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href="#Leaching_saline_sodic_soils"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Leaching saline sodic soils</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leaching_saline_sodic_soils-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Remediation_and_utilization_via_aquaculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Remediation_and_utilization_via_aquaculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Remediation and utilization via aquaculture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Remediation_and_utilization_via_aquaculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Soil type with pH > 8.5</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid 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The specific problem is: <b>General layout and markup, especially with respect to chemical formulas and equations.</b><span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Alkali_soil" title="Special:EditPage/Alkali soil">improve this article</a> if you can.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2018</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above summary">Alkali soil</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">Alkaline soils</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Rice_Field.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Rice_Field.jpg/220px-Rice_Field.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Rice_Field.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="315" data-file-height="279" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Rice cultivation / <a href="/wiki/Paddyfield" class="mw-redirect" title="Paddyfield">paddyfield</a> in alkali soils</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Clay soil</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Key minerals</th><td class="infobox-data">Sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Key process</th><td class="infobox-data">Lime softening</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a></th><td class="infobox-data">> 8.5</td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Alkali</b>, or <b> alkaline</b>, <b>soils</b> are <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a> <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soils</a> with high <a href="/wiki/Soil_pH" title="Soil pH">pH</a> (greater than 8.5), a poor <a href="/wiki/Soil_structure" title="Soil structure">soil structure</a> and a low infiltration capacity. Often they have a hard <a href="/wiki/Calcareous" title="Calcareous">calcareous</a> layer at 0.5 to 1 metre depth. Alkali soils owe their unfavorable <a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">physico-chemical</a> properties mainly to the dominating presence of <a href="/wiki/Sodium_carbonate" title="Sodium carbonate">sodium carbonate</a>, which causes the soil to swell<sup id="cite_ref-oregonstateedu_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oregonstateedu-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and difficult to clarify/settle. They derive their name from the <a href="/wiki/Alkali_metal" title="Alkali metal">alkali metal</a> group of elements, to which <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a> belongs, and which can induce <a href="/wiki/Basicity" class="mw-redirect" title="Basicity">basicity</a>. Sometimes these soils are also referred to as alkaline <a href="/wiki/Sodic_soils" class="mw-redirect" title="Sodic soils">sodic soils</a>. Alkaline soils are <a href="/wiki/Base_(chemistry)" title="Base (chemistry)">basic</a>, but not all basic soils are <a href="/wiki/Alkali" title="Alkali">alkaline</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_soil&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The causes of soil alkalinity can be natural or man-made: </p> <ol><li>The natural cause is the presence of soil minerals producing <a href="/wiki/Sodium_carbonate" title="Sodium carbonate">sodium carbonate</a> (Na<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub>) and <a href="/wiki/Sodium_bicarbonate" title="Sodium bicarbonate">sodium bicarbonate</a> (NaHCO<sub>3</sub>) upon <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weathering</a>.</li> <li>Coal-fired boilers / power plants, when using coal or lignite rich in <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a>, produce <a href="/wiki/Fly_ash" class="mw-redirect" title="Fly ash">ash</a> containing <a href="/wiki/Calcium_oxide" title="Calcium oxide">calcium oxide</a>. CaO readily dissolves in water to form <a href="/wiki/Slaked_lime" class="mw-redirect" title="Slaked lime">slaked lime</a>, Ca(OH)<sub>2</sub>, and carried by rain water to rivers / irrigation water. <a href="/wiki/Lime_softening" title="Lime softening">Lime softening</a> process precipitates Ca<sup>2+</sup> and Mg<sup>2+</sup> ions / removes hardness in the water and also converts sodium bicarbonates in river water into sodium carbonate.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sodium carbonates (washing soda) further reacts with the remaining Ca<sup>2+</sup> and Mg<sup>2+</sup> in the water to remove / precipitate the total <a href="/wiki/Hard_water" title="Hard water">hardness</a>. Also water-soluble sodium salts present in the ash enhance the sodium content in water. The global <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a> consumption in the world was 7.7 billion tons in the year 2011.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Thus river water is made devoid of Ca<sup>2+</sup> and Mg<sup>2+</sup> ions and enhanced Na<sup>+</sup> by coal-fired boilers.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (June 2021)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Many sodium salts are used in industrial and domestic applications such as <a href="/wiki/Sodium_carbonate" title="Sodium carbonate">sodium carbonate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sodium_bicarbonate" title="Sodium bicarbonate">sodium bicarbonate</a> (baking soda), <a href="/wiki/Sodium_sulphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Sodium sulphate">sodium sulphate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sodium_hydroxide" title="Sodium hydroxide">sodium hydroxide</a> (caustic soda), <a href="/wiki/Sodium_hypochlorite" title="Sodium hypochlorite">sodium hypochlorite</a> (bleaching powder), etc. in huge quantities. These salts are mainly produced from <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a> (common salt). All the sodium in these salts enter into the river / ground water during their production process or consumption enhancing water sodicity. The total global consumption of <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a> is 270 million tons in the year 2010. This is nearly equal to the <a href="/wiki/Dissolved_load" title="Dissolved load">salt load</a> in the mighty <a href="/wiki/Amazon_River" title="Amazon River">Amazon River</a>. Man made sodium salts contribution is nearly 7% of total salt load of all the rivers. Sodium salt load problem aggravates in the downstream of intensively cultivated river basins located in China, India, Egypt, Pakistan, west Asia, Australia, western US, etc. due to accumulation of salts in the remaining water after meeting various transpiration and evaporation losses.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Another source of man made sodium salts addition to the agriculture fields / land mass is in the vicinity of the <a href="/wiki/Cooling_tower" title="Cooling tower">wet cooling towers</a> using sea water to dissipate <a href="/wiki/Waste_heat" title="Waste heat">waste heat</a> generated in various industries located near the sea coast. Huge capacity cooling towers are installed in oil refineries, petrochemical complexes, fertilizer plants, chemical plants, nuclear & thermal power stations, centralized <a href="/wiki/HVAC" class="mw-redirect" title="HVAC">HVAC</a> systems, etc. The drift / fine droplets emitted from the cooling towers contain nearly 6% sodium chloride which would deposit on the vicinity areas. This problem aggravates where the national pollution control norms are not imposed or not implemented to minimize the drift emissions to the best industrial norm for the sea water based wet cooling towers.