul_(1570%E2%80%931571)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Chaul (1570–1571)">Chaul (1570–1571)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Honavar_(1571)" title="Siege of Honavar (1571)"> Honavar (1571)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Mangalore_(1571)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Mangalore (1571)"> Mangalore (1571)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Chaliyam" title="Siege of Chaliyam">Chale (1571)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_League_of_the_Indies" title="War of the League of the Indies">India (1570–75)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Malacca_(1573)" title="Siege of Malacca (1573)">Malaysia (1573)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Malacca_(1574)" title="Siege of Malacca (1574)">Malaysia (1574)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Malacca_(1575)" title="Siege of Malacca (1575)">Malaysia (1575)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Alc%C3%A1cer_Quibir" title="Battle of Alcácer Quibir">Morocco (1578)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Anzele" title="Siege of Anzele">Angola (1580)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Daman_(1581)" title="Siege of Daman (1581)">India (1581)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Muscat_(1581)" title="Capture of Muscat (1581)">Arabia (1581)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Talandongo" title="Battle of Talandongo">Angola (1583)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Portuguese_conflicts_(1586%E2%80%931589)" title="Ottoman–Portuguese conflicts (1586–1589)">Indian Ocean (1586–89)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leitao_Coast" title="Battle of Leitao Coast">Persian Gulf (1586)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Johor_(1586)" title="Battle of Johor (1586)">Malaysia (1586)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Johor_(1587)" title="Siege of Johor (1587)">Malaysia (1587)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Colombo_(1587%E2%80%931588)" title="Siege of Colombo (1587–1588)">Sri Lanka (1587–88)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mombasa_(1589)" title="Battle of Mombasa (1589)">Mombasa (1589)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portudal%E2%80%93Joal_Massacre" title="Portudal–Joal Massacre">Senegal (1589)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_invasion_of_the_Jaffna_kingdom_(1591)" title="Portuguese invasion of the Jaffna kingdom (1591)">Jaffna (1591)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Kottakkal" title="Siege of Kottakkal">India (1599–1600)</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>17th century</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bantam" title="Battle of Bantam">Java (1601)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aceh_expedition_(1606)" title="Aceh expedition (1606)">Sumatra (1606)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Malacca_(1606)" title="Siege of Malacca (1606)">Malaysia (1606)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Rachado" title="Battle of Cape Rachado">Malaysia (1606)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Seal_Ship_incident_(1609)" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Seal Ship incident (1609)">China (1609)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Swally" title="Battle of Swally">India (1612)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_conquest_of_Maranh%C3%A3o" title="Portuguese conquest of Maranhão">Brazil (1612–1615)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Cambar%C3%A3o" title="Capture of Cambarão">Persian Gulf (1614)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Formoso_River" title="Battle of Formoso River">Malaysia (1615)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_attack_on_the_Catherine_(1618)" title="Portuguese attack on the Catherine (1618)">Gambia (1618)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_conquest_of_the_Jaffna_kingdom" title="Portuguese conquest of the Jaffna kingdom">Jaffna (1619)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roland_Crapp%C3%A9%27s_raids_on_Portuguese_colonies" title="Roland Crappé's raids on Portuguese colonies">Coromandel Coast (1619)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Persian_capture_of_Qeshm" title="Anglo-Persian capture of Qeshm">Persian Gulf (1621–22)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Koneswaram_Temple" title="Conquest of Koneswaram Temple">Trincomalee (1622)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Persian_capture_of_Hormuz" title="Anglo-Persian capture of Hormuz">Persian Gulf (1622)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Macau" title="Battle of Macau">China (1622)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mbumbi" title="Battle of Mbumbi">Angola (1622)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mbanda_Kasi" title="Battle of Mbanda Kasi">Angola (1623)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Bahia" title="Capture of Bahia">Brazil (1624)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filips_van_Zuylen%27s_campaign_agaisnt_Luanda" title="Filips van Zuylen's campaign agaisnt Luanda">Angola (1624)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_1_February_1625" title="Action of 1 February 1625">Persian Gulf (1625)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recapture_of_Bahia" title="Recapture of Bahia">Brazil (1625)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Elmina_(1625)" title="Battle of Elmina (1625)">Gold Coast (1625)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Langat_River" title="Battle of Langat River">Malaysia (1628)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Duyon_River" title="Battle of Duyon River">Malacca (1629)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinking_of_the_Flensborg" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinking of the Flensborg">Cape of Good Hope (1630)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Recife_(1630)" title="Siege of Recife (1630)">Brazil (1630)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jambi" title="Battle of Jambi">Jambi (1630)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Abrolhos" title="Battle of Abrolhos">Brazil (1631)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yusuf_ibn_al-Hasan#Portuguese_expedition_to_Mombasa_1632" title="Yusuf ibn al-Hasan">East Africa (1632)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Hooghly" title="Siege of Hooghly">Bengal (1632)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Julfar" title="Capture of Julfar">Arabia (1633)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Sohar" class="mw-redirect" title="Capture of Sohar">Arabia (1633–43)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mata_Redonda" title="Battle of Mata Redonda">Brazil (1636)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Elmina_(1637)" title="Battle of Elmina (1637)">Gold Coast (1637)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Goa_(1638)" title="Battle of Goa (1638)">India (1638)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Salvador_(1638)" title="Siege of Salvador (1638)">Brazil (1638)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Daman_(1638%E2%80%931639)" title="Siege of Daman (1638–1639)">India (1638–39)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_30_September_1639" title="Action of 30 September 1639">India (1639)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_12%E2%80%9317_January_1640" title="Action of 12–17 January 1640">Brazil (1640)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazagan_Ambush_(1640)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mazagan Ambush (1640)">Morocco (1640)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Malacca_(1641)" title="Siege of Malacca (1641)">Malaysia (1640–41)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recapture_of_Angola" title="Recapture of Angola">Angola (1641–48)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mboror%C3%A9" title="Battle of Mbororé">Brazil (1641)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dano-Carical_Conflict" title="Dano-Carical Conflict">India (1644–45)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tabocas" title="Battle of Tabocas">Brazil (1645)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Casa_Forte" title="Battle of Casa Forte">Brazil (1645)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kombi" title="Battle of Kombi">Angola (1647)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Guararapes" title="First Battle of Guararapes">Brazil (1648)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Guararapes" title="Second Battle of Guararapes">Brazil (1649)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Muscat_(1650)" class="mw-redirect" title="Capture of Muscat (1650)">Arabia (1650)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recapture_of_Recife_(1652%E2%80%931654)" title="Recapture of Recife (1652–1654)">Brazil (1652–54)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_23_March_1654" title="Action of 23 March 1654">1st Sri Lanka (1654)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_2_May_1654" title="Action of 2 May 1654">2nd Sri Lanka (1654)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mannar_(1658)" title="Battle of Mannar (1658)">Mannar (1658)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Malabar" class="mw-redirect" title="Conquest of Malabar">Malabar (1658–63)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marg%C3%A3o_(1659)" title="Battle of Margão (1659)">Margão (1659)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mbwila" title="Battle of Mbwila">Angola (1665)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conjuration_of_Our_Father" title="Conjuration of Our Father">Brazil (1666)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mbidizi_River" title="Battle of Mbidizi River">Angola (1670)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kitombo" title="Battle of Kitombo">Angola (1670)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pungo_Andongo" title="Battle of Pungo Andongo">Angola (1671)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Katole" title="Battle of Katole">Angola (1681)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_of_Bassein_(1693)" class="mw-redirect" title="Campaign of Bassein (1693)">India (1693)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Mombasa_(1696%E2%80%931698)" title="Siege of Mombasa (1696–1698)">East Africa (1696–98)</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>18th century</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Surat_(1704)" title="Battle of Surat (1704)">India (1704)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rio_de_Janeiro_(1710)" title="Battle of Rio de Janeiro (1710)">Brazil (1710)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rio_de_Janeiro" title="Battle of Rio de Janeiro">Brazil (1711)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinda_Expedition" title="Cabinda Expedition">Angola (1723)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maratha%E2%80%93Portuguese_War_(1729%E2%80%931732)" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha–Portuguese War (1729–1732)">India (1729–32)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93Portuguese_War_(1735%E2%80%931737)" title="Spanish–Portuguese War (1735–1737)">Banda Oriental (1735–37)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Alorna" title="Siege of Alorna">India (1746)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tiracol" title="Siege of Tiracol">India (1746)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Calicut_(1752)" title="Battle of Calicut (1752)">India (1752)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guaran%C3%AD_War" title="Guaraní War">Brazil (1756)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fantastic_War" title="Fantastic War">Brazil (1762–63)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Cevallos_expedition" title="First Cevallos expedition">Banda Oriental and Rio Grande do Sul (1762–63)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Mazagan_(1769)" title="Siege of Mazagan (1769)">Morocco (1769)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese%E2%80%93Ovimbundu_War" title="Portuguese–Ovimbundu War">Angola (1774–1778)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93Portuguese_War_(1776%E2%80%931777)" title="Spanish–Portuguese War (1776–1777)">Banda Oriental (1776–77)</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>19th century</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_conquest_of_French_Guiana" title="Portuguese conquest of French Guiana">French Guiana (1809)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Tiger%27s_Mouth" title="Battle of the Tiger's Mouth">China (1809–10)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_conquest_of_the_Banda_Oriental" title="Portuguese conquest of the Banda Oriental">Banda Oriental (1816–20)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_War_of_Independence" title="Brazilian War of Independence">Brazil (1821–25)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Faiti%C3%B5es" title="Revolt of the Faitiões">China (1846)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portugal-Angoche_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="Portugal-Angoche conflict">Mozambique (1847–1910)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passale%C3%A3o_incident" title="Passaleão incident">China (1849)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marracuene" title="Battle of Marracuene">Mozambique (1895)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Coolela" title="Battle of Coolela">Mozambique (1895)</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>20th century</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bailundo_revolt" title="Bailundo revolt">Angola (1902–04)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mufilo" title="Battle of Mufilo">Angola (1907)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Timorese_rebellion_of_1911%E2%80%931912" title="East Timorese rebellion of 1911–1912">East Timor (1911–12)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_campaign_in_Angola" title="German campaign in Angola">Angola (1914–15)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kolongongo_War" title="Kolongongo War"> Angola (1914–1917)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_I)" title="East African campaign (World War I)">Mozambique (1917–18)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barue_uprising" title="Barue uprising">Mozambique (1917-18)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Timor" title="Battle of Timor">Timor (1942–43)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Dadra_and_Nagar_Haveli" title="Annexation of Dadra and Nagar Haveli">India (1954)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Goa" title="Annexation of Goa">India (1961)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Africa (1961–74)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_War_of_Independence" title="Angolan War of Independence">Angola (1961–74)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau_War_of_Independence" title="Guinea-Bissau War of Independence">Guinea-Bissau (1963–74)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_War_of_Independence" title="Mozambican War of Independence">Mozambique (1964–74)</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>The <b>Portuguese Colonial War</b> (<a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>: <i lang="pt">Guerra Colonial Portuguesa</i>), also known in Portugal as the <b>Overseas War</b> (<span title="Portuguese-language text"><i lang="pt">Guerra do Ultramar</i></span>) or in the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">former colonies</a> as the <b>War of Liberation</b> (<span title="Portuguese-language text"><i lang="pt">Guerra de Libertação</i></span>), and also known as the <b>Angolan</b>, <b>Guinea-Bissau</b> and <b>Mozambican War of Independence</b>, was a 13-year-long conflict fought between <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_military_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese military history">Portugal's military</a> and the emerging <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalist</a> movements in Portugal's African colonies between 1961 and 1974. The Portuguese regime at the time, the <span title="Portuguese-language text"><i lang="pt"><a href="/wiki/Estado_Novo_(Portugal)" title="Estado Novo (Portugal)">Estado Novo</a></i></span>, was overthrown by a military <a href="/wiki/Carnation_Revolution" title="Carnation Revolution">coup in 1974</a>, and the change in government brought the conflict to an end. The war was a decisive <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideological</a> struggle in <a href="/wiki/Lusophone" class="mw-redirect" title="Lusophone">Lusophone</a> Africa, surrounding nations, and mainland Portugal. </p><p>The prevalent Portuguese and international historical approach considers the Portuguese Colonial War as was perceived at the time—a single conflict fought in the three separate <a href="/wiki/Angolan_War_of_Independence" title="Angolan War of Independence">Angolan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau_War_of_Independence" title="Guinea-Bissau War of Independence">Guinea-Bissau</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mozambican_War_of_Independence" title="Mozambican War of Independence">Mozambican</a> theaters of operations, rather than a number of separate conflicts as the emergent African countries aided each other and were supported by the same global powers and even the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> during the war. India's <a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Dadra_and_Nagar_Haveli" title="Annexation of Dadra and Nagar Haveli">1954 annexation of Dadra and Nagar Haveli</a> and <a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Goa" title="Annexation of Goa">1961 annexation of Goa</a> are sometimes included as part of the conflict. </p><p>Unlike other European nations during the 1950s and 1960s, the Portuguese <span title="Portuguese-language text"><i lang="pt">Estado Novo</i></span> regime did not withdraw from its African colonies, or the overseas provinces (<span title="Portuguese-language text"><i lang="pt">províncias ultramarinas</i></span>) as those territories had been officially called since 1951. During the 1960s, various armed independence movements became active—the <a href="/wiki/MPLA" title="MPLA">People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Liberation_Front_of_Angola" title="National Liberation Front of Angola">National Liberation Front of Angola</a>, <a href="/wiki/UNITA" title="UNITA">National Union for the Total Independence of Angola</a> in Angola, <a href="/wiki/African_Party_for_the_Independence_of_Guinea_and_Cape_Verde" title="African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde">African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde</a> in Portuguese Guinea, and the <a href="/wiki/FRELIMO" title="FRELIMO">Mozambique Liberation Front</a> in Mozambique. During the ensuing conflict, atrocities were committed by all forces involved.<sup id="cite_ref-Der_Spiegel_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Der_Spiegel-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Throughout the period, Portugal faced increasing dissent, arms embargoes, and other punitive sanctions imposed by the international community, including by some <a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a> governments, either intermittently or continuously.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The anti-colonial guerrillas and movements of Portuguese Africa were heavily supported and instigated with money, weapons, training and diplomatic lobbying by the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Bloc" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist Bloc">Communist Bloc</a> which had the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> as its lead nation. By 1973, the war had become increasingly unpopular due to its length and financial costs, the worsening of diplomatic relations with other United Nations members, and the role it had always played as a factor of perpetuation of the entrenched Estado Novo regime and the nondemocratic <a href="/wiki/Status_quo" title="Status quo">status quo</a> in Portugal. </p><p>The end of the war came with the <a href="/wiki/Carnation_Revolution" title="Carnation Revolution">Carnation Revolution</a> military coup of April 1974 in <a href="/wiki/Mainland_Portugal" class="mw-redirect" title="Mainland Portugal">mainland Portugal</a>. The withdrawal resulted in the expulsion of hundreds of thousands of Portuguese citizens<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> plus military personnel of European, African, and mixed ethnicity from the former Portuguese territories and newly independent African nations.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This migration is regarded as one of the largest peaceful, if forced, <a href="/wiki/Human_migration" title="Human migration">migrations</a> in the world's history although most of the migrants fled the former Portuguese territories as destitute refugees.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The former colonies faced severe problems after independence. Devastating <a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_in_Africa" title="List of conflicts in Africa">civil wars</a> followed in <a href="/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">Angola</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mozambican_Civil_War" title="Mozambican Civil War">Mozambique</a>, which lasted several decades, claimed millions of lives, and resulted in large numbers of displaced <a href="/wiki/Refugee" title="Refugee">refugees</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Norrie_MacQueen_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norrie_MacQueen-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a> established <a href="/wiki/Planned_economy" title="Planned economy">state-planned economies</a> after independence,<sup id="cite_ref-Rose-Ackerman_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rose-Ackerman-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and struggled with inefficient judicial systems and bureaucracies,<sup id="cite_ref-Rose-Ackerman_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rose-Ackerman-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> corruption,<sup id="cite_ref-Rose-Ackerman_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rose-Ackerman-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Queiroz_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Queiroz-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> poverty and unemployment.<sup id="cite_ref-Queiroz_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Queiroz-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A level of <a href="/wiki/Social_order" title="Social order">social order</a> and <a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">economic development</a> comparable to what had existed under Portuguese rule, including during the period of the Colonial War, became the goal of the independent territories.<sup id="cite_ref-post-independence_goal_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-post-independence_goal-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The former Portuguese territories in Africa became sovereign states, with <a href="/wiki/Agostinho_Neto" title="Agostinho Neto">Agostinho Neto</a> in Angola, <a href="/wiki/Samora_Machel" title="Samora Machel">Samora Machel</a> in Mozambique, <a href="/wiki/Lu%C3%ADs_Cabral" title="Luís Cabral">Luís Cabral</a> in Guinea-Bissau, <a href="/wiki/Manuel_Pinto_da_Costa" title="Manuel Pinto da Costa">Manuel Pinto da Costa</a> in São Tomé and Príncipe, and <a href="/wiki/Aristides_Pereira" title="Aristides Pereira">Aristides Pereira</a> in Cape Verde as the <a href="/wiki/Heads_of_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Heads of state">heads of state</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_context">Political context</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Political context"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="15th_century">15th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: 15th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When the Portuguese began trading on the west coast of Africa in the 15th century, they concentrated their energies on <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Guinea" title="Portuguese Guinea">Guinea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Angola_(Portugal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Angola (Portugal)">Angola</a>. Hoping at first for <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a>, they soon found that <a href="/wiki/Slave" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave">slaves</a> were the most valuable commodity available in the region for export. The <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Islamic Empire</a> was already well-established in the <a href="/wiki/African_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="African slave trade">African slave trade</a>, for centuries linking it to the <a href="/wiki/Arab_slave_trade" title="Arab slave trade">Arab slave trade</a>. However, the Portuguese who had conquered the Islamic port of <a href="/wiki/Ceuta" title="Ceuta">Ceuta</a> in 1415 and several other towns in current-day <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Crusade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crusade">Crusade</a> against Islamic neighbors, managed to successfully establish themselves in the area. </p><p>In Guinea, rival European powers had established control over the trade routes in the region, while local African rulers confined the Portuguese to the coast. These rulers then sent enslaved Africans to the Portuguese ports, or to forts in Africa from where they were exported. Thousands of kilometers down the coast, in Angola, the Portuguese found consolidating their early advantage in establishing hegemony over the region even harder, due to the encroachment of <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch</a> traders. Nevertheless, the fortified Portuguese towns of <a href="/wiki/Luanda" title="Luanda">Luanda</a> (established in 1587 with 400 Portuguese settlers) and <a href="/wiki/Benguela" title="Benguela">Benguela</a> (a fort from 1587, a town from 1617) remained almost continuously in Portuguese hands.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>As in Guinea, the slave trade became the basis of the local economy in Angola. Excursions traveled ever farther inland to procure captives who were sold by African rulers; the primary source of these slaves were those captured as a result of losing a war or interethnic skirmish with other African tribes. More than a million men, women, and children were shipped from Angola across the Atlantic. In this region, unlike Guinea, the trade remained largely in Portuguese hands. Nearly all the slaves were destined for the <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Brazil" title="Colonial Brazil">Portuguese colony of Brazil</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Mozambique_(Portugal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mozambique (Portugal)">Mozambique</a>, reached in the 15th century by Portuguese sailors searching for a maritime <a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">spice trade</a> route, the Portuguese settled along the coast and made their way into the hinterland as <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sertanejos" class="extiw" title="wikt:sertanejos">sertanejos</a></i> (backwoodsmen). These <i>sertanejos</i> lived alongside <a href="/wiki/Swahili_people" title="Swahili people">Swahili</a> traders and even obtained employment among <a href="/wiki/Shona_people" title="Shona people">Shona</a> kings as interpreters and political advisers. One such <i>sertanejo</i> managed to travel through almost all the Shona kingdoms, including the <a href="/wiki/Mutapa_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutapa Empire">Mutapa Empire</a>'s (Mwenemutapa) metropolitan district, between 1512 and 1516.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the 1530s, small bands of Portuguese traders and <a href="/wiki/Prospecting" title="Prospecting">prospectors</a> penetrated the interior regions seeking gold, where they set up garrisons and trading posts at <a href="/wiki/Sena,_Mozambique" class="mw-redirect" title="Sena, Mozambique">Sena</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tete,_Mozambique" title="Tete, Mozambique">Tete</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Zambezi_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Zambezi River">Zambezi River</a> and tried to establish a monopoly over the gold trade. The Portuguese finally entered into direct relations with the Mwenemutapa in the 1560s.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the Portuguese traders and explorers settled in the coastal strip with greater success, and established strongholds safe from their main rivals in East Africa – the <a href="/wiki/Omani_Arabs" class="mw-redirect" title="Omani Arabs">Omani Arabs</a>, including those of <a href="/wiki/Zanzibar" title="Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scramble_for_Africa_and_the_World_Wars">Scramble for Africa and the World Wars</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Scramble for Africa and the World Wars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Combat_de_marracuene.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Combat_de_marracuene.jpg/220px-Combat_de_marracuene.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Combat_de_marracuene.jpg/330px-Combat_de_marracuene.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Combat_de_marracuene.jpg/440px-Combat_de_marracuene.jpg 2x" data-file-width="639" data-file-height="430" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marracuene" title="Battle of Marracuene">Battle of Marracuene</a> in 1895</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Combat_de_Coolela.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Combat_de_Coolela.jpg/220px-Combat_de_Coolela.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Combat_de_Coolela.jpg/330px-Combat_de_Coolela.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/Combat_de_Coolela.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="247" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Coolela" title="Battle of Coolela">Battle of Coolela</a> in 1895</figcaption></figure> <p>Portugal's colonial claim to the region was recognized by the other European powers during the 1880s, during the <a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a>, and the final boundaries of Portuguese Africa were agreed by negotiation in Europe in 1891. At the time, Portugal was in effective control of little more than the coastal strip of both Angola and Mozambique, but important inroads into the interior had been made since the first half of the 19th century. In Angola, construction of a railway from <a href="/wiki/Luanda" title="Luanda">Luanda</a> to <a href="/wiki/Malanje" title="Malanje">Malanje</a>, in the fertile highlands, was started in 1885.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Work began in 1903 on a commercially significant line from Benguela all the way inland to the Katanga region, aiming to provide access to the sea for the richest mining district of the Belgian Congo.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The line reached the Congo border in 1928.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1914, both Angola and Mozambique had Portuguese army garrisons of around 2,000 men, African troops led by European officers. With the outbreak of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> in 1914, Portugal sent reinforcements to both colonies, because the fighting in the neighboring German African colonies was expected to spill over the borders into its territories. </p><p>After Germany declared war on Portugal in March 1916, the Portuguese government sent more reinforcements to Mozambique (the South Africans had captured German South West Africa in 1915). These troops supported <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a>, <a href="/wiki/Union_of_South_Africa" title="Union of South Africa">South African</a> and <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgian</a> military operations against German colonial forces in <a href="/wiki/German_East_Africa" title="German East Africa">German East Africa</a>. In December 1917, German colonial forces led by Colonel <a href="/wiki/Paul_von_Lettow-Vorbeck" title="Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck">Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck</a> invaded Mozambique from German East Africa. Portuguese, British and Belgian forces spent all of 1918 chasing Lettow-Vorbeck and his men across Mozambique, German East Africa and <a href="/wiki/Northern_Rhodesia" title="Northern Rhodesia">Northern Rhodesia</a>. Portugal sent a total of 40,000 reinforcements to Angola and Mozambique during World War I.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By this time, the regime in Portugal had been through two major political upheavals—from monarchy to republic in 1910 and then to a military dictatorship after a coup in 1926. These changes resulted in a tightening of Portuguese control in Angola. In the early years of the expanded colony, near-constant warfare was occurring between the Portuguese and the various African rulers of the region. A systematic campaign of conquest and pacification was undertaken by the Portuguese. One by one, the local kingdoms were overwhelmed and abolished. </p><p>By the middle of the 1920s, the whole of Angola was under control. Slavery had officially ended in Portuguese Africa, but the plantations were worked on a system of paid <a href="/wiki/Serf" class="mw-redirect" title="Serf">serfdom</a> by African labour composed of the large majority of ethnic Africans who did not have resources to pay Portuguese taxes and were considered unemployed by the authorities. After <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> and the first decolonization events, this system gradually declined, but paid forced labor, including labor contracts with forced relocation of people, continued in many regions of Portuguese Africa until it was finally abolished in 1961.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-World_War_II">Post-World War II</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Post-World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the late 1950s, the <a href="/wiki/Military_of_Portugal" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of Portugal">Portuguese Armed Forces</a> saw themselves confronted with the paradox generated by the dictatorial regime of the <i><a href="/wiki/Estado_Novo_(Portugal)" title="Estado Novo (Portugal)">Estado Novo</a></i> that had been in power since 1933; on one hand, the policy of Portuguese neutrality in World War II placed the Portuguese Armed Forces out of the way of a possible <a href="/wiki/Cold_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold war">East-West conflict</a>; on the other, the regime felt the increased responsibility of keeping Portugal's vast overseas territories under control and protecting the citizenry there. Portugal joined <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> as a founding member in 1949, and was integrated within the various fledgling military commands of NATO.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>NATO's focus on preventing a conventional Soviet attack against Western Europe was to the detriment of military preparations against guerrilla uprisings in Portugal's overseas provinces that were considered essential for the survival of the nation. The integration of Portugal in NATO resulted in the formation of a military élite who were critical in the planning and implementation of operations during the Overseas War. This "NATO generation" ascended quickly to the highest political positions and military command without having to provide evidence of loyalty to the regime. </p><p>The Colonial War established a split between the military structure – heavily influenced by the western powers with democratic governments – and the political power of the regime. Some analysts see the "<a href="/wiki/Botelho_Moniz_coup" class="mw-redirect" title="Botelho Moniz coup">Botelho Moniz coup</a>" of 1961 (also known as <i>A Abrilada</i>) against the Portuguese government and backed by the U.S. administration,<sup id="cite_ref-US_involvement_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-US_involvement-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as the beginning of this rupture, the origin of a lapse on the part of the regime to keep up a unique command center, an armed force prepared for threats of conflict in the colonies. This situation caused, as was verified later, a lack of coordination between the three general staffs (<a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Army" title="Portuguese Army">Army</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Air_Force" title="Portuguese Air Force">Air Force</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Navy" title="Portuguese Navy">Navy</a>). </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/National_Liberation_Front_of_Angola" title="National Liberation Front of Angola">FNLA</a>, which was headed by <a href="/wiki/Holden_Roberto" title="Holden Roberto">Holden Roberto</a>, attacked Portuguese settlers and Africans living in northern <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Angola" title="Portuguese Angola">Angola</a> from its bases in <a href="/wiki/Congo-L%C3%A9opoldville" class="mw-redirect" title="Congo-Léopoldville">Congo-Léopoldville</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the victims were African farm workers living under labor contracts that required seasonal relocation from the desertified Southwest and <a href="/wiki/Bailundo" title="Bailundo">Bailundo</a> areas of Angola. Photos of Africans killed by the FLNA, which included photos of decapitated civilians, men, women and children of both white and black ethnicity, was later displayed in the UN by Portuguese diplomats.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The emergence of labor strikes, attacks by newly organized guerrilla movements, and the <a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_hijacking" title="Santa Maria hijacking">Santa Maria hijacking</a> by <a href="/wiki/Henrique_Galv%C3%A3o" title="Henrique Galvão">Henrique Galvão</a> began a path to open warfare in Angola. </p><p>According to historical researchers such as José Freire Antunes, U.S. President <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a><sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> sent a message to President <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Oliveira_Salazar" title="António de Oliveira Salazar">António de Oliveira Salazar</a> advising Portugal to abandon its African colonies shortly after the outbreak of violence in 1961. Instead, after a coup led by pro-U.S. forces failed to depose him,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Is this referring to the Santa Maria hijackings? If so, could I see the evidence that Henrique Galvão was pro-US? If not this event, then what? (October 2022)">specify</span></a></i>]</sup> Salazar consolidated power and immediately sent reinforcements to the overseas territories, setting the stage for continued conflict in Angola. Similar situations played out in other overseas Portuguese territories. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Multiethnic_societies,_competing_ideologies,_and_armed_conflict_in_Portuguese_Africa"><span id="Multiethnic_societies.2C_competing_ideologies.2C_and_armed_conflict_in_Portuguese_Africa"></span>Multiethnic societies, competing ideologies, and armed conflict in Portuguese Africa</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Multiethnic societies, competing ideologies, and armed conflict in Portuguese Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Angola_Ethnic_map_1970.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Angola_Ethnic_map_1970.svg/220px-Angola_Ethnic_map_1970.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Angola_Ethnic_map_1970.svg/330px-Angola_Ethnic_map_1970.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Angola_Ethnic_map_1970.svg/440px-Angola_Ethnic_map_1970.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="820" /></a><figcaption>Ethnic map of Angola (in 1970)</figcaption></figure><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Essay-like plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-essay-like" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>is written like a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Wikipedia_is_not_a_publisher_of_original_thought" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay</a></b> that states a Wikipedia editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit">help improve it</a> by rewriting it in an <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles#Information_style_and_tone" title="Wikipedia:Writing better articles">encyclopedic style</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>By the 1950s, the European <a href="/wiki/Mainland_Portugal" class="mw-redirect" title="Mainland Portugal">mainland Portuguese territory</a> was inhabited by a society that was poorer and had a much higher illiteracy rate than the average Western European societies or those of North America. It was ruled by an authoritarian and conservative right-leaning dictatorship, known as the <a href="/wiki/Estado_Novo_(Portugal)" title="Estado Novo (Portugal)">Estado Novo</a> regime. By this time, the Estado Novo regime ruled both the Portuguese mainland and several centuries-old overseas territories as theoretically co-equal departments. The possessions were <a href="/wiki/Angola_(Portugal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Angola (Portugal)">Angola</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cape_Verde" title="Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mozambique_(Portugal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mozambique (Portugal)">Mozambique</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Guinea" title="Portuguese Guinea">Portuguese Guinea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_India" title="Portuguese India">Portuguese India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Timor" title="Portuguese Timor">Portuguese Timor</a>, <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Jo%C3%A3o_Baptista_de_Ajud%C3%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="São João Baptista de Ajudá">São João Baptista de Ajudá</a>, and <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a>. </p><p>In reality, the relation of mainland Portuguese to their overseas possessions was that of colonial administrator to a subservient colony. Political, legislative, administrative, commercial, and other institutional relations between the colonies and Portugal-based individuals and organizations were numerous, though migration to, from, and between Portugal and its overseas departments was limited in size, due principally to the long distance and low annual income of the average Portuguese and that of the indigenous overseas populations. </p><p>An increasing number of African anticolonial movements called for total independence of the overseas African territories from Portugal. Some, like the UPA<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> wanted national <a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">self-determination</a>, while others wanted a new form of government based on Marxist principles. Portuguese leaders, including Salazar, attempted to stave off calls for independence by defending a policy of assimilation, multiracialism, and <a href="/wiki/Civilising_mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Civilising mission">civilising mission</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Lusotropicalism" title="Lusotropicalism">lusotropicalism</a>, as a way of integrating Portuguese colonies, and their peoples, more closely with Portugal itself.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For the Portuguese ruling regime, the overseas empire was a matter of <a href="/wiki/National_interest" title="National interest">national interest</a>, to be preserved at all costs. As far back as 1919, a Portuguese delegate to the International Labour Conference in Geneva declared: "The assimilation of the so-called inferior races, by cross-breeding, by means of the Christian religion, by the mixing of the most widely divergent elements; freedom of access to the highest offices of state, even in Europe – these are the principles which have always guided Portuguese colonisation in Asia, in Africa, in the Pacific, and previously in America."<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As late as the 1950s, the policy of "colorblind" access and mixing of races did not extend to all of Portugal's African territories, particularly Mozambique, where in tune with other minority white regimes of the day in Southern Africa, the territory was segregated along racial lines. Strict qualification criteria ensured that fewer than one in 100 black Mozambicans became full Portuguese citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Settlement_subsidies">Settlement subsidies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Settlement subsidies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Numerous subsidies were offered by the Estado Novo regime to those Portuguese who agreed to settle in Angola or Mozambique, including a special premium for each Portuguese man who agreed to marry an African woman.