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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Isomerism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Isomerism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Isomerism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Isomerism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Stereoisomerism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stereoisomerism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Stereoisomerism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stereoisomerism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cis–trans_isomerism_and_facial–meridional_isomerism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cis–trans_isomerism_and_facial–meridional_isomerism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1.1</span> <span>Cis–trans isomerism and facial–meridional isomerism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cis–trans_isomerism_and_facial–meridional_isomerism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Optical_isomerism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Optical_isomerism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1.2</span> <span>Optical isomerism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Optical_isomerism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structural_isomerism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structural_isomerism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Structural isomerism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structural_isomerism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electronic_properties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electronic_properties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Electronic properties</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Electronic_properties-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Electronic properties subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Electronic_properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Color_of_transition_metal_complexes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Color_of_transition_metal_complexes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Color of transition metal complexes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Color_of_transition_metal_complexes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colors_of_lanthanide_complexes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colors_of_lanthanide_complexes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Colors of lanthanide complexes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colors_of_lanthanide_complexes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Magnetism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magnetism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Magnetism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magnetism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reactivity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reactivity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Reactivity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reactivity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Classification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nomenclature_of_coordination_complexes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nomenclature_of_coordination_complexes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Nomenclature of coordination complexes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nomenclature_of_coordination_complexes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stability_constant" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stability_constant"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Stability constant</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stability_constant-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Application_of_coordination_compounds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Application_of_coordination_compounds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Application of coordination compounds</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Application_of_coordination_compounds-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Application of coordination compounds subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Application_of_coordination_compounds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bioinorganic_chemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bioinorganic_chemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Bioinorganic chemistry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bioinorganic_chemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Industry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Coordination complex</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 43 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-43" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">43 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%82%D8%AF_%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%82%D9%8A" title="معقد تناسقي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="معقد تناسقي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompleks_birl%C9%99%C5%9Fm%C9%99l%C9%99r" title="Kompleks birləşmələr – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Kompleks birləşmələr" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D1%81%D1%8A%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Комплексно съединение – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Комплексно съединение" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koordinacijski_kompleks" title="Koordinacijski kompleks – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Koordinacijski kompleks" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_de_coordinaci%C3%B3" title="Complex de coordinació – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Complex de coordinació" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BB%C4%83_%D1%8F%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BB%C4%83%D1%85" title="Комплекслă япалалăх – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Комплекслă япалалăх" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komplexn%C3%AD_slou%C4%8Denina" title="Komplexní sloučenina – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Komplexní sloučenina" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompleks%C3%BChend" title="Kompleksühend – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kompleksühend" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%8D%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%BA%CE%BF_(%CF%87%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B1)" title="Σύμπλοκο (χημεία) – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Σύμπλοκο (χημεία)" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunordiga_komplekso" title="Kunordiga komplekso – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kunordiga komplekso" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koordinazio_konposatu" title="Koordinazio konposatu – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Koordinazio konposatu" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%85%D9%BE%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%B3_%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="کمپلکس شیمیایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کمپلکس شیمیایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complexe_de_coordination" title="Complexe de coordination – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Complexe de coordination" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coimpl%C3%A9asc_comhordan%C3%A1idithe" title="Coimpléasc comhordanáidithe – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Coimpléasc comhordanáidithe" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%B0%EC%9C%84_%ED%99%94%ED%95%A9%EB%AC%BC" title="배위 화합물 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="배위 화합물" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%BA%D5%AC%D5%A5%D6%84%D5%BD_%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Կոմպլեքս միացություններ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կոմպլեքս միացություններ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95" title="उपसहसंयोजक यौगिक – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="उपसहसंयोजक यौगिक" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complesso_(chimica)" title="Complesso (chimica) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Complesso (chimica)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%A1_(%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%94)" title="קומפלקס (כימיה) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קומפלקס (כימיה)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%96_%D2%9B%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Кешенді қосылыстар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Кешенді қосылыстар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompleksie_savienojumi" title="Kompleksie savienojumi – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kompleksie savienojumi" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8B%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%A1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="കോർഡിനേഷൻ കോംപ്ലക്സ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കോർഡിനേഷൻ കോംപ്ലക്സ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%BD%D1%8D%D0%B3%D0%B4%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Комплекс нэгдэл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Комплекс