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The man-made cause is the application of <a href="/wiki/Water_softening" title="Water softening">softened water</a> in <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> (surface or ground water) containing relatively high proportion of <a href="/wiki/Sodium_bicarbonate" title="Sodium bicarbonate">sodium bicarbonates</a> and less calcium and magnesium.<sup id="cite_ref-oregonstateedu_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oregonstateedu-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Agricultural_problems">Agricultural problems</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_soil&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Agricultural problems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Alkaline soils are difficult to take into agricultural production. Due to the low <a href="/wiki/Infiltration_capacity" class="mw-redirect" title="Infiltration capacity">infiltration capacity</a>, rain water stagnates on the soil easily and, in dry periods, cultivation is hardly possible without copious irrigated water and good drainage. Agriculture is limited to crops tolerant to surface <a href="/wiki/Waterlogging_(agriculture)" title="Waterlogging (agriculture)">waterlogging</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">rice</a>, grass) and the productivity is lower. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chemistry">Chemistry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_soil&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Chemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Soil alkalinity is associated with the presence of <a href="/wiki/Sodium_carbonate" title="Sodium carbonate">sodium carbonate</a> (Na<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub>) or <a href="/wiki/Sodium_bicarbonate" title="Sodium bicarbonate">sodium bicarbonate</a> (NaHCO<sub>3</sub>) in the soil,<sup id="cite_ref-Handbook_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handbook-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> either as a result of natural <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weathering</a> of the soil particles or brought in by irrigation and/or flood water. </p><p>This salt is extremely soluble, when it undergoes <a href="/wiki/Hydration_reaction" title="Hydration reaction">hydration</a>, it dissociates in: </p> <dl><dd><span class="chemf nowrap">Na<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span>CO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span></span> → 2 <span class="chemf nowrap">Na<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> + <span class="chemf nowrap">CO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span></span></dd></dl> <p>The carbonate anion <span class="chemf nowrap">CO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span></span>, is a weak <a href="/wiki/Base_(chemistry)" title="Base (chemistry)">base</a> accepting a proton, so it <a href="/wiki/Hydrolysis" title="Hydrolysis">hydrolyses</a> in water to give the <a href="/wiki/Bicarbonate" title="Bicarbonate">bicarbonate</a> ion and a <a href="/wiki/Hydroxyl_ion" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroxyl ion">hydroxyl ion</a>: </p> <dl><dd><span class="chemf nowrap">CO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span></span> + <span class="chemf nowrap">H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span>O</span> → <span class="chemf nowrap">HCO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span></span> + <span class="chemf nowrap">OH<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span></dd></dl> <p>which in turn gives <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_acid" title="Carbonic acid">carbonic acid</a> and hydroxyl: </p> <dl><dd><span class="chemf nowrap">HCO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span></span> + <span class="chemf nowrap">H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span>O</span> → <span class="chemf nowrap">H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span>CO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span></span> + <span class="chemf nowrap">OH<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span></dd></dl> <p>See <a href="/wiki/Carbonate#Chemical_properties" title="Carbonate">carbonate</a> for the equilibrium of carbonate-bicarbonate-carbon dioxide. </p><p>The above reactions are similar to the dissolution of <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a>, the solubility of the two salts being the only difference. Na<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> is about <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7004780000000000000♠"></span>78<span style="margin-left:.25em;">000</span></span> times more soluble than CaCO<sub>3</sub>, so it can dissolve far larger amounts of <span class="chemf nowrap">CO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span></span>, thus rising the pH to values higher than 8.5, which is above the maximum attainable pH when the equilibrium between calcium carbonate and dissolved <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> are in equilibrium in soil solution. </p> <dl><dd><i>Notes</i>: <ul><li>Water (H<sub>2</sub>O) is partly dissociated into H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup> (<a href="/wiki/Hydronium" title="Hydronium">hydronium</a>) and OH<sup>–</sup> (<a href="/wiki/Hydroxyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroxyl">hydroxyl</a>) ions. The <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ion</a> H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup> has a positive <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">electric charge</a> (+) and its concentration is usually written as [H<sup>+</sup>]. The hydroxyl ion OH<sup>–</sup> has a negative charge (−) and its concentration is written as [OH<sup>−</sup>].</li> <li>In pure water, at 25 °C, the <a href="/wiki/Dissociation_constant" title="Dissociation constant">dissociation constant</a> of water (<i>K</i><sub>w</sub>) is 10<sup>−14</sup>.<br />Since K<sub>w</sub> = [H<sup>+</sup>] × [OH<sup>–</sup>], then both the concentration of H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup> and OH<sup>–</sup> ions equal 10<sup>−7</sup> M (a very small concentration).</li> <li>In neutral water, the <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a>, being the negative decimal <a href="/wiki/Logarithm" title="Logarithm">logarithm</a> of the H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup> concentration, it is 7. Similarly, the <a href="/wiki/PH#pOH" title="PH">pOH</a> is also 7. Each unit decrease in pH indicates a tenfold increase of the H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup> concentration. Similarly, each unit increase in pH indicates a tenfold increase of the OH<sup>–</sup> concentration.</li> <li>In water with <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissolution (chemistry)">dissolved</a> <a href="/wiki/Salt_(chemistry)" title="Salt (chemistry)">salts</a>, the concentrations of the H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup> and the OH<sup>–</sup> ions may change, but their sum remains constant, namely <span class="nowrap">7 + 7 = 14</span>. A pH of 7 therefore corresponds to a pOH of 7, and a pH of 9 with a pOH of 5.</li> <li>Formally it is preferred to express the ion concentrations in terms of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_activity" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical activity">chemical activity</a>, but this hardly affects the value of the pH.</li> <li>Water with excess H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup> ions is called acid (<span class="nowrap">pH < 7</span>), and water with excess OH<sup>–</sup> ions is called alkaline or rather basic (<span class="nowrap">pH > 7</span>). Soil moisture with <span class="nowrap">pH < 4</span> is called very acid and with <span class="nowrap">pH > 10</span> very alkaline (basic).