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Salazar himself was fond of restating the old Portuguese policy maxim that any indigenous resident of Portugal's African territories was, in theory, eligible to become a member of Portuguese government, even its president. In practice, this never took place, though trained black Africans living in Portugal's overseas African possessions were allowed to occupy positions in a variety of areas including the military, civil service, clergy, education, and private <a href="/wiki/Business" title="Business">business</a>—providing they had the requisite education and technical skills. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cabral_2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Cabral_2.png/220px-Cabral_2.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Cabral_2.png/330px-Cabral_2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Cabral_2.png/440px-Cabral_2.png 2x" data-file-width="1834" data-file-height="1337" /></a><figcaption>Cabo Verdean and Bissau-Guinean revolutionary <a href="/wiki/Am%C3%ADlcar_Cabral" title="Amílcar Cabral">Amílcar Cabral</a>: In his formative years, he was awarded an agronomy degree by the <a href="/wiki/Instituto_Superior_de_Agronomia" title="Instituto Superior de Agronomia">Instituto Superior de Agronomia</a>, in Lisbon.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HoldenRoberto_1973.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/HoldenRoberto_1973.jpg/220px-HoldenRoberto_1973.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/HoldenRoberto_1973.jpg/330px-HoldenRoberto_1973.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/HoldenRoberto_1973.jpg/440px-HoldenRoberto_1973.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2479" data-file-height="3723" /></a><figcaption>Leader of FNLA Holden Roberto in 1973</figcaption></figure> <p>While access to basic, secondary, and technical education remained poor until the 1960s, a few Africans were able to attend schools locally or in some cases in Portugal itself. This resulted in the advancement of certain black Portuguese Africans who became prominent individuals during the war and its aftermath, including <a href="/wiki/Samora_Machel" title="Samora Machel">Samora Machel</a>, <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A1rio_Pinto_de_Andrade" title="Mário Pinto de Andrade">Mário Pinto de Andrade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marcelino_dos_Santos" title="Marcelino dos Santos">Marcelino dos Santos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eduardo_Mondlane" title="Eduardo Mondlane">Eduardo Mondlane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agostinho_Neto" title="Agostinho Neto">Agostinho Neto</a>, <a href="/wiki/Am%C3%ADlcar_Cabral" title="Amílcar Cabral">Amílcar Cabral</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jonas_Savimbi" title="Jonas Savimbi">Jonas Savimbi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joaquim_Chissano" title="Joaquim Chissano">Joaquim Chissano</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gra%C3%A7a_Machel" title="Graça Machel">Graça Machel</a>. Two state-run universities were founded in Portuguese Africa in the 1962 by the Minister of the Overseas <a href="/wiki/Adriano_Moreira" title="Adriano Moreira">Adriano Moreira</a> (the <i><a href="/wiki/Universidade_de_Luanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Universidade de Luanda">Universidade de Luanda</a></i> in Angola and the <i><a href="/wiki/Universidade_de_Louren%C3%A7o_Marques" class="mw-redirect" title="Universidade de Lourenço Marques">Universidade de Lourenço Marques</a></i> in Mozambique, awarding a range of degrees from engineering to medicine<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>); however, most of their students came from Portuguese families living in the two territories. Several personalities in Portuguese society, including one of the most idolized sports stars in Portuguese football history, a black football player from <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_East_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese East Africa">Portuguese East Africa</a> named <a href="/wiki/Eus%C3%A9bio" title="Eusébio">Eusébio</a>, were other examples of efforts towards assimilation and multiracialism in the post-World War II period. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Composition_of_the_Portuguese_Army">Composition of the Portuguese Army</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Composition of the Portuguese Army"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to Mozambican historian <a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_Paulo_Borges_Coelho" title="João Paulo Borges Coelho">João Paulo Borges Coelho</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Portuguese colonial army was largely segregated along terms of race and ethnicity until 1960. There were originally three classes of soldier in Portuguese overseas service: commissioned soldiers (whites), overseas soldiers (African <i>assimilados</i>), and native or indigenous Africans (<i>indigenato'</i>). These categories were renamed to first, second, and third class in 1960, which effectively corresponded to the same categories. Later, after official discrimination based on skin colour was outlawed, some Portuguese commanders such as General <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Sp%C3%ADnola" title="António de Spínola">António de Spínola</a> began a process of "Africanization" of Portuguese forces fighting in Africa. In Portuguese Guinea, this included a large increase in African recruitment along with the establishment of all-black military formations such as the Black Militias (<i>Milícias negras</i>) commanded by Major Carlos Fabião and the African Commando Battalion (<i>Batalhão de Comandos Africanos</i>) commanded by General Almeida Bruno.<sup id="cite_ref-Afonso_2000_p._340_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Afonso_2000_p._340-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While sub-Saharan African soldiers constituted a mere 18% of the total number of troops fighting in Portugal's African territories in 1961, this percentage rose dramatically over the next 13 years, with black soldiers constituting over 50% of all government forces fighting in Africa by April 1974. Coelho noted that perceptions of African soldiers varied a good deal among senior Portuguese commanders during the conflict in Angola, Guinea, and Mozambique. General <a href="/wiki/Francisco_da_Costa_Gomes" title="Francisco da Costa Gomes">Francisco da Costa Gomes</a>, perhaps the most successful counterinsurgency commander, sought good relations with local civilians, and employed African units within the framework of an organized counterinsurgency plan.<sup id="cite_ref-Coelho,_João_Paulo_Borges_2002_pp._129-50_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coelho,_João_Paulo_Borges_2002_pp._129-50-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> General <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Sp%C3%ADnola" title="António de Spínola">António de Spínola</a>, by contrast, appealed for a more political and psycho-social use of African soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-Coelho,_João_Paulo_Borges_2002_pp._129-50_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coelho,_João_Paulo_Borges_2002_pp._129-50-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, General <a href="/wiki/Ka%C3%BAlza_de_Arriaga" title="Kaúlza de Arriaga">Kaúlza de Arriaga</a>, the most conservative of the three, appears to have doubted the reliability of African forces outside his strict control, while continuing to view African soldiers as inferior to Portuguese troops.<sup id="cite_ref-Coelho,_João_Paulo_Borges_2002_pp._129-50_64-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coelho,_João_Paulo_Borges_2002_pp._129-50-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the war progressed, Portugal rapidly increased its <a href="/wiki/Mobilization" title="Mobilization">mobilized</a> forces. Under the Salazar regime, a military draft required all males to serve three years of obligatory military service; many of those called up to active military duty were deployed to combat zones in Portugal's African overseas provinces. The national service period was increased to four years in 1967, and virtually all conscripts faced a mandatory two-year tour of service in Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-Abbott_1998_p._34_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abbott_1998_p._34-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The existence of the draft and likelihood of combat in African counterinsurgency operations over time resulted in a sharp increase in emigration by Portuguese men seeking to avoid such service. By the end of the Portuguese colonial war in 1974, black African participation had become crucial due to declining numbers of recruits available from Portugal itself.<sup id="cite_ref-the_war_was_won_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-the_war_was_won-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Native African troops, although widely deployed, were initially used in subordinate roles as enlisted troops or noncommissioned officers. Portuguese colonial administrators were handicapped by their policies in education, which largely barred indigenous Africans from adequate education until well after the outbreak of the insurgency.<sup id="cite_ref-Humbaraci_1974_pp._100-102_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Humbaraci_1974_pp._100-102-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With illiteracy rates approaching 99% and almost no African enrollment in secondary schools,<sup id="cite_ref-Humbaraci_1974_pp._100-102_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Humbaraci_1974_pp._100-102-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> few African candidates could qualify for Portugal's officer candidate programs; most African officers obtained their commission as the result of individual competence and valour on the battlefield. As the war went on, an increasing number of native Africans served as noncommissioned or commissioned officers by the 1970s, including such officers as Captain (later Lt. Colonel) Marcelino da Mata, a Portuguese citizen born of native Guinean parents who rose to command from a first sergeant in a road engineering unit to a commander in the elite all-African <i>Comandos Africanos</i>, where he eventually became one of the most decorated soldiers in the Portuguese Army. Many native Angolans rose to positions of command, though of junior rank. </p><p>By the early 1970s, the Portuguese authorities had fully perceived racial discriminatory policies and lack of investment in education as wrong and contrary to their overseas ambitions in Portuguese Africa, and willingly accepted a true <a href="/wiki/Color_blindness_(race)" class="mw-redirect" title="Color blindness (race)">color blindness</a> policy with more spending in education and training opportunities, which started to produce a larger number of black high ranked professionals, including military personnel. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intervention_by_Cold_War_powers">Intervention by Cold War powers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Intervention by Cold War powers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:312px;max-width:312px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:156px;max-width:156px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:199px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:President_interviewed_by_Walter_Cronkite._President_Kennedy_(_close-up_)._Hyannisport,_MA,_Squaw_Island._-_NARA_-_194259_(edit).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/President_interviewed_by_Walter_Cronkite._President_Kennedy_%28_close-up_%29._Hyannisport%2C_MA%2C_Squaw_Island._-_NARA_-_194259_%28edit%29.jpg/154px-President_interviewed_by_Walter_Cronkite._President_Kennedy_%28_close-up_%29._Hyannisport%2C_MA%2C_Squaw_Island._-_NARA_-_194259_%28edit%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="154" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/President_interviewed_by_Walter_Cronkite._President_Kennedy_%28_close-up_%29._Hyannisport%2C_MA%2C_Squaw_Island._-_NARA_-_194259_%28edit%29.jpg/231px-President_interviewed_by_Walter_Cronkite._President_Kennedy_%28_close-up_%29._Hyannisport%2C_MA%2C_Squaw_Island._-_NARA_-_194259_%28edit%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/President_interviewed_by_Walter_Cronkite._President_Kennedy_%28_close-up_%29._Hyannisport%2C_MA%2C_Squaw_Island._-_NARA_-_194259_%28edit%29.jpg/308px-President_interviewed_by_Walter_Cronkite._President_Kennedy_%28_close-up_%29._Hyannisport%2C_MA%2C_Squaw_Island._-_NARA_-_194259_%28edit%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="2080" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:199px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Salazar1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Salazar1.jpg/150px-Salazar1.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Salazar1.jpg/225px-Salazar1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Salazar1.jpg/300px-Salazar1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="465" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">US President John F. Kennedy (left) and prime-minister of Portugal António de Oliveira Salazar (right).</div></div></div></div> <p>After the World War II, as <a href="/wiki/Communist" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist">communist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anticolonial" class="mw-redirect" title="Anticolonial">anticolonial</a> ideologies spread across Africa, many clandestine political movements were established in support of independence using various interpretations of <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxist</a> revolutionary ideology. These new movements seized on anti-Portuguese and anti-colonial sentiment<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to advocate the complete overthrow of existing governmental structures in Portuguese Africa. These movements alleged that Portuguese policies and development plans were primarily designed by the ruling authorities for the benefit of the territories' ethnic Portuguese population at the expense of local tribal control, the development of native communities, and the majority of the indigenous population, who suffered both state-sponsored discrimination and enormous social pressure to comply with government policies largely imposed from Lisbon. Many felt they had received too little opportunity or resources to upgrade their skills and improve their economic and social situation to a degree comparable to that of the Europeans. Statistically, Portuguese Africa's white Portuguese population were indeed wealthier and more educated than the indigenous majority. </p><p>After conflict erupted between the UPA and MPLA and Portuguese military forces, U.S. President John F. Kennedy<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> advised António de Oliveira Salazar (via the US consulate in Portugal) that Portugal should abandon its African colonies, and that course of action by Kennedy would lead to a <a href="/wiki/American-Portuguese_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="American-Portuguese conflict">political crisis between Portugal and the United States</a>. A failed Portuguese military coup known as the <i>Abrilada</i>, attempted in an effort to overthrow the authoritarian <a href="/wiki/Estado_Novo_(Portugal)" title="Estado Novo (Portugal)">Estado Novo</a> regime of António de Oliveira Salazar, received covert U.S. support.<sup id="cite_ref-US_involvement_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-US_involvement-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response, Salazar moved to consolidate his power, ordering an immediate military response to the violence occurring in Angola.<sup id="cite_ref-Abbott_1998_p._34_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abbott_1998_p._34-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The U.S.'s official stance on Portugal would shift following <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a>'s election as president. Under the advice of <a href="/wiki/Henry_Kissinger" title="Henry Kissinger">Henry Kissinger</a>, Nixon sought to reduce America's involvement in the Third World, delegating this role to "regional policemen" such as <a href="/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko">Joseph Mobutu</a> of <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo_(L%C3%A9opoldville)" title="Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)">Congo-Léopoldville</a>. This led to Nixon cutting off aid to Holden Roberto's FNLA and resuming normal trade relations with Portugal.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portugal_Colonial_War_1970.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Portugal_Colonial_War_1970.jpg/220px-Portugal_Colonial_War_1970.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Portugal_Colonial_War_1970.jpg/330px-Portugal_Colonial_War_1970.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Portugal_Colonial_War_1970.jpg 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Portuguese-held (green), disputed (yellow) and rebel-held areas (red) in Portuguese-Guinea and other colonies in 1970, before the Portuguese military operations known as <a href="/wiki/Gordian_Knot_Operation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gordian Knot Operation">Gordian Knot Operation</a> (Mozambique), <a href="/wiki/Operation_Green_Sea" title="Operation Green Sea">Operation Green Sea</a> (Guinea) and <a href="/wiki/Frente_Leste" title="Frente Leste">Frente Leste</a><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Angola).</figcaption></figure> <p>While Portuguese forces had all but won the guerrilla war in Angola, and had stalemated FRELIMO in Mozambique, colonial forces were forced on the defensive in Guinea, where PAIGC forces had carved out a large area of the rural countryside under effective insurgent control, using Soviet-supplied AA cannon and ground-to-air missiles to protect their encampments from attack by Portuguese air assets.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dos_Santos_2009_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dos_Santos_2009-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overall, the increasing success of Portuguese counterinsurgency operations and the inability or unwillingness of guerrilla forces to destroy the economy of Portugal's African territories was seen as a victory for the Portuguese government policies. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MatasdorioOnzo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/MatasdorioOnzo.jpg/220px-MatasdorioOnzo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/MatasdorioOnzo.jpg/330px-MatasdorioOnzo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/MatasdorioOnzo.jpg/440px-MatasdorioOnzo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="617" data-file-height="437" /></a><figcaption>Portuguese combatants in the woods around River Onzo, Angola</figcaption></figure> <p>The Soviet Union,<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> realising that military success by insurgents in Angola and Mozambique was becoming increasingly remote, shifted much of its military support to the PAIGC in Guinea, while increasing diplomatic efforts to isolate Portugal from the world community.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The success of the socialist bloc in isolating Portugal diplomatically extended inside Portugal itself into the armed forces, where younger officers disenchanted with the Estado Novo regime and promotional opportunities began to identify ideologically with those calling for overthrow of the government and the establishment of a state based on Marxist principles.<sup id="cite_ref-infiltrated_communists_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-infiltrated_communists-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Ceau%C8%99escu" title="Nicolae Ceaușescu">Nicolae Ceaușescu</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Romania" title="Socialist Republic of Romania">Romania</a> offered consistent support to the African liberation movements. Romania was the first state that recognized the independence of Guinea-Bissau, as well as the first to sign agreements with the <a href="/wiki/African_Party_for_the_Independence_of_Guinea_and_Cape_Verde" title="African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde">African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde</a> and Angola's <a href="/wiki/MPLA" title="MPLA">MPLA</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In May 1974, Ceaușescu reaffirmed Romania's support for Angolan independence.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As late as September 1975, <a href="/wiki/Bucharest" title="Bucharest">Bucharest</a> publicly supported all three Angolan liberation movements (FNLA, MPLA and UNITA).<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the spring of 1972, Romania allowed FRELIMO to open a diplomatic mission in Bucharest, the first of its kind in Eastern Europe. In 1973, Ceaușescu recognized FRELIMO as "the only legitimate representative of the Mozambican people", an important precedent. Samora Machel stressed that—during his trip to the Soviet Union—he and his delegation were granted "the status that we are entitled to" due to Romania's official recognition of FRELIMO. In terms of material support, Romanian trucks were used to transport weapons and ammunition to the front, as well as medicine, school material and agricultural equipment. Romanian tractors contributed to the increase in agricultural production. Romanian weapons and uniforms—reportedly of "excellent quality"—played a "decisive role" in FRELIMO's military progress. It was in early 1973 that FRELIMO made these statements about Romania's material support, in a memorandum sent to the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Communist_Party" title="Romanian Communist Party">Romanian Communist Party</a>'s Central Committee.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1974, Romania became the first country to formally recognize Mozambique.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By early 1974, guerrilla operations in Angola and Mozambique had been reduced to sporadic ambush operations against the Portuguese in the rural countryside areas, far from the main centers of population.<sup id="cite_ref-the_war_was_won_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-the_war_was_won-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The only exception was <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Guinea" title="Portuguese Guinea">Portuguese Guinea</a>, where PAIGC guerrilla operations, strongly supported by neighbouring allies like <a href="/wiki/Guinea" title="Guinea">Guinea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a>, were largely successful in liberating and securing large areas of Portuguese Guinea. According to some historians, Portugal recognized its inability to win the conflict in Guinea at the outset, but was forced to fight on to prevent an independent Guinea from serving as an inspirational model for insurgents in Angola and Mozambique.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite continuing attacks by insurgent forces against targets throughout the Portuguese African territories, the economies of both Portuguese Angola and Mozambique had actually improved each year of the conflict, as had the economy of Portugal proper.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Angola enjoyed an unprecedented economic boom during the 1960s, and the Portuguese government built new transportation networks to link the well-developed and highly urbanized coastal strip with the remote inland regions of the territory.<sup id="cite_ref-Abbott_1998_p._34_66-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abbott_1998_p._34-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The number of ethnic European Portuguese migrants from mainland Portugal (the <i><a href="/wiki/Metr%C3%B3pole" class="mw-redirect" title="Metrópole">metrópole</a></i>) continued to increase as well, though always constituting a small minority of each territory's total population.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, the costs of continuing the wars in Africa imposed a heavy burden on Portugal's resources; by the 1970s, the country was spending 40 percent of its annual budget on the war effort.<sup id="cite_ref-Abbott_1998_p._34_66-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abbott_1998_p._34-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>General Spínola was dismissed by Dr. Marcelo Caetano, the last prime minister of Portugal under the Estado Novo regime, over the general's publicly announced desire to open negotiations with the PAIGC in Portuguese Guinea. The dismissal caused considerable public indignation in Portugal, and created favorable conditions for a military overthrow of the existing regime, which had lost all public support. On 25 April 1974 a military coup organized by left-wing Portuguese military officers, the <a href="/wiki/Movimento_das_For%C3%A7as_Armadas" class="mw-redirect" title="Movimento das Forças Armadas">Armed Forces Movement</a> (MFA), overthrew the Estado Novo regime in what came to be known as the <a href="/wiki/Carnation_Revolution" title="Carnation Revolution">Carnation Revolution</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lisbon" title="Lisbon">Lisbon</a>, Portugal.<sup id="cite_ref-infiltrated_communists_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-infiltrated_communists-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The coup resulted in a period of economic collapse and political instability, but received general support from the public in its aim of ending the Portuguese war effort in Africa. In the ex-colonies, officers suspected of sympathizing with the prior regime, even black officers, such as Captain Marcelino da Mata, were imprisoned and tortured, while African soldiers who had served in native Portuguese Army units were forced to petition for Portuguese citizenship or else face reprisals from their former enemies in Angola, Guinea, or Mozambique. </p><p>The Carnation Revolution of 25 April 1974 came as a shock to the United States and other Western powers, as most analysts and the <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Nixon</a> administration had concluded that Portuguese military success on the battlefield would resolve any political divisions within Portugal concerning the conduct of the war in Portuguese Africa, providing the conditions for US investment there.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most concerned was the apartheid government of <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, which launched a deep border incursion operation into Angola to attack guerrilla-controlled areas of the country following the coup. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theatres_of_war">Theatres of war</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Theatres of war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Angola">Angola</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Angola"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Angolan_War_of_Independence" title="Angolan War of Independence">Angolan War of Independence</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LocationAngola.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/LocationAngola.svg/220px-LocationAngola.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/LocationAngola.svg/330px-LocationAngola.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/LocationAngola.svg/440px-LocationAngola.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Map showing the location of <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a> in modern-day Africa</figcaption></figure> <p>On 3 January 1961 Angolan peasants in the region of <a href="/wiki/Baixa_de_Cassanje" title="Baixa de Cassanje">Baixa de Cassanje</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malanje_Province" title="Malanje Province">Malanje</a> boycotted the Cotonang Company's cotton fields where they worked, demanding better working conditions and higher wages. Cotonang, a company owned by European investors, used native African labor to produce an annual cotton crop for export abroad. The uprising, later to become known as the <a href="/wiki/Baixa_de_Cassanje_revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Baixa de Cassanje revolt">Baixa de Cassanje revolt</a>, was led by two previously unknown Angolans, António Mariano and Kulu-Xingu.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the protests, African workers burned their identification cards and attacked Portuguese traders. The Portuguese Air Force responded to the rebellion by bombing twenty villages in the area, allegedly using <a href="/wiki/Napalm" title="Napalm">napalm</a> in an attack that resulted in some 400 indigenous Angolan deaths.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Portuguese <a href="/wiki/Overseas_Province_of_Angola" class="mw-redirect" title="Overseas Province of Angola">Overseas Province of Angola</a>, the call for revolution was taken up by two insurgent groups, the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (<a href="/wiki/MPLA" title="MPLA">MPLA</a>), and the União das Populações de Angola (UPA), which became the <a href="/wiki/National_Liberation_Front_of_Angola" title="National Liberation Front of Angola">National Liberation Front of Angola</a> (FNLA) in 1962. The MPLA commenced activities in an area of Angola known as the <i>Zona Sublevada do Norte</i> (ZSN or the Rebel Zone of the North), consisting of the provinces of Zaire, Uíge and Cuanza Norte.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Insurgent_attacks">Insurgent attacks</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Insurgent attacks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sempreatentos...aoperigo!.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Sempreatentos...aoperigo%21.jpg/220px-Sempreatentos...aoperigo%21.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Sempreatentos...aoperigo%21.jpg/330px-Sempreatentos...aoperigo%21.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Sempreatentos...aoperigo%21.jpg/440px-Sempreatentos...aoperigo%21.jpg 2x" data-file-width="511" data-file-height="437" /></a><figcaption>Portuguese Army soldiers in the beginning of the War in <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Military_camouflage" title="Military camouflage">camouflage</a> uniforms and the <a href="/wiki/FN_FAL" title="FN FAL">FN FAL</a> <a href="/wiki/Assault_rifle" title="Assault rifle">assault rifles</a> identify them as <i><a href="/wiki/Special_Operations_Troops_Centre#History" title="Special Operations Troops Centre">Caçadores Especiais</a></i>. At this time, the remaining Army forces still wore yellow khaki field uniforms and were mostly armed with <a href="/wiki/Bolt-action" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolt-action">bolt-action</a> rifles.</figcaption></figure> <p>On 4 February 1961, using arms largely captured from Portuguese soldiers and police<sup id="cite_ref-Humbaraci_1974_p._114_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Humbaraci_1974_p._114-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 250 MPLA guerrillas attacked the São Paulo fortress prison and police headquarters in Luanda in an attempt to free what it termed 'political prisoners'. The attack was unsuccessful, and no prisoners were released, but seven Portuguese policemen and forty Angolans were killed, mostly MPLA insurgents.<sup id="cite_ref-Humbaraci_1974_p._114_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Humbaraci_1974_p._114-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Portuguese authorities responded with a sweeping counterinsurgency response in which over 5,000 Angolans were arrested, and a Portuguese mob raided the <i>musseques</i> (shanty towns) of Luanda, killing several dozen Angolans in the process.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 15 March 1961, the UPA led by <a href="/wiki/Holden_Roberto" title="Holden Roberto">Holden Roberto</a> launched an incursion into the <a href="/wiki/Bakongo" class="mw-redirect" title="Bakongo">Bakongo</a> region of northern Angola with 4,000–5,000 insurgents. The insurgents called for local Bantu farmworkers and villagers to join them, unleashing an orgy of violence and destruction. The insurgents attacked farms, government outposts, and trading centers, killing everyone they encountered, including women, children and newborns.<sup id="cite_ref-esferadoslivros_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-esferadoslivros-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In surprise attacks, drunken and buoyed by belief in tribal spells that they believed made them immune to bullets, the attackers spread terror and destruction in the whole area.<sup id="cite_ref-esferadoslivros_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-esferadoslivros-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At least 1,000 Portuguese settlers and an unknown but larger number of indigenous Angolans were killed by the insurgents during the attacks.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The violence of the uprising received worldwide press attention and engendered sympathy for the Portuguese, while adversely affecting the international reputation of Roberto and the UPA.<sup id="cite_ref-George,_Edward_2005_pp._9-10_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-George,_Edward_2005_pp._9-10-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Portuguese_response">Portuguese response</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Portuguese response"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Luanda,desfilemilitar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Luanda%2Cdesfilemilitar.jpg/220px-Luanda%2Cdesfilemilitar.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Luanda%2Cdesfilemilitar.jpg/330px-Luanda%2Cdesfilemilitar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Luanda%2Cdesfilemilitar.jpg/440px-Luanda%2Cdesfilemilitar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="536" data-file-height="377" /></a><figcaption>Portuguese military parade in Luanda, Angola.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:F.N.L.A._in_Za%C3%AFre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/F.N.L.A._in_Za%C3%AFre.jpg/220px-F.N.L.A._in_Za%C3%AFre.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/F.N.L.A._in_Za%C3%AFre.jpg/330px-F.N.L.A._in_Za%C3%AFre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/F.N.L.A._in_Za%C3%AFre.jpg/440px-F.N.L.A._in_Za%C3%AFre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2546" data-file-height="2559" /></a><figcaption>Training of FNLA soldiers in Zaire</figcaption></figure> <p>In response, Portuguese Armed Forces instituted a harsh policy of reciprocity by torturing and massacring rebels and protesters. Some Portuguese soldiers decapitated rebels and impaled their heads on stakes, pursuing a policy of "<a href="/wiki/An_eye_for_an_eye" class="mw-redirect" title="An eye for an eye">an eye for an eye</a>, a tooth for a tooth". Much of the initial offensive operations against Angolan UPA and MPLA insurgents was undertaken by four companies of <i><a href="/wiki/Special_Operations_Troops_Centre#History" title="Special Operations Troops Centre">Caçadores Especiais</a></i> (<i>Special Hunter</i>) troops skilled in light infantry and antiguerrilla tactics, and who were already stationed in Angola at the outbreak of fighting.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Individual Portuguese counterinsurgency commanders such as <a href="/wiki/Second_Lieutenant" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Lieutenant">Second Lieutenant</a> <a href="/wiki/Fernando_Robles" title="Fernando Robles">Fernando Robles</a> of the <i>6ª Companhia de Caçadores Especiais</i> became well known throughout the country for their ruthlessness in hunting down insurgents.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Portuguese Army steadily pushed the UPA back across the border into Congo-Kinshasa in a brutal counteroffensive that also displaced some 150,000 Bakongo refugees, taking control of Pedra Verde, the UPA's last base in northern Angola, on 20 September 1961.<sup id="cite_ref-George,_Edward_2005_pp._9-10_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-George,_Edward_2005_pp._9-10-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within the next few weeks Portuguese military forces pushed the MPLA out of Luanda northeast into the Dembos region, where the MPLA established the "1st Military Region". For the moment, the Angolan insurgency had been defeated, but new <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Guerrilla">guerrilla</a> attacks later broke out in other regions of Angola such as <a href="/wiki/Cabinda_Province" title="Cabinda Province">Cabinda province</a>, the central plateaus, and eastern and southeastern Angola. </p><p>By most accounts, Portugal's counterinsurgency campaign in Angola was the most successful of all its campaigns in the Colonial War.<sup id="cite_ref-the_war_was_won_67-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-the_war_was_won-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Angola is a large territory, and the long distances from safe havens in neighboring countries supporting the rebel forces made it difficult for the latter to escape detection. Distances from the major Angolan urban centres to neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Za%C3%AFre" class="mw-redirect" title="Zaïre">Zaïre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambia</a> were so large that the eastern part of Angola's territory was known by the Portuguese as <i>Terras do Fim do Mundo</i> (the lands of the far side of the world). </p><p>Another factor was internecine struggles between three competing revolutionary movements – FNLA, MPLA, and UNITA – and their guerrilla armies. For most of the conflict, the three rebel groups spent as much time fighting each other as they did fighting the Portuguese. For example, during the 1961 <i>Ferreira Incident</i>, a UPA patrol captured 21 MPLA insurgents as prisoners, then summarily executed them on 9 October, sparking open confrontation between the two insurgent groups. These divisions grew so deep, that by 1972, UNITA agreed to a temporary ceasefire with the Portuguese and began coordinating with them against the MPLA by providing intelligence on MPLA positions, numbers, and troop movements. However by 1973 clahses once again broke out between Portuguese and UNITA forces.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Forte_do_Bom_Sucesso_33182-Lisbon_(35950198050).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Forte_do_Bom_Sucesso_33182-Lisbon_%2835950198050%29.jpg/220px-Forte_do_Bom_Sucesso_33182-Lisbon_%2835950198050%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Forte_do_Bom_Sucesso_33182-Lisbon_%2835950198050%29.jpg/330px-Forte_do_Bom_Sucesso_33182-Lisbon_%2835950198050%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Forte_do_Bom_Sucesso_33182-Lisbon_%2835950198050%29.jpg/440px-Forte_do_Bom_Sucesso_33182-Lisbon_%2835950198050%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6016" data-file-height="4016" /></a><figcaption>Portuguese M5 Stuart tank now kept at the Museu do Combatante in the <a href="/wiki/Fort_of_Bom_Sucesso" title="Fort of Bom Sucesso">Bom Sucesso Fort</a>, saw limited but successful action in Angola.</figcaption></figure> <p>Strategy also played a role, as a successful <a href="/wiki/Winning_hearts_and_minds" title="Winning hearts and minds">hearts and minds</a> campaign led by General <a href="/wiki/Francisco_da_Costa_Gomes" title="Francisco da Costa Gomes">Francisco da Costa Gomes</a> helped blunt the influence of the various revolutionary movements. Finally, as in Mozambique, Portuguese Angola was able to receive support of <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>. South African military operations proved to be of significant assistance to Portuguese military forces in Angola, who sometimes referred to their South African counterparts as <i>primos</i> (cousins). </p><p>Several unique counter-insurgency forces were developed and deployed in the campaign in Angola: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Parachute_Troops_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Parachute Troops School">Batalhões de Caçadores Pára-quedistas</a></i> (Paratrooper Hunter Battalions): employed throughout the conflicts in Africa, were the first forces to arrive in Angola when the war began.</li> <li><i>Comandos</i> (<a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Army_Commandos" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese Army Commandos">Commandos</a>): born out of the war in Angola, they were created as an elite counter-<a href="/wiki/Guerrilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Guerrilla">guerrilla</a> special forces, and later used in Guinea and Mozambique.</li> <li><i>Caçadores Especiais</i> (<a href="/wiki/Special_Operations_Troops_Centre#History" title="Special Operations Troops Centre">Special Hunters</a>): were in Angola from the start of the conflict in 1961.</li> <li><i>Fiéis</i> (Faithfuls): a force composed by <a href="/wiki/Katanga_Province" title="Katanga Province">Katanga</a> exiles, black soldiers that opposed the rule of <a href="/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko">Mobutu Sese Seko</a> in Congo-Kinshasa</li> <li><i>Leais</i> (Loyals): a force composed by exiles from <a href="/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambia</a>, black soldiers that were against <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Kaunda" title="Kenneth Kaunda">Kenneth Kaunda</a></li> <li><i>Grupos Especiais</i> (<a href="/wiki/Special_Groups_(Portugal)" title="Special Groups (Portugal)">Special Groups</a>): units of volunteer black soldiers that had commando training; also used in Mozambique</li> <li><i>Tropas Especiais</i> (Special Troops): the name of Special Groups in <a href="/wiki/Cabinda_Province" title="Cabinda Province">Cabinda</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Flechas" title="Flechas">Flechas</a></i> (Arrows): a successful indigenous formation of scouts, controlled by the Portuguese secret police <a href="/wiki/PIDE" title="PIDE">PIDE/DGS</a>, and composed by <a href="/wiki/Bushmen" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushmen">Bushmen</a> that specialized in tracking, reconnaissance and <a href="/wiki/False_flag#Pseudo-operations" title="False flag">pseudo-terrorist operations</a>. Also employed in Mozambique, the <i>Flechas</i> inspired the formation of the Rhodesian <a href="/wiki/Selous_Scouts" title="Selous Scouts">Selous Scouts</a>.</li> <li><i>Grupo de Cavalaria Nº1</i> (1st Cavalry Group): a mounted cavalry unit, armed with the <a href="/wiki/Heckler_%26_Koch_G3" title="Heckler & Koch G3">7.62 mm Espingarda m/961</a> rifle and the m/961 <a href="/wiki/Walther_P38" title="Walther P38">Walther P38</a> pistol, tasked with reconnaissance and <a href="/wiki/Patrolling" title="Patrolling">patrolling</a>. The 1st was also known as the "<a href="/wiki/Angolan_Dragoons" class="mw-redirect" title="Angolan Dragoons">Angolan Dragoons</a>" (<i>Dragões de Angola</i>). The Rhodesians also later developed a similar concept of horse-mounted counter-insurgency forces, forming the <a href="/wiki/Grey%27s_Scouts" title="Grey's Scouts">Grey's Scouts</a>.</li> <li><i>Batalhão de Cavalaria 1927</i> (1927 Cavalry Battalion): a <a href="/wiki/Tank" title="Tank">tank</a> unit equipped with the <a href="/wiki/Stuart_tank" class="mw-redirect" title="Stuart tank">M5A1 tank</a>. The battalion was used for supporting infantry forces and as a <a href="/wiki/Rapid_reaction_force" title="Rapid reaction force">rapid reaction force</a>. Again the Rhodesians developed a similar unit, forming the <a href="/wiki/Rhodesian_Armoured_Corps" title="Rhodesian Armoured Corps">Rhodesian Armoured Car Regiment</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Portuguese_Guinea">Portuguese Guinea</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Portuguese Guinea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau_War_of_Independence" title="Guinea-Bissau War of Independence">Guinea-Bissau War of Independence</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LocationGuineaBissau.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/LocationGuineaBissau.svg/220px-LocationGuineaBissau.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/LocationGuineaBissau.svg/330px-LocationGuineaBissau.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/LocationGuineaBissau.svg/440px-LocationGuineaBissau.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau" title="Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a>, formerly Portuguese Guinea, on a map of Africa</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Painting_of_Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Sp%C3%ADnola.