нэгдэл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co%C3%B6rdinatieverbinding" title="Coördinatieverbinding – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Coördinatieverbinding" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%8C%AF%E4%BD%93" title="錯体 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="錯体" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koordinatsion_birikmalar" title="Koordinatsion birikmalar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Koordinatsion birikmalar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zwi%C4%85zki_kompleksowe" title="Związki kompleksowe – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Związki kompleksowe" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composto_de_coordena%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Composto de coordenação – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Composto de coordenação" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_coordinativ" title="Complex coordinativ – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Complex coordinativ" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Комплексные соединения – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Комплексные соединения" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordination_complex" title="Coordination complex – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Coordination complex" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koordina%C4%8Dn%C3%A1_zl%C3%BA%C4%8Denina" title="Koordinačná zlúčenina – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Koordinačná zlúčenina" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompleksna_spojina" title="Kompleksna spojina – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kompleksna spojina" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%9A%D0%B5%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Комплексно једињење – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Комплексно једињење" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompleksno_jedinjenje" title="Kompleksno jedinjenje – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kompleksno jedinjenje" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="அணைவுச் சேர்மங்கள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அணைவுச் சேர்மங்கள்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%9A%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99" title="สารประกอบโคออร์ดิเนชัน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สารประกอบโคออร์ดิเนชัน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompleks_(kimya)" title="Kompleks (kimya) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kompleks (kimya)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BD%D1%96_%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Комплексні сполуки – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Комплексні сполуки" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%E1%BB%A9c_ch%E1%BA%A5t" title="Phức chất – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Phức chất" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%85%8D%E4%BD%8D%E5%8C%96%E5%90%88%E7%89%A9" title="配位化合物 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="配位化合物" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a 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item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button 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href="/wiki/File:Cisplatin-3D-balls.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Cisplatin-3D-balls.png/260px-Cisplatin-3D-balls.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Cisplatin-3D-balls.png/390px-Cisplatin-3D-balls.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Cisplatin-3D-balls.png/520px-Cisplatin-3D-balls.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="914" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cisplatin" title="Cisplatin">Cisplatin</a>, PtCl<sub>2</sub>(NH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>, is a coordination complex of platinum(II) with two chloride and two ammonia <a href="/wiki/Ligand" title="Ligand">ligands</a>. It is one of the most successful anticancer drugs.</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>coordination complex</b> is a chemical compound consisting of a central <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ion</a>, which is usually <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metallic</a> and is called the <i>coordination centre</i>, and a surrounding array of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">bound</a> <a href="/wiki/Molecules" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecules">molecules</a> or ions, that are in turn known as <i><a href="/wiki/Ligand" title="Ligand">ligands</a></i> or complexing agents.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many metal-containing <a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">compounds</a>, especially those that include <a href="/wiki/Transition_metal" title="Transition metal">transition metals</a> (elements like <a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">titanium</a> that belong to the periodic table's <a href="/wiki/D-block" class="mw-redirect" title="D-block">d-block</a>), are coordination complexes.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nomenclature_and_terminology">Nomenclature and terminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coordination_complex&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Nomenclature and terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Coordination complexes are so pervasive that their structures and reactions are described in many ways, sometimes confusingly. The atom within a ligand that is bonded to the central metal atom or ion is called the <b>donor atom</b>. In a typical complex, a metal ion is bonded to several donor atoms, which can be the same or different. A <a href="/wiki/Ligand#Polydentate_and_polyhapto_ligand_motifs_and_nomenclature" title="Ligand">polydentate</a> (multiple bonded) ligand is a molecule or ion that bonds to the central atom through several of the ligand's atoms; ligands with 2, 3, 4 or even 6 bonds to the central atom are common. These complexes are called <a href="/wiki/Chelate_complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Chelate complex">chelate complexes</a>; the formation of such complexes is called chelation, complexation, and coordination. </p><p>The central atom or ion, together with all ligands, comprise the <a href="/wiki/Coordination_sphere" title="Coordination sphere">coordination sphere</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The central atoms or ion and the donor atoms comprise the first coordination sphere. </p><p><b>Coordination</b> refers to the "coordinate covalent bonds" (<a href="/wiki/Dipolar_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Dipolar bond">dipolar bonds</a>) between the ligands and the central atom. Originally, a complex implied a reversible association of <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a> through such weak <a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">chemical bonds</a>. As applied to coordination chemistry, this meaning has evolved. Some metal complexes are formed virtually irreversibly and many are bound together by bonds that are quite strong.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The number of donor atoms attached to the central atom or ion is called the <a href="/wiki/Coordination_number" title="Coordination number">coordination number</a>. The most common coordination numbers are 2, 4, and especially 6. A hydrated ion is one kind of a complex ion (or simply a complex), a species formed between a central metal ion and one or more surrounding ligands, molecules or ions that contain at least one lone pair of electrons. </p><p>If all the ligands are <a href="/wiki/Denticity" title="Denticity">monodentate</a>, then the number of donor atoms equals the number of ligands. For example, the cobalt(II) hexahydrate ion or the hexaaquacobalt(II) ion [Co(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>6</sub>]<sup>2+</sup> is a hydrated-complex ion that consists of six water molecules attached to a metal ion Co. The oxidation state and the coordination number reflect the number of bonds formed between the metal ion and the ligands in the complex ion. However, the coordination number of Pt(<a href="/wiki/Ethylenediamine" title="Ethylenediamine">en</a>)<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.2em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span> is 4 (rather than 2) since it has two bidentate ligands, which contain four donor atoms in total. </p><p>Any donor atom will give a pair of electrons. There are some donor atoms or groups which can offer more than one pair of electrons. Such are called bidentate (offers two pairs of electrons) or polydentate (offers more than two pairs of electrons). In some cases an atom or a group offers a pair of electrons to two similar or different central metal atoms or acceptors—by division of the electron pair—into a <a href="/wiki/Three-center_two-electron_bond" title="Three-center two-electron bond">three-center two-electron bond</a>. These are called bridging ligands. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coordination_complex&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alfred_Werner_ETH-Bib_Portr_09965.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Alfred_Werner_ETH-Bib_Portr_09965.jpg/170px-Alfred_Werner_ETH-Bib_Portr_09965.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Alfred_Werner_ETH-Bib_Portr_09965.jpg/255px-Alfred_Werner_ETH-Bib_Portr_09965.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Alfred_Werner_ETH-Bib_Portr_09965.jpg/340px-Alfred_Werner_ETH-Bib_Portr_09965.