</li></ul></dd></dl> <p>H<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> (<a href="/wiki/Carbonic_acid" title="Carbonic acid">carbonic acid</a>) is unstable and produces H<sub>2</sub>O (water) and CO<sub>2</sub> (<a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> gas, escaping into the atmosphere). This explains the remaining <a href="/wiki/Alkali" title="Alkali">alkalinity</a> (or rather <a href="/wiki/Basicity" class="mw-redirect" title="Basicity">basicity</a>) in the form of soluble <a href="/wiki/Sodium_hydroxide" title="Sodium hydroxide">sodium hydroxide</a> and the high <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> or low <a href="/wiki/PH#pOH" title="PH">pOH</a>. </p><p>Not all the dissolved sodium carbonate undergoes the above chemical reaction. The remaining sodium carbonate, and hence the presence of <span class="chemf nowrap">CO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span></span> ions, causes CaCO<sub>3</sub> (which is only slightly soluble) to precipitate as solid <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> (limestone), because the product of the <span class="chemf nowrap">CO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span></span> concentration and the Ca<sup>2+</sup> concentration exceeds the allowable limit. Hence, the calcium ions Ca<sup>2+</sup> are immobilized. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ExchangeESP.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/ExchangeESP.JPG/300px-ExchangeESP.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/ExchangeESP.JPG/450px-ExchangeESP.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/ExchangeESP.JPG/600px-ExchangeESP.JPG 2x" data-file-width="609" data-file-height="320" /></a><figcaption>Sodium exchange process between ions adsorbed at the surface of clay particles and those in the <a href="/wiki/Soil_moisture" title="Soil moisture">soil moisture</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The presence of abundant Na<sup>+</sup> ions in the soil solution and the precipitation of Ca<sup>2+</sup> ions as a solid mineral causes the <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a> particles, which have negative electric charges along their surfaces, to adsorb more Na<sup>+</sup> in the <i>diffuse adsorption zone</i> (DAZ, also more commonly called <i><a href="/wiki/Diffuse_double_layer" class="mw-redirect" title="Diffuse double layer">diffuse double layer</a></i> (DDL), or <a href="/wiki/Electrical_double_layer" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical double layer">electrical double layer</a> (EDL), see the corresponding figure)<sup id="cite_ref-Bolt_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bolt-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and, in exchange, release previously adsorbed Ca<sup>2+</sup>, by which their <i>exchangeable sodium percentage</i> (ESP) is increased as illustrated in the same figure. </p><p>Na<sup>+</sup> is more mobile and has a smaller electric charge than Ca<sup>2+</sup> so that the thickness of the DDL increases as more sodium ions occupy it. The DDL thickness is also influenced by the total concentration of ions in the soil moisture in the sense that higher concentrations cause the DDL zone to shrink. </p><p>Clay particles with considerable ESP (> 16), in contact with non-saline soil moisture have an expanded DDL zone and the soil swells (<a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(geology)" title="Dispersion (geology)">dispersion</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Bolt_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bolt-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The phenomenon results in deterioration of the <a href="/wiki/Soil_structure" title="Soil structure">soil structure</a>, and especially crust formation and compaction of the top layer. Hence the infiltration capacity of the soil and the water availability in the soil is reduced, whereas the surface-water-logging or <a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">surface runoff</a> is increased. Seedling emergence and crop production are badly affected. </p> <dl><dd><i>Note</i>: <ul><li>Under saline conditions, the many ions in the soil solution counteract the swelling of the soil, so that saline soils usually do not have unfavorable physical properties. <i>Alkaline soils, in principle, are not saline since the alkalinity problem is worse as the salinity is less.</i></li></ul></dd></dl> <p>Alkalinity problems are more pronounced in <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a> soils than in loamy, silty or sandy soils. The clay soils containing <a href="/wiki/Montmorillonite" title="Montmorillonite">montmorillonite</a> or <a href="/wiki/Smectite" title="Smectite">smectite</a> (swelling clays) are more subject to alkalinity problems than <a href="/wiki/Illite" title="Illite">illite</a> or <a href="/wiki/Kaolinite" title="Kaolinite">kaolinite</a> clay soils. The reason is that the former types of clay have larger <a href="/wiki/Specific_surface" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific surface">specific surface</a> areas (<i>i.e.</i> the surface area of the soil particles divided by their volume) and higher <a href="/wiki/Cation_exchange_capacity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cation exchange capacity">cation exchange capacity</a> (CEC). </p> <dl><dd><i>Note</i>: <ul><li>Certain clay minerals with almost 100% ESP (i.e. almost fully sodium saturated) are called <a href="/wiki/Bentonite" title="Bentonite">bentonite</a>, which is used in civil engineering to place impermeable curtains in the soil, e.g. below dams, to prevent seepage of water.</li></ul></dd></dl> <p>The quality of the irrigation water in relation to the <a href="/wiki/Alkalinity" title="Alkalinity">alkalinity</a> hazard is expressed by the following two indexes: </p> <ol> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Sodium_adsorption_ratio" title="Sodium adsorption ratio">sodium adsorption ratio</a> (SAR,<sup id="cite_ref-Handbook_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handbook-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ) The formula for calculating sodium adsorption ratio is: <dl><dd>SAR = <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214402035">.mw-parser-output .sfrac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .sfrac.tion,.mw-parser-output .sfrac .tion{display:inline-block;vertical-align:-0.5em;font-size:85%;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .num{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.0em 0.1em;border-bottom:1px solid}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .den{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.1em 0.1em}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">[Na<sup>+</sup>]</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den"><span class="nowrap">√<span style="border-top:1px solid; padding:0 0.1em;">[Ca<sup>2+</sup>/2 + Mg<sup>2+</sup>/2]</span></span></span></span>⁠</span> = <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035"><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">{Na<sup>+</sup>/23}</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den"><span class="nowrap">√<span style="border-top:1px solid; padding:0 0.1em;">{Ca<sup>2+</sup>/40 + Mg<sup>2+</sup>/24}</span></span></span></span>⁠</span></dd></dl> where: [ ] stands for concentration in <a href="/wiki/Milliequivalents" class="mw-redirect" title="Milliequivalents">milliequivalents</a>/liter (briefly meq/L), and { } stands for concentration in mg/L. It is seen that Mg (<a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>) is thought to play a similar role as Ca (<a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a>). The SAR should not be much higher than 20 and preferably less than 10; When the soil has been exposed to water with a certain SAR value for some time, the ESP value tends to become about equal to the SAR value. </li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Residual_sodium_carbonate_index" title="Residual sodium carbonate index">residual sodium carbonate</a> (RSC, meq/L):<sup id="cite_ref-Handbook_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handbook-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The formula for calculating the residual sodium carbonate is: <table> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:right">RSC</td> <td>= [<span class="chemf nowrap">HCO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span></span> + <span class="chemf nowrap">CO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span></span>] − [Ca<sup>2+</sup> + Mg<sup>2+</sup>] </td></tr> <tr> <td>        </td> <td>= {<span class="chemf nowrap">HCO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span></span>/61 + <span class="chemf nowrap">CO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span></span>/30} − {Ca<sup>2+</sup>/20 + Mg<sup>2+</sup>/12} </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>which must not be much higher than 1 and preferably less than 0.5. </p><p>The above expression recognizes the presence of <a href="/wiki/Bicarbonates" class="mw-redirect" title="Bicarbonates">bicarbonates</a> (<span class="chemf nowrap">HCO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span></span>), the form in which most carbonates are dissolved. </p> </li> </ol> <p>While calculating SAR and RSC, the water quality present at the root zone of the crop should be considered which would take into account the <a href="/wiki/Soil_salinity_control" title="Soil salinity control">leaching</a> factor in the field.