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Painting_of_Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Sp%C3%ADnola.jpg/220px-Painting_of_Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Sp%C3%ADnola.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Painting_of_Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Sp%C3%ADnola.jpg/330px-Painting_of_Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Sp%C3%ADnola.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Painting_of_Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Sp%C3%ADnola.jpg/440px-Painting_of_Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Sp%C3%ADnola.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>General António de Spínola, governor of Portuguese Guinea between 1968 and 1973. Conducted an effective campaign both against the PAIGC as well as to develop Guinea.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Guinea" title="Portuguese Guinea">Portuguese Guinea</a> (also referred to as Guinea at that time), the <a href="/wiki/Marxist" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist">Marxist</a> <a href="/wiki/African_Party_for_the_Independence_of_Guinea_and_Cape_Verde" title="African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde">African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde</a> (PAIGC) started fighting in January 1963. Its <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Guerrilla">guerrilla</a> fighters attacked the Portuguese headquarters in <a href="/wiki/Tite_(Guinea-Bissau)" title="Tite (Guinea-Bissau)">Tite</a>, located to the south of <a href="/wiki/Bissau" title="Bissau">Bissau</a>, the capital, near the Corubal river. Similar actions quickly spread across the entire colony, requiring a strong response from the Portuguese forces. </p><p>The war in Guinea has been termed "Portugal's Vietnam". The PAIGC was well-trained, well-led and equipped and received substantial support from safe havens in neighbouring countries like <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a> and the Republic of <a href="/wiki/Guinea" title="Guinea">Guinea</a> (Guinea-Conakry). The jungles of Guinea and the proximity of the PAIGC's allies near the border proved to be of significant advantage in providing tactical superiority during cross-border attacks and resupply missions for the guerrillas. The conflict in Portuguese Guinea involving the PAIGC guerrillas and the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Army" title="Portuguese Army">Portuguese Army</a> proved the most intense and damaging of all conflicts in the Portuguese Colonial War, blocking Portuguese attempts to pacify the disputed territory via new economic and socioeconomic policies that had been applied with some success in <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Angola" title="Portuguese Angola">Portuguese Angola</a> and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Mozambique" title="Portuguese Mozambique">Portuguese Mozambique</a>. In 1965 the war spread to the eastern part of Guinea; that year, the PAIGC carried out attacks in the north of the territory where at the time only the Front for the Liberation and Independence of Guinea (FLING), a minor insurgent group, was active. By this time, the PAIGC had begun to openly receive military support from <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, and the Soviet Union. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Embarque.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Embarque.jpg/220px-Embarque.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Embarque.jpg/330px-Embarque.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Embarque.jpg/440px-Embarque.jpg 2x" data-file-width="507" data-file-height="350" /></a><figcaption>Portuguese troops board <a href="/wiki/List_of_River-class_frigates#Royal_Navy_(Group_II)" title="List of River-class frigates">NRP <i>Nuno Tristão</i></a> frigate in Portuguese Guinea, during amphibious Operation Trident (<i>Operação Tridente</i>), 1964</figcaption></figure> <p>In Guinea, the success of PAIGC guerrilla operations put Portuguese armed forces on the defensive, forcing them to limit their response to defending territories and cities already held. Unlike Portugal's other African territories, successful small-unit Portuguese counterinsurgency tactics were slow to evolve in Guinea. Defensive operations, where soldiers were dispersed in small numbers to guard critical buildings, farms, or infrastructure were particularly devastating to the regular Portuguese infantry, who became vulnerable to guerrilla attacks outside of populated areas by the forces of the PAIGC. They were also demoralized by the steady growth of PAIGC liberation sympathizers and recruits among the rural population. In a relatively short time, the PAIGC had succeeded in reducing Portuguese military and administrative control of the territory to a relatively small area of Guinea. The scale of this success can be seen in the fact that native Guineans in the 'liberated territories' ceased payment of debts to Portuguese landowners and the payment of taxes to the colonial administration.<sup id="cite_ref-Humbaraci_1974_pp._140-144_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Humbaraci_1974_pp._140-144-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The branch stores of the <i>Companhia União Fabril</i> (CUF), <i>Mario Lima Whanon</i>, and <i>Manuel Pinto Brandão</i> companies were seized and inventoried by the PAIGC in the areas they controlled, while the use of Portuguese currency in the areas under guerrilla control was banned.<sup id="cite_ref-Humbaraci_1974_pp._140-144_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Humbaraci_1974_pp._140-144-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In order to maintain the economy in the liberated territories, the PAIGC established its own administrative and governmental bureaucracy at an early stage, which organized agricultural production, educated PAIGC farmworkers on how to protect crops from destruction from aerial attack by the Portuguese Air Force, and opened <i>armazens do povo</i> (people's stores) to supply urgently needed tools and supplies in exchange for agricultural produce.<sup id="cite_ref-Humbaraci_1974_pp._140-144_99-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Humbaraci_1974_pp._140-144-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1968, General <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Sp%C3%ADnola" title="António de Spínola">António de Spínola</a>, the Portuguese general responsible for the Portuguese military operations in Guinea, was appointed as governor. General Spínola began a series of civil and military reforms designed to weaken PAIGC control of the Guinea and rollback insurgent gains. This included a 'hearts and minds' propaganda campaign designed to win the trust of the indigenous population, an effort to eliminate some of the discriminatory practices against native Guineans, a massive construction campaign for public works including new schools, hospital, an improved telecommunications and road network, and a large increase in recruitment of native Guineans into the Portuguese armed forces serving in Guinea as part of an <i>Africanization</i> strategy. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Guerrilheiros_do_PAIGC_na_ilha_de_Como_(2).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Guerrilheiros_do_PAIGC_na_ilha_de_Como_%282%29.png/220px-Guerrilheiros_do_PAIGC_na_ilha_de_Como_%282%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Guerrilheiros_do_PAIGC_na_ilha_de_Como_%282%29.png/330px-Guerrilheiros_do_PAIGC_na_ilha_de_Como_%282%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Guerrilheiros_do_PAIGC_na_ilha_de_Como_%282%29.png/440px-Guerrilheiros_do_PAIGC_na_ilha_de_Como_%282%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1824" data-file-height="1352" /></a><figcaption>PAIGC guerrillas on Como island.</figcaption></figure> <p>Until 1960, Portuguese military forces serving in Guinea were composed of units led by white officers, with commissioned soldiers (whites), overseas soldiers (African assimilados), and native or indigenous Africans (indigenato) serving in the enlisted ranks. General Spínola's Africanization policy eliminated these discriminatory colour bars, and called for the integration of indigenous Guinea Africans into Portuguese military forces in Africa. Two special indigenous African counterinsurgency detachments were formed by the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Armed_Forces" title="Portuguese Armed Forces">Portuguese Armed Forces</a>. The first of these was the African Commandos (<i>Comandos Africanos</i>), consisting of a battalion of <a href="/wiki/Comandos" class="mw-redirect" title="Comandos">commandos</a> composed entirely of black soldiers (including the officers). The second was the African Special Marines (<i>Fuzileiros Especiais Africanos</i>), <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Marine_Corps" title="Portuguese Marine Corps">Marine</a> units entirely composed of black soldiers. The African Special Marines supplemented other Portuguese elite units conducting amphibious operations in the riverine areas of Guinea in an attempt to interdict and destroy guerrilla forces and supplies. General Spínola's Africanization policy also fostered a large increase in indigenous recruitment into the armed forces, culminating the establishment of all-black military formations such as the Black Militias (<i>Milícias negras</i>) commanded by Major Carlos Fabião.<sup id="cite_ref-Afonso_2000_p._340_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Afonso_2000_p._340-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the early 1970s, an increasing percentage of Guineans were serving as noncommissioned or commissioned officers in Portuguese military forces in Africa, including such higher-ranking officers as Captain (later Lt. Colonel) Marcelino da Mata, a black Portuguese citizen born of Guinean parents who rose from a first sergeant in a road engineering unit to a commander in the <i>Comandos Africanos</i>. </p><p>During the latter part of the 1960s, military tactical reforms instituted by Gen. Spínola began to improve Portuguese counterinsurgency operations in Guinea. Naval amphibious operations were instituted to overcome some of the mobility problems inherent in the underdeveloped and marshy areas of the territory, using <i><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Marine_Corps" title="Portuguese Marine Corps">Destacamentos de Fuzileiros Especiais (DFE)</a></i> (special marine assault detachments) as strike forces. The <i>Fuzileiros Especiais</i> were lightly equipped with folding-stock m/961 (G3) rifles, 37mm rocket launchers, and light machine guns such as the <a href="/wiki/Heckler_%26_Koch_HK21" title="Heckler & Koch HK21">Heckler & Koch HK21</a> to enhance their mobility in the difficult, swampy terrain. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PAIGC_posto_de_controlo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/PAIGC_posto_de_controlo.jpg/220px-PAIGC_posto_de_controlo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/PAIGC_posto_de_controlo.jpg/330px-PAIGC_posto_de_controlo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/PAIGC_posto_de_controlo.jpg/440px-PAIGC_posto_de_controlo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2765" data-file-height="2133" /></a><figcaption>A PAIGC checkpoint in 1974</figcaption></figure> <p>Portugal commenced <i>Operação Mar Verde</i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Operation_Green_Sea" title="Operation Green Sea">Operation Green Sea</a></i> on 22 November 1970 in an attempt to overthrow <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_S%C3%A9kou_Tour%C3%A9" title="Ahmed Sékou Touré">Ahmed Sékou Touré</a>, the leader of the Guinea-Conakry and staunch PAIGC ally, to capture the leader of the PAIGC, <a href="/wiki/Am%C3%ADlcar_Cabral" title="Amílcar Cabral">Amílcar Cabral</a>, and to cut off supply lines to PAIGC insurgents. The operation involved a daring raid on <a href="/wiki/Conakry" title="Conakry">Conakry</a>, a PAIGC safe haven, in which 400 Portuguese <i>Fuzileiros</i> (amphibious assault troops) attacked the city. The attempted <a href="/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">coup d'état</a> failed, though the Portuguese managed to destroy several PAIGC ships and free hundreds of Portuguese <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">prisoners of war</a> (POWs) at several large POW camps. One immediate result of <i>Operation Green Sea</i> was an escalation in the conflict, with countries such as <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> now offering support to the PAIGC as well as the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, which sent warships to the region (known by NATO as the <i>West Africa Patrol</i>) in a show of force calculated to deter future Portuguese amphibious attacks on the territory of the Guinea-Conakry. The United Nations passed several resolutions condemning cross-border attacks of the Portuguese military against the PAIGC guerrilla bases in both neighbouring Guinea-Conakry and Senegal, like the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_290" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 290">United Nations Security Council Resolution 290</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_294" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 294">United Nations Security Council Resolution 294</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_295" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 295">United Nations Security Council Resolution 295</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chaimite_at_Elvas_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Chaimite_at_Elvas_2.jpg/220px-Chaimite_at_Elvas_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Chaimite_at_Elvas_2.jpg/330px-Chaimite_at_Elvas_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Chaimite_at_Elvas_2.jpg/440px-Chaimite_at_Elvas_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4624" data-file-height="3468" /></a><figcaption>Portuguese manufactured <a href="/wiki/Bravia_Chaimite" title="Bravia Chaimite">BRAVIA Chaimite</a>, introduced in Guinea in the late stages of the war.</figcaption></figure> <p>Between 1968 and 1972, the Portuguese forces increased their offensive posture, in the form of raids into PAIGC-controlled territory. At this time Portuguese forces also adopted unorthodox means of countering the insurgents, including attacks on the political structure of the nationalist movement. This strategy culminated in the assassination of Amílcar Cabral in January 1973. Nonetheless, the PAIGC continued to increase its strength, and began to heavily press Portuguese defense forces. This became even more apparent after the PAIGC received heavy radar-guided <a href="/wiki/Anti-aircraft_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-aircraft weapons">anti-aircraft cannon</a> and other AA munitions provided by the Soviets, including <a href="/wiki/SA-7" class="mw-redirect" title="SA-7">SA-7</a> shoulder-launched anti-aircraft missiles, all of which seriously impeded Portuguese air operations.<sup id="cite_ref-Dos_Santos_2009_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dos_Santos_2009-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/Carnation_Revolution" title="Carnation Revolution">Carnation Revolution</a> military coup in <a href="/wiki/Lisbon" title="Lisbon">Lisbon</a> on 25 April 1974, the new revolutionary leaders of Portugal and the PAIGC signed an accord in <a href="/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a>, Algeria, in which Portugal agreed to remove all troops by the end of October and to officially recognize the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Guinea-Bissau" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Guinea-Bissau">Republic of Guinea-Bissau</a> government controlled by the PAIGC, on 26 August 1974 and after a series of diplomatic meetings.<sup id="cite_ref-Lloyd-Jones,_Stewart_p._22_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lloyd-Jones,_Stewart_p._22-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Demobilized by the departing Portuguese military authorities after the independence of Portuguese Guinea had been agreed, a total of 7,447 black Guinea-Bissauan African soldiers who had served in Portuguese native commando forces and militia were summarily executed by the PAIGC after the independence of the new African country.<sup id="cite_ref-Lloyd-Jones,_Stewart_p._22_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lloyd-Jones,_Stewart_p._22-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Munslow,_Barry_1981_pp._109-113_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Munslow,_Barry_1981_pp._109-113-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mozambique">Mozambique</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Mozambique"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mozambican_War_of_Independence" title="Mozambican War of Independence">Mozambican War of Independence</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LocationMozambique.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/LocationMozambique.svg/220px-LocationMozambique.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/LocationMozambique.svg/330px-LocationMozambique.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/LocationMozambique.svg/440px-LocationMozambique.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a> within modern-day Africa.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DA25.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/DA25.jpg/220px-DA25.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/DA25.jpg/330px-DA25.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/DA25.jpg/440px-DA25.jpg 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="349" /></a><figcaption>Reoccupation of Beira Baixa estate, 1961</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:23-1961-ReconquistaBeiraBaixa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/23-1961-ReconquistaBeiraBaixa.jpg/220px-23-1961-ReconquistaBeiraBaixa.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/23-1961-ReconquistaBeiraBaixa.jpg/330px-23-1961-ReconquistaBeiraBaixa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/23-1961-ReconquistaBeiraBaixa.jpg/440px-23-1961-ReconquistaBeiraBaixa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="604" data-file-height="427" /></a><figcaption>Reoccupation of Beira Baixa estate</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Propagandalan%C3%A7adadeavi%C3%A3o....jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Propagandalan%C3%A7adadeavi%C3%A3o....jpg/220px-Propagandalan%C3%A7adadeavi%C3%A3o....jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="329" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Propagandalan%C3%A7adadeavi%C3%A3o....jpg/330px-Propagandalan%C3%A7adadeavi%C3%A3o....jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Propagandalan%C3%A7adadeavi%C3%A3o....jpg 2x" data-file-width="379" data-file-height="567" /></a><figcaption>Portuguese air-launched propaganda leaflet. It reads: "Frelimo lied! You suffer!"</figcaption></figure> <p>The Portuguese <a href="/wiki/Overseas_Province_of_Mozambique" class="mw-redirect" title="Overseas Province of Mozambique">Overseas Province of Mozambique</a> was the last territory to start the war of liberation. Its nationalist movement was led by the <a href="/wiki/Marxist-Leninist" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist-Leninist">Marxist-Leninist</a> Liberation Front of Mozambique (<a href="/wiki/FRELIMO" title="FRELIMO">FRELIMO</a>), which carried out the first attack against Portuguese targets on 25 September 1964, in Chai, <a href="/wiki/Cabo_Delgado_Province" title="Cabo Delgado Province">Cabo Delgado Province</a>. The fighting later spread to <a href="/wiki/Niassa" class="mw-redirect" title="Niassa">Niassa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tete,_Mozambique" title="Tete, Mozambique">Tete</a> in central Mozambique. A report from Battalion No. 558 of the Portuguese army makes references to violent actions, also in Cabo Delgado, on 21 August 1964. </p><p>On 16 November of the same year, the Portuguese troops suffered their first losses fighting in the north of the territory, in the region of Xilama. By this time, the size of the guerrilla movement had substantially increased; this, along with the low numbers of Portuguese troops and colonists, allowed a steady increase in FRELIMO's strength. It quickly started moving south in the direction of Meponda and <a href="/wiki/Mandimba" title="Mandimba">Mandimba</a>, linking to Tete with the aid of <a href="/wiki/Malawi" title="Malawi">Malawi</a>. </p><p>Until 1967, the FRELIMO showed less interest in Tete region, putting its efforts on the two northernmost districts of Mozambique where the use of <a href="/wiki/Landmines" class="mw-redirect" title="Landmines">landmines</a> became very common. In the region of <a href="/wiki/Niassa" class="mw-redirect" title="Niassa">Niassa</a>, FRELIMO's intention was to create a free corridor to <a href="/wiki/Zambezia_Province" title="Zambezia Province">Zambezia Province</a>. Until April 1970, the military activity of FRELIMO increased steadily, mainly due to the strategic work of <a href="/wiki/Samora_Machel" title="Samora Machel">Samora Machel</a> in the region of <a href="/wiki/Cabo_Delgado_Province" title="Cabo Delgado Province">Cabo Delgado</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Rhodesia" title="Rhodesia">Rhodesia</a> was involved in the war in Mozambique, supporting the Portuguese troops in operations and conducting operations independently. By 1973, the territory was mostly under Portuguese control.<sup id="cite_ref-Portuguese_Mozambique_development_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Portuguese_Mozambique_development-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Operation "<i>Nó Górdio</i>" (<a href="/wiki/Gordian_Knot_Operation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gordian Knot Operation">Gordian Knot Operation</a>)—conducted in 1970 and commanded by Portuguese Brigadier General <a href="/wiki/Ka%C3%BAlza_de_Arriaga" title="Kaúlza de Arriaga">Kaúlza de Arriaga</a>—a conventional-style operation to destroy the guerrilla bases in the north of Mozambique, was the major military operation of the Portuguese Colonial War. A hotly disputed issue, the Gordian Knot Operation was considered by several historians and military strategists as a failure that worsened the situation for the Portuguese. Others did not share this view, including its main architect,<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> troops, and officials who had participated on both sides of the operation, including high ranked elements from the FRELIMO guerrillas. It was also described as a tremendous success of the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Armed_Forces" title="Portuguese Armed Forces">Portuguese Armed Forces</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arriaga, however, was removed from his powerful military post in Mozambique by Marcelo Caetano shortly before the events in Lisbon that triggered the end of the war and the independence of the Portuguese territories in Africa. The reason for Arriaga's abrupt fate was an alleged incident with indigenous civilian populations, and the Portuguese government's suspicion that Arriaga was planning a military coup against Marcelo's administration in order to avoid the rise of leftist influences in Portugal and the loss of the African overseas provinces. </p><p>The construction of the <a href="/wiki/Cahora_Bassa" title="Cahora Bassa">Cahora Bassa</a> Dam tied up nearly 50 percent of the Portuguese troops in Mozambique, and brought the FRELIMO to the <a href="/wiki/Tete_Province" title="Tete Province">Tete Province</a>, closer to some cities and more populated areas in the south. The FRELIMO failed, however, to halt the construction of the dam. In 1974, the FRELIMO launched mortar attacks against Vila Pery (now <a href="/wiki/Chimoio" title="Chimoio">Chimoio</a>), an important city and the first (and only) heavy populated area to be hit by the FRELIMO. </p><p>In Mozambique special units were also used by the Portuguese Armed Forces: </p> <ul><li><i>Grupos Especiais</i> (Special Groups): locally raised counter-insurgency troops similar to those used in Angola</li> <li><i>Grupos Especiais Pára-Quedistas</i> (Paratrooper Special Groups): units of volunteer black soldiers that were given airborne training</li> <li><i>Grupos Especiais de Pisteiros de Combate</i> (Combat Tracking Special Groups): special units trained in tracking and locating guerrillas forces</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Flechas" title="Flechas">Flechas</a></i> (Arrows), a special forces unit of the Portuguese secret police, formation of indigenous scouts and trackers, similar to the one employed in Angola</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Major_counter-insurgency_operations">Major counter-insurgency operations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Major counter-insurgency operations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>1970 Mozambique – <a href="/wiki/Gordian_Knot_Operation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gordian Knot Operation">Gordian Knot Operation</a> (<i>Operação Nó Górdio</i>)</li> <li>1970 Guinea-Bissau – <a href="/wiki/Operation_Green_Sea" title="Operation Green Sea">Operation Green Sea</a> (<i>Operação Mar Verde</i>)</li> <li>1971 Angola – <i><a href="/wiki/Frente_Leste" title="Frente Leste">Frente Leste</a></i> (Portuguese for "Eastern Front")</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Role_of_the_Organisation_of_African_Unity">Role of the Organisation of African Unity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Role of the Organisation of African Unity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Organization_of_African_Unity" class="mw-redirect" title="Organization of African Unity">Organization of African Unity</a> (OAU) was founded May 1963. Its basic principles were co-operation between African nations and solidarity between African peoples. Another important objective of the OAU was an end to all forms of colonialism in Africa. This became the major objective of the organization in its first years and soon OAU pressure led to the situation in the Portuguese colonies being brought up at the <a href="/wiki/UN_Security_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Security Council">UN Security Council</a>. </p><p>The OAU established a committee based in <a href="/wiki/Dar_es_Salaam" title="Dar es Salaam">Dar es Salaam</a>, with representatives from <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire">Zaire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guinea" title="Guinea">Guinea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>, to support African liberation movements. The support provided by the committee included military training and weapon supplies. </p><p>The OAU also took action in order to promote the international acknowledgment of the legitimacy of the Revolutionary Government of Angola in Exile (GRAE), composed by the FNLA. This support was transferred to the MPLA and to its leader, <a href="/wiki/Agostinho_Neto" title="Agostinho Neto">Agostinho Neto</a> in 1967. In November 1972, both movements were recognized by the OAU in order to promote their merger. After 1964, the OAU recognized PAIGC as the legitimate representatives of Guinea-Bissau and <a href="/wiki/Cape_Verde" title="Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a> and in 1965 recognised FRELIMO for Mozambique. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Armament_and_tactics">Armament and tactics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Armament and tactics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Portugal">Portugal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Portugal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:G3a3.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/G3a3.gif/220px-G3a3.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="51" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/G3a3.gif/330px-G3a3.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/G3a3.gif/440px-G3a3.gif 2x" data-file-width="575" data-file-height="133" /></a><figcaption>A Portuguese version of <a href="/wiki/Heckler_%26_Koch_G3" title="Heckler & Koch G3">Heckler & Koch G3</a>A3 was used as the standard infantry weapon for most of Portugal's forces. It was produced in large quantities in the <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A1brica_do_Bra%C3%A7o_de_Prata" class="mw-redirect" title="Fábrica do Braço de Prata">Fábrica do Braço de Prata</a> small arms plant.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Museu_Nacional_de_Historia_Militar_in_Luanda_-_Angola_2015.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Museu_Nacional_de_Historia_Militar_in_Luanda_-_Angola_2015.jpg/220px-Museu_Nacional_de_Historia_Militar_in_Luanda_-_Angola_2015.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Museu_Nacional_de_Historia_Militar_in_Luanda_-_Angola_2015.jpg/330px-Museu_Nacional_de_Historia_Militar_in_Luanda_-_Angola_2015.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Museu_Nacional_de_Historia_Militar_in_Luanda_-_Angola_2015.jpg/440px-Museu_Nacional_de_Historia_Militar_in_Luanda_-_Angola_2015.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Portuguese-era fighters now on display on the National Museum of Military History in Luanda</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1961, the Portuguese had 79,000 in arms: 58,000 in the Army, 8,500 in the Navy and 12,500 in the Air Force (Cann, 1997). These grew quickly, and by the end of the conflict in 1974, due to the <a href="/wiki/Carnation_Revolution" title="Carnation Revolution">Carnation Revolution</a> (a military coup in Lisbon), the total in the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Armed_Forces" title="Portuguese Armed Forces">Portuguese Armed Forces</a> had risen to 217,000. </p><p>Prior to their own Colonial War the Portuguese military had studied conflicts such as the <a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Malayan_Emergency" title="Malayan Emergency">Malayan Emergency</a>. Based on their analysis of operations in those theatres and considering their own situation in Africa, the Portuguese military took the unusual decision to restructure its entire armed forces, from top to bottom, for <a href="/wiki/Counterinsurgency" title="Counterinsurgency">counterinsurgency</a>. This transformation did, however, take seven years to complete and only took its final form in 1968. By 1974, the counterinsurgency efforts were successful in the Portuguese territories of <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Angola" title="Portuguese Angola">Angola</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mozambique_(Portugal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mozambique (Portugal)">Mozambique</a>, but in <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Guinea" title="Portuguese Guinea">Portuguese Guinea</a> the local guerrillas were making progress. As the conflict escalated, the Portuguese authorities developed progressively tougher responses, these included the <a href="/wiki/Gordian_Knot_Operation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gordian Knot Operation">Gordian Knot Operation</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Green_Sea" title="Operation Green Sea">Operation Green Sea</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>When conflict erupted in 1961, Portuguese forces were badly equipped to cope with the demands of a counter-insurgency conflict. It was standard procedure, up to that point, to send the oldest and most obsolete material to the colonies. Thus, initial military operations were conducted using World War II radios, the old m/937 7.92mm <a href="/wiki/Karabiner_98k" title="Karabiner 98k">Mauser</a> rifle, the Portuguese m/948 9mm <a href="/wiki/FBP_submachine_gun" title="FBP submachine gun">FBP submachine gun</a>, and the equally elderly German m/938 7.92mm (<a href="/wiki/MG_13" title="MG 13">MG 13</a>) Dreyse and Italian <a href="/wiki/8%C3%9759mm_RB_Breda" class="mw-redirect" title="8×59mm RB Breda">8×59mm RB</a> m/938 (<a href="/wiki/Breda_M37" title="Breda M37">Breda M37</a>) machine guns.<sup id="cite_ref-Abbott_1998_p._17_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abbott_1998_p._17-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much of Portugal's older small arms came from Germany in various deliveries made mostly before World War II, including the Austrian Steyr/Erma <a href="/wiki/MP_34" title="MP 34">MP 34</a> submachine gun (m/942). Later, Portugal purchased arms and military equipment from France, West Germany, South Africa, and to a lesser extent, from Belgium, <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> and the US. </p><p>Some <a href="/wiki/9%C3%9719mm_Parabellum" title="9×19mm Parabellum">9×19mm</a> <a href="/wiki/Submachine_gun" title="Submachine gun">submachine guns</a>, including the m/942, the Portuguese m/948, and the West-German manufactured version of the Israeli <a href="/wiki/Uzi" title="Uzi">Uzi</a> (known in Portuguese service as the <i>Pistola-Metralhadora m/61</i>) were also used, mainly by officers, NCOs, horse-mounted cavalry, reserve and paramilitary units, and security forces.<sup id="cite_ref-Abbott_1998_p._17_104-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abbott_1998_p._17-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within a short time, the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Army" title="Portuguese Army">Portuguese Army</a> saw the need for a modern <a href="/wiki/Battle_rifle" title="Battle rifle">selective-fire combat rifle</a>, and in 1961 adopted the <a href="/wiki/7.62%C3%9751mm_NATO" title="7.62×51mm NATO">7.62×51mm NATO</a> caliber <i>Espingarda m/961</i> (<a href="/wiki/Heckler_%26_Koch_G3" title="Heckler & Koch G3">Heckler & Koch G3</a>) as the standard infantry weapon for most of its forces, that was produced in large quantities in the <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A1brica_do_Bra%C3%A7o_de_Prata" class="mw-redirect" title="Fábrica do Braço de Prata">Fábrica do Braço de Prata</a>, a Portuguese small arms producer.<sup id="cite_ref-Afonso_2000_pp._358-359_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Afonso_2000_pp._358-359-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, quantities of the 7.62×51mm <a href="/wiki/FN_FAL" title="FN FAL">FN</a> and Belgian <a href="/wiki/FN_FAL" title="FN FAL">G1</a> FAL battle rifle, known as the m/962, were also issued; the FAL was a favored weapon of members serving in elite commando units such as the <i>Caçadores Especiais</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Afonso_2000_pp._358-359_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Afonso_2000_pp._358-359-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the beginning of the war, the elite <a href="/wiki/Parachute_Troops_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Parachute Troops School">airborne units</a> (<i>Caçadores Pára-quedistas</i>) rarely used the m/961, having adopted the modern 7.62 mm NATO <a href="/wiki/ArmaLite" title="ArmaLite">ArmaLite</a> <a href="/wiki/AR-10" class="mw-redirect" title="AR-10">AR-10</a> (produced by the Netherlands-based arms manufacturer Artillerie Inrichtingen) in 1960.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the days before attached grenade launchers became standard, Portuguese paratroopers frequently resorted to the use of <a href="/wiki/ENERGA_anti-tank_rifle_grenade" title="ENERGA anti-tank rifle grenade">ENERGA anti-tank rifle grenades</a> fired from their AR-10 rifles. Some Portuguese-model AR-10s were fitted with A.I.-modified upper receivers in order to mount 3× or 3.6× telescopic sights.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These rifles were used by marksmen accompanying small patrols to eliminate individual enemy at extended ranges in open country.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the Netherlands embargoed further sales of the AR-10, the paratroop battalions were issued a collapsible-stock version of the regular m/961 (G3) rifle, also in 7.62×51mm NATO caliber.<sup id="cite_ref-Afonso_2000_pp._183-184_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Afonso_2000_pp._183-184-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The powerful recoil and heavy weight of the 7.62mm NATO cartridge used in Portuguese rifle-caliber arms such as the m/961 limited the amount of ammunition that could be carried as well as accuracy in automatic fire, generally precluding the use of the latter except in emergencies. Instead, most infantryman used their rifles to fire individual shots. While the heavy m/961 and its relatively lengthy barrel were well-suited to patrol operations in open savannah, it tended to put Portuguese infantry at a disadvantage when clearing the low-ceilinged interiors of native buildings or huts, or when moving through thick bush, where ambush by a concealed insurgent with an automatic weapon was always a possibility. In these situations the submachine gun, hand grenade or rifle-launched grenade often became a more useful weapon than the rifle. <a href="/wiki/Instalaza_rifle_grenades" class="mw-redirect" title="Instalaza rifle grenades">Spanish rifle grenades</a> were sourced from <a href="/wiki/Instalaza" title="Instalaza">Instalaza</a>, but in due course, the <a href="/wiki/Dilagrama_m/65" title="Dilagrama m/65">Dilagrama m/65</a> was more commonly used, using a derivative of the <a href="/wiki/M26_grenade" title="M26 grenade">M26 grenade</a> made under licence by <a href="/wiki/INDEP" title="INDEP">INDEP</a>, the M312.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For the <a href="/wiki/General_purpose_machine_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="General purpose machine gun">general purpose machine gun</a> role, the German <a href="/wiki/MG42" class="mw-redirect" title="MG42">MG42</a> in 8mm and later 7.62mm NATO caliber was used until 1968, when the 7.62mm <a href="/wiki/Heckler_%26_Koch_HK21" title="Heckler & Koch HK21">m/968 Metralhadora Ligeira</a> became available. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AssaltonaMatadaSanga.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/AssaltonaMatadaSanga.jpg/220px-AssaltonaMatadaSanga.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/AssaltonaMatadaSanga.jpg/330px-AssaltonaMatadaSanga.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/AssaltonaMatadaSanga.jpg/440px-AssaltonaMatadaSanga.jpg 2x" data-file-width="545" data-file-height="386" /></a><figcaption>A Portuguese Air Force <a href="/wiki/A%C3%A9rospatiale_Alouette_III" title="Aérospatiale Alouette III">Alouette III</a> helicopter deploying paratroopers armed with 7.62mm <a href="/wiki/ArmaLite" title="ArmaLite">ArmaLite</a> <a href="/wiki/AR-10" class="mw-redirect" title="AR-10">AR-10</a> rifles during an assault operation in Angola.</figcaption></figure> <p>To destroy enemy emplacements, other weapons were employed, including the 37 mm (1.46 in), 60 mm (2.5 in), and 89 mm (3.5 in.) <i>Lança-granadas-foguete</i> (<a href="/wiki/Bazooka" title="Bazooka">Bazooka</a>), along with several types of recoilless rifles.<sup id="cite_ref-Afonso_2000_pp._183-184_110-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Afonso_2000_pp._183-184-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Abbott_1998_p._18_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abbott_1998_p._18-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of the mobile nature of counterinsurgency operations, heavy support weapons were less frequently used. However, the m/951 12.7mm (<a href="/wiki/12_mm_caliber" title="12 mm caliber">.50 caliber</a>) U.S. <a href="/wiki/M2_Browning" title="M2 Browning">M2 Browning</a> heavy machine gun was used in ground and vehicle mounts, as were 60mm, 81mm, and later, 120mm <a href="/wiki/Mortar_(weapon)" title="Mortar (weapon)">mortars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Abbott_1998_p._18_112-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abbott_1998_p._18-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Artillery and mobile <a href="/wiki/Howitzer" title="Howitzer">howitzers</a> were used in a few operations. </p><p>Mobile ground operations consisted of patrol sweeps by armored car and reconnaissance vehicles. Supply convoys used both armored and unarmored vehicles. Typically, armored vehicles were placed at the front, centre, and tail of a motorized convoy. Several <a href="/wiki/Armored_car_(military)" title="Armored car (military)">armoured cars</a> were used, including the <a href="/wiki/Panhard_AML" title="Panhard AML">Panhard AML</a>, <a href="/wiki/Panhard_EBR" title="Panhard EBR">Panhard EBR</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fox_Armoured_Car" class="mw-redirect" title="Fox Armoured Car">Fox</a> and (in the 1970s) the <a href="/wiki/Bravia_Chaimite" title="Bravia Chaimite">Chaimite</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Js-municiamento_f-84.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Js-municiamento_f-84.jpg/220px-Js-municiamento_f-84.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Js-municiamento_f-84.jpg/330px-Js-municiamento_f-84.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Js-municiamento_f-84.jpg/440px-Js-municiamento_f-84.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1383" data-file-height="841" /></a><figcaption>A Portuguese <a href="/wiki/Republic_F-84_Thunderjet" title="Republic F-84 Thunderjet">F-84 Thunderjet</a> being loaded with ordnance in the 1960s, at Luanda Air Base.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fiat_G91.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Fiat_G91.jpg/220px-Fiat_G91.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Fiat_G91.jpg/330px-Fiat_G91.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Fiat_G91.jpg/440px-Fiat_G91.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3179" data-file-height="1735" /></a><figcaption>The Portuguese Air Force employed <a href="/wiki/Fiat_G.91" title="Fiat G.91">Fiat G.91</a> aircraft like this in the Portuguese Colonial War.</figcaption></figure> <p>Unlike the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>, Portugal's limited national resources did not allow for widespread use of the <a href="/wiki/Helicopter" title="Helicopter">helicopter</a>. Only those troops involved in <a href="/wiki/Coup_de_main" title="Coup de main">coups de main</a> attacks (called <i>golpe de mão</i> in Portuguese)—mainly <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Army_Commandos" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese Army Commandos">Commandos</a> and Paratroopers—deployed by helicopter. Most deployments were either on foot or in vehicles (<a href="/wiki/Berliet" title="Berliet">Berliet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Unimog" title="Unimog">Unimog</a> trucks). The helicopters were reserved for support (in a <a href="/wiki/Gunship" title="Gunship">gunship</a> role) or <a href="/wiki/Medical_evacuation" title="Medical evacuation">medical evacuation (MEDEVAC)</a>. The <a href="/wiki/A%C3%A9rospatiale_Alouette_III" title="Aérospatiale Alouette III">Alouette III</a> was the most widely used helicopter, although the <a href="/wiki/A%C3%A9rospatiale_Puma" class="mw-redirect" title="Aérospatiale Puma">Puma</a> was also used with great success. Other aircraft were employed: for <a href="/wiki/Air_support" class="mw-redirect" title="Air support">air support</a> the <a href="/wiki/North_American_T-6_Texan" title="North American T-6 Texan">T-6 Texan</a>, the <a href="/wiki/North_American_F-86_Sabre" title="North American F-86 Sabre">F-86 Sabre</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Fiat_G.91" title="Fiat G.91">Fiat G.91</a> were used, along with a quantity of <a href="/wiki/Douglas_A-26_Invader" title="Douglas A-26 Invader">B-26 Invaders</a> covertly acquired in 1965; for <a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance" title="Reconnaissance">reconnaissance</a> the <a href="/wiki/Dornier_Do_27" title="Dornier Do 27">Dornier Do 27</a> was employed. In the transport role, the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Air_Force" title="Portuguese Air Force">Portuguese Air Force</a> originally used the <a href="/wiki/Junkers_Ju_52" title="Junkers Ju 52">Junkers Ju 52</a>, followed by the <a href="/wiki/Nord_Noratlas" title="Nord Noratlas">Nord Noratlas</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Douglas_C-54_Skymaster" title="Douglas C-54 Skymaster">C-54 Skymaster</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Douglas_C-47_Skytrain" title="Douglas C-47 Skytrain">C-47 Skytrain</a> (all of these aircraft were also used for Paratroop drop operations). From 1965, <a href="/wiki/Estado_Novo_(Portugal)" title="Estado Novo (Portugal)">Portugal</a> began to purchase the Fiat G.91 to deploy to its African overseas territories of <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_East_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese East Africa">Mozambique</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Guinea" title="Portuguese Guinea">Guinea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Angola" title="Portuguese Angola">Angola</a> in the close-support role.