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1395" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Werner" title="Alfred Werner">Alfred Werner</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Coordination complexes have been known since the beginning of modern chemistry. Early well-known coordination complexes include dyes such as <a href="/wiki/Prussian_blue" title="Prussian blue">Prussian blue</a>. Their properties were first well understood in the late 1800s, following the 1869 work of <a href="/wiki/Christian_Wilhelm_Blomstrand" title="Christian Wilhelm Blomstrand">Christian Wilhelm Blomstrand</a>. Blomstrand developed what has come to be known as the <i>complex ion chain theory.</i> In considering metal amine complexes, he theorized that the ammonia molecules compensated for the charge of the ion by forming chains of the type [(NH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>X</sub>]<sup>X+</sup>, where X is the coordination number of the metal ion. He compared his theoretical ammonia chains to hydrocarbons of the form (CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>X</sub>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following this theory, Danish scientist <a href="/wiki/Sophus_Mads_J%C3%B8rgensen" title="Sophus Mads Jørgensen">Sophus Mads Jørgensen</a> made improvements to it. In his version of the theory, Jørgensen claimed that when a molecule dissociates in a solution there were two possible outcomes: the ions would bind via the ammonia chains Blomstrand had described or the ions would bind directly to the metal. </p><p>It was not until 1893 that the most widely accepted version of the theory today was published by <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Werner" title="Alfred Werner">Alfred Werner</a>. Werner's work included two important changes to the Blomstrand theory. The first was that Werner described the two possibilities in terms of location in the coordination sphere. He claimed that if the ions were to form a chain, this would occur outside of the coordination sphere while the ions that bound directly to the metal would do so within the coordination sphere.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In one of his most important discoveries however Werner disproved the majority of the chain theory. Werner discovered the spatial arrangements of the ligands that were involved in the formation of the complex hexacoordinate cobalt. His theory allows one to understand the difference between a coordinated ligand and a charge balancing ion in a compound, for example the chloride ion in the cobaltammine chlorides and to explain many of the previously inexplicable isomers. </p><p>In 1911, Werner first resolved the coordination complex <a href="/wiki/Hexol" title="Hexol">hexol</a> into <a href="/wiki/Enantiomer" title="Enantiomer">optical isomers</a>, overthrowing the theory that only carbon compounds could possess <a href="/wiki/Chirality_(chemistry)" title="Chirality (chemistry)">chirality</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structures">Structures</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coordination_complex&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Structures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hexol-2D-wedged.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Hexol-2D-wedged.png/220px-Hexol-2D-wedged.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Hexol-2D-wedged.png/330px-Hexol-2D-wedged.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Hexol-2D-wedged.png/440px-Hexol-2D-wedged.png 2x" data-file-width="2150" data-file-height="1352" /></a><figcaption>Structure of hexol</figcaption></figure> <p>The ions or molecules surrounding the central atom are called <a href="/wiki/Ligand" title="Ligand">ligands</a>. Ligands are classified as <a href="/wiki/Ligand#Classification_of_ligands_as_L_and_X" title="Ligand">L or X</a> (or a combination thereof), depending on how many electrons they provide for the bond between ligand and central atom. L ligands provide two electrons from a <a href="/wiki/Lone_pair" title="Lone pair">lone electron pair</a>, resulting in a <a href="/wiki/Coordinate_covalent_bond" title="Coordinate covalent bond">coordinate covalent bond</a>. X ligands provide one electron, with the central atom providing the other electron, thus forming a regular <a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">covalent bond</a>. The ligands are said to be <b>coordinated</b> to the atom. For <a href="/wiki/Alkene" title="Alkene">alkenes</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Pi_bond" title="Pi bond">pi bonds</a> can coordinate to metal atoms. An example is <a href="/wiki/Ethylene" title="Ethylene">ethylene</a> in the complex <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su{display:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>span{display:block;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-sub{font-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-sup{font-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65em}</style><span class="chemf nowrap">[PtCl<sub class="template-chem2-sub">3</sub>(C<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub>)]<sup class="template-chem2-sup">−</sup></span> (<a href="/wiki/Zeise%27s_salt" title="Zeise's salt">Zeise's salt</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geometry">Geometry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coordination_complex&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Geometry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In coordination chemistry, a structure is first described by its <a href="/wiki/Coordination_number" title="Coordination number">coordination number</a>, the number of ligands attached to the metal (more specifically, the number of donor atoms). Usually one can count the ligands attached, but sometimes even the counting can become ambiguous. Coordination numbers are normally between two and nine, but large numbers of ligands are not uncommon for the lanthanides and actinides. The number of bonds depends on the size, charge, and <a href="/wiki/Electron_configuration" title="Electron configuration">electron configuration</a> of the metal ion and the ligands. Metal ions may have more than one coordination number. </p><p>Typically the chemistry of transition metal complexes is dominated by interactions between s and p <a href="/wiki/Molecular_orbital" title="Molecular orbital">molecular orbitals</a> of the donor-atoms in the ligands and the d orbitals of the metal ions. The s, p, and d orbitals of the metal can accommodate 18 electrons (see <a href="/wiki/18-Electron_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="18-Electron rule">18-Electron rule</a>). The maximum coordination number for a certain metal is thus related to the electronic configuration of the metal ion (to be more specific, the number of empty orbitals) and to the ratio of the size of the ligands and the metal ion. Large metals and small ligands lead to high coordination numbers, e.g. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">[Mo(CN)<sub class="template-chem2-sub">8</sub>]<sup>4−</sup></span>. Small metals with large ligands lead to low coordination numbers, e.g. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">Pt[P(CMe<sub class="template-chem2-sub">3</sub>)]<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub></span>. Due to their large size, <a href="/wiki/Lanthanide" title="Lanthanide">lanthanides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Actinide" title="Actinide">actinides</a>, and early transition metals tend to have high coordination numbers. </p><p>Most structures follow the points-on-a-sphere pattern (or, as if the central atom were in the middle of a <a href="/wiki/Polyhedron" title="Polyhedron">polyhedron</a> where the corners of that shape are the locations of the ligands), where orbital overlap (between ligand and metal orbitals) and ligand-ligand repulsions tend to lead to certain regular geometries. The most observed geometries are listed below, but there are many cases that deviate from a regular geometry, e.g. due to the use of ligands of diverse types (which results in irregular bond lengths; the coordination atoms do not follow a points-on-a-sphere pattern), due to the size of ligands, or due to <a href="/wiki/Electronic_effect" title="Electronic effect">electronic effects</a> (see, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Jahn%E2%80%93Teller_distortion" class="mw-redirect" title="Jahn–Teller distortion">Jahn–Teller distortion</a>): </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linear_molecular_geometry" title="Linear molecular geometry">Linear</a> for two-coordination</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trigonal_planar_molecular_geometry" title="Trigonal planar molecular geometry">Trigonal planar</a> for three-coordination</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrahedral_molecular_geometry" title="Tetrahedral molecular geometry">Tetrahedral</a> or <a href="/wiki/Square_planar_molecular_geometry" title="Square planar molecular geometry">square planar</a> for four-coordination</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trigonal_bipyramid_molecular_geometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Trigonal bipyramid molecular geometry">Trigonal bipyramidal</a> for five-coordination</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Octahedral_molecular_geometry" title="Octahedral molecular geometry">Octahedral</a> for six-coordination</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentagonal_bipyramidal_molecular_geometry" title="Pentagonal bipyramidal molecular geometry">Pentagonal bipyramidal</a> for seven-coordination</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Square_antiprismatic_molecular_geometry" title="Square antiprismatic molecular geometry">Square antiprismatic</a> for eight-coordination</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tricapped_trigonal_prismatic_molecular_geometry" title="Tricapped trigonal prismatic molecular geometry">Tricapped trigonal prismatic</a> for nine-coordination</li></ul> <p>The idealized descriptions of 5-, 7-, 8-, and 9- coordination are often indistinct geometrically from alternative structures with slightly differing L-M-L (ligand-metal-ligand) angles, e.g. the difference between square pyramidal and trigonal bipyramidal structures.