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The partial pressure of dissolved CO<sub>2</sub> at the plants root zone also decides the calcium present in dissolved form in the field water. <a href="/wiki/USDA" class="mw-redirect" title="USDA">USDA</a> follows the adjusted SAR<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for calculating water sodicity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Soil_improvement">Soil improvement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_soil&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Soil improvement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Alkaline soils with solid CaCO<sub>3</sub> can be reclaimed with <a href="/wiki/Green_manure" title="Green manure">grass cultures</a>, organic compost, waste hair / feathers, organic garbage, waste paper, rejected lemons/oranges, etc. ensuring the incorporation of much <a href="/wiki/Soil_acidification" title="Soil acidification">acidifying material</a> (inorganic or <a href="/wiki/Organic_material" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic material">organic material</a>) into the soil, and enhancing dissolved Ca in the field water by releasing CO<sub>2</sub> gas.<sup id="cite_ref-Chhabra_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chhabra-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Deep <a href="/wiki/Ploughing" class="mw-redirect" title="Ploughing">ploughing</a> and incorporating the calcareous <a href="/wiki/Subsoil" title="Subsoil">subsoil</a> into the top soil also helps. </p><p>Many times salts' migration to the top soil takes place from the underground water sources rather than surface sources.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Where the underground water table is high and the land is subjected to high solar radiation, ground water oozes to the land surface due to capillary action and gets evaporated leaving the dissolved salts in the top layer of the soil. Where the underground water contains high salts, it leads to acute salinity problem. This problem can be reduced by applying <a href="/wiki/Mulch" title="Mulch">mulch</a> to the land. Using poly-houses or shade netting during summer for cultivating vegetables/crops is also advised to mitigate soil salinity and conserve water / soil moisture. Poly-houses filter the intense summer solar radiation in tropical countries to save the plants from water stress and leaf burns. </p><p>Where the ground water quality is not alkaline / saline and ground water table is high, salts build up in the soil can be averted by using the land throughout the year for growing plantation trees / permanent crops with the help of lift irrigation. When the ground water is used at required <a href="/wiki/Soil_salinity_control" title="Soil salinity control">leaching factor</a>, the salts in the soil would not build up. </p><p>Plowing the field soon after cutting the crop is also advised to prevent salt migration to the top soil and conserve the soil moisture during the intense summer months. This is done to break the capillary pores in the soil to prevent water reaching the surface of the soil. </p><p>Clay soils in high annual rain fall (more than 100 cm) areas do not generally suffer from high alkalinity as the rain water runoff is able to reduce/leach the soil salts to comfortable levels if proper <a href="/wiki/Rainwater_harvesting" title="Rainwater harvesting">rainwater harvesting</a> methods are followed. In some agricultural areas, the use of subsurface "tile lines" are used to facilitate drainage and leach salts. Continuous <a href="/wiki/Drip_irrigation" title="Drip irrigation">drip irrigation</a> would lead to alkali soils formation in the absence of leaching / drainage water from the field. </p><p>It is also possible to reclaim alkaline soils by adding acidifying minerals like <a href="/wiki/Pyrite" title="Pyrite">pyrite</a> or cheaper <a href="/wiki/Ammonium_aluminium_sulfate" class="mw-redirect" title="Ammonium aluminium sulfate">alum</a> or <a href="/wiki/Aluminium_sulfate" title="Aluminium sulfate">aluminium sulfate</a>. </p><p>Alternatively, <a href="/wiki/Gypsum" title="Gypsum">gypsum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Calcium_sulfate" title="Calcium sulfate">calcium sulfate</a>, <span class="chemf nowrap">CaSO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">4</sub></span></span></span> · 2 <span class="chemf nowrap">H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span>O</span>) can also be applied as a source of Ca<sup>2+</sup> ions to replace the <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a> at the exchange complex.<sup id="cite_ref-Chhabra_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chhabra-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gypsum also reacts with sodium carbonate to convert into <a href="/wiki/Sodium_sulphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Sodium sulphate">sodium sulphate</a> which is a neutral salt and does not contribute to high pH. There must be enough natural drainage to the underground, or else an artificial subsurface drainage system must be present, to permit leaching of the excess sodium by percolation of <a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">rain</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> water through the <a href="/wiki/Soil_profile" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil profile">soil profile</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Calcium_chloride" title="Calcium chloride">Calcium chloride</a> is also used to reclaim alkali soils. CaCl<sub>2</sub> converts Na<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> into NaCl precipitating CaCO<sub>3</sub>. NaCl is drained off by leaching water. <a href="/wiki/Calcium_nitrate" title="Calcium nitrate">Calcium nitrate</a> has a similar effect, with <a href="/wiki/Sodium_nitrate" title="Sodium nitrate">NaNO<sub>3</sub></a> in the leachate. <a href="/wiki/Spent_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Spent acid">Spent acid</a> (HCl, H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>, etc.) can also be used to reduce the excess Na<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> in the soil/water. </p><p>Where <a href="/wiki/Urea" title="Urea">urea</a> is made available cheaply to farmers, it is also used to reduce the soil alkalinity / salinity primarily.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Ammonium" title="Ammonium">ammonium</a> (<span class="chemf nowrap">NH<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">4</sub></span></span></span>) cation produced by urea <a href="/wiki/Hydrolysis" title="Hydrolysis">hydrolysis</a> which is a strongly sorbing <a href="/wiki/Cation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cation">cation</a> exchanges with the weakly sorbing Na<sup>+</sup> cation from the soil structure and Na<sup>+</sup> is released into water. Thus alkali soils adsorb / consume more urea compared to other soils. </p><p>To reclaim the soils completely one needs prohibitively high doses of amendments. Most efforts are therefore directed to improving the top layer only (say the first 10 cm of the soils), as the top layer is most sensitive to deterioration of the <a href="/wiki/Soil_structure" title="Soil structure">soil structure</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chhabra_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chhabra-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The treatments, however, need to be repeated in a few (say 5) years' time. Trees / plants follow <a href="/wiki/Gravitropism" title="Gravitropism">gravitropism</a>. It is difficult to survive in alkali soils for the trees with deeper <a href="/wiki/Plant_root" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant root">rooting system</a> which can be more than 60 meters deep in good non-alkali soils. </p><p>It will be important to refrain from irrigation (ground water or surface water) with poor quality water. In viticulture, adding naturally occurring chelating agents such as tartaric acid to irrigation water has been suggested, to solubilize calcium and magnesium carbonates in sodic soils.