<sup id="cite_ref-nicollip174_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nicollip174-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first 40 G.91 were purchased second-hand from the <a href="/wiki/German_Air_Force" title="German Air Force">Luftwaffe</a>, aircraft that had been produced for Greece and which differed from the rest of the Luftwaffe G.91s enough to create maintenance problems. The aircraft replaced the Portuguese F-86 Sabre. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Navy" title="Portuguese Navy">Portuguese Navy</a> (particularly the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Marine_Corps" title="Portuguese Marine Corps">Marines</a>, known as <i>Fuzileiros</i>) made extensive use of patrol boats, <a href="/wiki/Landing_craft" title="Landing craft">landing craft</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zodiac_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Zodiac Group">Zodiac</a> <a href="/wiki/Inflatable_boat" title="Inflatable boat">inflatable boats</a>. They were employed especially in Guinea, but also in the <a href="/wiki/Congo_River" title="Congo River">Congo River</a> (and other smaller rivers) in Angola and in the <a href="/wiki/Zambezi" title="Zambezi">Zambezi</a> (and other rivers) in Mozambique. Equipped with standard or collapsible-stock m/961 rifles, grenades, and other gear, they used small boats or patrol craft to infiltrate guerrilla positions. In an effort to intercept infiltrators, the <i>Fuzileiros</i> even manned small patrol craft on <a href="/wiki/Lake_Malawi" title="Lake Malawi">Lake Malawi</a>. The Navy also used Portuguese civilian <a href="/wiki/Cruise_ship" title="Cruise ship">cruisers</a> as troop transports, and drafted <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Merchant_Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese Merchant Navy">Portuguese Merchant Navy</a> personnel to man ships carrying troops and material and into the Marines. </p><p>There were also many <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_irregular_forces_in_the_Overseas_War" title="Portuguese irregular forces in the Overseas War">Portuguese irregular forces in the Overseas War</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Flechas" title="Flechas">Flechas</a> and others, as mentioned above. </p><p>Native black warriors were employed in Africa by the Portuguese colonial rulers since the 16th century. Portugal had employed regular native troops (<i>companhias indigenas</i>) in its colonial army since the early 19th century. After 1961, with the beginning of the colonial wars in its overseas territories, Portugal began to incorporate black Portuguese Africans into integrated units as part of the war effort in Angola, Portuguese Guinea, and Mozambique, based on concepts of multi-racialism and preservation of the empire. African participation on the Portuguese side of the conflict varied from marginal roles as laborers and informers to participation in highly trained operational combat units like the <a href="/wiki/Flechas" title="Flechas">Flechas</a>. As the war progressed, use of African counterinsurgency troops increased; on the eve of the <a href="/wiki/Carnation_Revolution" title="Carnation Revolution">military coup of 25 April 1974</a>, black ethnic Africans accounted for more than 50 percent of Portuguese forces fighting the war. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Enf.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Enf.jpg/220px-Enf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Enf.jpg/330px-Enf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Enf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="284" /></a><figcaption>Portuguese paratrooper-nurses undergoing training.</figcaption></figure> <p>From 1961 to the end of the Colonial War, the <a href="/wiki/Paratrooper" title="Paratrooper">paratrooper</a> <a href="/wiki/Nurse" class="mw-redirect" title="Nurse">nurses</a> nicknamed <i><a href="/wiki/Maria_(given_name)" title="Maria (given name)">Marias</a></i>, were women who served the Portuguese armed forces being deployed in Portuguese Africa's dangerous guerrilla-infiltrated combat zones to perform <a href="/wiki/Rescue" title="Rescue">rescue</a> operations.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Throughout the war period Portugal had to deal with increasing dissent, arms embargoes and other punitive sanctions imposed by most of the international community. Although, at least in the early stages of the conflict, Portugal was sold arms by France and West Germany with the knowledge that they were being used to suppress Portugal's colonial uprisings. Apart from these limited exceptions, Portugal was faced with <a href="/wiki/International_sanctions" title="International sanctions">UN-sponsored sanctions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a>-led defamation, and myriad boycotts and protests performed by both foreign and domestic political organizations, like the clandestine <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Communist_Party" title="Portuguese Communist Party">Portuguese Communist Party</a> (PCP). Near the end of the conflict, a report by the British priest <a href="/wiki/Adrian_Hastings" title="Adrian Hastings">Adrian Hastings</a>, alleging atrocities and war crimes on the part of the Portuguese military, was printed a week before the Portuguese prime minister Marcelo Caetano was due to visit Britain to celebrate the 600th anniversary of the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Portuguese_alliance" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Portuguese alliance">Anglo-Portuguese alliance</a> in 1973. Portugal's growing isolation following Hastings's claims has often been cited as a factor that helped to bring about the "carnation revolution" coup in Lisbon which deposed the Caetano regime in 1974, ending the Portuguese African counter-insurgency campaigns and triggering the rapid collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Guerrilla_movements">Guerrilla movements</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Guerrilla movements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AK_47.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/AK_47.JPG/220px-AK_47.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="66" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/AK_47.JPG/330px-AK_47.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/AK_47.JPG/440px-AK_47.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1963" data-file-height="591" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/AKM" title="AKM">AKM</a> assault rifles were widely used by the African guerrilla movements.</figcaption></figure> <p>The armament of the nationalist groups came mainly from the Soviet Union, China, Cuba, Eastern Europe. However, they also used small arms of U.S. manufacture (such as the .45 <a href="/wiki/Thompson_submachine_gun" title="Thompson submachine gun">M1 Thompson submachine gun</a>), along with British, French, and German weapons came from neighboring countries sympathetic to the rebellion. Later in the war, most guerrillas would use roughly the same infantry rifles of Soviet origin: the <a href="/wiki/Mosin%E2%80%93Nagant" title="Mosin–Nagant">Mosin–Nagant</a> bolt-action rifle, the <a href="/wiki/SKS" title="SKS">SKS</a> carbine, and most importantly the <a href="/wiki/AKM" title="AKM">AKM</a> series of <a href="/wiki/7.62%C3%9739mm" title="7.62×39mm">7.62×39mm</a> assault rifle, or Kalashnikov. Rebel forces also made extensive use of machine guns for ambush and positional defense. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SKS_Flickr.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/SKS_Flickr.jpg/220px-SKS_Flickr.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="58" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/SKS_Flickr.jpg/330px-SKS_Flickr.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/SKS_Flickr.jpg/440px-SKS_Flickr.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1208" data-file-height="317" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/SKS" title="SKS">SKS</a> <a href="/wiki/Semi-automatic_rifles" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-automatic rifles">semi-automatic rifles</a> were also used by guerrillas.</figcaption></figure> <p>Rapid-fire arms in use with the insurgents included the <a href="/wiki/7.62%C3%9754mmR" title="7.62×54mmR">7.62×54mmR</a> <a href="/wiki/Degtyaryov_machine_gun" title="Degtyaryov machine gun">DP-28</a>, the 7.62×39mm <a href="/wiki/RPD_machine_gun" title="RPD machine gun">RPD machine gun</a> (the most widely used of all), the <a href="/wiki/7.92%C3%9757mm_Mauser" title="7.92×57mm Mauser">8×57mm Mauser</a> <a href="/wiki/MG_34" title="MG 34">MG 34</a> general-purpose machine gun, together with the <a href="/wiki/12.7%C3%97108mm" class="mw-redirect" title="12.7×108mm">12.7×108mm</a> <a href="/wiki/DShK" title="DShK">DShK</a> and the 7.62×54mm <a href="/wiki/SG-43_Goryunov" title="SG-43 Goryunov">SG-43 Goryunov</a> heavy machine guns, <a href="/wiki/7.62%C3%9725mm_Tokarev" title="7.62×25mm Tokarev">7.62×25mm</a> <a href="/wiki/PPSh-41" title="PPSh-41">PPSh-41</a> and <a href="/wiki/PPS_submachine_gun" title="PPS submachine gun">PPS-43</a>, <a href="/wiki/9%C3%9719mm_Parabellum" title="9×19mm Parabellum">9×19mm</a> <a href="/wiki/Sa_vz._23" class="mw-redirect" title="Sa vz. 23">Sa vz. 23</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sterling_submachine_gun" title="Sterling submachine gun">Sterling</a>, <a href="/wiki/MP_40" title="MP 40">MP 40</a>, <a href="/wiki/MAT-49" title="MAT-49">MAT-49</a> <a href="/wiki/Submachine_gun" title="Submachine gun">submachine gun</a> operation. Support weapons included mortars, <a href="/wiki/Recoilless_rifle" title="Recoilless rifle">recoilless rifles</a>, and in particular, Soviet-made rocket launchers, the <a href="/wiki/RPG-2" title="RPG-2">RPG-2</a> and <a href="/wiki/RPG-7" title="RPG-7">RPG-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/Anti-aircraft_warfare" title="Anti-aircraft warfare">Anti-aircraft (AA) weapons</a> were also employed, especially by the <a href="/wiki/African_Party_for_the_Independence_of_Guinea_and_Cape_Verde" title="African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde">PAIGC</a> and the <a href="/wiki/FRELIMO" title="FRELIMO">FRELIMO</a>. The <a href="/wiki/14.5%C3%97114mm" class="mw-redirect" title="14.5×114mm">14.5×114mm</a> <a href="/wiki/ZPU" title="ZPU">ZPU</a> AA cannon was the most widely used, but by far the most effective was the <a href="/wiki/Strela_2" class="mw-redirect" title="Strela 2">Strela 2</a> missile, first introduced to guerrilla forces in Guinea in 1973 and in Mozambique the following year by Soviet technicians. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Museu_Militar_da_Luta_de_Liberta%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Nacional_(11).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Museu_Militar_da_Luta_de_Liberta%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Nacional_%2811%29.jpg/220px-Museu_Militar_da_Luta_de_Liberta%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Nacional_%2811%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Museu_Militar_da_Luta_de_Liberta%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Nacional_%2811%29.jpg/330px-Museu_Militar_da_Luta_de_Liberta%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Nacional_%2811%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Museu_Militar_da_Luta_de_Liberta%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Nacional_%2811%29.jpg/440px-Museu_Militar_da_Luta_de_Liberta%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Nacional_%2811%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Heavy equipment used by the PAIGC now on display at Bissau</figcaption></figure> <p>The guerrillas' AKM rifles and such variants were highly thought of by many Portuguese soldiers, as they were more mobile than the m/961 (G3), while permitting the user to deliver a heavy volume of automatic fire at the closer ranges typically encountered in bush warfare.<sup id="cite_ref-Afonso_2000_pp._266-267_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Afonso_2000_pp._266-267-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The AKM's ammunition load was also lighter.<sup id="cite_ref-Afonso_2000_pp._266-267_117-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Afonso_2000_pp._266-267-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The average Angolan or Mozambican rebel could easily transport 150 7.62×39mm cartridges (five 30-round magazines) on his person during bush operations, compared to 100 7.62×51mm rounds (five 20-round magazines) typically carried by a Portuguese infantryman on patrol.<sup id="cite_ref-Afonso_2000_pp._266-267_117-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Afonso_2000_pp._266-267-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though a common misconception holds that Portuguese soldiers used captured AKM type weapons, this was only true of a few elite units for special missions. Like U.S. forces in Vietnam, ammunition resupply difficulties and the obvious danger of being mistaken for a guerrilla when firing an enemy weapon generally precluded their use. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Land_mine" title="Land mine">Mines</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Booby_trap" title="Booby trap">booby traps</a> were one of the principal weapons used by the insurgents against Portuguese mechanized forces to great effect, who typically patrolled the mostly unpaved roads of their territories using motor vehicles and armored scout cars.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To counter the mine threat, Portuguese engineers commenced the herculean task of tarring the rural road network.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mine detection was accomplished not only by electronic mine detectors, but also by employing trained soldiers (<i>picadors</i>) walking abreast with long probes to detect nonmetallic road mines. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Combatentes_do_PAIGC_(FARP)_com_lan%C3%A7a_granadas_e_pistolas-metralhadoras.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Combatentes_do_PAIGC_%28FARP%29_com_lan%C3%A7a_granadas_e_pistolas-metralhadoras.png/220px-Combatentes_do_PAIGC_%28FARP%29_com_lan%C3%A7a_granadas_e_pistolas-metralhadoras.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Combatentes_do_PAIGC_%28FARP%29_com_lan%C3%A7a_granadas_e_pistolas-metralhadoras.png/330px-Combatentes_do_PAIGC_%28FARP%29_com_lan%C3%A7a_granadas_e_pistolas-metralhadoras.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Combatentes_do_PAIGC_%28FARP%29_com_lan%C3%A7a_granadas_e_pistolas-metralhadoras.png/440px-Combatentes_do_PAIGC_%28FARP%29_com_lan%C3%A7a_granadas_e_pistolas-metralhadoras.png 2x" data-file-width="1854" data-file-height="1236" /></a><figcaption>PAIGC guerrillas with rocket launchers and submachineguns.</figcaption></figure> <p>Guerrillas in all the various revolutionary movements used a variety of mines, often combining <a href="/wiki/Anti-tank_mine" title="Anti-tank mine">anti-tank</a> with <a href="/wiki/Anti-personnel_mine" title="Anti-personnel mine">anti-personnel</a> mines to ambush Portuguese formations with devastating results. A common tactic was to plant large anti-vehicle mines in a roadway bordered by obvious cover, such as an irrigation ditch, then seed the ditch with anti-personnel mines. Detonation of the vehicle mine would cause Portuguese troops to deploy and seek cover in the ditch, where the anti-personnel mines would cause further casualties. </p><p>If the insurgents planned to confront the Portuguese openly, one or two heavy machine guns would be sited to sweep the ditch and other likely areas of cover. Other mines used included the <a href="/wiki/PMN_mine" title="PMN mine">PMN (Black Widow)</a>, <a href="/wiki/TM-46_mine" title="TM-46 mine">TM-46</a>, and <a href="/wiki/POMZ" title="POMZ">POMZ</a>. Even amphibious mines were used such as the <a href="/wiki/PDM_series_of_amphibious_mines" class="mw-redirect" title="PDM series of amphibious mines">PDM</a>, along with numerous home-made antipersonnel wood box mines and other nonmetallic explosive devices. The impact of mining operations, in addition to causing casualties, undermined the mobility of Portuguese forces, while diverting troops and equipment from security and offensive operations to convoy protection and mine clearance missions. </p><p>In general, the PAIGC in Guinea was the best armed, trained and led of all the guerrilla movements. By 1970, it even had candidates training in the Soviet Union, learning to fly <a href="/wiki/Mikoyan-Gurevich_MiG-15" title="Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15">Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15</a> jets and to operate Soviet-supplied amphibious assault craft and <a href="/wiki/Armoured_personnel_carrier" title="Armoured personnel carrier">APCs</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Opposition_in_Portugal">Opposition in Portugal</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Opposition in Portugal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marcello_caetano.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Marcello_caetano.jpg/220px-Marcello_caetano.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Marcello_caetano.jpg/330px-Marcello_caetano.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Marcello_caetano.jpg/440px-Marcello_caetano.jpg 2x" data-file-width="949" data-file-height="1144" /></a><figcaption>Marcello Caetano, who succeeded Salazar in the premiership of Portugal in 1968.</figcaption></figure> <p>The government presented as a general consensus that the colonies were a part of the national unity, closer to overseas provinces than to true colonies. The <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communists</a> were the first party to oppose the official view, since they saw the Portuguese presence in the colonies as an act against the colonies' right to <a href="/wiki/Self_determination" class="mw-redirect" title="Self determination">self determination</a>. During its 5th Congress, in 1957, the illegal <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Communist_Party" title="Portuguese Communist Party">Portuguese Communist Party</a> (<i>Partido Comunista Português</i> – PCP) was the first political organization to demand the immediate and total independence of the colonies. </p><p>However, being the only truly organized opposition movement, the PCP had to play two roles. One role was that of a communist party with an anti-colonialist position; the other role was to be a cohesive force drawing together a broad spectrum of opposing parties. Therefore, it had to accede to views that did not reflect its true anticolonial position. </p><p>Several opposition figures outside the PCP also had anticolonial opinions, such as the candidates to the fraudulent presidential elections, like <a href="/wiki/Norton_de_Matos" class="mw-redirect" title="Norton de Matos">Norton de Matos</a> (in 1949), Quintão Meireles (in 1951), and <a href="/wiki/Humberto_Delgado" title="Humberto Delgado">Humberto Delgado</a> (in 1958). The communist candidates had the same positions. Among them were <a href="/wiki/Rui_Lu%C3%ADs_Gomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Rui Luís Gomes">Rui Luís Gomes</a> and Arlindo Vicente; the former was not allowed to participate in the election, and the latter supported Delgado in 1958. </p><p>After the electoral fraud of 1958, Humberto Delgado formed the Independent National Movement (<i>Movimento Nacional Independente</i> – MNI) that, in October 1960, agreed that there was a need to prepare the people in the colonies, before giving them the right of self-determination. Despite this, no detailed policies for achieving this goal were set out.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2008)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 1961, the nº8 of the <i>Military Tribune</i> had as its title "<i>Let's end the war of Angola</i>". The authors were linked to the Patriotic Action Councils (<i>Juntas de Acção Patriótica</i> – JAP), supporters of Humberto Delgado, and responsible for the attack on the barracks of Beja. The <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_National_Liberation_Front" title="Portuguese National Liberation Front">Portuguese National Liberation Front</a> (<i>Frente Portuguesa de Libertação Nacional</i> – FPLN), founded in December 1962, attacked the conciliatory positions. The official feeling of the Portuguese state, despite all this, was the same: Portugal had inalienable and legitimate rights over the colonies and this was what was transmitted through the media and through the state propaganda. </p><p>In April 1964, the Directory of Democratic-Social Action (<i>Acção Democrato-Social</i> – ADS) presented a political solution rather than a military one. In agreement with this initiative in 1966, <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A1rio_Soares" title="Mário Soares">Mário Soares</a> suggested there should be a referendum on the overseas policy Portugal should follow, and that the referendum should be preceded by a national discussion to take place in the six months prior to the referendum.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2008)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The end of Salazar's rule in 1968, due to illness, did not prompt any change in the political panorama.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2008)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The radicalization of the opposition movements started with the younger people who also felt victimized by the continuation of the war.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2008)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radicalization_(early_1970s)"><span id="Radicalization_.28early_1970s.29"></span>Radicalization (early 1970s)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Radicalization (early 1970s)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Otelo_Saraiva_de_Carvalho_1976_b.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Otelo_Saraiva_de_Carvalho_1976_b.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Otelo_Saraiva_de_Carvalho_1976_b.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="314" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Otelo_Saraiva_de_Carvalho_1976_b.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Otelo_Saraiva_de_Carvalho_1976_b.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Otelo_Saraiva_de_Carvalho_1976_b.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Otelo_Saraiva_de_Carvalho_1976_b.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="665" data-file-height="950" /></a><figcaption>Captain Otelo Saraiva de Carvalho, chief organizer of the 1974 coup.</figcaption></figure> <p>The universities played a key role in the spread of this position. Several magazines and newspapers were created, such as <i>Cadernos Circunstância</i>, <i>Cadernos Necessários</i>, <i>Tempo e Modo</i>, and <i>Polémica</i> that supported this view. The students that participated in this underground opposition faced serious consequences if caught by the PIDE—from immediate arrest to automatic conscription into a combat branch (infantry, marines, etc.) situated in the "hot" warzone (Guinea, Tete Province in Mozambique or eastern Angola). It was in this environment that the <a href="/wiki/Armed_Revolutionary_Action" title="Armed Revolutionary Action">Armed Revolutionary Action</a> (<i>Acção Revolucionária Armada</i> – ARA), the armed branch of the Portuguese Communist Party created in the late 1960s, and the Revolutionary Brigades (<i>Brigadas Revolucionárias</i> – BR), a left-wing organization, became a force of resistance against the war, carrying out multiple acts of sabotage and bombing against military targets. </p><p>The ARA began its military actions in October 1970, keeping them up until August 1972. The major actions were the attack on the Tancos air base that destroyed several helicopters on 8 March 1971, and the attack on the <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> headquarters at <a href="/wiki/Oeiras_Municipality,_Portugal" class="mw-redirect" title="Oeiras Municipality, Portugal">Oeiras</a> in October of the same year. The BR, on its side, began armed actions on 7 November 1971, with the sabotage of the NATO base at Pinhal de Armeiro, the last action being carried out 9 April 1974, against the <a href="/wiki/Niassa" class="mw-redirect" title="Niassa">Niassa</a> ship which was preparing to leave Lisboa with troops to be deployed in <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Guinea" title="Portuguese Guinea">Portuguese Guinea</a>. The BR acted even in the colonies, placing a bomb in the Military Command of Bissau on 22 February 1974. </p><p>By the early 1970s, the Portuguese Colonial War raged on, consuming fully 40 percent of Portugal's annual budget.<sup id="cite_ref-Abbott_1998_p._34_66-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abbott_1998_p._34-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Portuguese military was overstretched despite mobilizing 7% of the country's total population and there was no political solution or end in sight. While the human losses were relatively small, the war as whole had already entered its second decade. The Portuguese ruling regime of Estado Novo faced criticism from the international community and was becoming increasingly isolated. It had a profound impact on Portugal—thousands of young men avoided <a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">conscription</a> by emigrating illegally, mainly to France and the US. </p><p>The war in the Portuguese overseas territories of Africa was increasingly unpopular in Portugal itself as the people got weary of war and balked at its ever-rising expense. Many ethnic Portuguese of the African overseas territories were also increasingly willing to accept independence if their economic status could be preserved. In addition, younger Portuguese military academy graduates resented a program introduced by <a href="/wiki/Marcello_Caetano" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcello Caetano">Marcello Caetano</a> whereby militia officers who completed a brief training program and had served in the overseas territories' defensive campaigns, could be commissioned at the same rank as military academy graduates. </p><p>Caetano's government had begun the program (which included several other reforms) in order to increase the number of officials employed against the African insurgencies, and at the same time cut down military costs to alleviate an already overburdened government budget. Thus, the group of revolutionary military insurgents started as a military professional class<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> protest of <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Armed_Forces" title="Portuguese Armed Forces">Portuguese Armed Forces</a> <a href="/wiki/Captain_(armed_forces)" title="Captain (armed forces)">captains</a> against a decree law: the <i>Dec. Lei nº 353/73</i> of 1973, organizing themselves in a loosely allied group known as the <a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_Movement" title="Armed Forces Movement">Movimento das Forças Armadas</a> (MFA).<sup id="cite_ref-youtube.com_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-youtube.com-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carnation_Revolution_(1974)"><span id="Carnation_Revolution_.281974.29"></span>Carnation Revolution (1974)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Carnation Revolution (1974)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Revolu%C3%A7%C3%A3o_dos_Cravos.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Revolu%C3%A7%C3%A3o_dos_Cravos.jpg/220px-Revolu%C3%A7%C3%A3o_dos_Cravos.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Revolu%C3%A7%C3%A3o_dos_Cravos.jpg/330px-Revolu%C3%A7%C3%A3o_dos_Cravos.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Revolu%C3%A7%C3%A3o_dos_Cravos.jpg/440px-Revolu%C3%A7%C3%A3o_dos_Cravos.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="669" /></a><figcaption>Celebrations following the coup in Portugal.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Carnation_Revolution" title="Carnation Revolution">Carnation Revolution</a></div> <p>Faced with government inflexibility over proposed reforms, some Portuguese junior military officers, many from underprivileged backgrounds and increasingly attracted to the Marxist philosophy of their African insurgent opponents,<sup id="cite_ref-infiltrated_communists_76-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-infiltrated_communists-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> began to move the MFA to the political left.<sup id="cite_ref-Abbott_1998_p._35_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abbott_1998_p._35-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 25 April 1974, Portuguese military officers of the MFA staged a bloodless military coup that toppled <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Oliveira_Salazar" title="António de Oliveira Salazar">António de Oliveira Salazar</a>'s successor Marcelo Caetano, and successfully overthrew the <a href="/wiki/Estado_Novo_(Portugal)" title="Estado Novo (Portugal)">Estado Novo</a> regime. </p><p>The revolt later became known as the Carnation Revolution. General Spínola was invited to assume the office of President, but resigned a few months later after it became clear that his desire to set up a system of federalized home rule for the African territories was not shared by the rest of the MFA, who wanted an immediate end to the war (achievable only by granting independence to the provinces of Portuguese Africa).<sup id="cite_ref-Abbott_1998_p._35_123-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abbott_1998_p._35-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 25 April coup led to a series of temporary governments, marked by a <a href="/wiki/Nationalization#Portugal" title="Nationalization">nationalization</a> of many important areas of the economy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Monument_in_Coimbra_to_the_heroes_of_the_Portuguese_Colonial_War.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Monument_in_Coimbra_to_the_heroes_of_the_Portuguese_Colonial_War.jpg/220px-Monument_in_Coimbra_to_the_heroes_of_the_Portuguese_Colonial_War.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Monument_in_Coimbra_to_the_heroes_of_the_Portuguese_Colonial_War.jpg/330px-Monument_in_Coimbra_to_the_heroes_of_the_Portuguese_Colonial_War.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Monument_in_Coimbra_to_the_heroes_of_the_Portuguese_Colonial_War.jpg/440px-Monument_in_Coimbra_to_the_heroes_of_the_Portuguese_Colonial_War.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Portuguese soldier with black <a href="/wiki/Afro-Portuguese" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-Portuguese">Afro-Portuguese</a> child, a monument to the Portuguese Overseas Territories' Heroes (<i>Heróis do Ultramar</i>), in <a href="/wiki/Coimbra" title="Coimbra">Coimbra</a>, Portugal.</figcaption></figure> <p>After the coup on 25 April 1974, while the power struggle for control of Portugal's government was occurring in Lisbon, many Portuguese Army units serving in Africa simply ceased field operations, in some cases ignoring orders to continue fighting and withdrawing into barracks, in others negotiating local ceasefire agreements with insurgents.<sup id="cite_ref-Abbott_1998_p._35_123-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abbott_1998_p._35-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 26 August 1974, after a series of diplomatic meetings, Portugal and the PAIGC signed an accord in Algiers, Algeria in which Portugal agreed to remove all troops by the end of October and to recognize the Republic of Guinea-Bissau government controlled by the PAIGC.<sup id="cite_ref-Lloyd-Jones,_Stewart_p._22_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lloyd-Jones,_Stewart_p._22-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In June 1975, after a period of eight months under which Mozambique had been administered by a provisional government, representatives of the Portuguese government and FRELIMO signed an agreement to grant independence to Mozambique, with the president of FRELIMO to assume the presidency of the newly independent nation. This was followed the next month by the announcement of the independence of Cape Verde, and the establishment of a new nation, the Republic of Cape Verde.<sup id="cite_ref-Abbott_1998_p._35_123-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abbott_1998_p._35-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Angola, the <a href="/wiki/Alvor_Agreement" title="Alvor Agreement">Alvor Agreement</a> was signed on 15 January 1975, granting Angola independence from Portugal on 11 November 1975. The Alvor Agreement formally ended the <a href="/wiki/Angolan_War_of_Independence" title="Angolan War of Independence">war for independence</a>. The agreement, while signed by the MPLA, the FNLA, UNITA, and the Portuguese government, was never signed by the <a href="/wiki/Front_for_the_Liberation_of_the_Enclave_of_Cabinda" title="Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda">Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Revolt" title="Eastern Revolt">Eastern Revolt</a> as the other parties had excluded them from the peace negotiations. The coalition government established by the Alvor Agreement soon fell apart as the various nationalist parties each attempted to seize power. Unable to broker a new compromise, in November 1975 Portugal's last African High Commissioner <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Alva_Rosa_Coutinho" title="António Alva Rosa Coutinho">Rosa Coutinho</a> hauled down his nation's flag and departed Angola.<sup id="cite_ref-Abbott_1998_p._35_123-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abbott_1998_p._35-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Guilherme_Alpoim_Calv%C3%A3o&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Guilherme Alpoim Calvão (page does not exist)">Guilherme Alpoim Calvão</a>, for a brief time after the 25 April Coup (May 1974 – November 1975), Portugal was on the brink of <a href="/wiki/Civil_war" title="Civil war">Civil war</a> between left-wing hardliners (<a href="/wiki/Vasco_Gon%C3%A7alves" title="Vasco Gonçalves">Vasco Gonçalves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Otelo_Saraiva_de_Carvalho" title="Otelo Saraiva de Carvalho">Otelo Saraiva de Carvalho</a> and others) and the moderate forces (<a href="/wiki/Francisco_da_Costa_Gomes" title="Francisco da Costa Gomes">Francisco da Costa Gomes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Ramalho_Eanes" title="António Ramalho Eanes">António Ramalho Eanes</a> and others).<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 25 November 1975 the far left terrorists in Portugal attempted to execute a military <i><a href="/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">coup d'état</a></i> against the post-<a href="/wiki/Carnation_Revolution" title="Carnation Revolution">Carnation Revolution</a> governing bodies of Portugal.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Portuguese government eventually won, preventing Portugal from becoming a <a href="/wiki/Communist_state" title="Communist state">communist state</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1975, Portugal had converted to a democratic government.<sup id="cite_ref-the_war_was_won_67-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-the_war_was_won-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The effects of having to integrate hundreds of thousands of returning Portuguese from the former African provinces (collectively known as <i><a href="/wiki/Retornados#The_retornados" class="mw-redirect" title="Retornados">retornados</a></i>), and political and economic turmoil resulting from the military coup and successive governments would cripple the Portuguese economy for decades to come.<sup id="cite_ref-dge.ubi.pt_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dge.ubi.pt-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lisboa_-_Monumento_Combatentes_Ultramar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Lisboa_-_Monumento_Combatentes_Ultramar.jpg/220px-Lisboa_-_Monumento_Combatentes_Ultramar.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Lisboa_-_Monumento_Combatentes_Ultramar.jpg/330px-Lisboa_-_Monumento_Combatentes_Ultramar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Lisboa_-_Monumento_Combatentes_Ultramar.jpg/440px-Lisboa_-_Monumento_Combatentes_Ultramar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Monument in <a href="/wiki/Lisbon" title="Lisbon">Lisbon</a> to Portuguese soldiers who died in the Overseas War (1961–1976).</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impact_in_Africa">Impact in Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Impact in Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1974restos_de_Chaimite.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/1974restos_de_Chaimite.jpg/220px-1974restos_de_Chaimite.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/1974restos_de_Chaimite.jpg/330px-1974restos_de_Chaimite.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/1974restos_de_Chaimite.jpg/440px-1974restos_de_Chaimite.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2749" data-file-height="1937" /></a><figcaption>Remains of an armoured car in Medina do Boé, Guinea-Bissau</figcaption></figure> <p>Portugal had been the first European power to establish a colony in Africa since Antiquity when it captured <a href="/wiki/Ceuta" title="Ceuta">Ceuta</a> in 1415 and now it was one of the last to leave. The departure of the Portuguese from Angola and Mozambique increased the isolation of <a href="/wiki/Rhodesia" title="Rhodesia">Rhodesia</a>, where <a href="/wiki/White_minority_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="White minority rule">white minority rule</a> ended in 1980 when the territory gained international recognition as the Republic of <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a> with <a href="/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe">Robert Mugabe</a> as the head of government. The former Portuguese territories in Africa became sovereign states with <a href="/wiki/Agostinho_Neto" title="Agostinho Neto">Agostinho Neto</a> (followed in 1979 by <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Eduardo_dos_Santos" title="José Eduardo dos Santos">José Eduardo dos Santos</a>) in Angola, <a href="/wiki/Samora_Machel" title="Samora Machel">Samora Machel</a> (followed in 1986 by <a href="/wiki/Joaquim_Chissano" title="Joaquim Chissano">Joaquim Chissano</a>) in Mozambique and <a href="/wiki/Lu%C3%ADs_Cabral" title="Luís Cabral">Luís Cabral</a> (followed in 1980 by <a href="/wiki/Nino_Vieira" class="mw-redirect" title="Nino Vieira">Nino Vieira</a>) in Guinea-Bissau, as <a href="/wiki/Heads_of_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Heads of state">heads of state</a>. </p><p>In contrast to some other European colonial possessions, many of the Portuguese living in Portuguese Africa had strong ties to their adopted land, as their ancestors had lived in Africa for generations.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For these individuals, the prospect of Portugal's imminent departure from its African territories was nearly impossible to comprehend. Nevertheless, most accepted the inevitable, and while an abortive right-wing settler revolt broke out in Mozambique, it quickly died out as Portuguese coup leaders made it clear that the decision to grant independence was irrevocable.<sup id="cite_ref-Abbott_1998_p._35_123-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abbott_1998_p._35-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fear of reprisals and impending changes in political and economic status by the Marxist governments of the new African states resulted in the peaceful exodus of over one million Portuguese citizens of European, African and mixed ethnicity from the newly independent African territories to Portugal, Brazil, South Africa, and other countries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_governments_of_Angola_and_Mozambique">New governments of Angola and Mozambique</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: New governments of Angola and Mozambique"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The new governments of Angola and Mozambique, faced a severe set of challenges as devastating civil wars broke out in both countries. Lasting several decades, these ongoing conflicts would eventually claim over two million lives and an even greater number of refugees, while destroying much of the infrastructure in both nations.<sup id="cite_ref-Norrie_MacQueen_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norrie_MacQueen-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Resentments over economic difficulties caused by failed government policies, the general disenfranchisement of political opponents, and widespread corruption at the highest levels of government eroded the initial optimism present at independence. These problems were exacerbated by a tendency to consolidate power by directing public anger against ethnic Portuguese, mixed-race Africans,<sup id="cite_ref-post-independence_goal_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-post-independence_goal-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and those who had supported the former colonial regime. </p><p>Many of the local black soldiers that served in the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Army" title="Portuguese Army">Portuguese Army</a> and who had fought against the insurgents were demobilized by Portuguese authorities and left behind in Africa. The most infamous reprisal occurred in Guinea-Bissau. Demobilized by the Portuguese authorities and abandoned to their fate, a total of 7,447 black African soldiers who had served in Portuguese native commando forces and militia were summarily executed by the PAIGC after Portuguese forces ceased hostilities.<sup id="cite_ref-Lloyd-Jones,_Stewart_p._22_22-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lloyd-Jones,_Stewart_p._22-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a statement in the party newspaper <i> Nô Pintcha</i> (<i>In the Vanguard</i>), a spokesman for the PAIGC revealed that many of the ex-Portuguese indigenous African soldiers that were executed after cessation of hostilities were buried in unmarked collective graves in the woods of Cumerá, Portogole, and <a href="/wiki/Mansab%C3%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="Mansabá">Mansabá</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Munslow,_Barry_1981_pp._109-113_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Munslow,_Barry_1981_pp._109-113-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because the political regimes involved in wars or counterinsurgency tend to minimize unfavorable news stories about their military actions, many Portuguese remained unaware of the atrocities committed by the colonial regimes and the army. In 2007, a <a href="/wiki/Radiotelevisao_Portuguesa" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiotelevisao Portuguesa">Radiotelevisao Portuguesa</a> (RTP) documentary by <a href="/wiki/Joaquim_Furtado" title="Joaquim Furtado">Joaquim Furtado</a>, made public both these government-supported atrocities and the organized massacres and terror campaign policies of some pro-independence guerrilla movements or their supporters; it was watched by over a million people, a tenth of the population at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the fall of the Estado Novo regime, most Portuguese citizens, tired of the long war and their isolation from the world community under the Caetano regime, supported the decision to recognize the independence of Portuguese Africa immediately, while accepting the inevitable loss of their former overseas territories. However, controversies over the MFA coup of 25 April 1974 and the decisions made by coup leaders remain to this day. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economic_consequences_of_the_war">Economic consequences of the war</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Economic consequences of the war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Portugal" title="Economic history of Portugal">Economic history of Portugal</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nt-DE_das_FA_e_Estado.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Nt-DE_das_FA_e_Estado.png/300px-Nt-DE_das_FA_e_Estado.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Nt-DE_das_FA_e_Estado.png/450px-Nt-DE_das_FA_e_Estado.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Nt-DE_das_FA_e_Estado.png/600px-Nt-DE_das_FA_e_Estado.png 2x" data-file-width="727" data-file-height="505" /></a><figcaption>Evolution of the expenditure of the Portuguese state with the military during the war.</figcaption></figure> <p>In Portugal, government budgets increased significantly during the war years. The country's expenditure on the armed forces ballooned since the beginning of the war in 1961. The expenses were divided into ordinary and extraordinary ones; the latter were the main factor in the huge increase in the military budget. The succession of Marcelo Caetano, after Salazar's incapacitation, resulted in steady increases in military spending on the African wars through 1972.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the period 1961–1974, 22% of total state expenditure (approximately 3.1% of GDP) was spent on the war.