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Square_pyramidal_molecular_geometry" title="Square pyramidal molecular geometry">Square pyramidal</a> for five-coordination<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capped_octahedral_molecular_geometry" title="Capped octahedral molecular geometry">Capped octahedral</a> or <a href="/wiki/Capped_trigonal_prismatic_molecular_geometry" title="Capped trigonal prismatic molecular geometry">capped trigonal prismatic</a> for seven-coordination<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dodecahedral_molecular_geometry" title="Dodecahedral molecular geometry">Dodecahedral</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bicapped_trigonal_prismatic_molecular_geometry" title="Bicapped trigonal prismatic molecular geometry">bicapped trigonal prismatic</a> for eight-coordination<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capped_square_antiprismatic_molecular_geometry" title="Capped square antiprismatic molecular geometry">Capped square antiprismatic</a> for nine-coordination</li></ul> <p>To distinguish between the alternative coordinations for five-coordinated complexes, the <a href="/wiki/Geometry_index" title="Geometry index">τ geometry index</a> was invented by Addison et al.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This index depends on angles by the coordination center and changes between 0 for the square pyramidal to 1 for trigonal bipyramidal structures, allowing to classify the cases in between. This system was later extended to four-coordinated complexes by Houser et al.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and also Okuniewski et al.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In systems with low <a href="/wiki/D_electron_count" title="D electron count">d electron count</a>, due to special electronic effects such as (second-order) <a href="/wiki/Jahn%E2%80%93Teller_effect" title="Jahn–Teller effect">Jahn–Teller</a> stabilization,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> certain geometries (in which the coordination atoms do not follow a points-on-a-sphere pattern) are stabilized relative to the other possibilities, e.g. for some compounds the trigonal prismatic geometry is stabilized relative to octahedral structures for six-coordination. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bent_molecular_geometry" title="Bent molecular geometry">Bent</a> for two-coordination</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trigonal_pyramidal_molecular_geometry" title="Trigonal pyramidal molecular geometry">Trigonal pyramidal</a> for three-coordination</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trigonal_prismatic_molecular_geometry" title="Trigonal prismatic molecular geometry">Trigonal prismatic</a> for six-coordination</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Isomerism">Isomerism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coordination_complex&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Isomerism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The arrangement of the ligands is fixed for a given complex, but in some cases it is mutable by a reaction that forms another stable <a href="/wiki/Isomer" title="Isomer">isomer</a>. </p><p>There exist many kinds of <a href="/wiki/Isomerism" class="mw-redirect" title="Isomerism">isomerism</a> in coordination complexes, just as in many other compounds. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Stereoisomerism">Stereoisomerism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coordination_complex&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Stereoisomerism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Stereoisomerism" title="Stereoisomerism">Stereoisomerism</a> occurs with the same bonds in distinct orientations. Stereoisomerism can be further classified into:<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Cis–trans_isomerism_and_facial–meridional_isomerism"><span id="Cis.E2.80.93trans_isomerism_and_facial.E2.80.93meridional_isomerism"></span>Cis–trans isomerism and facial–meridional isomerism</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coordination_complex&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Cis–trans isomerism and facial–meridional isomerism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Cis%E2%80%93trans_isomerism" title="Cis–trans isomerism">Cis–trans isomerism</a> occurs in octahedral and <a href="/wiki/Square_planar" class="mw-redirect" title="Square planar">square planar</a> complexes (but not tetrahedral). When two ligands are adjacent they are said to be <b>cis</b>, when opposite each other, <b>trans</b>. When three identical ligands occupy one face of an octahedron, the isomer is said to be facial, or <b>fac</b>. In a <i>fac</i> isomer, any two identical ligands are adjacent or <i>cis</i> to each other. If these three ligands and the metal ion are in one plane, the isomer is said to be meridional, or <b>mer</b>. A <i>mer</i> isomer can be considered as a combination of a <i>trans</i> and a <i>cis</i>, since it contains both trans and cis pairs of identical ligands. </p> <div align="center"> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cis-dichlorotetraamminecobalt(III).png" class="mw-file-description" title="cis-[CoCl2(NH3)4]+"><img alt="cis-[CoCl2(NH3)4]+" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Cis-dichlorotetraamminecobalt%28III%29.png/120px-Cis-dichlorotetraamminecobalt%28III%29.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Cis-dichlorotetraamminecobalt%28III%29.png/180px-Cis-dichlorotetraamminecobalt%28III%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Cis-dichlorotetraamminecobalt%28III%29.png/240px-Cis-dichlorotetraamminecobalt%28III%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="1004" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap"><i>cis</i>-[CoCl<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>(NH<sub class="template-chem2-sub">3</sub>)<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub>]<sup class="template-chem2-sup">+</sup></span></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Trans-dichlorotetraamminecobalt(III).png" class="mw-file-description" title="trans-[CoCl2(NH3)4]+"><img alt="trans-[CoCl2(NH3)4]+" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Trans-dichlorotetraamminecobalt%28III%29.png/120px-Trans-dichlorotetraamminecobalt%28III%29.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Trans-dichlorotetraamminecobalt%28III%29.png/180px-Trans-dichlorotetraamminecobalt%28III%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Trans-dichlorotetraamminecobalt%28III%29.png/240px-Trans-dichlorotetraamminecobalt%28III%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="878" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap"><i>trans</i>-[CoCl<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>(NH<sub class="template-chem2-sub">3</sub>)<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub>]<sup class="template-chem2-sup">+</sup></span></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fac-trichlorotriamminecobalt(III).png" class="mw-file-description" title="fac-[CoCl3(NH3)3]"><img alt="fac-[CoCl3(NH3)3]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Fac-trichlorotriamminecobalt%28III%29.png/109px-Fac-trichlorotriamminecobalt%28III%29.png" decoding="async" width="109" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Fac-trichlorotriamminecobalt%28III%29.png/163px-Fac-trichlorotriamminecobalt%28III%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Fac-trichlorotriamminecobalt%28III%29.png/218px-Fac-trichlorotriamminecobalt%28III%29.png 2x" data-file-width="998" data-file-height="1100" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap"><i>fac</i>-[CoCl<sub class="template-chem2-sub">3</sub>(NH<sub class="template-chem2-sub">3</sub>)<sub class="template-chem2-sub">3</sub>]</span></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mer-trichlorotriamminecobalt(III).png" class="mw-file-description" title="mer-[CoCl3(NH3)3]"><img alt="mer-[CoCl3(NH3)3]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Mer-trichlorotriamminecobalt%28III%29.png/120px-Mer-trichlorotriamminecobalt%28III%29.