<sup id="cite_ref-Ashworth_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ashworth-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One way of reducing sodium carbonate is to cultivate <a href="/wiki/Glasswort" title="Glasswort">glasswort</a> or <a href="/wiki/Saltwort" title="Saltwort">saltwort</a> or <a href="/wiki/Barilla" title="Barilla">barilla</a> plants.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These plants sequester the sodium carbonate they absorb from alkali soil into their tissues. The ash of these plants contains good quantity of sodium carbonate which can be commercially extracted and used in place of sodium carbonate derived from common salt which is highly energy intensive process. Thus alkali lands deterioration can be checked by cultivating barilla plants which can serve as food source, biomass fuel and raw material for soda ash and <a href="/wiki/Potash" title="Potash">potash</a>, etc. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Leaching_saline_sodic_soils">Leaching saline sodic soils</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_soil&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Leaching saline sodic soils"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Soil_salinity_control" title="Soil salinity control">Saline soils</a> are mostly also sodic (the predominant salt is <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a>), but they do not have a very high <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> nor a poor infiltration rate. Upon leaching they are usually not converted into a (sodic) alkali soil as the Na<sup>+</sup> ions are easily removed. Therefore, saline (sodic) soils mostly do not need gypsum applications for their reclamation.<sup id="cite_ref-Chacupe_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chacupe-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Remediation_and_utilization_via_aquaculture">Remediation and utilization via aquaculture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_soil&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Remediation and utilization via aquaculture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since 1990s, research and experimentation have been conducted in China and elsewhere for remediation and utilization of alkali land via combined agriculture and aquaculture practices, with considerable success and experiences.<sup id="cite_ref-gmw_20230629_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gmw_20230629-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-springer_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-springer-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aquaculture technology of utilizing inland saline-alkali water for seafood production is becoming mature, covering wide-range of seafood species including shrimps, crabs, shellfish and fish such as sea bass and grouper.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In recent years, <a href="/wiki/Aquaculture" title="Aquaculture">aquaculture</a> (or <i>salt-alkali land aquaculture</i>) has been recommended by the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Agriculture_and_Rural_Affairs" title="Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs">Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of China</a> as a successful model for the transformation and utilization of saline-alkali land.<sup id="cite_ref-gmw_20230629_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gmw_20230629-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-springer_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-springer-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization" title="Food and Agriculture Organization">FAO</a> noted in a recent newsletter that alkaline land is one area that there are innovative ways and opportunities for aquaculture to expand.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_soil&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ammonia_volatilization_from_urea" title="Ammonia volatilization from urea">Ammonia volatilization from urea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salsola_soda" class="mw-redirect" title="Salsola soda">Agreti green vegetable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barilla" title="Barilla">Barilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosalinity" title="Biosalinity">Biosalinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cation-exchange_capacity" title="Cation-exchange capacity">Cation-exchange capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drip_irrigation" title="Drip irrigation">Drip irrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_irrigation" title="Environmental impact of irrigation">Environmental impact of irrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">Fertilizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halotolerance" title="Halotolerance">Halotolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_soil-related_articles" title="Index of soil-related articles">Index of soil-related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphate_rich_organic_manure" title="Phosphate rich organic manure">Phosphate rich organic manure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphogypsum" title="Phosphogypsum">Phosphogypsum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_mud" title="Red mud">Red mud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Residual_Sodium_Carbonate_Index" class="mw-redirect" title="Residual Sodium Carbonate Index">Residual Sodium Carbonate Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salsola_stocksii" class="mw-redirect" title="Salsola stocksii">Sajji Khar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soda_lake" title="Soda lake">Soda lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_fertility" title="Soil fertility">Soil fertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_pH" title="Soil pH">Soil pH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_salinity" title="Soil salinity">Soil salinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_salinity_control" title="Soil salinity control">Soil salinity control</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_soil&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-oregonstateedu-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-oregonstateedu_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-oregonstateedu_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://extension.oregonstate.edu/umatilla/mf/sites/default/files/pnw597-e.pdf">Managing irrigation water quality, Oregon State University, USA</a>, Retrieved 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class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pedology" title="Pedology">Pedology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edaphology" title="Edaphology">Edaphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_biology" title="Soil biology">Soil biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_microbiology" title="Soil microbiology">Soil microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_zoology" title="Soil zoology">Soil zoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_ecology" title="Soil ecology">Soil ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_physics" title="Soil physics">Soil physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_mechanics" title="Soil mechanics">Soil mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_chemistry" title="Soil chemistry">Soil chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_soil_science" title="Environmental soil science">Environmental soil science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_soil_science" title="Agricultural soil science">Agricultural soil science</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Soil_profile.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Soil_profile.svg/110px-Soil_profile.svg.