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 13 November 1972, a <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_wealth_fund" title="Sovereign wealth fund">sovereign wealth fund</a> was enacted through the Decree Law <i>Decreto-Lei n.º 448/ /72</i> and the Ministry of Defense ordinance <i>Portaria 696/72</i>, in order to finance the counterinsurgency effort in the Portuguese overseas territories.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the counterinsurgency war was won in Angola, it was less than satisfactorily contained in Mozambique and dangerously stalemated in Portuguese Guinea from the Portuguese point of view, so the Portuguese Government decided to create sustainability policies in order to allow continuous sources of financing for the war effort in the long run. In addition, new Decree Laws (Decree Law: <i>Decretos-Leis n.os 353, de 13 de Julho de 1973, e 409, de 20 de Agosto</i>) were enforced in order to cut down military expenses and increase the number of officers by incorporating militia and military academy officers in the Army branches as equals.<sup id="cite_ref-infopedia_a_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-infopedia_a-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-youtube.com_121-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-youtube.com-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-A_Guerra_do_Ultramar_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-A_Guerra_do_Ultramar-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Continental_Portugal" title="Continental Portugal">mainland Portugal</a>, the growth rate of the economy during the war years ranged from 6–11%, and in post war years 2–3%.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is substantially higher than the vast majority of other European nations. Other indicators like GDP as percentage of Western Europe would indicate that Portugal was rapidly catching up to its European neighbors. In 1960, at the initiation of Salazar's more outward-looking economic policy influenced by a new generation of technocrats, Portugal's per capita GDP was only 38 percent of the EC-12 average; by the end of the Salazar period, in 1968, it had risen to 48 percent.<sup id="cite_ref-countrystudies_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-countrystudies-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1973, on the eve of the revolution, Portugal's per capita GDP had reached 56 percent of the EC-12 average. In 1975, the year of maximum revolutionary turmoil, Portugal's per capita GDP declined to 52 percent of the EC-12 average. Convergence of real GDP growth toward the EC average occurred as a result of Portugal's economic resurgence since 1985. In 1991 Portugal's GDP per capita climbed to 55 percent of the EC average, exceeding by a fraction the level attained just during the worst revolutionary period.<sup id="cite_ref-countrystudies_142-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-countrystudies-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For many decades to come after independence, the economies of the three former Portuguese African territories involved in the war continued to remain problematic due to continuing internecine political conflicts and power struggles as well as inadequate agricultural production caused by disruptive government policies resulting in high birth mortality rates, widespread malnutrition, and disease. By the 21st century, the <a href="/wiki/Human_Development_Index" title="Human Development Index">Human Development Index</a> of Angola, Mozambique and Guinea-Bissau, were among the lowest in the world, while <a href="/wiki/Transparency_International" title="Transparency International">corruption</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gini_Index" class="mw-redirect" title="Gini Index">social inequality</a> soared. </p><p>After 1974, the deterioration in <a href="/wiki/Central_planning" class="mw-redirect" title="Central planning">central planning</a> effectiveness, <a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">economic development</a> and growth, security, education and health system efficiency, was rampant. None of the newly independent ex-Portuguese African states made any significant economic progress in the following decades, and political progress in terms of democratic processes and protection of individual human rights was either minimal or nonexistent. With few exceptions, the new regimes ranked at the bottom of human development and <a href="/wiki/GDP_per_capita" class="mw-redirect" title="GDP per capita">GDP per capita</a> world tables. By 2002, however, the end of the <a href="/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">Angolan Civil War</a>, combined with exploitation of the country's highly valuable natural resources, resulted in that country becoming economically successful for the first time in decades. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Films_about_the_war">Films about the war</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Films about the war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>Os Demonios de Alcacer-Quibir</i> (Portugal 1975, director: Jose Fonseca da Costa).</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Life_Is_Beautiful_(1979_film)" title="Life Is Beautiful (1979 film)">La Vita è Bella</a></i> (Portugal/Italy/USSR 1979), director: <a href="/wiki/Grigory_Chukhray" title="Grigory Chukhray">Grigory Naumovich Chukhray</a>).</li> <li><i>Sorte que tal Morte</i> (Portugal 1981, director: Joao Matos Silva).</li> <li><i>Acto dos Feitos da Guine</i> (Portugal 1980, director: Fernando Matos Silva).</li> <li><i>Gestos & Fragmentos – Ensaio sobre os Militares e o Poder</i> (Portugal 1982, director: Alberto Seixas Santos).</li> <li><i>Um Adeus Português</i> (Portugal 1985, director: <a href="/wiki/Joao_Botelho" class="mw-redirect" title="Joao Botelho">Joao Botelho</a>).</li> <li><i>Era Uma Vez Um Alferes</i> (Portugal 1987, director: <a href="/wiki/Luis_Filipe_Rocha" class="mw-redirect" title="Luis Filipe Rocha">Luis Filipe Rocha</a>).</li> <li><i>Matar Saudades</i> (Portugal 1987, director: Fernando Lopes Vasconcelos)</li> <li><i>A Idade Maior</i> (Portugal 1990, director: Teresa Villaverde Cabral).</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/%22Non%22,_ou_A_V%C3%A3_Gl%C3%B3ria_de_Mandar" class="mw-redirect" title=""Non", ou A Vã Glória de Mandar">"Non", ou A Vã Glória de Mandar</a></i> (Portugal/France/Spain 1990, director: <a href="/wiki/Manoel_de_Oliveira" title="Manoel de Oliveira">Manoel de Oliveira</a>).</li> <li><i>Ao Sul</i> (Portugal 1993, director: Fernando Matos Silva).</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Capit%C3%A3es_de_Abril" class="mw-redirect" title="Capitães de Abril">Capitães de Abril</a></i> (<i>Captains of April</i>, Portugal 2000, director: <a href="/wiki/Maria_de_Medeiros" title="Maria de Medeiros">Maria de Medeiros</a>).</li> <li><i>Assalto ao Santa Maria</i> (<i>Assault on the Santa Maria</i>, Portugal 2009, director: <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Manso" title="Francisco Manso">Francisco Manso</a>).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Documentaries">Documentaries</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Documentaries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>A Guerra – Colonial – do Ultramar – da Libertação, 1st Season (Portugal 2007, director: <a href="/wiki/Joaquim_Furtado" title="Joaquim Furtado">Joaquim Furtado</a>, <a href="/wiki/R%C3%A1dio_e_Televis%C3%A3o_de_Portugal" title="Rádio e Televisão de Portugal">RTP</a>)</li> <li>A Guerra – Colonial – do Ultramar – da Libertação, 2nd Season (Portugal 2009, director: Joaquim Furtado, RTP)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:312px;max-width:312px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:150px;max-width:150px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:183px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Medalha-campanhas-verso.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Medalha-campanhas-verso.jpg/148px-Medalha-campanhas-verso.jpg" decoding="async" width="148" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Medalha-campanhas-verso.jpg/222px-Medalha-campanhas-verso.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Medalha-campanhas-verso.jpg/296px-Medalha-campanhas-verso.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1378" data-file-height="1702" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:158px;max-width:158px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:183px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Medalha-Campanhas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Medalha-Campanhas.jpg/156px-Medalha-Campanhas.jpg" decoding="async" width="156" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Medalha-Campanhas.jpg/234px-Medalha-Campanhas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Medalha-Campanhas.jpg/312px-Medalha-Campanhas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1319" data-file-height="1549" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Portuguese commemorative campaign medals.</div></div></div></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_War_of_Independence" title="Angolan War of Independence">Angolan War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau_War_of_Independence" title="Guinea-Bissau War of Independence">Guinea-Bissau War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_War_of_Independence" title="Mozambican War of Independence">Mozambican War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Gordian_Knot" title="Operation Gordian Knot">Operation Gordian Knot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnation_Revolution" title="Carnation Revolution">Carnation Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_invasion_of_Guinea_(1970)" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese invasion of Guinea (1970)">Portuguese invasion of Guinea (1970)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Vijay_(1961)" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Vijay (1961)">Operation Vijay (1961)</a> (<a href="/wiki/Portuguese_India" title="Portuguese India">Portuguese India</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusophobia" title="Lusophobia">Lusophobia</a></li></ul> <p><b>Portuguese military:</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Army_Commandos" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese Army Commandos">Portuguese Army Commandos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Operations_Troops_Centre" title="Special Operations Troops Centre">Special Operations Troops Centre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parachute_Troops_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Parachute Troops School">Parachute Troops School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Marine_Corps" title="Portuguese Marine Corps">Portuguese Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_irregular_forces_in_the_Overseas_War" title="Portuguese irregular forces in the Overseas War">Portuguese irregular forces in the Overseas War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Armed_Forces" title="Portuguese Armed Forces">Portuguese Armed Forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_weapons_of_the_Portuguese_Colonial_War" title="List of weapons of the Portuguese Colonial War">List of weapons of the Portuguese Colonial War</a></li></ul> <p><b>Contemporaneous wars:</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rhodesian_Bush_War" title="Rhodesian Bush War">Rhodesian Bush War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Border_War" title="South African Border War">South African Border War</a></li></ul> <p><b>Post-independence wars:</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">Angolan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_Civil_War" title="Mozambican Civil War">Mozambican Civil War</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBeit-Hallahmi1987" class="citation book cs1">Beit-Hallahmi, Benjamin (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dDTfAAAAMAAJ"><i>Beit-Hallahmi, Benjamin. The Israeli Connection: Who Israel Arms and why. p. 64. "Though Israel was busy establishing ties with newly independent African nations in the 1960s, it did not support all forms of decolonization. When it came to Portugal's colonies, Israel was on the side of continuing European rule."</i></a>. Pantheon Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-55922-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-394-55922-3"><bdi>978-0-394-55922-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beit-Hallahmi%2C+Benjamin.+The+Israeli+Connection%3A+Who+Israel+Arms+and+why.+p.+64.+%22Though+Israel+was+busy+establishing+ties+with+newly+independent+African+nations+in+the+1960s%2C+it+did+not+support+all+forms+of+decolonization.+When+it+came+to+Portugal%27s+colonies%2C+Israel+was+on+the+side+of+continuing+European+rule.%22&rft.pub=Pantheon+Books&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-394-55922-3&rft.aulast=Beit-Hallahmi&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdDTfAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.saairforce.co.za/the-airforce/history/saaf/the-border-war">"The South African Air Force"</a>. <i>saairforce.co.za</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=saairforce.co.za&rft.atitle=The+South+African+Air+Force&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.saairforce.co.za%2Fthe-airforce%2Fhistory%2Fsaaf%2Fthe-border-war&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Regional Orders: Building Security in a New World, 1997, p. 306.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTelepneva2022" class="citation book cs1">Telepneva, Natalia (2022). <i>Cold War Liberation: The Soviet Union and the Collapse of the Portuguese Empire in Africa, 1961–1975</i>. The University of North Carolina Press. p. 73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-6586-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-6586-3"><bdi>978-1-4696-6586-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cold+War+Liberation%3A+The+Soviet+Union+and+the+Collapse+of+the+Portuguese+Empire+in+Africa%2C+1961%E2%80%931975&rft.pages=73&rft.pub=The+University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-4696-6586-3&rft.aulast=Telepneva&rft.aufirst=Natalia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Soviet Union and Revolutionary Warfare: Principles, Practices, and Regional Comparisons, 1988, pp. 117–118.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdelman1975" class="citation journal cs1">Adelman, Kenneth L. (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20039527">"Report from Angola"</a>. <i>Foreign Affairs</i>. <b>53</b> (3): 558–574. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F20039527">10.2307/20039527</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0015-7120">0015-7120</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20039527">20039527</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Affairs&rft.atitle=Report+from+Angola&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=558-574&rft.date=1975&rft.issn=0015-7120&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20039527%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F20039527&rft.aulast=Adelman&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20039527&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Foreign Intervention in Africa: From the Cold War to the War on Terror,</i> 2013, p. 81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>China and Africa: A Century of Engagement,</i> 2012, p. 339.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Armed Forces and Modern Counter-insurgency,</i> 1985, p. 140.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cuba: The International Dimension, 1990, pp. 155–157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cuba in the World, 1979, pp. 95–96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rodrigues-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rodrigues_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbbottManuel_Ribeiro_Rodrigues1988" class="citation book cs1">Abbott, Peter; Manuel Ribeiro Rodrigues (1988). <i>Modern African Wars: Angola and Mozambique, 1961–74</i>. p. 10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+African+Wars%3A+Angola+and+Mozambique%2C+1961%E2%80%9374&rft.pages=10&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Abbott&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Manuel+Ribeiro+Rodrigues&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.guerracolonial.org/index.php?content=324">"FNLA – um movimento em permanente letargia, guerracolonial.org"</a> (in Portuguese).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=FNLA+%E2%80%93+um+movimento+em+permanente+letargia%2C+guerracolonial.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.guerracolonial.org%2Findex.php%3Fcontent%3D324&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSelcher1976" class="citation journal cs1">Selcher, Wayne A. (1976). "Brazilian Relations with Portuguese Africa in the Context of the Elusive "Luso-Brazilian Community"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs</i>. <b>18</b> (1): 25–58. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F174815">10.2307/174815</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/174815">174815</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Interamerican+Studies+and+World+Affairs&rft.atitle=Brazilian+Relations+with+Portuguese+Africa+in+the+Context+of+the+Elusive+%22Luso-Brazilian+Community%22&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=25-58&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F174815&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F174815%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Selcher&rft.aufirst=Wayne+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZKIxAQAAIAAJ&q=Military+stalemate+Guinea+bissau"><i>The New Encyclopaedia Britannica: Macropaedia : Knowledge in depth</i></a>. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2003. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85229-961-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85229-961-6"><bdi>978-0-85229-961-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Encyclopaedia+Britannica%3A+Macropaedia+%3A+Knowledge+in+depth&rft.pub=Encyclopaedia+Britannica&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-85229-961-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZKIxAQAAIAAJ%26q%3DMilitary%2Bstalemate%2BGuinea%2Bbissau&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFalolaOyebade2010" class="citation book cs1">Falola, Toyin; Oyebade, Adebayo O. (2010-07-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DILDEAAAQBAJ&dq=Portuguese+military+victory+angola&pg=PA108"><i>Hot Spot: Sub-Saharan Africa</i></a>. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-35972-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-35972-9"><bdi>978-0-313-35972-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hot+Spot%3A+Sub-Saharan+Africa&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing+USA&rft.date=2010-07-01&rft.isbn=978-0-313-35972-9&rft.aulast=Falola&rft.aufirst=Toyin&rft.au=Oyebade%2C+Adebayo+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDILDEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3DPortuguese%2Bmilitary%2Bvictory%2Bangola%26pg%3DPA108&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Mia_Couto" title="Mia Couto">Mia Couto</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mondediplo.com/2004/04/15mozambique">Carnation revolution</a>, <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Le_Monde_Diplomatique" class="mw-redirect" title="Le Monde Diplomatique">Le Monde Diplomatique</a></i></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-journals.openedition.org-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-journals.openedition.org_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-journals.openedition.org_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Fátima da Cruz Rodrigues: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.openedition.org/lerhistoria/484">A desmobilização dos combatentes africanos das Forças Armadas Portuguesas da Guerra Colonial (1961–1974)</a>, 2013.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Os anos da guerra 1961–1975, Os portugueses em África, crónica, ficção e história" (1988) by João de Melo, p.396</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.onwar.com/aced/chrono/c1900s/yr60/fangola1961.htm">"Portugal Angola War 1961–1975"</a>. Onwar.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Portugal+Angola+War+1961%E2%80%931975&rft.pub=Onwar.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.onwar.com%2Faced%2Fchrono%2Fc1900s%2Fyr60%2Ffangola1961.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampos2008" class="citation journal cs1">Campos, Ângela (November 20, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.openedition.org/lusotopie/612">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"We are still ashamed of our own History". Interviewing ex-combatants of the portuguese colonial war (1961–1974)"</a>. <i>Lusotopie. Recherches politiques internationales sur les espaces issus de l'histoire et de la colonisation portugaises</i> (XV(2)): 107–126. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F17683084-01502006">10.1163/17683084-01502006</a> – via journals.openedition.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lusotopie.+Recherches+politiques+internationales+sur+les+espaces+issus+de+l%27histoire+et+de+la+colonisation+portugaises&rft.atitle=%22We+are+still+ashamed+of+our+own+History%22.+Interviewing+ex-combatants+of+the+portuguese+colonial+war+%281961%E2%80%931974%29&rft.issue=XV%282%29&rft.pages=107-126&rft.date=2008-11-20&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F17683084-01502006&rft.aulast=Campos&rft.aufirst=%C3%82ngela&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.openedition.org%2Flusotopie%2F612&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lloyd-Jones,_Stewart_p._22-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lloyd-Jones,_Stewart_p._22_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lloyd-Jones,_Stewart_p._22_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lloyd-Jones,_Stewart_p._22_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lloyd-Jones,_Stewart_p._22_22-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lloyd-Jones,_Stewart_p._22_22-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lloyd-Jones, Stewart, and Costa Pinto, António, <i>The last empire: thirty years of Portuguese decolonization</i>, Portland, Oregon: Intellect Books, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84150-109-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-84150-109-3">1-84150-109-3</a>, p. 22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">PAIGC, Jornal Nô Pintcha, 29 November 1980: In a statement in the party newspaper <i> Nô Pintcha</i> (<i>In the Vanguard</i>), a spokesman for the PAIGC revealed that many of the ex-Portuguese indigenous African soldiers that were executed after cessation of hostilities were buried in unmarked collective graves in the woods of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cumer%C3%A1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cumerá (page does not exist)">Cumerá</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Portogole&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Portogole (page does not exist)">Portogole</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mansab%C3%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="Mansabá">Mansabá</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Munslow,_Barry_1981_pp._109-113-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Munslow,_Barry_1981_pp._109-113_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Munslow,_Barry_1981_pp._109-113_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Munslow,_Barry_1981_pp._109-113_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Munslow, Barry, <i>The 1980 Coup in Guinea-Bissau</i>, Review of African Political Economy, No. 21 (May–Sep., 1981), pp. 109–113</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aniceto Afonso, Carlos de Matos Gomes: Guerra Colonial. Lisbon 2000, p. 528.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-stats-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stats_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stats_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stats_26-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat4.htm"><i>Mid-Range Wars and Atrocities of the Twentieth Century</i></a> retrieved December 4, 2007</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tom_Hartman_1984-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tom_Hartman_1984_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tom_Hartman_1984_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Tom Hartman, A World Atlas of Military History 1945–1984.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.onwar.com/aced/chrono/c1900s/yr60/fangola1961.htm">"Portugal Angola War 1961–1975"</a>. Onwar.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Portugal+Angola+War+1961%E2%80%931975&rft.pub=Onwar.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.onwar.com%2Faced%2Fchrono%2Fc1900s%2Fyr60%2Ffangola1961.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat4.htm">"Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls"</a>. <i>users.erols.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=users.erols.com&rft.atitle=Twentieth+Century+Atlas+%E2%80%93+Death+Tolls&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fusers.erols.com%2Fmwhite28%2Fwarstat4.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-warstat6-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-warstat6_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-warstat6_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat6.htm">"Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls"</a>. <i>users.erols.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=users.erols.com&rft.atitle=Twentieth+Century+Atlas+%E2%80%93+Death+Tolls&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fusers.erols.com%2Fmwhite28%2Fwarstat6.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Clodfelter-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Clodfelter_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClodfelter2017" class="citation book cs1">Clodfelter, Micheal (2017). <i>Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015</i> (4th ed.). McFarland. p. 561. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0786474707" title="Special:BookSources/978-0786474707"><bdi>978-0786474707</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warfare+and+Armed+Conflicts%3A+A+Statistical+Encyclopedia+of+Casualty+and+Other+Figures%2C+1492%E2%80%932015&rft.pages=561&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=McFarland&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0786474707&rft.aulast=Clodfelter&rft.aufirst=Micheal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Der_Spiegel-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Der_Spiegel_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-41955370.html">"Portugal: Kolonien auf Zeit?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Der_Spiegel" title="Der Spiegel">Der Spiegel</a></i> (in German). August 13, 1973.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Der+Spiegel&rft.atitle=Portugal%3A+Kolonien+auf+Zeit%3F&rft.date=1973-08-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spiegel.de%2Fspiegel%2Fprint%2Fd-41955370.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.un.org/en/sc/repertoire/72-74/72-74_08.pdf"><i>Consideration of Questions Under The Council's Responsibility For The Maintenance of International Peace and Security</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Vol. 8. <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>. pp. 113, 170–72.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Consideration+of+Questions+Under+The+Council%27s+Responsibility+For+The+Maintenance+of+International+Peace+and+Security&rft.pages=113%2C+170-72&rft.pub=United+Nations&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.un.org%2Fen%2Fsc%2Frepertoire%2F72-74%2F72-74_08.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Europe/Portugal-MIGRATION.html">Portugal Migration</a>, <i>The Encyclopedia of the Nations</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.economist.com/world/mideast-africa/displayStory.cfm?story_id=12079340">Flight from Angola</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a></i> (August 16, 1975).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090113204408/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,913229-1,00.html">Dismantling the Portuguese Empire</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a></i> magazine (July 7, 1975).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://countrystudies.us/portugal/48.htm">Portugal – Emigration</a>, Eric Solsten, ed, 1993. <i>Portugal: A Country Study</i>. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">António Barreto, 2006, <i>Portugal: Um Retrato Social</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Norrie_MacQueen-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Norrie_MacQueen_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norrie_MacQueen_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Stuart A. Notholt (Apr., 1998) Review: ‘The Decolonization of Portuguese Africa: Metropolitan Revolution and the Dissolution of Empire by Norrie MacQueen – Mozambique since Independence: Confronting Leviathan by Margaret Hall, Tom Young’ <i>African Affairs</i>, Vol. 97, No. 387, pp. 276–78, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/723274">723274</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rose-Ackerman-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rose-Ackerman_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rose-Ackerman_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rose-Ackerman_40-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Susan Rose-Ackerman, 2009, "Corruption in the Wake of Domestic National Conflict" in <i>Corruption, Global Security, and World Order</i> (ed. Robert I. Rotberg: Brookings Institution), p. 79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Queiroz-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Queiroz_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Queiroz_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mario de Queiroz, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ipsnews.net/2005/11/africa-portugal-three-decades-after-last-colonial-empire-came-to-an-end/">Africa–Portugal: Three Decades After Last Colonial Empire Came to an End</a>, Inter Press Service (November 23, 2005).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tim Butcher, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/angola/1403050/As-guerrilla-war-ends-corruption-now-bleeds-Angola-to-death.html">As guerrilla war ends, corruption now bleeds Angola to death</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph" title="The Daily Telegraph">The Daily Telegraph</a></i> (30 July 2002)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-post-independence_goal-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-post-independence_goal_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-post-independence_goal_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Things are going well in Angola. They achieved good progress in their first year of independence. There's been a lot of building and they are developing health facilities. In 1976, they produced 80,000 tons of coffee. Transportation means are also being developed. Currently, between 200,000 and 400,000 tons of coffee are still in warehouses. In our talks with [Angolan President Agostinho] Neto we stressed the absolute necessity of achieving a level of economic development comparable to what had existed under [Portuguese] colonialism."; "There is also evidence of black racism in Angola. Some are using the hatred against the colonial masters for negative purposes. There are many mulattos and whites in Angola. Unfortunately, racist feelings are spreading very quickly." <a href="/wiki/Fidel_Castro" title="Fidel Castro">Castro</a>'s <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/episodes/17/documents/castro/">1977 southern Africa tour: A report</a> to <a href="/wiki/Erich_Honecker" title="Erich Honecker">Honecker</a>, <a href="/wiki/CNN" title="CNN">CNN</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oliver, p. 207</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oliver, p. 203</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Bismarck, Europe, and Africa : the Berlin Africa Conference 1884–1885 and the onset of partition</i>. Förster, Stig., Mommsen, Wolfgang J., 1930–2004., Robinson, Ronald, 1920–1999., German Historical Institute in London. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1988. p. 220. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-920500-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-920500-0"><bdi>0-19-920500-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/16754126">16754126</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bismarck%2C+Europe%2C+and+Africa+%3A+the+Berlin+Africa+Conference+1884%E2%80%931885+and+the+onset+of+partition&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=220&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F16754126&rft.isbn=0-19-920500-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBall2015" class="citation web cs1">Ball, Peter (17 November 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theheritageportal.co.za/article/benguela-more-just-current">"Benguela – More than just a current"</a>. <i>www.theheritageportal.co.za</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-03-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.theheritageportal.co.za&rft.atitle=Benguela+%E2%80%93+More+than+just+a+current&rft.date=2015-11-17&rft.aulast=Ball&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theheritageportal.co.za%2Farticle%2Fbenguela-more-just-current&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRita" class="citation journal cs1">Rita, Fernando. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.portugalgrandeguerra.defesa.pt/Documents/THE%20FIRST%20WORLD%20WAR%20IN%20MOZAMBIQUE%20(1914-1918).pdf">"The First World War in Mozambique (1914–1918)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Portugal Grande Guerra</i>: 11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Portugal+Grande+Guerra&rft.atitle=The+First+World+War+in+Mozambique+%281914%E2%80%931918%29&rft.pages=11&rft.aulast=Rita&rft.aufirst=Fernando&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.portugalgrandeguerra.defesa.pt%2FDocuments%2FTHE%2520FIRST%2520WORLD%2520WAR%2520IN%2520MOZAMBIQUE%2520%281914-1918%29.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSousa2016" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Sousa, Sandra I. (2016-06-27). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.openedition.org/configuracoes/3286">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Now we don't have anything": remembering Angola through the lens of American missionaries"</a>. <i>Configurações. Revista de sociologia</i> (in Portuguese) (17): 119–137. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4000%2Fconfiguracoes.3286">10.4000/configuracoes.3286</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1646-5075">1646-5075</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Configura%C3%A7%C3%B5es.+Revista+de+sociologia&rft.atitle=%22Now+we+don%27t+have+anything%22%3A+remembering+Angola+through+the+lens+of+American+missionaries&rft.issue=17&rft.pages=119-137&rft.date=2016-06-27&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4000%2Fconfiguracoes.3286&rft.issn=1646-5075&rft.aulast=Sousa&rft.aufirst=Sandra+I.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.openedition.org%2Fconfiguracoes%2F3286&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNATO" class="citation web cs1">NATO. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/declassified_162352.htm">"Portugal and NATO – 1949"</a>. <i>NATO</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-03-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NATO&rft.atitle=Portugal+and+NATO+%E2%80%93+1949&rft.au=NATO&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nato.int%2Fcps%2Fen%2Fnatohq%2Fdeclassified_162352.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-US_involvement-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-US_involvement_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-US_involvement_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Portuguese)</span> Luís Nuno Rodrigues <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ipri.pt/investigadores/artigo.php?idi=8&ida=140">"Orgulhosamente Sós"? Portugal e os Estados Unidos no início da década de 1960 – At the 22nd Meeting of History teachers of the Centro (region), Caldas da Rainha, April 2004</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071220230552/http://www.ipri.pt/investigadores/artigo.php?idi=8&ida=140">Archived</a> 2007-12-20 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Instituto de Relações Internacionais (International Relations Institute)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlennon1995" class="citation book cs1">Glennon, John P. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=urkYjP_6sBcC&hl=en&pg=GBS.PA543"><i>Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961–1963: Africa</i></a>. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 543.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foreign+Relations+of+the+United+States%2C+1961%E2%80%931963%3A+Africa&rft.pages=543&rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Glennon&rft.aufirst=John+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplay.google.com%2Fbooks%2Freader%3Fid%3DurkYjP_6sBcC%26hl%3Den%26pg%3DGBS.PA543&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Portuguese)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2ZKylJoqq0U"><span class="plainlinks">A«GUERRA» 1º Episódio – "Massacres da UPA" – (Parte 1)</span></a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a>, A Guerra by <a href="/wiki/Joaquim_Furtado" title="Joaquim Furtado">Joaquim Furtado</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.guerracolonial.org/index.php?content=100012">Angola discutida na Assembleia Geral das Nações Unidas</a>, a film of a Portuguese formal protest in the United Nations (March 1961), and an anti-American riot at Lisbon, guerracolonial.org</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kennedy-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kennedy_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kennedy_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">A Guerra De Africa (1961–1974) by José Freire Antunes, Temas e Debates, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/972-759-039-X" title="Special:BookSources/972-759-039-X">972-759-039-X</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/972-759-039-X" title="Special:BookSources/972-759-039-X">972-759-039-X</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Destruction of a Nation: United States' Policy Towards Angola Since 1945, George Wright, Pluto Press, 1997. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7453-1029-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7453-1029-X">0-7453-1029-X</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780745310299" title="Special:BookSources/9780745310299">9780745310299</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.barnard.edu/history/sample%20thesis/Fine%20thesis.pdf">Colorblind Colonialism? Lusotropicalismo and Portugal's 20th. Century Empire. in Africa.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100531000147/http://www.barnard.edu/history/sample%20thesis/Fine%20thesis.pdf">Archived</a> 2010-05-31 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Leah Fine. Barnard College Department of History, Spring 2007</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Humbaraci, Arslan and Muchnik, Nicole, <i>Portugal's African Wars</i>, New York: Joseph Okpaku Publishing Co., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89388-072-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-89388-072-8">0-89388-072-8</a> (1974), pp. 99–100</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rupiya, Martin, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.c-r.org/our-work/accord/mozambique/historical-context.php">Historical context: war and peace in Mozambique</a></i>, Conciliation Resources (1998), retrieved 29 May 2011</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Humbaraci, Arslan and Muchnik, Nicole, <i>Portugal's African Wars</i>, New York: Joseph Okpaku Publishing Co., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89388-072-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-89388-072-8">0-89388-072-8</a> (1974), p. 161</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19991005163123/http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Troy/4285/ensino52.html">"Cultura, Educação e Ensino em Angola – Capítulo 52"</a>. October 5, 1999. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Troy/4285/ensino52.html">the original</a> on 1999-10-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cultura%2C+Educa%C3%A7%C3%A3o+e+Ensino+em+Angola+%E2%80%93+Cap%C3%ADtulo+52&rft.date=1999-10-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geocities.com%2FAthens%2FTroy%2F4285%2Fensino52.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"African Troops in the Portuguese Colonial Army, 1961–1974: Angola, Guinea-Bissau and Mozambique</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Afonso_2000_p._340-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Afonso_2000_p._340_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Afonso_2000_p._340_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Afonso, Aniceto and Gomes, Carlos de Matos, <i>Guerra Colonial</i> (2000), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/972-46-1192-2" title="Special:BookSources/972-46-1192-2">972-46-1192-2</a>, p. 340</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Coelho,_João_Paulo_Borges_2002_pp._129-50-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Coelho,_João_Paulo_Borges_2002_pp._129-50_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Coelho,_João_Paulo_Borges_2002_pp._129-50_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Coelho,_João_Paulo_Borges_2002_pp._129-50_64-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Coelho, João Paulo Borges, <i>African Troops in the Portuguese Colonial Army, 1961–1974: Angola, Guinea-Bissau and Mozambique</i>, Portuguese Studies Review 10 (1) (2002), pp. 129–150</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kaúlza de Arriaga (General), Lições de estratégia de curso de altos comandos – 1966/67 (Lessons Of Strategy in the Course of High Command – 1966/67), Vol. 12 (1971): As late as 1971, Kaúlza argued that the Portuguese government should tailor the social and political status progress of black Africans in Angola and Mozambique to the growth of the white settler population, while concluding, "blacks are not highly intelligent, on the contrary, of all peoples of the world they are the least intelligent."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Abbott_1998_p._34-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Abbott_1998_p._34_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Abbott_1998_p._34_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Abbott_1998_p._34_66-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Abbott_1998_p._34_66-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Abbott_1998_p._34_66-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Abbott, Peter and Rodrigues, Manuel, <i>Modern African Wars 2: Angola and Mozambique 1961–74</i>, Osprey Publishing (1998), p. 34</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-the_war_was_won-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-the_war_was_won_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-the_war_was_won_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-the_war_was_won_67-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-the_war_was_won_67-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Reviewed Work(s): Counterinsurgency in Africa. The Portuguese Way of War 1961–1974 by John P. Cann – A Guerra de África 1961–1974 by José Freire Antunes – Author of Review: Douglas L. Wheeler, <i>Journal of Southern African Studies</i>, Vol. 24, No. 1, Special Issue on Mozambique (Mar., 1998), pp. 240–243, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2637458">2637458</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Humbaraci_1974_pp._100-102-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Humbaraci_1974_pp._100-102_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Humbaraci_1974_pp._100-102_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Humbaraci, Arslan and Muchnik, Nicole, <i>Portugal's African Wars</i>, New York: Joseph Okpaku Publishing Co., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89388-072-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-89388-072-8">0-89388-072-8</a> (1974), pp. 100–102</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ipri.pt/publicacoes/revista_ri/artigo_rri.php?ida=173">Independence redux in postsocialist Mozambique</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090624032003/http://www.ipri.pt/publicacoes/revista_ri/artigo_rri.php?ida=173">Archived</a> 2009-06-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Alice Dinerman</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTelepneva2022" class="citation book cs1">Telepneva, Natalia (2022). <i><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_Liberation:_The_Soviet_Union_and_the_Collapse_of_the_Portuguese_Empire_in_Africa,_1961%E2%80%931975" title="Cold War Liberation: The Soviet Union and the Collapse of the Portuguese Empire in Africa, 1961–1975">Cold War Liberation: The Soviet Union and the Collapse of the Portuguese Empire in Africa, 1961–1975</a></i>. The University of North Carolina Press. pp. 138–139. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-6586-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-6586-3"><bdi>978-1-4696-6586-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cold+War+Liberation%3A+The+Soviet+Union+and+the+Collapse+of+the+Portuguese+Empire+in+Africa%2C+1961%E2%80%931975&rft.pages=138-139&rft.pub=The+University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-4696-6586-3&rft.aulast=Telepneva&rft.aufirst=Natalia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Portuguese)</span> António Pires Nunes, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060827103251/http://petrinus.com.sapo.pt/leste.htm">Angola Vitória Militar no Leste</a> On the map, the extension of the "liberated zone" is totally exaggerated; in fact, it consisted only of a few MPLA, UNITA, and FNLA hiding places for small guerrilla groups.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chilcote, Ronald H., <i>The Struggle for Guinea-Bissau</i>, Indiana University Press: Africa Today (July 1974), pp. 57–61</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dos_Santos_2009-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dos_Santos_2009_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dos_Santos_2009_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Dos Santos, Manuel, <i>Disparar os Strela</i>, Depoimentos, Quinta-feira, 28 de Maio de 2009, retrieved 26 May 2011</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=44903">Cambridge Journals</a> N. McQueen, "...strategic boost to the Soviet Union, which could seek naval facilities there after independence", Contemporary European History (1999), 8: 209–230 Cambridge University Press</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> <a href="/wiki/CNN" title="CNN">CNN</a> Episode 17: Good guys, bad guys, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/episodes/17/documents/angola/">Cuba-Angola letters, 1975</a> Letter from Raúl Diaz Arguelles to <a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%BAl_Castro" title="Raúl Castro">Raúl Castro</a>, August 11, 1975. "In the course of this conversation, the Angolans complained about the paucity of aid from the socialist camp, and they pointed out that if the socialist camp does not help them, no one will, since they are the most progressive forces [in the country], whereas the imperialists, Mobutu and ... [one word sanitized] are helping the FNLA in every way possible. They also complained that the Soviet Union stopped aiding them in 1972 and that although it is now sending them weapons, the amount of assistance is paltry, given the enormity of the need. In general, he [Neto] wants to portray the situation in Angola as a crucial struggle between the two systems – Imperialism and Socialism – in order to receive the assistance of the entire socialist camp. We believe that he is right in this, because at this time the two camps in Angola are well defined, the FNLA and UNITA represent reaction and world imperialism and the Portuguese reactionaries, and the MPLA represents the progressive and nationalist forces...", <a href="/wiki/CNN" title="CNN">CNN</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-infiltrated_communists-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-infiltrated_communists_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-infiltrated_communists_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-infiltrated_communists_76-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Stewart Lloyd-Jones, <a href="/wiki/ISCTE" class="mw-redirect" title="ISCTE">ISCTE</a> (Lisbon), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.ci.uc.pt/cd25a/media/Textos/portugal-since-1974.pdf">Portugal's history since 1974</a>, "The Portuguese Communist Party (PCP–Partido Comunista Português), which had courted and infiltrated the MFA from the very first days of the revolution, decided that the time was now right for it to seize the initiative. Much of the radical fervour that was unleashed following Spínola's coup attempt was encouraged by the PCP as part of their own agenda to infiltrate the MFA and steer the revolution in their direction.", Centro de Documentação 25 de Abril, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Coimbra" title="University of Coimbra">University of Coimbra</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kS1NAAAAYAAJ&q=bissau">"Radio Free Europe Research"</a>. RFE/RL. April 15, 1979 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Radio+Free+Europe+Research&rft.pub=RFE%2FRL&rft.date=1979-04-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkS1NAAAAYAAJ%26q%3Dbissau&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChina)1974" class="citation web cs1">China), United States Consulate General (Hong Kong (December 15, 1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yGxtmVdJ_VQC&q=Angolan+People's+Liberation+Struggle">"Current Background"</a>. American Consulate General. – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Current+Background&rft.pub=American+Consulate+General.&rft.date=1974-12-15&rft.aulast=China%29&rft.aufirst=United+States+Consulate+General+%28Hong+Kong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyGxtmVdJ_VQC%26q%3DAngolan%2BPeople%27s%2BLiberation%2BStruggle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadu1988" class="citation web cs1">Radu, Michael (July 15, 1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3pcHAQAAMAAJ&q=bucharest+publicly+supported">"Soviet Activities in Sub-Saharan Africa: Final Report"</a>. Foreign Policy Research Institute – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Soviet+Activities+in+Sub-Saharan+Africa%3A+Final+Report&rft.pub=Foreign+Policy+Research+Institute&rft.date=1988-07-15&rft.aulast=Radu&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3pcHAQAAMAAJ%26q%3Dbucharest%2Bpublicly%2Bsupported&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anna Calori, Anne-Kristin Hartmetz, Bence Kocsev, James Mark, Jan Zofka, Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG, Oct 21, 2019, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MUDEDwAAQBAJ">Between East and South: Spaces of Interaction in the Globalizing Economy of the Cold War</a></i>, pp. 133–134</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRatiuRațiu1975" class="citation book cs1">Ratiu, Ion; Rațiu, Ion (July 15, 1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z0dpAAAAMAAJ&q=formal+recognition"><i>Contemporary Romania: Her Place in World Affairs</i></a>. Foreign Affairs Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780900380167" title="Special:BookSources/9780900380167"><bdi>9780900380167</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contemporary+Romania%3A+Her+Place+in+World+Affairs&rft.pub=Foreign+Affairs+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1975-07-15&rft.isbn=9780900380167&rft.aulast=Ratiu&rft.aufirst=Ion&rft.au=Ra%C8%9Biu%2C+Ion&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz0dpAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dformal%2Brecognition&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Norrie MacQueen, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract;jsessionid=4D3D0B9D69C3D9A826A3E1B848F5E906.tomcat1?fromPage=online&aid=44903">Portugal's First Domino: ‘Pluricontinentalism’ and Colonial War in Guiné-Bissau, 1963–1974</a>, "Portugal's presence in Guiné-Bissau through eleven years of intense guerrilla war was justified by the doctrine of '<a href="/wiki/Pluricontinentalim" class="mw-redirect" title="Pluricontinentalim">pluricontinentalim</a>'. In this view concession to nationalist pressure in one part of the 'indivisible state' would lead inevitably to the collapse of the whole. The defence of Portuguese Guiné, therefore, was the price to be paid for the maintenance of the infinitely more valuable territories of Angola and Mozambique. While the Salazar regime was rigid in its adherence to this doctrine, some movement was detectable under his successor from 1968, <a href="/wiki/Marcelo_Caetano" title="Marcelo Caetano">Marcelo Caetano</a>. The governor-general in Guiné, General Spínola, was permitted to explore possibilities of negotiation. Politically insecure in the face of residual Salazarist power in the regime, however, Caetano abandoned this approach in 1972. This apparent loss of nerve would contribute to the overthrow of the Caetano government by its own military in 1974.", Contemporary European History (1999), 8: 209–230 <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pedro Lains, <i>Instituto de Ciências Sociais</i> (<a href="/wiki/Lisbon_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Lisbon University">Lisbon University</a>) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ics.ul.pt/publicacoes/workingpapers/wp2003/WP1-2003.pdf">Catching up to the European core: Portuguese economic growth, 1910–1990</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Portuguese)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.observatorioemigracao.secomunidades.pt/np4/1878.html">Testemunhos</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110124075350/http://www.observatorioemigracao.secomunidades.pt/np4/1878.html">Archived</a> 2011-01-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Observatório da Emigração</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tetteh Hormeku – Programme Officer with Third World Network's Africa Secretariat in Accra, Third World Resurgence No.89, January 1998, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.twnside.org.sg/title/tett-cn.htm">US intervention in Africa: Through Angolan eyes</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080907085309/http://www.twnside.org.sg./title/tett-cn.htm">Archived</a> 2008-09-07 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, "Nixon's assumption that Portugal would be able to militarily contain Angolan nationalism and provide the conditions for US investment was unravelled with the 1974 coup in Portugal." Third World Network</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George, Edward, <i>The Cuban Intervention in Angola, 1965–1991</i>, New York: Frank Cass Publishing Co., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-35015-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-35015-8">0-415-35015-8</a> (2005), p. 9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, George, <i>The Destruction of a Nation: United States' Policy Towards Angola Since 1945</i>, Pluto Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7453-1029-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7453-1029-X">0-7453-1029-X</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0745310299" title="Special:BookSources/978-0745310299">978-0745310299</a> (1997), pp. 5–6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George, Edward, <i>The Cuban Intervention in Angola, 1965–1991</i>, New York: Frank Cass Publishing Co., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-35015-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-35015-8">0-415-35015-8</a> (2005) p. 9: Some sources state as many as 7,000 Angolans were killed in the air raids.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVenter2017" class="citation book cs1">Venter, Al J. (2017). <i>Battle for Angola : the End of the Cold War in Africa C 1975–89</i>. Havertown: Helion & Company, Limited. p. 115. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-913118-10-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-913118-10-5"><bdi>978-1-913118-10-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1101030812">1101030812</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Battle+for+Angola+%3A+the+End+of+the+Cold+War+in+Africa+C+1975%E2%80%9389.&rft.place=Havertown&rft.pages=115&rft.pub=Helion+%26+Company%2C+Limited&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1101030812&rft.isbn=978-1-913118-10-5&rft.aulast=Venter&rft.aufirst=Al+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Humbaraci_1974_p._114-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Humbaraci_1974_p._114_90-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Humbaraci_1974_p._114_90-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Humbaraci, Arslan and Muchnik, Nicole, <i>Portugal's African Wars</i>, New York: Joseph Okpaku Publishing Co., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89388-072-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-89388-072-8">0-89388-072-8</a> (1974), p. 114</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George, Edward, <i>The Cuban Intervention in Angola, 1965–1991</i>, New York: Frank Cass Publishing Co., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-35015-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-35015-8">0-415-35015-8</a> (2005) p. 9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-esferadoslivros-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-esferadoslivros_92-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-esferadoslivros_92-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Portuguese)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080219014946/http://www.esferadoslivros.pt/livros.php?id_li=%2086">Massacres em Africa</a>, Felícia Cabrita <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-989-626-089-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-989-626-089-7">978-989-626-089-7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, Frederick, <i>A Certain Curve of Horn: The Hundred-Year Quest for the Giant Sable Antelope of Angola</i>, New York: Grove Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8021-4068-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8021-4068-8">0-8021-4068-8</a> (2004), p. 143: Commenting on the incursion, Roberto said, "This time the slaves did not cower. They massacred everything."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-George,_Edward_2005_pp._9-10-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-George,_Edward_2005_pp._9-10_94-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-George,_Edward_2005_pp._9-10_94-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">George, Edward, <i>The Cuban Intervention in Angola, 1965–1991</i>, New York: Frank Cass Publishing Co., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-35015-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-35015-8">0-415-35015-8</a> (2005) pp. 9–10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Afonso, Aniceto and Gomes, Carlos de Matos, <i>Guerra Colonial</i> (2000), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/972-46-1192-2" title="Special:BookSources/972-46-1192-2">972-46-1192-2</a>, pp. 94–97</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Portuguese)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CwrphTMWbuY"><span class="plainlinks">A «GUERRA» 3º Episódio – «Violência do lado Português»</span></a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a>, A Guerra by <a href="/wiki/Joaquim_Furtado" title="Joaquim Furtado">Joaquim Furtado</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTelepneva2022" class="citation book cs1">Telepneva, Natalia (2022). <i>Cold War Liberation: The Soviet Union and the Collapse of the Portuguese Empire in Africa, 1961–1975</i>. The University of North Carolina Press. p. 145. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-6586-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-6586-3"><bdi>978-1-4696-6586-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cold+War+Liberation%3A+The+Soviet+Union+and+the+Collapse+of+the+Portuguese+Empire+in+Africa%2C+1961%E2%80%931975&rft.pages=145&rft.pub=The+University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-4696-6586-3&rft.aulast=Telepneva&rft.aufirst=Natalia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGleijeses2011" class="citation book cs1">Gleijeses, Piero (March 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QHWGwG71hzMC&dq=unita+1972+portuguese&pg=PA240"><i>Conflicting Missions Havana, Washington, and Africa, 1959-1976</i></a>. Univ of North Carolina Press. p. 240. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-6162-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-6162-2"><bdi>978-0-8078-6162-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conflicting+Missions+Havana%2C+Washington%2C+and+Africa%2C+1959-1976&rft.pages=240&rft.pub=Univ+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2011-03&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-6162-2&rft.aulast=Gleijeses&rft.aufirst=Piero&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQHWGwG71hzMC%26dq%3Dunita%2B1972%2Bportuguese%26pg%3DPA240&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Humbaraci_1974_pp._140-144-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Humbaraci_1974_pp._140-144_99-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Humbaraci_1974_pp._140-144_99-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Humbaraci_1974_pp._140-144_99-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Humbaraci, Arslan and Muchnik, Nicole, <i>Portugal's African Wars</i>, New York: Joseph Okpaku Publishing Co., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89388-072-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-89388-072-8">0-89388-072-8</a> (1974), pp. 140–144</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chilcote, Ronald H., <i>The Struggle for Guinea-Bissau</i>, <i>Africa Today</i>, July 197?), pp. 57–61</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Portuguese_Mozambique_development-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Portuguese_Mozambique_development_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ka%C3%BAlza_de_Arriaga" title="Kaúlza de Arriaga">Kaúlza de Arriaga</a> (General), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cidadevirtual.pt/k-arriaga/desenvol.html">O DESENVOLVIMENTO DE MOÇAMBIQUE E A PROMOÇÃO DAS SUAS POPULAÇÕES – SITUAÇÃO EM 1974</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cidadevirtual.pt/k-arriaga/sucesso.html">Sucesso</a>, selected texts of Brigadier General <a href="/wiki/Ka%C3%BAlza_de_Arriaga" title="Kaúlza de Arriaga">Kaúlza de Arriaga</a> on the military success of the Portuguese military</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Portuguese)</span> <i>"De acordo com as afirmações posteriormente produzidas por representantes qualificados da FRELIMO, este juízo da situação militar de Moçambique carecia de fundamento. Segundo esses representantes, a FRELIMO atravessara duas fases críticas: em 1970, estivera à beira do colapso no final da operação "Nó Górdio", devido ao volumoso número de baixas sofridas, e, em 1974, quando do desencadeamento da "Revolução de Abril", atravessava uma fase grave de desmoralização, motivada por dificuldades insuperáveis de recompletamento de efectivos, cansaço e hostilidade das populações, o que os levou a afirmar que a "Revolução de Abril" tinha apanhado a FRELIMO em fase crítica de desequilíbrio e que esta devia exclusivamente ao MFA a sua recuperação."</i>, Arriaga on the book "PAÍS SEM RUMO", by <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Sp%C3%ADnola" title="António de Spínola">António de Spínola</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.cidadevirtual.pt/k-arriaga/Spinola.html">[1]</a>, selected texts by <a href="/wiki/Ka%C3%BAlza_de_Arriaga" title="Kaúlza de Arriaga">Kaúlza de Arriaga</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Abbott_1998_p._17-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Abbott_1998_p._17_104-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Abbott_1998_p._17_104-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Abbott, Peter and Rodrigues, Manuel, <i>Modern African Wars 2: Angola and Mozambique 1961–74</i>, Osprey Publishing (1998), p. 17</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Afonso_2000_pp._358-359-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Afonso_2000_pp._358-359_105-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Afonso_2000_pp._358-359_105-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Afonso, Aniceto and Gomes, Carlos de Matos, Guerra Colonial (2000), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/972-46-1192-2" title="Special:BookSources/972-46-1192-2">972-46-1192-2</a>, pp. 358–359</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pikula, Sam (Major), <i>The ArmaLite AR-10</i>, Regnum Fund Press (1998), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9986-494-38-9" title="Special:BookSources/9986-494-38-9">9986-494-38-9</a>, p. 75</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Afonso, Aniceto and Gomes, Carlos de Matos, <i>Guerra Colonial</i> (2000), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/972-46-1192-2" title="Special:BookSources/972-46-1192-2">972-46-1192-2</a>, pp. 183–184</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pikula, Sam (Major), <i>The ArmaLite AR-10</i>, p. 79</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pikula, Sam (Major), <i>The ArmaLite AR-10</i>, p. 80</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Afonso_2000_pp._183-184-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Afonso_2000_pp._183-184_110-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Afonso_2000_pp._183-184_110-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Afonso, Aniceto and Gomes, Carlos de Matos, Guerra Colonial (2000), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/972-46-1192-2" title="Special:BookSources/972-46-1192-2">972-46-1192-2</a>, pp. 183–184</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aquellasarmasdeguerra.wordpress.com/2012/06/04/algunas-armas-utilizadas-en-la-guerra-colonial-portuguesa-1961-1974/">"Algunas armas utilizadas en la guerra Colonial Portuguesa 1961–1974"</a> [Some weapons used in the Portuguese Colonial War 1961–1974] (in Spanish). 4 June 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 May</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Algunas+armas+utilizadas+en+la+guerra+Colonial+Portuguesa+1961%E2%80%931974&rft.date=2012-06-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faquellasarmasdeguerra.wordpress.com%2F2012%2F06%2F04%2Falgunas-armas-utilizadas-en-la-guerra-colonial-portuguesa-1961-1974%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Abbott_1998_p._18-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Abbott_1998_p._18_112-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Abbott_1998_p._18_112-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Abbott, Peter and Rodrigues, Manuel, <i>Modern African Wars 2: Angola and Mozambique 1961–74</i>, Osprey Publishing (1998), p. 18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nicollip174-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nicollip174_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicolli 2003, p. 174</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Portuguese)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GBnrbRLOMlo"><span class="plainlinks">Enfermeiras Pára-Quesdistas</span></a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_(U.S._TV_channel)" class="mw-redirect" title="History (U.S. TV channel)">History Channel</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Portuguese)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://greenberet.no.sapo.pt/enfermeira.htm">enfermeiras</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101031061716/http://greenberet.no.sapo.pt/enfermeira.htm">Archived</a> 2010-10-31 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Green_beret" title="Green beret">Green beret</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sapo.pt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sapo.pt (page does not exist)">sapo.pt</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1310333/Adrian-Hastings.html">Adrian Hastings</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph" title="The Daily Telegraph">The Telegraph</a> (26 June 2001)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Afonso_2000_pp._266-267-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Afonso_2000_pp._266-267_117-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Afonso_2000_pp._266-267_117-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Afonso_2000_pp._266-267_117-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Afonso, Aniceto and Gomes, Carlos de Matos, Guerra Colonial (2000), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/972-46-1192-2" title="Special:BookSources/972-46-1192-2">972-46-1192-2</a>, pp. 266–267</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Abbott, Peter and Rodrigues, Manuel, <i>Modern African Wars 2: Angola and Mozambique 1961–74</i>, Osprey Publishing (1998), p. 23: It is estimated that mines planted by insurgents caused about 70 per cent of all Portuguese casualties.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Abbott, Peter and Rodrigues, Manuel, <i>Modern African Wars 2: Angola and Mozambique 1961–74</i>, Osprey Publishing (1998), p. 23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Portuguese)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.ci.uc.pt/cd25a/wikka.php?wakka=movicapi">Cronologia: Movimento dos capitães</a>, Centro de Documentação 25 de Abril, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Coimbra" title="University of Coimbra">University of Coimbra</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-youtube.com-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-youtube.com_121-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-youtube.com_121-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Portuguese)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aJH2U8jmKmI"><span class="plainlinks">A Guerra Colonial na Guine/Bissau (07 de 07)</span></a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a>, <a href="/wiki/Otelo_Saraiva_de_Carvalho" title="Otelo Saraiva de Carvalho">Otelo Saraiva de Carvalho</a> on the Decree Law, <a href="/wiki/RTP_2" class="mw-redirect" title="RTP 2">RTP 2</a> television, <a href="/wiki/Youtube.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Youtube.com">youtube.com</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Portuguese)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.ci.uc.pt/cd25a/wikka.php?wakka=otesacar">Arquivo Electrónico: Otelo Saraiva de Carvalho</a>, Centro de Documentação 25 de Abril, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Coimbra" title="University of Coimbra">University of Coimbra</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Abbott_1998_p._35-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Abbott_1998_p._35_123-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Abbott_1998_p._35_123-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Abbott_1998_p._35_123-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Abbott_1998_p._35_123-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Abbott_1998_p._35_123-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Abbott_1998_p._35_123-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Abbott, Peter and Rodrigues, Manuel, <i>Modern African Wars 2: Angola and Mozambique 1961–74</i>, Osprey Publishing (1998), p. 35</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Portuguese)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.ci.uc.pt/cd25a/wikka.php?wakka=eacalvao">ENTREVISTA COM ALPOIM CALVÃO</a>, Centro de Documentação 25 de Abril, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Coimbra" title="University of Coimbra">University of Coimbra</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLochery2017" class="citation book cs1">Lochery, Neill (2017-02-23). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YjngDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA27"><i>Out of the Shadows: Portugal from Revolution to the Present Day</i></a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4729-3418-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4729-3418-5"><bdi>978-1-4729-3418-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Out+of+the+Shadows%3A+Portugal+from+Revolution+to+the+Present+Day&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2017-02-23&rft.isbn=978-1-4729-3418-5&rft.aulast=Lochery&rft.aufirst=Neill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYjngDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080214132015/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,917672,00.html">" Western Europe's First Communist Country?"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a></i> (Aug. 11, 1975)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilbert2014" class="citation book cs1">Gilbert, Mark (2014-12-18). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uojpBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA220"><i>Cold War Europe: The Politics of a Contested Continent</i></a>. Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-1986-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-1986-1"><bdi>978-1-4422-1986-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cold+War+Europe%3A+The+Politics+of+a+Contested+Continent&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2014-12-18&rft.isbn=978-1-4422-1986-1&rft.aulast=Gilbert&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuojpBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA220&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dge.ubi.pt-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dge.ubi.pt_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.dge.ubi.pt/investigar/TDiscussao/2001/TD052001.pdf">[2]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081031002147/http://www.dge.ubi.pt/investigar/TDiscussao/2001/TD052001.pdf">Archived</a> 2008-10-31 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Tiago Neves Sequeira (<a href="/wiki/University_of_Beira_Interior" title="University of Beira Interior">University of Beira Interior</a>), CRESCIMENTO ECONÓMICO NO PÓS-GUERRA: OS CASOS DE ESPANHA, PORTUGAL E IRLANDA</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Robin_Wright_(author)" title="Robin Wright (author)">Robin Wright</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aliciapatterson.org/APF001975/Wright/Wright06/Wright06.html">White Faces In A Black Crowd: Will They Stay?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090715093101/http://www.aliciapatterson.org/APF001975/Wright/Wright06/Wright06.html">Archived</a> 2009-07-15 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Christian_Science_Monitor" title="The Christian Science Monitor">The Christian Science Monitor</a></i> (May 27, 1975)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Portuguese)</span> Carlos Fontes, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://imigrantes.no.sapo.pt/page6portugal.html">Emigração Portuguesa</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120516050553/http://imigrantes.no.sapo.pt/page6portugal.html">Archived</a> 2012-05-16 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Memórias da Emigração Portuguesa</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Government of Ireland, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.irishaid.gov.ie/mozambique.asp">Irish Aid – Mozambique: About Mozambique</a></i>, Department of Foreign Affairs, retrieved 30 May 2011</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Government of Ireland, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.irishaid.gov.ie/angola.asp">Irish Aid – Angola: Overview</a></i>, Department of Foreign Affairs, retrieved 30 May 2011</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">PAIGC, Jornal Nô Pintcha, 29 November 1980</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120523175246/http://www.concordmonitor.com/article/portugals-hidden-atrocities">"Concord Monitor, 10 November 2007: "Portugal's hidden atrocities; Documentary brings long-hidden brutality into public view"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.concordmonitor.com/article/portugals-hidden-atrocities">the original</a> on 23 May 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Concord+Monitor%2C+10+November+2007%3A+%22Portugal%27s+hidden+atrocities%3B+Documentary+brings+long-hidden+brutality+into+public+view%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.concordmonitor.com%2Farticle%2Fportugals-hidden-atrocities&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dunne, Paul, and Nikolaidou, Eftychia Nikolaidou, <i>Military Spending and Economic Growth in Greece, Portugal, and Spain</i>, Discussion Papers 0510, Department of Economics, University of the West of England (2005)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerraz2022" class="citation journal cs1">Ferraz, Ricardo (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/revista-de-historia-economica-journal-of-iberian-and-latin-american-economic-history/article/abs/financial-costs-of-the-portuguese-colonial-war-19611974-analysis-and-applied-study/31B3C7ADFAAB352A4D4EBAF0BFB7E3CA">"The Financial Costs of the Portuguese Colonial War, 1961–1974: Analysis and Applied Study"</a>. <i>Revista de Historia Economica – Journal of Iberian and Latin American Economic History</i>. <b>40</b> (2): 243–272. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0212610921000148">10.1017/S0212610921000148</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0212-6109">0212-6109</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:251495961">251495961</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revista+de+Historia+Economica+%E2%80%93+Journal+of+Iberian+and+Latin+American+Economic+History&rft.atitle=The+Financial+Costs+of+the+Portuguese+Colonial+War%2C+1961%E2%80%931974%3A+Analysis+and+Applied+Study&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=243-272&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A251495961%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0212-6109&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0212610921000148&rft.aulast=Ferraz&rft.aufirst=Ricardo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Frevista-de-historia-economica-journal-of-iberian-and-latin-american-economic-history%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Ffinancial-costs-of-the-portuguese-colonial-war-19611974-analysis-and-applied-study%2F31B3C7ADFAAB352A4D4EBAF0BFB7E3CA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APortuguese+Colonial+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Portuguese)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dn.pt/inicio/opiniao/interior.aspx?content_id=1722768&seccao=Convidados&page=1">A verdade sobre o Fundo do Ultramar</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130511164133/http://www.dn.pt/inicio/opiniao/interior.aspx?content_id=1722768&seccao=Convidados&page=1">Archived</a> 2013-05-11 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Di%C3%A1rio_de_Not%C3%ADcias" title="Diário de Notícias">Diário de Notícias</a> (29 November 2012)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-infopedia_a-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-infopedia_a_138-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Portuguese)</span> Movimento das Forças Armadas (MFA). In Infopédia [Em linha]. Porto: <a href="/wiki/Porto_Editora" title="Porto Editora">Porto Editora</a>, 2003–2009. [Consult. 2009-01-07]. Disponível na www: <URL: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.infopedia.pt/$movimento-das-forcas-armadas-(mfa)">http://www.infopedia.pt/$movimento-das-forcas-armadas-(mfa)</a>>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-A_Guerra_do_Ultramar-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-A_Guerra_do_Ultramar_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">João Bravo da Matta, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ultramar.terraweb.biz/Noticia_joaobravodamatta_Diabo_guerradoultramar.htm">A Guerra do Ultramar</a>, O Diabo, 14 October 2008, p. 22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://maltez.info/respublica/portugalpolitico/grupospoliticos/movimento_das_forcas_armadas.htm">Movimento das Forças Armadas (1974–1975)</a>, Projecto CRiPE – Centro de Estudos em Relações Internacionais, Ciência Política e Estratégia. © José Adelino Maltez. Cópias autorizadas, desde que indicada a origem. Última revisão em: 2 October 2008</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">World Development Indicators 2007, Portugal economic growth rate data set, retrieved 26 June 2010</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-countrystudies-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-countrystudies_142-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-countrystudies_142-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://countrystudies.us/portugal/64.htm">Economic Growth and Change</a>, <a href="/wiki/U.S._Library_of_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Library of Congress">U.S. Library of Congress</a>, countrystudies.us</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_bibliography">General bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: General bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Afonso, Aniceto and Gomes, Carlos de Matos, <i>Guerra Colonial</i> (2000) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/972-46-1192-2" title="Special:BookSources/972-46-1192-2">972-46-1192-2</a></li> <li>Afonso, “A guerra e o fim do regime ditatorial” in J. Medina (1994), História de Portugal, Amadora, Ediclube</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ka%C3%BAlza_de_Arriaga" title="Kaúlza de Arriaga">Kaúlza de Arriaga</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cidadevirtual.pt/k-arriaga/index.html#Síntese%20Biográfica">Published works of the General Kaúlza de Arriaga</a></li> <li>Becket, Ian et al., <i>A Guerra no Mundo</i>, <i>Guerras e Guerrilhas desde 1945</i>, Lisboa, Verbo, 1983</li> <li>Cann, John P, <i>Counterinsurgency in Africa: The Portuguese Way of War, 1961–1974</i>, Hailer Publishing, 2005</li> <li>Cann, John P, <i>Flight Plan Africa: Portuguese Airpower in Counterinsurgency, 1961–1974</i>, Helion & Company Limited, 2015. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1909982062" title="Special:BookSources/978-1909982062">978-1909982062</a></li> <li>Dávila, Jerry. "Hotel Tropico: Brazil and the challenge of African Decolonization, 1950–1980." <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a>, 2010. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0822348559" title="Special:BookSources/978-0822348559">978-0822348559</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._H._de_Oliveira_Marques" title="A. H. de Oliveira Marques">Marques, A. H. de Oliveira</a>, <i>História de Portugal</i>, 6ª ed., Lisboa, Palas Editora, Vol. III, 1981</li> <li><i>Jornal do Exército</i>, Lisboa, Estado-Maior do Exército</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mattoso" title="José Mattoso">Mattoso, José</a>, <i>História Contemporânea de Portugal</i>, Lisboa, Amigos do Livro, 1985, «Estado Novo», Vol. II e «25 de Abril», vol. único</li> <li>Mattoso, José, <i>História de Portugal</i>, Lisboa, Ediclube, 1993, vols. XIII e XIV</li> <li>Oliveira, Pedro Aires. 2017. "<a href="//doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.41" class="extiw" title="doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.41">Decolonization in Portuguese Africa</a>." in <i>The Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History</i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pakenham_(historian)" title="Thomas Pakenham (historian)">Pakenham, Thomas</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Scramble_for_Africa_(book)" title="The Scramble for Africa (book)">The Scramble for Africa</a></i>, Abacus, 1991 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-349-10449-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-349-10449-2">0-349-10449-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Reis" title="António Reis">Reis, António</a>, <i>Portugal Contemporâneo</i>, Lisboa, Alfa, Vol. V, 1989;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fernando_Rosas" title="Fernando Rosas">Rosas, Fernando</a> e Brito, J. M. Brandão, <i>Dicionário de História do Estado Novo</i>, Venda Nova, Bertrand Editora, 2 vols. 1996</li> <li>Telepneva, Natalia. 2022. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uncpress.org/book/9781469665863/cold-war-liberation/#.YJQaxNQZB94.twitter">Cold War Liberation: The Soviet Union and the Collapse of the Portuguese Empire in Africa, 1961–1975</a></i>. University of North Carolina Press.</li> <li>Vários autores, <i>Guerra Colonial</i>, edição do Diário de Notícias</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Kevin Okoth, "Poison is better" (review of <a href="/wiki/Susan_Williams_(historian)" title="Susan Williams (historian)">Susan Williams</a>, <i>White Malice: the CIA and the Neocolonisation of Africa</i>, Hurst, 2021, 651 pp., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978%2B1%2B78738%2B555%2B9" title="Special:BookSources/978+1+78738+555+9">978 1 78738 555 9</a>; and Natalia Telepneva, <i>Cold War Liberation: The Soviet Union and the Collapse of the Portuguese Empire in Africa, 1961–75</i>, North Carolina, 2023, 302 pp., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978%2B1%2B4696%2B6586%2B3" title="Special:BookSources/978+1+4696+6586+3">978 1 4696 6586 3</a>), <i><a href="/wiki/London_Review_of_Books" title="London Review of Books">London Review of Books</a></i>, vol. 45, no. 12 (15 June 2023), pp. 27–30, 32.