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Mer-trichlorotriamminecobalt%28III%29.png/180px-Mer-trichlorotriamminecobalt%28III%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Mer-trichlorotriamminecobalt%28III%29.png/240px-Mer-trichlorotriamminecobalt%28III%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="974" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap"><i>mer</i>-[CoCl<sub class="template-chem2-sub">3</sub>(NH<sub class="template-chem2-sub">3</sub>)<sub class="template-chem2-sub">3</sub>]</span></div> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Optical_isomerism">Optical isomerism</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coordination_complex&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Optical isomerism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Optical_isomerism" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical isomerism">Optical isomerism</a> occurs when a complex is not superimposable with its mirror image. It is so called because the two isomers are each <a href="/wiki/Optically_active" class="mw-redirect" title="Optically active">optically active</a>, that is, they rotate the plane of <a href="/wiki/Polarized_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Polarized light">polarized light</a> in opposite directions. In the first molecule shown, the symbol Λ (<i><a href="/wiki/Lambda" title="Lambda">lambda</a></i>) is used as a prefix to describe the left-handed propeller twist formed by three bidentate ligands. The second molecule is the mirror image of the first, with the symbol Δ (<i><a href="/wiki/Delta_(letter)" title="Delta (letter)">delta</a></i>) as a prefix for the right-handed propeller twist. The third and fourth molecules are a similar pair of Λ and Δ isomers, in this case with two bidentate ligands and two identical monodentate ligands.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div align="center"> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Delta-tris(oxalato)ferrate(III)-3D-balls.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Λ-[Fe(ox)3]3−"><img alt="Λ-[Fe(ox)3]3−" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Delta-tris%28oxalato%29ferrate%28III%29-3D-balls.png/110px-Delta-tris%28oxalato%29ferrate%28III%29-3D-balls.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Delta-tris%28oxalato%29ferrate%28III%29-3D-balls.png/164px-Delta-tris%28oxalato%29ferrate%28III%29-3D-balls.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Delta-tris%28oxalato%29ferrate%28III%29-3D-balls.png/219px-Delta-tris%28oxalato%29ferrate%28III%29-3D-balls.png 2x" data-file-width="914" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Potassium_ferrioxalate" title="Potassium ferrioxalate"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">Λ-[Fe(ox)<sub class="template-chem2-sub">3</sub>]<sup>3−</sup></span></a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lambda-tris(oxalato)ferrate(III)-3D-balls.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Δ-[Fe(ox)3]3−"><img alt="Δ-[Fe(ox)3]3−" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Lambda-tris%28oxalato%29ferrate%28III%29-3D-balls.png/111px-Lambda-tris%28oxalato%29ferrate%28III%29-3D-balls.png" decoding="async" width="111" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Lambda-tris%28oxalato%29ferrate%28III%29-3D-balls.png/166px-Lambda-tris%28oxalato%29ferrate%28III%29-3D-balls.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Lambda-tris%28oxalato%29ferrate%28III%29-3D-balls.png/221px-Lambda-tris%28oxalato%29ferrate%28III%29-3D-balls.png 2x" data-file-width="1014" data-file-height="1100" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">Δ-[Fe(ox)<sub class="template-chem2-sub">3</sub>]<sup>3−</sup></span></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Delta-cis-dichlorobis(ethylenediamine)cobalt(III).png" class="mw-file-description" title="Λ-cis-[CoCl2(en)2]+"><img alt="Λ-cis-[CoCl2(en)2]+" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Delta-cis-dichlorobis%28ethylenediamine%29cobalt%28III%29.png/78px-Delta-cis-dichlorobis%28ethylenediamine%29cobalt%28III%29.png" decoding="async" width="78" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Delta-cis-dichlorobis%28ethylenediamine%29cobalt%28III%29.png/117px-Delta-cis-dichlorobis%28ethylenediamine%29cobalt%28III%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Delta-cis-dichlorobis%28ethylenediamine%29cobalt%28III%29.png/156px-Delta-cis-dichlorobis%28ethylenediamine%29cobalt%28III%29.png 2x" data-file-width="714" data-file-height="1100" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Cis-Dichlorobis(ethylenediamine)cobalt(III)_chloride" title="Cis-Dichlorobis(ethylenediamine)cobalt(III) chloride"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">Λ-<i>cis</i>-[CoCl<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>(en)<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>]<sup class="template-chem2-sup">+</sup></span></a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lambda-cis-dichlorobis(ethylenediamine)cobalt(III).png" class="mw-file-description" title="Δ-cis-[CoCl2(en)2]+"><img alt="Δ-cis-[CoCl2(en)2]+" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Lambda-cis-dichlorobis%28ethylenediamine%29cobalt%28III%29.png/78px-Lambda-cis-dichlorobis%28ethylenediamine%29cobalt%28III%29.png" decoding="async" width="78" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Lambda-cis-dichlorobis%28ethylenediamine%29cobalt%28III%29.png/117px-Lambda-cis-dichlorobis%28ethylenediamine%29cobalt%28III%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Lambda-cis-dichlorobis%28ethylenediamine%29cobalt%28III%29.png/156px-Lambda-cis-dichlorobis%28ethylenediamine%29cobalt%28III%29.png 2x" data-file-width="714" data-file-height="1100" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">Δ-<i>cis</i>-[CoCl<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>(en)<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>]<sup class="template-chem2-sup">+</sup></span></div> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Structural_isomerism">Structural isomerism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coordination_complex&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Structural isomerism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Structural_isomerism" class="mw-redirect" title="Structural isomerism">Structural isomerism</a> occurs when the bonds are themselves different. Four types of structural isomerism are recognized: ionisation isomerism, solvate or hydrate isomerism, linkage isomerism and coordination isomerism. </p> <ol><li><b>Ionisation isomerism</b> – the isomers give different ions in solution although they have the same composition. This type of isomerism occurs when the counter ion of the complex is also a potential ligand. For example, pentaamminebromocobalt(III) sulphate <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">[Co(NH<sub class="template-chem2-sub">3</sub>)<sub class="template-chem2-sub">5</sub>Br]SO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub></span> is red violet and in solution gives a precipitate with barium chloride, confirming the presence of sulphate ion, while pentaamminesulphatecobalt(III) bromide <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">[Co(NH<sub class="template-chem2-sub">3</sub>)<sub class="template-chem2-sub">5</sub>SO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub>]Br</span> is red and tests negative for sulphate ion in solution, but instead gives a precipitate of AgBr with silver nitrate.<sup id="cite_ref-Huheey_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huheey-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydration_isomerism" title="Hydration isomerism">Solvate or hydrate isomerism</a> – the isomers have the same composition but differ with respect to the number of molecules of solvent that serve as ligand vs simply occupying sites in the crystal. Examples: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">[Cr(H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>O)<sub class="template-chem2-sub">6</sub>]Cl<sub class="template-chem2-sub">3</sub></span> is violet colored, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">[CrCl(H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>O)<sub class="template-chem2-sub">5</sub>]Cl<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>·H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>O</span> is blue-green, and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">[CrCl<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>(H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>O)<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub>]Cl·2H<sub>2</sub>O</span> is dark green. See <a href="/wiki/Water_of_crystallization" title="Water of crystallization">water of crystallization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Huheey_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huheey-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Linkage_isomerism" title="Linkage isomerism">Linkage isomerism</a></b> occurs with ligands with more than one possible donor atom, known as <a href="/wiki/Ambidentate_ligand" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambidentate ligand">ambidentate ligands</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Jolly_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jolly-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <a href="/wiki/Nitrite" title="Nitrite">nitrite</a> can coordinate through O or N.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One pair of nitrite linkage isomers have structures <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">(NH<sub class="template-chem2-sub">3</sub>)<sub class="template-chem2-sub">5</sub>CoNO<span class="template-chem2-su"><span>2+</span><span>2</span></span></span> (nitro isomer) and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">(NH<sub class="template-chem2-sub">3</sub>)<sub class="template-chem2-sub">5</sub>CoONO<sup>2+</sup></span> (nitrito isomer).