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Soil_profile.svg/165px-Soil_profile.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Soil_profile.svg/220px-Soil_profile.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="456" data-file-height="660" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Soil topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedosphere" title="Pedosphere">Pedosphere</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_morphology" title="Soil morphology">Soil morphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedodiversity" title="Pedodiversity">Pedodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_formation" title="Soil formation">Soil formation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_erosion" title="Soil erosion">Soil erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">Soil contamination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_retrogression_and_degradation" title="Soil retrogression and degradation">Soil retrogression and degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_compaction" title="Soil compaction">Soil compaction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_compaction_(agriculture)" title="Soil compaction (agriculture)">Soil compaction (agriculture)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_sealing" title="Soil sealing">Soil sealing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_salinity" title="Soil salinity">Soil salinity</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Alkali soil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_pH" title="Soil pH">Soil pH</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_acidification" title="Soil acidification">Soil acidification</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_health" title="Soil health">Soil health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil life">Soil life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_biodiversity" title="Soil biodiversity">Soil biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_quality" title="Soil quality">Soil quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_value" title="Soil value">Soil value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_fertility" title="Soil fertility">Soil fertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_resilience" title="Soil resilience">Soil resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_color" title="Soil color">Soil color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_texture" title="Soil texture">Soil texture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_structure" title="Soil structure">Soil structure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pore_space_in_soil" title="Pore space in soil">Pore space in soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pore_water_pressure" title="Pore water pressure">Pore water pressure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_crust" title="Soil crust">Soil crust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_horizon" title="Soil horizon">Soil horizon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_biomantle" title="Soil biomantle">Soil biomantle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_carbon" title="Soil carbon">Soil carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_gas" title="Soil gas">Soil gas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_respiration" title="Soil respiration">Soil respiration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_organic_matter" title="Soil organic matter">Soil organic matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_moisture" title="Soil moisture">Soil moisture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_water_(retention)" title="Soil water (retention)">Soil water (retention)</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Soil_type" title="Soil type">Soil type</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Soil_classification" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Soil_type" title="Template:Soil type"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Soil_type" title="Template talk:Soil type"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Soil_type" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Soil type"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Soil_classification" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Soil_classification" title="Soil classification">Soil classification</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/World_Reference_Base_for_Soil_Resources" title="World Reference Base for Soil Resources">World Reference Base<br /> for Soil Resources</a> (1998–)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acrisol" title="Acrisol">Acrisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alisols" class="mw-redirect" title="Alisols">Alisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andosol" title="Andosol">Andosols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthrosol" title="Anthrosol">Anthrosols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psamment" title="Psamment">Arenosols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcisol" title="Calcisol">Calcisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambisol" title="Cambisol">Cambisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernozem" title="Chernozem">Chernozem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryosols" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryosols">Cryosols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durisol" title="Durisol">Durisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferralsols" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferralsols">Ferralsols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluvisol" title="Fluvisol">Fluvisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gleysol" title="Gleysol">Gleysols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gypsisols" class="mw-redirect" title="Gypsisols">Gypsisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histosol" title="Histosol">Histosol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kastanozem" title="Kastanozem">Kastanozems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptosol" title="Leptosol">Leptosols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lixisol" title="Lixisol">Lixisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luvisol" title="Luvisol">Luvisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitisol" title="Nitisol">Nitisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaeozem" title="Phaeozem">Phaeozems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planosol" title="Planosol">Planosols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plinthosol" title="Plinthosol">Plinthosols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Podzol" title="Podzol">Podzols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regosol" title="Regosol">Regosols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retisol" title="Retisol">Retisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solonchak" title="Solonchak">Solonchaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solonetz" title="Solonetz">Solonetz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stagnosol" title="Stagnosol">Stagnosol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technosol" title="Technosol">Technosols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbrisol" title="Umbrisol">Umbrisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertisol" title="Vertisol">Vertisols</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/USDA_soil_taxonomy" title="USDA soil taxonomy">USDA soil taxonomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alfisol" title="Alfisol">Alfisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andisol" title="Andisol">Andisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aridisol" title="Aridisol">Aridisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entisol" title="Entisol">Entisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gelisol" title="Gelisol">Gelisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histosol" title="Histosol">Histosols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inceptisol" title="Inceptisol">Inceptisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mollisol" title="Mollisol">Mollisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxisol" title="Oxisol">Oxisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Podzol" title="Podzol">Spodosols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultisol" title="Ultisol">Ultisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertisol" title="Vertisol">Vertisols</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/FAO_soil_classification" title="FAO