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Colonial_War&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output 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typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Guerra_do_Ultramar" class="extiw" title="commons:Guerra do Ultramar"><span style="font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;">Guerra do Ultramar</span></a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081024134310/http://www.guerracolonial.org/">Guerra Colonial: 1961–1974 (guerracolonial.org)</a> <span class="languageicon">(in Portuguese)</span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://themedalhound.com/portuguese/">20th–21st Century Portuguese Overseas Medals</a> (themdealhound.com)</li></ul> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Portuguese Colonial War</div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><link 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Portuguese_Colonial_War" title="Template:Portuguese Colonial War"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Portuguese_Colonial_War" title="Template talk:Portuguese Colonial War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Portuguese_Colonial_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Portuguese Colonial War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Portuguese_Colonial_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Portuguese Colonial War</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Political_Context">Background</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Angola" title="Portuguese Angola">Portuguese Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Mozambique" title="Portuguese Mozambique">Portuguese Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Guinea" title="Portuguese Guinea">Portuguese Guinea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estado_Novo_(Portugal)" title="Estado Novo (Portugal)">Estado Novo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Goa" title="Annexation of Goa">Annexation of Goa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Belligerents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Insurgents/aligned" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Insurgents/aligned</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/MPLA" title="MPLA">MPLA</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/FNLA" class="mw-redirect" title="FNLA">FNLA</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/UNITA" title="UNITA">UNITA</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/FLEC" class="mw-redirect" title="FLEC">FLEC</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/FRELIMO" title="FRELIMO">FRELIMO</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/PAIGC" class="mw-redirect" title="PAIGC">PAIGC</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/FLING" class="mw-redirect" title="FLING">FLING</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire">Zaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinea" title="Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="People's Republic of the Congo">Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Bulgaria" title="People's Republic of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_Socialist_Republic" title="Czechoslovak Socialist Republic">Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Romania" title="Socialist Republic of Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Portugal/aligned</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodesia" title="Rhodesia">Rhodesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francoist_Spain" title="Francoist Spain">Spain</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Political leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><span class="smallcaps">pt</span></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Am%C3%A9rico_Tom%C3%A1s" title="Américo Tomás">Américo Tomás</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Oliveira_Salazar" title="António de Oliveira Salazar">António de Oliveira Salazar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcelo_Caetano" title="Marcelo Caetano">Marcelo Caetano</a></li> <li><b><span class="smallcaps">mpla</span></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Agostinho_Neto" title="Agostinho Neto">Agostinho Neto</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BAcio_Lara" title="Lúcio Lara">Lúcio Lara</a></li> <li><b><span class="smallcaps">fnla</span></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Holden_Roberto" title="Holden Roberto">Holden Roberto</a></b></li> <li><b><span class="smallcaps">unita</span></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Jonas_Savimbi" title="Jonas Savimbi">Jonas Savimbi</a></b></li> <li><b><span class="smallcaps">flec</span></b></li> <li>Luis Ranque Franque</li> <li><b><span class="smallcaps">frelimo</span></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Eduardo_Mondlane" title="Eduardo Mondlane">Eduardo Mondlane</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Samora_Machel" title="Samora Machel">Samora Machel</a></b></li> <li><b><span class="smallcaps">paigc</span></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Am%C3%ADlcar_Cabral" title="Amílcar Cabral">Amílcar Cabral</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Aristides_Pereira" title="Aristides Pereira">Aristides Pereira</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Lu%C3%ADs_Cabral" title="Luís Cabral">Luís Cabral</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Military commanders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><span class="smallcaps">pt</span></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Francisco_da_Costa_Gomes" title="Francisco da Costa Gomes">Francisco da Costa Gomes</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Sp%C3%ADnola" title="António de Spínola">António de Spínola</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ka%C3%BAlza_de_Arriaga" title="Kaúlza de Arriaga">Kaúlza de Arriaga</a></b></li> <li><b><span class="smallcaps">mpla</span></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Chipenda" title="Daniel Chipenda">Daniel Chipenda</a></li> <li><b><span class="smallcaps">frelimo</span></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filipe_Samuel_Magaia" title="Filipe Samuel Magaia">Filipe Samuel Magaia</a></li> <li><b><span class="smallcaps">paigc</span></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_Bernardo_Vieira" title="João Bernardo Vieira">João Bernardo Vieira</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Order of battle</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Armed_Forces#Overseas_conflicts" title="Portuguese Armed Forces">Portuguese Armed Forces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Army#Overseas_wars" title="Portuguese Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Navy#The_Overseas_wars" title="Portuguese Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Air_Force#The_Air_Force_in_the_Overseas_War" title="Portuguese Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_irregular_forces_in_the_Overseas_War" title="Portuguese irregular forces in the Overseas War">Irregulars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_War_of_Independence#Nationalist_and_separatist_forces" title="Angolan War of Independence">People's Army of Liberation of Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_War_of_Independence#Nationalist_and_separatist_forces" title="Angolan War of Independence">National Liberation Army of Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_War_of_Independence#Nationalist_and_separatist_forces" title="Angolan War of Independence">Armed Forces of Liberation of Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Armed_Forces_of_the_People" title="Revolutionary Armed Forces of the People">Revolutionary Armed Forces of the People</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Popular_Forces_of_the_Liberation_of_Mozambique&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Popular Forces of the Liberation of Mozambique (page does not exist)">Popular Forces of the Liberation of Mozambique</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Military operations<br /></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Angolan_War_of_Independence" title="Angolan War of Independence">Angola</a></i><br /><small>(4 February 1961 – 25 April 1974)</small></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strike_in_Baixa_do_Cassange" title="Strike in Baixa do Cassange">Strike in Baixa do Cassange</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Operation_Viriato&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Operation Viriato (page does not exist)">Viriato</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Operation_Esmeralda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Operation Esmeralda (page does not exist)">Esmeralda</a></i></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Frente_Leste" title="Frente Leste">Frente Leste</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau_War_of_Independence" title="Guinea-Bissau War of Independence">Guinea</a></i><br /><small>(January 23, 1963 – September 10, 1974)</small></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pidjiguiti_massacre" title="Pidjiguiti massacre">Pidjiguiti massacre</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Operation_Trident_(1963)" title="Operation Trident (1963)">Tridente</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Operation_Griffin_(Portugal)" title="Operation Griffin (Portugal)">Grifo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Operation_Ciclone_II&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Operation Ciclone II (page does not exist)">Ciclone II</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Operation_Vulcano_(Portugal)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Operation Vulcano (Portugal) (page does not exist)">Vulcano</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Operation_Gata_Pequena_(Portugal)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Operation Gata Pequena (Portugal) (page does not exist)">Gata Pequena</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Operation_Jove" title="Operation Jove">Jove</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheche_Disaster" title="Cheche Disaster">Cheche Disaster</a></li> <li><i><b><a href="/wiki/Operation_Green_Sea" title="Operation Green Sea">Mar Verde</a></b></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Operation_Royal_Amethyst" title="Operation Royal Amethyst">Ametista Real</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_War_of_Independence" title="Mozambican War of Independence">Mozambique</a></i><br /><small>(25 September 1964 – 8 September 1974)</small></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mueda#Mueda_Massacre" title="Mueda">Mueda Massacre</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Operation_Eagle_(Portugal)" title="Operation Eagle (Portugal)">Águia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Operation_Mars_(Portugal)" title="Operation Mars (Portugal)">Marte</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Operation_Zeta" title="Operation Zeta">Zeta</a></i></li> <li><i><b><a href="/wiki/Operation_Gordian_Knot" title="Operation Gordian Knot">Nó Górdio</a></b></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Operation_Abanadela" title="Operation Abanadela">Abanadela</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Operation_Penada" title="Operation Penada">Penada</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wiriyamu_Massacre" title="Wiriyamu Massacre">Marosca</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Diplomatic front</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conference_of_Nationalist_Organizations_of_the_Portuguese_Colonies" title="Conference of Nationalist Organizations of the Portuguese Colonies">Conference of Nationalist Organizations of the Portuguese Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_180" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 180">United Nations Security Council Resolution 180</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcora_Exercise" title="Alcora Exercise">Alcora Exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_312" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 312">United Nations Security Council Resolution 312</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_322" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 322">United Nations Security Council Resolution 322</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_374" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 374">United Nations Security Council Resolution 374</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Aftermath</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carnation_Revolution" title="Carnation Revolution">Carnation Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvor_Agreement" title="Alvor Agreement">Alvor Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/24/20_order" title="24/20 order">24/20 order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusaka_Accord" title="Lusaka Accord">Lusaka Accord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_374" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 374">United Nations Security Council Resolution 374</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">Angolan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_Civil_War" title="Mozambican Civil War">Mozambican Civil War</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Impact_in_Africa">Impact in Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Popular culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/No,_or_the_Vain_Glory_of_Command" title="No, or the Vain Glory of Command">No, or the Vain Glory of Command</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/April_Captains" title="April Captains">April Captains</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Two_Faces_of_War" title="The Two Faces of War">The Two Faces of War</a></i></li> <li><i>A Guerra</i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commandos_(Portugal)" title="Commandos (Portugal)">Portuguese Commandos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flechas" title="Flechas">Flechas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Processo_Revolucion%C3%A1rio_Em_Curso" class="mw-redirect" title="Processo Revolucionário Em Curso">Processo Revolucionário Em Curso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Processo_Revolucion%C3%A1rio_Em_Curso#Retornados" class="mw-redirect" title="Processo Revolucionário Em Curso">Retornados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angola%E2%80%93Portugal_relations" title="Angola–Portugal relations">Angola–Portugal relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Angolans" title="Portuguese Angolans">Portuguese Angolans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambique%E2%80%93Portugal_relations" title="Mozambique–Portugal relations">Mozambique–Portugal relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Mozambicans" title="Portuguese Mozambicans">Portuguese Mozambicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heckler_%26_Koch_G3" title="Heckler & Koch G3">Heckler & Koch G3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bravia_Chaimite" title="Bravia Chaimite">Bravia Chaimite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragoons_of_Angola" title="Dragoons of Angola">Dragoons of Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_the_Armed_Forces_(Angola)" title="Museum of the Armed Forces (Angola)">Museum of the Armed Forces (Angola)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RENAMO" title="RENAMO">RENAMO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/League_of_Combatants" title="League of Combatants">League of Combatants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Paratroop_Nurses" title="Portuguese Paratroop Nurses">Portuguese Paratroop Nurses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Portuguese_Colonial_War" title="Category:Portuguese Colonial War">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Portuguese_Empire" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks plainlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Portuguese_overseas_empire" title="Template:Portuguese overseas empire"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Portuguese_overseas_empire" title="Template talk:Portuguese overseas empire"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Portuguese_overseas_empire" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Portuguese overseas empire"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Portuguese_Empire" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;"><div id="North_Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">North Africa</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-left:1.0em;text-align:left;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>15th century</b></span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1415–1640</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Ceuta" title="Ceuta">Ceuta</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1458–1550</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Ksar_es-Seghir" title="Ksar es-Seghir">Alcácer Ceguer <span style="font-size:85%;">(El Qsar es Seghir)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1471–1550</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Asilah" title="Portuguese Asilah">Arzila <span style="font-size:85%;">(Asilah)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1471–1662</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Tangier" title="Portuguese Tangier">Tangier</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1485–1550</td><td> <a href="/wiki/El_Jadida" title="El Jadida">Mazagan <span style="font-size:85%;">(El Jadida)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1487–16th century</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Ouadane" title="Ouadane">Ouadane</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1488–1541</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Safi,_Morocco" title="Safi, Morocco">Safim <span style="font-size:85%;">(Safi)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1489</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Graciosa_fortress" title="Graciosa fortress">Graciosa</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>16th century</b></span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1505–1541</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Agadir" title="Agadir">Santa Cruz do Cabo de Gué <span style="font-size:85%;">(Agadir)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1506–1525</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Essaouira" title="Essaouira">Mogador <span style="font-size:85%;">(Essaouira)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1506–1525</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Souira_Guedima" title="Souira Guedima">Aguz <span style="font-size:85%;">(Souira Guedima)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1506–1769</td><td> <a href="/wiki/El_Jadida" title="El Jadida">Mazagan <span style="font-size:85%;">(El Jadida)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1513–1541</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Azemmour" title="Azemmour">Azamor <span style="font-size:85%;">(Azemmour)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1515–1541</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Mehdya,_Morocco" title="Mehdya, Morocco">São João da Mamora <span style="font-size:85%;">(Mehdya)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1577–1589</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Asilah" title="Asilah">Arzila <span style="font-size:85%;">(Asilah)</span></a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Portugal_Imp%C3%A9rio_total.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Anachronous map of the Portuguese Empire (1415-1999)"><img alt="Anachronous map of the Portuguese Empire (1415-1999)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Portugal_Imp%C3%A9rio_total.png/300px-Portugal_Imp%C3%A9rio_total.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Portugal_Imp%C3%A9rio_total.png/450px-Portugal_Imp%C3%A9rio_total.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Portugal_Imp%C3%A9rio_total.png/600px-Portugal_Imp%C3%A9rio_total.png 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="625" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;"><div id="Sub-Saharan_Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Sub-Saharan Africa</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-left:1.0em;text-align:left;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break"> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>15th century</b></span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1455–1633</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Arguin" title="Arguin">Arguim</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1462–1975</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Cape_Verde" title="Portuguese Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1470–1975</td><td> <span style="position:relative; bottom:0.1em;"><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_Island" title="São Tomé Island">São Tomé</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1471–1975</td><td> <span style="position:relative; bottom:0.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="Príncipe">Príncipe</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1474–1778</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Annob%C3%B3n" title="Annobón">Annobón</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1478–1778</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Bioko" title="Bioko">Fernando Poo <span style="font-size:85%;">(Bioko)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1482–1637</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Elmina" title="Elmina">Elmina <span style="font-size:85%;">(São Jorge da Mina)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1482–1642</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Gold_Coast" title="Portuguese Gold Coast">Portuguese Gold Coast</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1498–1540</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Mascarene_Islands" title="Mascarene Islands">Mascarene Islands</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td class="col-break"> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>16th century</b></span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1500–1630</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Malindi" title="Malindi">Malindi</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1501–1975</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Mozambique" title="Portuguese Mozambique">Portuguese Mozambique</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1502–1659</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Saint_Helena" title="Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1503–1698</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Zanzibar" title="Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1505–1512</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Kilwa_Kisiwani" title="Kilwa Kisiwani">Quíloa <span style="font-size:85%;">(Kilwa)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1506–1511</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Socotra" title="Socotra">Socotra</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1508–1547<sup><small>2</small></sup></td><td> <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a><sup><small>3</small></sup></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1557–1578</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Accra" title="Accra">Accra</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1575–1975</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Angola" title="Portuguese Angola">Portuguese Angola</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1588–1974</td><td> <span style="position:relative; bottom:0.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Cacheu" title="Cacheu">Cacheu</a><sup><small>4</small></sup></span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1593–1698</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Mombasa" title="Mombasa">Mombassa <span style="font-size:85%;">(Mombasa)</span></a></td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td class="col-break"> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>17th century</b></span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1645–1888</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Ziguinchor" title="Ziguinchor">Ziguinchor</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1680–1961</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Fort_of_S%C3%A3o_Jo%C3%A3o_Baptista_de_Ajud%C3%A1" title="Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá">São João Baptista de Ajudá, Benin</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1687–1974</td><td> <span style="position:relative; bottom:0.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Bissau" title="Bissau">Bissau</a><sup><small>4</small></sup></span></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>18th century</b></span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1728–1729</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Mombasa" title="Mombasa">Mombassa <span style="font-size:85%;">(Mombasa)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1753–1975</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="Portuguese São Tomé and Príncipe">Portuguese São Tomé and Príncipe</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>19th century</b></span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1879–1974</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Guinea" title="Portuguese Guinea">Portuguese Guinea</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1885–1974</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Cabinda_Province" title="Cabinda Province">Portuguese Congo</a><sup><small>5</small></sup></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="plainlist" style="padding:0.5em 0 0.75em 0.25em;font-size:90%;line-height:1.2em;"><ul><li><sup><small>1</small></sup> Part of <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="Portuguese São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a> from 1753.</li><li><sup><small>2</small></sup> Or 1600.</li><li><sup><small>3</small></sup> A factory (<a href="/wiki/Anosy" title="Anosy">Anosy Region</a>) and small temporary coastal bases.</li><li><sup><small>4</small></sup> Part of <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Guinea" title="Portuguese Guinea">Portuguese Guinea</a> from 1879.</li><li><sup><small>5</small></sup> Part of <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Angola" title="Portuguese Angola">Portuguese Angola</a> from the 1920s.</li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;"><div id="Middle_East_&#91;Persian_Gulf&#93;" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Middle East [Persian Gulf]</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-left:1.0em;text-align:left;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>16th century</b></span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1506–1615</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Bandar_Abbas" title="Bandar Abbas">Gamru <span style="font-size:85%;">(Bandar Abbas)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1507–1643</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Sohar" title="Sohar">Sohar</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1515–1622</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Ormus" title="Ormus">Hormuz <span style="font-size:85%;">(Ormus)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1515–1648</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Qurayyat,_Oman" title="Qurayyat, Oman">Quriyat</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1515–?</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Qalhat" title="Qalhat">Qalhat</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1515–1650</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Muscat" title="Muscat">Muscat</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1515?–?</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Barka,_Oman" title="Barka, Oman">Barka</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1515–1633?</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Ras_Al_Khaimah" title="Ras Al Khaimah">Julfar (Ras al-Khaimah)</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1521–1602</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Muharraq" title="Muharraq">Muharraq</a> • <a href="/wiki/Manama" title="Manama">Manama</a>)</span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1521–1529?</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Qatif" title="Qatif">Qatif</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1521?–1551?</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Tarout_Island" title="Tarout Island">Tarut Island</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1550–1551</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Qatif" title="Qatif">Qatif</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1588–1648</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Muttrah" title="Muttrah">Matrah</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>17th century</b></span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1620–?</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Khor_Fakkan" title="Khor Fakkan">Khor Fakkan</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1621?–?</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Seeb" title="Seeb">As Sib</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1621–1622</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Qeshm_Island" title="Qeshm Island">Qeshm</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1623–?</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Khasab" title="Khasab">Khasab</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1623–?</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Al_Badiyah" title="Al Badiyah">Libedia</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1624–?</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Kalba" title="Kalba">Kalba</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1624–?</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Madha" title="Madha">Madha</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1624–1648</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Dibba_Al-Hisn" title="Dibba Al-Hisn">Dibba Al-Hisn</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1624?–?</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Kong,_Iran" title="Kong, Iran">Bandar-e Kong</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;"><div id="South_Asia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">South Asia</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-left:1.0em;text-align:left;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>15th century</b></span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1498–1545</td><td> <div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Lakshadweep" title="Lakshadweep">Laccadive Islands<br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(Lakshadweep)</span></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>16th century</b></span> <br /><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_India" title="Portuguese India">Portuguese India</a> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1500–1663</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Kochi" title="Kochi">Cochim <span style="font-size:85%;">(Kochi)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1501–1663</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Kannur" title="Kannur">Cannanore <span style="font-size:85%;">(Kannur)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> <div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"> • 1502–1658<br /><span style="padding-left:0.65em;"> </span>1659–1661</div></td><td> <div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Kollam" title="Kollam">Quilon<br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(Coulão / Kollam)</span></a></div></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1502–1661</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Pallippuram,_Ernakulam" title="Pallippuram, Ernakulam">Pallipuram <span style="font-size:85%;">(Cochin de Cima)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1507–1657</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Negapatam" title="Portuguese Negapatam">Negapatam <span style="font-size:85%;">(Nagapatnam)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1510–1961</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Goa" title="Goa">Goa</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> <div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"> • 1512–1525<br /><span style="padding-left:0.65em;"> </span>1750</div></td><td> <div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Kozhikode" title="Kozhikode">Calicut<br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(Kozhikode)</span></a></div></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1518–1619</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Pulicat" title="Pulicat">Portuguese Paliacate outpost <span style="font-size:85%;">(Pulicat)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1521–1740</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Chaul" title="Chaul">Chaul</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  </td><td> (Portuguese India)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1523–1662</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Mylapore" title="Mylapore">Mylapore</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1528–1666</td><td> <div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_settlement_in_Chittagong" title="Portuguese settlement in Chittagong">Chittagong<br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(Porto Grande De Bengala)</span></a></div></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1531–1571</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Chaul" title="Chaul">Chaul</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1531–1571</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Chaliyam" title="Chaliyam">Chalé</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1534–1601</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Salsette_Island" title="Salsette Island">Salsette Island</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1534–1661</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Mumbai" title="Mumbai">Bombay <span style="font-size:85%;">(Mumbai)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1535</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Ponnani" title="Ponnani">Ponnani</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1535–1739</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Vasai-Virar" title="Vasai-Virar">Baçaím <span style="font-size:85%;">(Vasai-Virar)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1536–1662</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Kodungallur" title="Kodungallur">Cranganore <span style="font-size:85%;">(Kodungallur)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1540–1612</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Surat" title="Surat">Surat</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1548–1658</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Thoothukudi" title="Thoothukudi">Tuticorin <span style="font-size:85%;">(Thoothukudi)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1559–1961</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Daman_and_Diu" title="Daman and Diu">Daman and Diu</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1568–1659</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Mangalore" title="Mangalore">Mangalore</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  </td><td> (Portuguese India)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1579–1632</td><td><a href="/wiki/Hugli-Chuchura" title="Hugli-Chuchura">Hugli</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1598–1610</td><td><a href="/wiki/Machilipatnam" title="Machilipatnam">Masulipatnam <span style="font-size:85%;">(Machilipatnam)</span></a></td></tr></tbody></table> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1518–1521</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Maldives" title="Maldives">Maldives</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1518–1658</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Ceylon" title="Portuguese Ceylon">Portuguese Ceylon <span style="font-size:85%;">(Sri Lanka)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1558–1573</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Maldives" title="Maldives">Maldives</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>17th century</b></span> <br />Portuguese India </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1687–1749</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Mylapore" title="Mylapore">Mylapore</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>18th century</b></span> <br />Portuguese India </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1779–1954</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Dadra_and_Nagar_Haveli" class="mw-redirect" title="Dadra and Nagar Haveli">Dadra and Nagar Haveli</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;"><div id="East_Asia_and_Oceania" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">East Asia and Oceania</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-left:1.0em;text-align:left;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>16th century</b></span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1511–1641</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Malacca" title="Portuguese Malacca">Portuguese Malacca</a> [Malaysia]</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1512–1621</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Maluku_Islands" title="Maluku Islands">Maluku</a> [Indonesia]</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1522–1575</td><td> <span style="padding-left:0.5em;"> </span><a href="/wiki/Ternate" title="Ternate">Ternate</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1576–1605</td><td> <span style="padding-left:0.5em;"> </span><a href="/wiki/Ambon_Island" title="Ambon Island">Ambon</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1578–1650</td><td> <span style="padding-left:0.5em;"> </span><a href="/wiki/Tidore" title="Tidore">Tidore</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1512–1665</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Makassar" title="Makassar">Makassar</a> [Indonesia]</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1515–1859</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Larantuka" title="Kingdom of Larantuka">Larantuka</a> [Indonesia]</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1557–1999</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Macau" title="Portuguese Macau">Macau</a> [China]</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1580–1586</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Nagasaki" title="Portuguese Nagasaki">Nagasaki</a> [Japan]</td></tr></tbody></table> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>17th century</b></span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1642–1975</td><td> <span style="position:relative; bottom:0.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Timor" title="Portuguese Timor">Portuguese Timor</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/East_Timor" title="East Timor">East Timor</a>)</span><sup><small>1</small></sup></span></td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>19th century</b></span> <br /><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Macau" title="Portuguese Macau">Portuguese Macau</a> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1864–1999</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Coloane" title="Coloane">Coloane</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1851–1999</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Taipa" title="Taipa">Taipa</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1890–1999</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Ilha_Verde" title="Ilha Verde">Ilha Verde</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>20th century</b></span> <br />Portuguese Macau </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1938–1941</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Hengqin" title="Hengqin">Lapa and Montanha <span style="font-size:85%;">(Hengqin)</span></a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="plainlist" style="padding:0.5em 0 0.75em 0.25em;font-size:90%;line-height:1.2em;"><ul><li><sup><small>1</small></sup> 1975 is the year of East Timor's Declaration of Independence and subsequent <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_invasion_of_East_Timor" title="Indonesian invasion of East Timor">invasion by Indonesia</a>. In 2002, East Timor's independence was fully recognized.</li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;"><div id="North_America_and_North_Atlantic" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">North America and North Atlantic</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-left:1.0em;text-align:left;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break"> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>15th century</b> [Atlantic islands]</span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1420</td><td> <i><b><a href="/wiki/Madeira" title="Madeira">Madeira</a></b></i></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1432</td><td> <i><b><a href="/wiki/Azores" title="Azores">Azores</a></b></i></td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td class="col-break"> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>16th century</b> [Canada]</span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1500–1579?</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_(island)" title="Newfoundland (island)">Terra Nova <span style="font-size:85%;">(Newfoundland)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1500–1579?</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Labrador" title="Labrador">Labrador</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1516–1579?</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td class="col-break"> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;"><div id="South_America_and_Caribbean" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">South America and Caribbean</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-left:1.0em;text-align:left;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break"> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>16th century</b></span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1500–1822</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Brazil" title="Colonial Brazil">Brazil</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1534–1549</td><td> <span style="padding-left:0.5em;"> </span><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_Colonies_of_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="Captaincy Colonies of Brazil">Captaincy Colonies of Brazil</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1549–1572</td><td> <span style="padding-left:0.5em;"> </span><a href="/wiki/Governorate_General_of_Brazil" title="Governorate General of Brazil">Brazil</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1572–1578</td><td> <span style="padding-left:0.5em;"> </span><a href="/wiki/Governorate_General_of_Bahia" title="Governorate General of Bahia">Bahia</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1572–1578</td><td> <span style="padding-left:0.5em;"> </span><a href="/wiki/Governorate_General_of_Rio_de_Janeiro" title="Governorate General of Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1578–1607</td><td> <span style="padding-left:0.5em;"> </span><a href="/wiki/Governorate_General_of_Brazil" title="Governorate General of Brazil">Brazil</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1621–1815</td><td> <span style="padding-left:0.5em;"> </span><a href="/wiki/State_of_Brazil" title="State of Brazil">Brazil</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1536–1620</td><td> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Barbados" title="History of Barbados">Barbados</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td class="col-break"> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>17th century</b></span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1621–1751</td><td> <a href="/wiki/State_of_Maranh%C3%A3o_(colonial)" title="State of Maranhão (colonial)">Maranhão</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1680–1777</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Colonia_del_Sacramento" title="Colonia del Sacramento">Nova Colónia do Sacramento</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>18th century</b></span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1751–1772</td><td> <a href="/wiki/State_of_Gr%C3%A3o-Par%C3%A1_and_Maranh%C3%A3o" title="State of Grão-Pará and Maranhão">Grão-Pará and Maranhão</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1772–1775</td><td> <a href="/wiki/State_of_Gr%C3%A3o-Par%C3%A1_and_Rio_Negro" title="State of Grão-Pará and Rio Negro">Grão-Pará and Rio Negro</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1772–1775</td><td> <a href="/wiki/State_of_Maranh%C3%A3o_and_Piau%C3%AD" title="State of Maranhão and Piauí">Maranhão and Piauí</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td class="col-break"> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>19th century</b></span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1808–1822</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Cisplatina" title="Cisplatina">Cisplatina <span style="font-size:85%;">(Uruguay)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1809–1817</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Amap%C3%A1" title="Amapá">Portuguese Guiana <span style="font-size:85%;">(Amapá)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1822</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Upper_Peru" title="Upper Peru">Upper Peru <span style="font-size:85%;">(Bolivia)</span></a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3" style="background:#efefef;padding:0.2em;line-height:1.2em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armorial_of_Portuguese_colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Armorial of Portuguese colonies">Armorial of Portuguese colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_Portuguese_Empire" title="Evolution of the Portuguese Empire">Evolution of the Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_colonial_architecture" title="Portuguese colonial architecture">Portuguese colonial architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Portuguese colonization of the Americas">Portuguese colonization of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire_in_the_Indonesian_Archipelago" title="Portuguese Empire in the Indonesian Archipelago">Portuguese Empire in the Indonesian Archipelago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_India" title="Portuguese India">Portuguese India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_the_Portuguese_discovery_of_Australia" title="Theory of the Portuguese discovery of Australia">Theory of the Portuguese discovery of Australia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cold_War" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cold_War" title="Template:Cold War"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cold_War" title="Template talk:Cold War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cold_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cold War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cold_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Treaty_Organization" title="Central Treaty Organization">METO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Southeast Asia Treaty Organization">SEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Northeast Asia Treaty Organization">NEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance" title="Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance">Rio Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1940s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Morgenthau_Plan" title="Morgenthau Plan">Morgenthau Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hukbalahap_rebellion" title="Hukbalahap rebellion">Hukbalahap rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_political_conflict" title="Jamaican political conflict">Jamaican political conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dekemvriana" title="Dekemvriana">Dekemvriana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_war_in_the_Baltic_states" title="Guerrilla war in the Baltic states">Guerrilla war in the Baltic states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Priboi" title="Operation Priboi">Operation <i>Priboi</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Jungle" title="Operation Jungle">Operation <i>Jungle</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Occupation of the Baltic