<sup id="cite_ref-Jolly_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jolly-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Coordination_isomerism" title="Coordination isomerism">Coordination isomerism</a></b> occurs when both positive and negative ions of a salt are complex ions and the two isomers differ in the distribution of ligands between the cation and the anion. For example, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">[Co(NH<sub class="template-chem2-sub">3</sub>)<sub class="template-chem2-sub">6</sub>][Cr(CN)<sub class="template-chem2-sub">6</sub>]</span> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">[Cr(NH<sub class="template-chem2-sub">3</sub>)<sub class="template-chem2-sub">6</sub>][Co(CN)<sub class="template-chem2-sub">6</sub>]</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Huheey_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huheey-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Electronic_properties">Electronic properties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coordination_complex&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Electronic properties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many of the properties of transition metal complexes are dictated by their electronic structures. The electronic structure can be described by a relatively ionic model that ascribes formal charges to the metals and ligands. This approach is the essence of <a href="/wiki/Crystal_field_theory" title="Crystal field theory">crystal field theory</a> (CFT). Crystal field theory, introduced by <a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a> in 1929, gives a <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanically</a> based attempt at understanding complexes. But crystal field theory treats all interactions in a complex as ionic and assumes that the ligands can be approximated by negative point charges. </p><p>More sophisticated models embrace covalency, and this approach is described by <a href="/wiki/Ligand_field_theory" title="Ligand field theory">ligand field theory</a> (LFT) and <a href="/wiki/Molecular_orbital_theory" title="Molecular orbital theory">Molecular orbital theory</a> (MO). Ligand field theory, introduced in 1935 and built from molecular orbital theory, can handle a broader range of complexes and can explain complexes in which the interactions are <a href="/wiki/Covalent" class="mw-redirect" title="Covalent">covalent</a>. The chemical applications of <a href="/wiki/Group_theory" title="Group theory">group theory</a> can aid in the understanding of crystal or ligand field theory, by allowing simple, symmetry based solutions to the formal equations. </p><p>Chemists tend to employ the simplest model required to predict the properties of interest; for this reason, CFT has been a favorite for the discussions when possible. MO and LF theories are more complicated, but provide a more realistic perspective. </p><p>The electronic configuration of the complexes gives them some important properties: </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Copper_complex.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/d5/Copper_complex.jpg/220px-Copper_complex.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d5/Copper_complex.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="240" /></a><figcaption>Synthesis of copper(II)-tetraphenylporphyrin, a metal complex, from <a href="/wiki/Tetraphenylporphyrin" title="Tetraphenylporphyrin">tetraphenylporphyrin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Copper(II)_acetate_monohydrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper(II) acetate monohydrate">copper(II) acetate monohydrate</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Color_of_transition_metal_complexes">Color of transition metal complexes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coordination_complex&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Color of transition metal complexes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Transition metal complexes often have spectacular colors caused by electronic transitions by the absorption of light. For this reason they are often applied as <a href="/wiki/Pigment#Physical_basis" title="Pigment">pigments</a>. Most transitions that are related to colored metal complexes are either d–d transitions or <a href="/wiki/Charge_transfer_band" class="mw-redirect" title="Charge transfer band">charge transfer bands</a>. In a d–d transition, an electron in a d orbital on the metal is excited by a photon to another d orbital of higher energy, therefore d–d transitions occur only for partially-filled d-orbital complexes (d<sup>1–9</sup>). For complexes having d<sup>0</sup> or d<sup>10</sup> configuration, charge transfer is still possible even though d–d transitions are not. A charge transfer band entails promotion of an electron from a metal-based orbital into an empty ligand-based orbital (<a href="/wiki/Charge_transfer_complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Charge transfer complex">metal-to-ligand charge transfer</a> or MLCT). The converse also occurs: excitation of an electron in a ligand-based orbital into an empty metal-based orbital (<a href="/wiki/Charge_transfer_complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Charge transfer complex">ligand-to-metal charge transfer</a> or LMCT). These phenomena can be observed with the aid of electronic spectroscopy; also known as <a href="/wiki/UV-Vis" class="mw-redirect" title="UV-Vis">UV-Vis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For simple compounds with high symmetry, the d–d transitions can be assigned using <a href="/wiki/Tanabe%E2%80%93Sugano_diagram" title="Tanabe–Sugano diagram">Tanabe–Sugano diagrams</a>. These assignments are gaining increased support with <a href="/wiki/Computational_chemistry" title="Computational chemistry">computational chemistry</a>. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Colours of Various Example Coordination Complexes </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>  </th> <th>Fe<sup>2+</sup> </th> <th>Fe<sup>3+</sup> </th> <th>Co<sup>2+</sup> </th> <th>Cu<sup>2+</sup> </th> <th>Al<sup>3+</sup> </th> <th>Cr<sup>3+</sup> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Metal_ions_in_aqueous_solution" title="Metal ions in aqueous solution">Hydrated Ion</a> </th> <td style="background: #CBE9AD;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Hexaaquairon(2+) cation">[Fe(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>6</sub>]<sup>2+</sup></span> <br />Pale green<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Suspended in solution">Solution</span> </td> <td style="background: #EAD558;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Hexaaquairon(3+) cation">[Fe(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>6</sub>]<sup>3+</sup></span> <br />Yellow/brown<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Suspended in solution">Solution</span> </td> <td style="background: #FF99CB;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Hexaaquacobalt(2+) cation">[Co(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>6</sub>]<sup>2+</sup></span><br />Pink<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Suspended in solution">Solution</span> </td> <td style="background: #C7D9F1;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Hexaaquacopper(2+) cation">[Cu(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>6</sub>]<sup>2+</sup></span><br />Blue<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Suspended in solution">Solution</span> </td> <td style="background: #F2F2F2;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Hexaaquaaluminium(3+) cation">[Al(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>6</sub>]<sup>3+</sup></span><br />Colourless<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Suspended in solution">Solution</span> </td> <td style="background: #D7E3BD;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Hexaaquachromium(3+) cation">[Cr(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>6</sub>]<sup>3+</sup></span><br />Green<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Suspended in solution">Solution</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>(OH)<sup>−</sup>, dilute </th> <td style="background: #92D14F;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Tetraaquadihydroxidoiron">[Fe(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>4</sub>(OH)<sub>2</sub>]</span> <br />Dark green<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Precipitates from solution">Precipitate</span> </td> <td style="background: #9B752A;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Triaquatrihydroxidoiron">[Fe(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>3</sub>(OH)<sub>3</sub>]</span><br />Brown<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Precipitates from solution">Precipitate</span> </td> <td style="background: #8AE5D6;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Tetraaquadihydroxidocobalt">[Co(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>4</sub>(OH)<sub>2</sub>]</span><br />Blue/green<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Precipitates from solution">Precipitate</span> </td> <td style="background: #8EB2E2;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Tetraaquadihydroxidocopper">[Cu(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>4</sub>(OH)<sub>2</sub>]</span><br />Blue<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Precipitates from solution">Precipitate</span> </td> <td style="background: #FFFFFF;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Triaquatrihydroxidoaluminium">[Al(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>3</sub>(OH)<sub>3</sub>]</span><br />White<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Precipitates from solution">Precipitate</span> </td> <td style="background: #76923D;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Triaquatrihydroxidochromium">[Cr(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>3</sub>(OH)<sub>3</sub>]</span><br />Green<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Precipitates from solution">Precipitate</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>(OH)<sup>−</sup>, concentrated </th> <td