soil classification">FAO soil classification</a> (1974–1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_Soil_Classification_System" title="Unified Soil Classification System">Unified Soil Classification System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AASHTO_Soil_Classification_System" title="AASHTO Soil Classification System">AASHTO Soil Classification System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9f%C3%A9rentiel_p%C3%A9dologique" title="Référentiel pédologique">Référentiel pédologique</a> (French classification system)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_system_of_soil_classification" title="Canadian system of soil classification">Canadian system of soil classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Soil_Classification" title="Australian Soil Classification">Australian Soil Classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Soil_Classification" title="Polish Soil Classification">Polish Soil Classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1938_USDA_soil_taxonomy" title="1938 USDA soil taxonomy">1938 USDA soil taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_soils" title="List of U.S. state soils">List of U.S. state soils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_vineyard_soil_types" title="List of vineyard soil types">List of vineyard soil types</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-systematic soil types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">Sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silt" title="Silt">Silt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">Clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loam" title="Loam">Loam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topsoil" title="Topsoil">Topsoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsoil" title="Subsoil">Subsoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_crust" title="Soil crust">Soil crust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claypan" title="Claypan">Claypan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardpan" title="Hardpan">Hardpan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gypcrust" title="Gypcrust">Gypcrust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliche" title="Caliche">Caliche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parent_material" title="Parent material">Parent material</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedosphere" title="Pedosphere">Pedosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laimosphere" title="Laimosphere">Laimosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizosphere" title="Rhizosphere">Rhizosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulk_soil" title="Bulk soil">Bulk soil</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Alkali soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_mud" title="Bay mud">Bay mud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_goo" title="Blue goo">Blue goo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brickearth" title="Brickearth">Brickearth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_earth" title="Brown earth">Brown earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcareous_grassland" title="Calcareous grassland">Calcareous grassland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_earth" title="Dark earth">Dark earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_quicksand" title="Dry quicksand">Dry quicksand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duplex_soil" title="Duplex soil">Duplex soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eluvium" title="Eluvium">Eluvium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expansive_clay" title="Expansive clay">Expansive clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fill_dirt" title="Fill dirt">Fill dirt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuller%27s_earth" title="Fuller's earth">Fuller's earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrophobic_soil" title="Hydrophobic soil">Hydrophobic soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loess" title="Loess">Loess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_soil" class="mw-redirect" title="Lunar soil">Lunar soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martian_soil" class="mw-redirect" title="Martian soil">Martian soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mud" title="Mud">Mud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muskeg" title="Muskeg">Muskeg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleosol" title="Paleosol">Paleosol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">Peat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_farmland" title="Prime farmland">Prime farmland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quicksand" title="Quicksand">Quicksand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serpentine_soil" title="Serpentine soil">Serpentine soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spodic_soil" class="mw-redirect" title="Spodic soil">Spodic soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stagnogley" title="Stagnogley">Stagnogley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subaqueous_soil" title="Subaqueous soil">Subaqueous soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takir_(soil)" title="Takir (soil)">Takir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terra_preta" title="Terra preta">Terra preta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terra_rossa_(soil)" title="Terra rossa (soil)">Terra rossa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_peat" title="Tropical peat">Tropical peat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yedoma" title="Yedoma">Yedoma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Types_of_soil" title="Category:Types of soil">Types of soil</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_conservation" title="Soil conservation">Soil conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_management" title="Soil management">Soil management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_guideline_value" title="Soil guideline value">Soil guideline value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_survey" title="Soil survey">Soil survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_test" title="Soil test">Soil test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_governance" title="Soil governance">Soil governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_value" title="Soil value">Soil value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_salinity_control" title="Soil salinity control">Soil salinity control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erosion_control" title="Erosion control">Erosion control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agroecology" title="Agroecology">Agroecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liming_(soil)" title="Liming (soil)">Liming (soil)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrology" title="Petrology">Petrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geotechnical_engineering" title="Geotechnical engineering">Geotechnical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogeology" title="Hydrogeology">Hydrogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_materials" title="Earth materials">Earth materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_science" title="Agricultural science">Agricultural science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrology" class="mw-redirect" title="Agrology">Agrology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Societies, Initiatives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Society_of_Soil_Science_Incorporated" title="Australian Society of Soil Science Incorporated">Australian Society of Soil Science Incorporated</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Society_of_Soil_Science" title="Canadian Society of Soil Science">Canadian Society of