states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursed_soldiers" title="Cursed soldiers">Cursed soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Unthinkable" title="Operation Unthinkable">Operation <i>Unthinkable</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouzenko_Affair" title="Gouzenko Affair">Gouzenko Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Division of Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">Indonesian National Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Vietnam_(1945%E2%80%931946)" title="War in Vietnam (1945–1946)">Operation <i>Masterdom</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Beleaguer" title="Operation Beleaguer">Operation <i>Beleaguer</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Blacklist_Forty" title="Operation Blacklist Forty">Operation <i>Blacklist Forty</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_crisis_of_1946" title="Iran crisis of 1946">Iran crisis of 1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Civil_War" title="Greek Civil War">Greek Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Plan" title="Baruch Plan">Baruch Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corfu_Channel_incident" title="Corfu Channel incident">Corfu Channel incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Straits_crisis" title="Turkish Straits crisis">Turkish Straits crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restatement_of_Policy_on_Germany" title="Restatement of Policy on Germany">Restatement of Policy on Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1947_Polish_parliamentary_election" title="1947 Polish parliamentary election">1947 Polish parliamentary election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_Relations_Conference" title="Asian Relations Conference">Asian Relations Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_1947_crises" title="May 1947 crises">May 1947 crises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_war_of_1947%E2%80%931948" title="Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948">Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestine_war" title="1948 Palestine war">1947–1949 Palestine war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1947%E2%80%931948_civil_war_in_Mandatory_Palestine" title="1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine">1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War" title="1948 Arab–Israeli War">1948 Arab–Israeli War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestinian_expulsion_and_flight" title="1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight">1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Czechoslovak_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état">1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_Control_Council#Incapacitation_of_the_council" title="Allied Control Council">Incapacitation of the Allied Control Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wathbah_uprising" title="Al-Wathbah uprising">Al-Wathbah uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tito%E2%80%93Stalin_split" title="Tito–Stalin split">Tito–Stalin split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Hyderabad" title="Annexation of Hyderabad">Annexation of Hyderabad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madiun_Affair" title="Madiun Affair">Madiun Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_betrayal" title="Western betrayal">Western betrayal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Curtain" title="Iron Curtain">Iron Curtain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_Emergency" title="Malayan Emergency">Malayan Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_1949_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="March 1949 Syrian coup d'état">March 1949 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Valuable" title="Operation Valuable">Operation Valuable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1950s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bamboo_curtain" title="Bamboo curtain">Bamboo curtain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Cold_War" title="Arab Cold War">Arab Cold War (1952–1979)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Egyptian_revolution" title="1952 Egyptian revolution">1952 Egyptian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Intifada_(1952)" title="Iraqi Intifada (1952)">Iraqi Intifada (1952)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mau_Mau_rebellion" title="Mau Mau rebellion">Mau Mau rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953" title="East German uprising of 1953">East German uprising of 1953</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1953 Iranian coup d'état">1953 Iranian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pact_of_Madrid" title="Pact of Madrid">Pact of Madrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bricker_Amendment" title="Bricker Amendment">Bricker Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Syrian coup d'état">1954 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrov_Affair" title="Petrov Affair">Petrov Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domino_theory" title="Domino theory">Domino theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Geneva_Conference" title="1954 Geneva Conference">1954 Geneva Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Guatemalan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Guatemalan coup d'état">1954 Guatemalan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_Tuapse" title="Capture of the Tuapse">Capture of the <i>Tuapse</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="First Taiwan Strait Crisis">First Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebel_Akhdar_War" title="Jebel Akhdar War">Jebel Akhdar War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmir_Princess" title="Kashmir Princess">Kashmir Princess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandung_Conference" title="Bandung Conference">Bandung Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Summit_(1955)" title="Geneva Summit (1955)">Geneva Summit (1955)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus_Emergency" title="Cyprus Emergency">Cyprus Emergency</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences" title="On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences">On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Pozna%C5%84_protests" title="1956 Poznań protests">1956 Poznań protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Revolution of 1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_October" title="Polish October">Polish October</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/We_will_bury_you" title="We will bury you">We will bury you</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Gladio" title="Operation Gladio">Operation <i>Gladio</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Crisis_of_1957" title="Syrian Crisis of 1957">Syrian Crisis of 1957</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sputnik_crisis" title="Sputnik crisis">Sputnik crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ifni_War" title="Ifni War">Ifni War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">Iraqi 14 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1958_Lebanon_crisis" title="1958 Lebanon crisis">1958 Lebanon crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Second Taiwan Strait Crisis">Second Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_Mosul_uprising" title="1959 Mosul uprising">1959 Mosul uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_Tibetan_uprising" title="1959 Tibetan uprising">1959 Tibetan uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laotian_Civil_War" title="Laotian Civil War">Laotian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitchen_Debate" title="Kitchen Debate">Kitchen Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Revolution" title="Cuban Revolution">Cuban Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consolidation_of_the_Cuban_Revolution" title="Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution">Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simba_rebellion" title="Simba rebellion">Simba rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_U-2_incident" title="1960 U-2 incident">1960 U-2 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion" title="Bay of Pigs Invasion">Bay of Pigs Invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_Turkish_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1960 Turkish coup d'état">1960 Turkish coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanian%E2%80%93Soviet_split" title="Albanian–Soviet split">Albanian–Soviet split</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_Soviets_from_Albania" title="Expulsion of Soviets from Albania">Expulsion of Soviets from Albania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_conflict" title="Iraqi–Kurdish conflict">Iraqi–Kurdish conflict</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="First Iraqi–Kurdish War">First Iraqi–Kurdish War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Crisis_of_1961" title="Berlin Crisis of 1961">Berlin Crisis of 1961</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Goa" title="Annexation of Goa">Annexation of Goa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papua_conflict" title="Papua conflict">Papua conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia%E2%80%93Malaysia_confrontation" title="Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation">Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_War" title="Sand War">Sand War</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Portuguese Colonial War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_War_of_Independence" title="Angolan War of Independence">Angolan War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau_War_of_Independence" title="Guinea-Bissau War of Independence">Guinea-Bissau War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_War_of_Independence" title="Mozambican War of Independence">Mozambican War of Independence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Porte%C3%B1azo" title="El Porteñazo">El Porteñazo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Indian_War" title="Sino-Indian War">Sino-Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Sarawak" title="Communist insurgency in Sarawak">Communist insurgency in Sarawak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramadan_Revolution" title="Ramadan Revolution">Ramadan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_War_of_Independence" title="Eritrean War of Independence">Eritrean War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Yemen_civil_war" title="North Yemen civil war">North Yemen civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">1963 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy">Assassination of John F. Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aden_Emergency" title="Aden Emergency">Aden Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_intercommunal_violence#Crisis_of_1963–1964" title="Cypriot intercommunal violence">Cyprus crisis of 1963–1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shifta_War" title="Shifta War">Shifta War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Dirty_War" title="Mexican Dirty War">Mexican Dirty War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tlatelolco_massacre" title="Tlatelolco massacre">Tlatelolco massacre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_Civil_War" title="Guatemalan Civil War">Guatemalan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombian_conflict" title="Colombian conflict">Colombian conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Brazilian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1964 Brazilian coup d'état">1964 Brazilian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Civil_War" title="Dominican Civil War">Dominican Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodesian_Bush_War" title="Rhodesian Bush War">Rhodesian Bush War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_mass_killings_of_1965%E2%80%9366" title="Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66">Indonesian mass killings of 1965–1966</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_to_the_New_Order" title="Transition to the New Order">Transition to the New Order (Indonesia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASEAN_Declaration" title="ASEAN Declaration">ASEAN Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_Revolution" title="Argentine Revolution">Argentine Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Border_War" title="South African Border War">South African Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_DMZ_Conflict" title="Korean DMZ Conflict">Korean DMZ Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/12-3_incident" title="12-3 incident">12-3 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_junta" title="Greek junta">Greek junta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1967_Hong_Kong_riots" title="1967 Hong Kong riots">1967 Hong Kong riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Years_of_Lead_(Italy)" title="Years of Lead (Italy)">Years of Lead (Italy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Attrition" title="War of Attrition">War of Attrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhofar_War" title="Dhofar War">Dhofar War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wadiah_War" title="Al-Wadiah War">Al-Wadiah War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Civil_War" title="Nigerian Civil War">Nigerian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protests_of_1968" title="Protests of 1968">Protests of 1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/May_68" title="May 68">May 68</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Pueblo_(AGER-2)#Pueblo_incident" title="USS Pueblo (AGER-2)">USS <i>Pueblo</i> incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Polish_political_crisis" title="1968 Polish political crisis">1968 Polish political crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968%E2%80%931971_East_Pakistan_communist_insurgency" title="1968–1971 East Pakistan communist insurgency">1968–1971 East Pakistan communist insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Malaysia_(1968%E2%80%931989)" title="Communist insurgency in Malaysia (1968–1989)">Communist insurgency in Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/17_July_Revolution" title="17 July Revolution">17 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Peruvian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1968 Peruvian coup d'état">1968 Peruvian coup d'état</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Government_of_the_Armed_Forces_of_Peru" title="Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces of Peru">Revolutionary Government</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Sudanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1969 Sudanese coup d'état">1969 Sudanese coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Libyan_revolution" title="1969 Libyan revolution">1969 Libyan revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goulash_Communism" title="Goulash Communism">Goulash Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_border_conflict" title="Sino-Soviet border conflict">Sino-Soviet border conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_People%27s_Army_rebellion" title="New People's Army rebellion">New People's Army rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons" title="Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons">Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_September" title="Black September">Black September</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcora_Exercise" title="Alcora Exercise">Alcora Exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_Movement_(Syria)" title="Corrective Movement (Syria)">Corrective Movement (Syria)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_conflict" title="Western Sahara conflict">Western Sahara conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_Civil_War" title="Cambodian Civil War">Cambodian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Thailand" title="Communist insurgency in Thailand">Communist insurgency in Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970_Polish_protests" title="1970 Polish protests">1970 Polish protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koza_riot" title="Koza riot">Koza riot</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Realpolitik" title="Realpolitik">Realpolitik</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ping-pong_diplomacy" title="Ping-pong diplomacy">Ping-pong diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_JVP_insurrection" title="1971 JVP insurrection">1971 JVP insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_revolution_(Egypt)" title="Corrective revolution (Egypt)">Corrective revolution (Egypt)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_Turkish_military_memorandum" title="1971 Turkish military memorandum">1971 Turkish military memorandum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_Sudanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1971 Sudanese coup d'état">1971 Sudanese coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Power_Agreement_on_Berlin" title="Four Power Agreement on Berlin">Four Power Agreement on Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh_Liberation_War" title="Bangladesh Liberation War">Bangladesh Liberation War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_visit_by_Richard_Nixon_to_China" title="1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China">1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Yemen#Disputes_with_North_Yemen" title="South Yemen">North Yemen-South Yemen Border conflict of 1972</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Yemenite_War" title="First Yemenite War">First Yemenite War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munich_massacre" title="Munich massacre">Munich massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972%E2%80%931975_Bangladesh_insurgency" title="1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency">1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Civil_Wars" title="Eritrean Civil Wars">Eritrean Civil Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Uruguayan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Uruguayan coup d'état">1973 Uruguayan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Afghan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Afghan coup d'état">1973 Afghan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Chilean_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Chilean coup d'état">1973 Chilean coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973 oil crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnation_Revolution" title="Carnation Revolution">Carnation Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_transition_to_democracy" title="Spanish transition to democracy">Spanish transition to democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapolitefsi" title="Metapolitefsi">Metapolitefsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_Arms_Limitation_Talks" title="Strategic Arms Limitation Talks">Strategic Arms Limitation Talks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="Second Iraqi–Kurdish War">Second Iraqi–Kurdish War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_invasion_of_Cyprus" title="Turkish invasion of Cyprus">Turkish invasion of Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/15_August_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="15 August 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">15 August 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3_November_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="3 November 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">Siege of Dhaka (1975)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/7_November_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="7 November 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">Sipahi-Janata revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">Angolan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide" title="Cambodian genocide">Cambodian genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/June_1976_protests" title="June 1976 protests">June 1976 protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_Civil_War" title="Mozambican Civil War">Mozambican Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oromo_conflict" title="Oromo conflict">Oromo conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogaden_War" title="Ogaden War">Ogaden War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1978_Somali_coup_attempt" title="1978 Somali coup attempt">1978 Somali coup attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_War" title="Western Sahara War">Western Sahara War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Civil_War" title="Ethiopian Civil War">Ethiopian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Albanian_split" title="Sino-Albanian split">Sino-Albanian split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Indochina_War" title="Third Indochina War">Third Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian%E2%80%93Vietnamese_War" title="Cambodian–Vietnamese War">Cambodian–Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_conflict_(1979%E2%80%931998)" title="Cambodian conflict (1979–1998)">Cambodian conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Condor" title="Operation Condor">Operation <i>Condor</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirty_War" title="Dirty War">Dirty War (Argentina)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1976_Argentine_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1976 Argentine coup d'état">1976 Argentine coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian%E2%80%93Libyan_War" title="Egyptian–Libyan War">Egyptian–Libyan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Autumn" title="German Autumn">German Autumn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_902" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 902">Korean Air Lines Flight 902</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_Revolution" title="Nicaraguan Revolution">Nicaraguan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uganda%E2%80%93Tanzania_War" title="Uganda–Tanzania War">Uganda–Tanzania War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NDF_Rebellion" title="NDF Rebellion">NDF Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadian%E2%80%93Libyan_War" title="Chadian–Libyan War">Chadian–Libyan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Yemenite_War" title="Second Yemenite War">Second Yemenite War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Mosque_seizure" title="Grand Mosque seizure">Grand Mosque seizure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_revolution" title="Iranian revolution">Iranian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_War" title="Sino-Vietnamese War">Sino-Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jewel_Movement" title="New Jewel Movement">New Jewel Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_Herat_uprising" title="1979 Herat uprising">1979 Herat uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Days_to_the_River_Rhine" title="Seven Days to the River Rhine">Seven Days to the River Rhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Struggle_against_political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salvadoran_Civil_War" title="Salvadoran Civil War">Salvadoran Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1980 Summer Olympics boycott">1980</a> and <a href="/wiki/1984_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1984 Summer Olympics boycott">1984 Summer Olympics boycotts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gera_Demands" title="Gera Demands">Gera Demands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peruvian_Civil_War_of_1980%E2%80%932000" title="Peruvian Civil War of 1980–2000">Peruvian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk_Agreement" title="Gdańsk Agreement">Gdańsk Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Civil_Wars" title="Eritrean Civil Wars">Eritrean Civil Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Turkish_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1980 Turkish coup d'état">1980 Turkish coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugandan_Bush_War" title="Ugandan Bush War">Ugandan Bush War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Sidra_incident_(1981)" title="Gulf of Sidra incident (1981)">Gulf of Sidra incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_law_in_Poland" title="Martial law in Poland">Martial law in Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casamance_conflict" title="Casamance conflict">Casamance conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falklands_War" title="Falklands War">Falklands War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1982_Ethiopian%E2%80%93Somali_Border_War" title="1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War">1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ndogboyosoi_War" title="Ndogboyosoi War">Ndogboyosoi War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">United States invasion of Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Able_Archer_83" title="Able Archer 83">Able Archer 83</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_Defense_Initiative" title="Strategic Defense Initiative">Star Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Summit_(1985)" title="Geneva Summit (1985)">1985 Geneva Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Rebellion" title="Somali Rebellion">Somali Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reykjav%C3%ADk_Summit" title="Reykjavík Summit">Reykjavík Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1986_Black_Sea_incident" title="1986 Black Sea incident">1986 Black Sea incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Yemen_civil_war" title="South Yemen civil war">South Yemen civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toyota_War" title="Toyota War">Toyota War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Lieyu_massacre" title="1987 Lieyu massacre">1987 Lieyu massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Denver" title="Operation Denver">Operation Denver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987%E2%80%931989_JVP_insurrection" title="1987–1989 JVP insurrection">1987–1989 JVP insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Resistance_Army_insurgency" title="Lord's Resistance Army insurgency">Lord's Resistance Army insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Black_Sea_bumping_incident" title="1988 Black Sea bumping incident">1988 Black Sea bumping incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8888_Uprising" title="8888 Uprising">8888 Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Solidarity" title="History of Solidarity">Solidarity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Soviet_reaction_to_the_Polish_crisis_of_1980%E2%80%931981" title="Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981">Soviet reaction</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contras" title="Contras">Contras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_American_crisis" title="Central American crisis">Central American crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_RYAN" title="Operation RYAN">Operation RYAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_007" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 007">Korean Air Lines Flight 007</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_Power_Revolution" title="People Power Revolution">People Power Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bougainville_conflict" title="Bougainville conflict">Bougainville conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="First Nagorno-Karabakh War">First Nagorno-Karabakh War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1989%E2%80%931992)" title="Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)">Afghan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">United States invasion of Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Polish_strikes" title="1988 Polish strikes">1988 Polish strikes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Round_Table_Agreement" title="Polish Round Table Agreement">Polish Round Table Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_inner_German_border" title="Fall of the inner German border">Fall of the inner German border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Velvet Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_revolution" title="Romanian revolution">Romanian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_Revolution" title="Peaceful Revolution">Peaceful Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1990" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1990">Mongolian Revolution of 1990</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Ping_Yu_No._5540_incident" title="Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident">Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Ping_Yu_No._5202" title="Min Ping Yu No. 5202">Min Ping Yu No. 5202</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">German reunification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_unification" title="Yemeni unification">Yemeni unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_communism_in_Albania" title="Fall of communism in Albania">Fall of communism in Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">Breakup of Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup attempt">1991 August Coup</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Dissolution of Czechoslovakia">Dissolution of Czechoslovakia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Frozen_conflict" title="Frozen conflict">Frozen conflicts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhazia_conflict" title="Abkhazia conflict">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Taiwan" title="Political status of Taiwan">China-Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Kosovo" title="Political status of Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian%E2%80%93Ossetian_conflict" title="Georgian–Ossetian conflict">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnistria_War" title="Transnistria War">Transnistria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Indian_border_dispute" title="Sino-Indian border dispute">Sino-Indian border dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Borneo_dispute" title="North Borneo dispute">North Borneo dispute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Foreign policy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Containment" title="Containment">Containment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Doctrine" title="Eisenhower Doctrine">Eisenhower Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domino_theory" title="Domino theory">Domino theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallstein_Doctrine" title="Hallstein Doctrine">Hallstein Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Doctrine" title="Kennedy Doctrine">Kennedy Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_coexistence" title="Peaceful coexistence">Peaceful coexistence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostpolitik" title="Ostpolitik">Ostpolitik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_Doctrine" title="Johnson Doctrine">Johnson Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixon_Doctrine" title="Nixon Doctrine">Nixon Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulbricht_Doctrine" title="Ulbricht Doctrine">Ulbricht Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carter_Doctrine" title="Carter Doctrine">Carter Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rollback" title="Rollback">Rollback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinmen_Agreement" title="Kinmen Agreement">Kinmen Agreement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_of_economics" title="Chicago school of economics">Chicago school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States">American conservatism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monetarism" title="Monetarism">Monetarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">Neoclassical economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reaganomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply-side_economics" title="Supply-side economics">Supply-side economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic capitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Fidel_Castro" title="Politics of Fidel Castro">Castroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurocommunism" title="Eurocommunism">Eurocommunism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guevarism" title="Guevarism">Guevarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoxhaism" title="Hoxhaism">Hoxhaism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Juche" title="Juche">Juche</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh_Thought" title="Ho Chi Minh Thought">Ho Chi Minh Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trotskyism" title="Trotskyism">Trotskyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titoism" title="Titoism">Titoism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultranationalism" title="Ultranationalism">Ultranationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">Chauvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">Ethnic nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Nazism" title="Neo-Nazism">Neo-Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">Liberal democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illiberal_democracy" title="Illiberal democracy">Illiberal democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guided_democracy" title="Guided democracy">Guided democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third-worldism" title="Third-worldism">Third-worldism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_nationalism" title="White nationalism">White nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy#White_separatism" title="White supremacy">White separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Southeast Asia Treaty Organization">SEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Treaty_Organization" title="Central Treaty Organization">METO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">EEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_and_Non-Aligned_European_States" title="Neutral and Non-Aligned European States">NN States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASEAN" title="ASEAN">ASEAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Association_for_Regional_Cooperation" title="South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation">SAARC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safari_Club" title="Safari Club">Safari Club</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Propaganda</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Pro-communist</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_measures" title="Active measures">Active measures</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Izvestia" title="Izvestia">Izvestia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Neues_Deutschland" title="Neues Deutschland">Neues Deutschland</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pravda" title="Pravda">Pravda</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_Moscow" title="Radio Moscow">Radio Moscow</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rud%C3%A9_pr%C3%A1vo" title="Rudé právo">Rudé právo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trybuna_Ludu" title="Trybuna Ludu">Trybuna Ludu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TASS" title="TASS">TASS</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Russian_Life" title="Russian Life">Soviet Life</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Pro-Western</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Amerika_(magazine)" title="Amerika (magazine)">Amerika</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusade_for_Freedom" title="Crusade for Freedom">Crusade for Freedom</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paix_et_Libert%C3%A9" title="Paix et Liberté">Paix et Liberté</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_Free_Europe/Radio_Liberty" title="Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty">Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Scare" title="Red Scare">Red Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_of_America" title="Voice of America">Voice of America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Technological<br />competition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arms_race" title="Arms race">Arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">Nuclear arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gar_Alperovitz" title="Gar Alperovitz">Gar Alperovitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Bailey" title="Thomas A. Bailey">Thomas A. Bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Beschloss" title="Michael Beschloss">Michael Beschloss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archie_Brown_(historian)" title="Archie Brown (historian)">Archie Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_H._Carroll" title="Warren H. Carroll">Warren H. Carroll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Cioroianu" title="Adrian Cioroianu">Adrian Cioroianu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Costello_(historian)" title="John Costello (historian)">John Costello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Cox_(academic)" title="Michael Cox (academic)">Michael Cox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_J._Cull" title="Nicholas J. Cull">Nicholas J. Cull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Norman Davies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willem_Drees" title="Willem Drees">Willem Drees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_D._English" title="Robert D. English">Robert D. English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Feis" title="Herbert Feis">Herbert Feis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hugh_Ferrell" title="Robert Hugh Ferrell">Robert Hugh Ferrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Fontaine" title="André Fontaine">André Fontaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anneli_Ute_Gabanyi" title="Anneli Ute Gabanyi">Anneli Ute Gabanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis_Gaddis" title="John Lewis Gaddis">John Lewis Gaddis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Gardner" title="Lloyd Gardner">Lloyd Gardner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Garton_Ash" title="Timothy Garton Ash">Timothy Garton Ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Gorodetsky" title="Gabriel Gorodetsky">Gabriel Gorodetsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Halliday" title="Fred Halliday">Fred Halliday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jussi_Hanhim%C3%A4ki" title="Jussi Hanhimäki">Jussi Hanhimäki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Earl_Haynes" title="John Earl Haynes">John Earl Haynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_J._Hearden" title="Patrick J. Hearden">Patrick J. Hearden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tvrtko_Jakovina" title="Tvrtko Jakovina">Tvrtko Jakovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Judt" title="Tony Judt">Tony Judt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Klehr" title="Harvey Klehr">Harvey Klehr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Kolko" title="Gabriel Kolko">Gabriel Kolko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_LaFeber" title="Walter LaFeber">Walter LaFeber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Laqueur" title="Walter Laqueur">Walter Laqueur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melvyn_P._Leffler" title="Melvyn P. Leffler">Melvyn P. Leffler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geir_Lundestad" title="Geir Lundestad">Geir Lundestad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vojtech_Mastny_(historian)" title="Vojtech Mastny (historian)">Vojtech Mastny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_F._Matlock_Jr." title="Jack F. Matlock Jr.">Jack F. Matlock Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._McCormick" title="Thomas J. McCormick">Thomas J. McCormick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Naftali" title="Timothy Naftali">Timothy Naftali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marius_Oprea" title="Marius Oprea">Marius Oprea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_S._Painter" title="David S. Painter">David S. Painter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_B._Pickett" title="William B. Pickett">William B. Pickett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_E._Powaski" title="Ronald E. Powaski">Ronald E. Powaski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakov_M._Rabkin" title="Yakov M. Rabkin">Yakov M. Rabkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M._E._Sarotte" title="M. E. Sarotte">M. E. Sarotte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Schlesinger_Jr." title="Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.">Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Schrecker" title="Ellen Schrecker">Ellen Schrecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giles_Scott-Smith" title="Giles Scott-Smith">Giles Scott-Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Zhihua" title="Shen Zhihua">Shen Zhihua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Snyder" title="Timothy Snyder">Timothy Snyder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athan_Theoharis" title="Athan Theoharis">Athan Theoharis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Thorpe" title="Andrew Thorpe">Andrew Thorpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Tism%C4%83neanu" title="Vladimir Tismăneanu">Vladimir Tismăneanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Vaughan" title="Patrick Vaughan">Patrick Vaughan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alex_von_Tunzelmann" title="Alex von Tunzelmann">Alex von Tunzelmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odd_Arne_Westad" title="Odd Arne Westad">Odd Arne Westad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Appleman_Williams" title="William Appleman Williams">William Appleman Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Reed_Winkler" title="Jonathan Reed Winkler">Jonathan Reed Winkler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolph_Winnacker" title="Rudolph Winnacker">Rudolph Winnacker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Young" title="Ken Young">Ken Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Espionage and<br />intelligence</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Eastern_Bloc_agents_in_the_United_States" title="List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States">List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_espionage_in_the_United_States" title="Soviet espionage in the United States">Soviet espionage in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_espionage_in_the_United_States" title="Russian espionage in the United States">Russian espionage in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_espionage_in_the_Soviet_Union_and_Russian_Federation" title="American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation">American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CIA_and_the_Cultural_Cold_War" title="CIA and the Cultural Cold War">CIA and the Cultural Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">CIA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MI5" title="MI5">MI5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MI6" title="MI6">MI6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_involvement_in_regime_change" title="United States involvement in regime change">United States involvement in regime change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_involvement_in_regime_change" title="Soviet involvement in regime change">Soviet involvement in regime change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of Internal Affairs (Soviet Union)">MVD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stasi" title="Stasi">Stasi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Soviet Union–United States relations">Soviet Union–United States relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_summits" title="List of Soviet Union–United States summits">Soviet Union–United States summits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93NATO_relations" title="Russia–NATO relations">Russia–NATO relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brinkmanship#Cold_War" title="Brinkmanship">Brinkmanship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Cold_War" title="Second Cold War">Second Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cold_War" title="Category:Cold War">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_related_to_the_Cold_War" title="List of conflicts related to the Cold War">List of conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Cold_War" title="Timeline of the Cold War">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" 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