Soil Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Soil_Salinity_Research_Institute" title="Central Soil Salinity Research Institute">Central Soil Salinity Research Institute</a> (India)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Soil_Science_Society" title="German Soil Science Society">German Soil Science Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Institute_of_Soil_Science" title="Indian Institute of Soil Science">Indian Institute of Soil Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Soil_Sciences" title="International Union of Soil Sciences">International Union of Soil Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Year_of_Soil" title="International Year of Soil">International Year of Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Society_of_Consulting_Soil_Scientists" title="National Society of Consulting Soil Scientists">National Society of Consulting Soil Scientists</a> (US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/OPAL_Soil_Centre" title="OPAL Soil Centre">OPAL Soil Centre</a> (UK)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_Science_Society_of_Poland" title="Soil Science Society of Poland">Soil Science Society of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_and_Water_Conservation_Society" title="Soil and Water Conservation Society">Soil and Water Conservation Society</a> (US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_Science_Society_of_America" title="Soil Science Society of America">Soil Science Society of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Congress_of_Soil_Science" title="World Congress of Soil Science">World Congress of Soil Science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientific journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Acta_Agriculturae_Scandinavica_B" title="Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica B">Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica B</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Soil_and_Water_Conservation" title="Journal of Soil and Water Conservation">Journal of Soil and Water Conservation</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plant_and_Soil" title="Plant and Soil">Plant and Soil</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pochvovedenie" title="Pochvovedenie">Pochvovedenie</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Soil_Research" title="Soil Research">Soil Research</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Soil_Science_Society_of_America_Journal" title="Soil Science Society of America Journal">Soil Science Society of America Journal</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">Land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_conversion" class="mw-redirect" title="Land conversion">Land conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_management" title="Land management">Land management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetation" title="Vegetation">Vegetation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infiltration_(hydrology)" title="Infiltration (hydrology)">Infiltration (hydrology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">Groundwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">Crust (geology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impervious_surface" title="Impervious surface">Impervious surface</a>/<a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">Surface runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrichor" title="Petrichor">Petrichor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Project page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/72/Symbol_project_class.svg/16px-Symbol_project_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/72/Symbol_project_class.svg/23px-Symbol_project_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/72/Symbol_project_class.svg/31px-Symbol_project_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Soil" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Soil">Wikipedia:WikiProject Soil</a></li> <li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Soil" title="Category:Soil">Category soil</a></li> <li>  <a href="/wiki/Category:Soil_science" title="Category:Soil science">Category soil science</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/List_of_soil_scientists" title="List of soil scientists">List of soil scientists</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Land_use" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Land_use" title="Template:Land use"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Land_use&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Land use (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Land_use" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Land use"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Land_use" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">Land use</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_development" title="Land development">Development/Conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">Planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_conflict" title="Land-use conflict">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_management" title="Land management">Land management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscaping" title="Landscaping">Landscaping</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_landscape_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrated landscape management">Integrated landscape management</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_grabbing" title="Land grabbing">Land grabbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_consumption" title="Land consumption">Land consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_loss" title="Land loss">Land loss</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">Habitat destruction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_construction" title="Illegal construction">Illegal construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_reclamation" title="Land reclamation">Land reclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_rehabilitation" title="Land rehabilitation">Land rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rangeland_management" title="Rangeland management">Rangeland management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_planning" title="Environmental planning">Environmental planning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leopold_matrix" title="Leopold matrix">Leopold matrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watertable_control" title="Watertable control">Watertable control</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developed_environments" class="mw-redirect" title="Developed environments">Developed environments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Built-up_area" class="mw-redirect" title="Built-up area">Built-up area</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locally_unwanted_land_use" title="Locally unwanted land use">Locally unwanted land use</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Property</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subdivision_(land)" title="Subdivision (land)">Subdivision (land)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate_development" title="Real estate development">Real estate development</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_development_bank" title="Land development bank">Land development bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_(economics)" title="Land (economics)">Land (economics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_land" title="Customary land">Customary land</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">Soil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_science" title="Soil science">Soil science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_compaction" title="Soil compaction">Soil compaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">Soil contamination</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Alkali soil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">Urban planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drainage_system_(agriculture)" title="Drainage system (agriculture)">Drainage system (agriculture)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" 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