style="background: #92D14F;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Tetraaquadihydroxidoiron">[Fe(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>4</sub>(OH)<sub>2</sub>]</span> <br />Dark green<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Precipitates from solution">Precipitate</span> </td> <td style="background: #9B752A;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Triaquatrihydroxidoiron">[Fe(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>3</sub>(OH)<sub>3</sub>]</span><br />Brown<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Precipitates from solution">Precipitate</span> </td> <td style="background: #8AE5D6;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Tetraaquadihydroxidocobalt">[Co(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>4</sub>(OH)<sub>2</sub>]</span><br />Blue/green<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Precipitates from solution">Precipitate</span> </td> <td style="background: #8EB2E2;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Tetraaquadihydroxidocopper">[Cu(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>4</sub>(OH)<sub>2</sub>]</span><br />Blue<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Precipitates from solution">Precipitate</span> </td> <td style="background: #FFFFFF;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Tetrahydroxidoaluminium">[Al(OH)<sub>4</sub>]<sup>−</sup></span><br />Colourless<br />Solution </td> <td style="background: #C3D59B;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Hexahydroxidochromate(3−) anion">[Cr(OH)<sub>6</sub>]<sup>3−</sup></span><br />Green<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Suspended in solution">Solution</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>NH<sub>3</sub>, dilute </th> <td style="background: #92D14F;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Hexaammineiron">[Fe(NH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>6</sub>]<sup>2+</sup></span><br />Dark green<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Precipitates from solution">Precipitate</span> </td> <td style="background: #9B752A;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Hexaammineiron">[Fe(NH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>6</sub>]<sup>3+</sup></span><br />Brown<br /> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Precipitates from solution">Precipitate</span> </td> <td style="background: #D3D359;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Hexaamminecobalt(2+) cation">[Co(NH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>6</sub>]<sup>2+</sup></span><br />Straw coloured<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Suspended in solution">Solution</span> </td> <td style="background: #548DD4;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Tetraamminediaquacopper(2+) cation">[Cu(NH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>4</sub>(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>2</sub>]<sup>2+</sup></span><br />Deep blue<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Suspended in solution">Solution</span> </td> <td style="background: #FFFFFF;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Triamminealuminium">[Al(NH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>]<sup>3+</sup></span><br />White<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Precipitates from solution">Precipitate</span> </td> <td style="background: #CC0099;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="hexaamminechromium(3+) cation">[Cr(NH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>6</sub>]<sup>3+</sup></span><br />Purple<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Suspended in solution">Solution</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>NH<sub>3</sub>, concentrated </th> <td style="background: #92D14F;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Hexaammineiron">[Fe(NH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>6</sub>]<sup>2+</sup></span><br />Dark green<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Precipitates from solution">Precipitate</span> </td> <td style="background: #9B752A;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Hexaammineiron">[Fe(NH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>6</sub>]<sup>3+</sup></span><br />Brown<br /> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Precipitates from solution">Precipitate</span> </td> <td style="background: #D3D359;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Hexaamminecobalt(2+) cation">[Co(NH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>6</sub>]<sup>2+</sup></span><br />Straw coloured<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Suspended in solution">Solution</span> </td> <td style="background: #548DD4;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Tetraamminediaquacopper(2+) cation">[Cu(NH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>4</sub>(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>2</sub>]<sup>2+</sup></span><br />Deep blue<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Suspended in solution">Solution</span> </td> <td style="background: #FFFFFF;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Triamminealuminium">[Al(NH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>]<sup>3+</sup></span><br />White<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Precipitates from solution">Precipitate</span> </td> <td style="background: #CC0099;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="hexaamminechromium(3+) cation">[Cr(NH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>6</sub>]<sup>3+</sup></span><br />Purple<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Suspended in solution">Solution</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>(CO<sub>3</sub>)<sup>2-</sup> </th> <td style="background: #92D14F;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Iron(II) carbonate">FeCO<sub>3</sub></span><br />Dark green<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Precipitates from solution">Precipitate</span> </td> <td style="background: #9B752A;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Iron(III) carbonate">Fe<sub>2</sub>(CO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub></span><br />Brown<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Precipitates from solution">Precipitate+bubbles</span> </td> <td style="background: #FF99CB;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Cobalt(II) carbonate">CoCO<sub>3</sub></span><br />Pink<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Precipitates from solution with an effervescence of Carbon Dioxide">Precipitate</span> </td> <td style="background: #8AE5D6;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Copper(II) carbonate">CuCO<sub>3</sub></span><br />Blue/green<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Precipitates from solution">Precipitate</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colors_of_lanthanide_complexes">Colors of lanthanide complexes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coordination_complex&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Colors of lanthanide complexes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Superficially <a href="/wiki/Lanthanide" title="Lanthanide">lanthanide</a> complexes are similar to those of the transition metals in that some are colored. However, for the common Ln<sup>3+</sup> ions (Ln = lanthanide) the colors are all pale, and hardly influenced by the nature of the ligand. The colors are due to 4f electron transitions. As the 4f orbitals in lanthanides are "buried" in the xenon core and shielded from the ligand by the 5s and 5p orbitals they are therefore not influenced by the ligands to any great extent leading to a much smaller <a href="/wiki/Crystal_field_theory" title="Crystal field theory">crystal field</a> splitting than in the transition metals. The absorption spectra of an Ln<sup>3+</sup> ion approximates to that of the free ion where the electronic states are described by <a href="/wiki/Angular_momentum_coupling#Spin-orbit_coupling" title="Angular momentum coupling">spin-orbit coupling</a>. This contrasts to the transition metals where the ground state is split by the crystal field. Absorptions for Ln<sup>3+</sup> are weak as electric dipole transitions are parity forbidden (<a href="/wiki/Laporte_rule" title="Laporte rule">Laporte forbidden</a>) but can gain intensity due to the effect of a low-symmetry ligand field or mixing with higher electronic states (<i>e.g.</i> d orbitals). f-f absorption bands are extremely sharp which contrasts with those observed for transition metals which generally have broad bands.<sup id="cite_ref-C&W6th_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-C&W6th-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CottonSA2006_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CottonSA2006-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can lead to extremely unusual effects, such as significant color changes under different forms of lighting. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Magnetism">Magnetism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coordination_complex&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Magnetism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Magnetochemistry" title="Magnetochemistry">magnetochemistry</a></div> <p>Metal complexes that have unpaired electrons are <a href="/wiki/Paramagnetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Paramagnetic">paramagnetic</a>. This can be due to an odd number of electrons overall, or to incomplete electron-pairing. Thus, monomeric Ti(III) species have one "d-electron" and must be <a href="/wiki/Paramagnetism" title="Paramagnetism">(para)magnetic</a>, regardless of the geometry or the nature of the ligands. Ti(II), with two d-electrons, forms some complexes that have two unpaired electrons and others with none. This effect is illustrated by the compounds TiX<sub>2</sub>[(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>PCH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>P(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>]<sub>2</sub>: when X = <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">Cl</a>, the complex is paramagnetic (<a href="/wiki/High_spin" class="mw-redirect" title="High spin">high-spin</a> configuration), whereas when X = <a href="/wiki/Methyl_group" title="Methyl group">CH<sub>3</sub></a>, it is diamagnetic (<a href="/wiki/Low_spin" class="mw-redirect" title="Low spin">low-spin</a> configuration). Ligands provide an important means of adjusting the <a href="/wiki/Ground_state" title="Ground state">ground state</a> properties. </p><p>In bi- and polymetallic complexes, in which the individual centres have an odd number of electrons or that are high-spin, the situation is more complicated. If there is interaction (either direct or through ligand) between the two (or more) metal centres, the electrons may couple (<a href="/wiki/Antiferromagnetism" title="Antiferromagnetism">antiferromagnetic coupling</a>, resulting in a diamagnetic compound), or they may enhance each other (<a href="/wiki/Ferromagnetism" title="Ferromagnetism">ferromagnetic coupling</a>). When there is no interaction, the two (or more) individual metal centers behave as if in two separate molecules. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reactivity">Reactivity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coordination_complex&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Reactivity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Complexes show a variety of possible reactivities:<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Electron transfers <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Electron_transfer" title="Electron transfer">Electron transfer</a> (ET) between metal ions can occur via two distinct mechanisms, <a href="/wiki/Inner_sphere_electron_transfer" title="Inner sphere electron transfer">inner</a> and <a href="/wiki/Outer_sphere_electron_transfer" title="Outer sphere electron transfer">outer sphere electron transfers</a>. In an inner sphere reaction, a <a href="/wiki/Bridging_ligand" title="Bridging ligand">bridging ligand</a> serves as a conduit for ET.</dd></dl></li> <li>(Degenerate) <a href="/wiki/Ligand_exchange" class="mw-redirect" title="Ligand exchange">ligand exchange</a> <dl><dd>One important indicator of reactivity is the rate of degenerate exchange of ligands. For example, the rate of interchange of coordinate water in [M(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>6</sub>]<sup><i>n</i>+</sup> complexes varies over 20 orders of magnitude. Complexes where the ligands are released and rebound rapidly are classified as labile. Such labile complexes can be quite stable thermodynamically. Typical labile metal complexes either have low-charge (Na<sup>+</sup>), electrons in d-orbitals that are <a href="/wiki/Antibonding" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibonding">antibonding</a> with respect to the ligands (Zn<sup>2+</sup>), or lack covalency (Ln<sup>3+</sup>, where Ln is any lanthanide). The lability of a metal complex also depends on the high-spin vs. low-spin configurations when such is possible. Thus, high-spin Fe(II) and Co(III) form labile complexes, whereas low-spin analogues are inert. Cr(III) can exist only in the low-spin state (quartet), which is inert because of its high formal oxidation state, absence of electrons in orbitals that are M–L antibonding, plus some "ligand field stabilization" associated with the d<sup>3</sup> configuration.</dd></dl></li> <li>Associative processes <dl><dd>Complexes that have unfilled or half-filled orbitals are often capable of reacting with substrates. Most substrates have a singlet ground-state; that is, they have lone electron pairs (e.g., water, amines, ethers), so these substrates need an empty orbital to be able to react with a metal centre. Some substrates (e.g., molecular oxygen) <a href="/wiki/Triplet_oxygen" title="Triplet oxygen">have a triplet ground state</a>, which results that metals with half-filled orbitals have a tendency to react with such substrates (it must be said that the <a href="/wiki/Dioxygen" class="mw-redirect" title="Dioxygen">dioxygen</a> molecule also has lone pairs, so it is also capable to react as a 'normal' Lewis base).</dd></dl></li></ul> <p>If the ligands around the metal are carefully chosen, the metal can aid in (<a href="/wiki/Stoichiometric" class="mw-redirect" title="Stoichiometric">stoichiometric</a> or <a href="/wiki/Catalytic" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalytic">catalytic</a>) transformations of molecules or be used as a sensor. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coordination_complex&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Metal complexes, also known as coordination compounds, include virtually all metal compounds.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The study of "coordination chemistry" is the study of "inorganic chemistry" of all <a href="/wiki/Alkali_metal" title="Alkali metal">alkali</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal" title="Alkaline earth metal">alkaline earth metals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transition_metal" title="Transition metal">transition metals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lanthanide" title="Lanthanide">lanthanides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Actinides" class="mw-redirect" title="Actinides">actinides</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Metalloid" title="Metalloid">metalloids</a>. Thus, coordination chemistry is the chemistry of the majority of the periodic table. Metals and metal ions exist, in the condensed phases at least, only surrounded by ligands. </p><p>The areas of coordination chemistry can be classified according to the nature of the ligands, in broad terms: </p> <ul><li>Classical (or "<a href="/wiki/Alfred_Werner" title="Alfred Werner">Werner</a> Complexes"): Ligands in classical coordination chemistry bind to metals, almost exclusively, via their <a href="/wiki/Lone_pair" title="Lone pair">lone pairs</a> of electrons residing on the main-group atoms of the ligand. Typical ligands are H<sub>2</sub>O, NH<sub>3</sub>, <a href="/wiki/Chloride" title="Chloride">Cl<sup>−</sup></a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyanide" title="Cyanide">CN<sup>−</sup></a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethylenediamine" title="Ethylenediamine">en</a>. Some of the simplest members of such complexes are described in <a href="/wiki/Metal_aquo_complex" title="Metal aquo complex">metal aquo complexes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metal_ammine_complex" title="Metal ammine complex">metal ammine complexes</a>,</li></ul> <dl><dd>Examples: [Co(<a href="/wiki/EDTA" class="mw-redirect" title="EDTA">EDTA</a>)]<sup>−</sup>, <a href="/wiki/Cobalt(III)_hexammine_chloride" class="mw-redirect" title="Cobalt(III) hexammine chloride">[Co(NH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>6</sub>]<sup>3+</sup></a>, <a href="/wiki/Potassium_ferrioxalate" title="Potassium ferrioxalate">[Fe(C<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub>]<sup>3-</sup></a></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organometallic_chemistry" title="Organometallic chemistry">Organometallic chemistry</a>: Ligands are organic (alkenes, alkynes, alkyls) as well as "organic-like" ligands such as phosphines, hydride, and CO.</li></ul> <dl><dd>Example: <a href="/wiki/Cyclopentadienyliron_dicarbonyl_dimer" title="Cyclopentadienyliron dicarbonyl dimer">(C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>5</sub>)Fe(CO)<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>3</sub></a></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioinorganic_chemistry" title="Bioinorganic chemistry">Bioinorganic chemistry</a>: Ligands are those provided by nature, especially including the side chains of amino acids, and many <a href="/wiki/Cofactor_(biochemistry)" title="Cofactor (biochemistry)">cofactors</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Porphyrin" title="Porphyrin">porphyrins</a>.</li></ul> <dl><dd>Example: <a href="/wiki/Hemoglobin" title="Hemoglobin">hemoglobin</a> contains <a href="/wiki/Heme" title="Heme">heme</a>, a porphyrin complex of iron</dd> <dd>Example: <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">chlorophyll</a> contains a porphyrin complex of magnesium</dd> <dd>Many natural ligands are "classical" especially including water.</dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atom_cluster" class="mw-redirect" title="Atom cluster">Cluster chemistry</a>: Ligands include all of the above as well as other metal ions or atoms as well.</li></ul> <dl><dd>Example Ru<sub>3</sub>(CO)<sub>12</sub></dd></dl> <ul><li>In some cases there are combinations of different fields:</li></ul> <dl><dd>Example: <a href="/wiki/Iron%E2%80%93sulfur_protein" title="Iron–sulfur protein">[Fe<sub>4</sub>S<sub>4</sub>(Scysteinyl)<sub>4</sub>]<sup>2−</sup></a>, in which a cluster is embedded in a biologically active species.</dd></dl> <p><a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">Mineralogy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">materials science</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Solid_state_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid state chemistry">solid state chemistry</a> – as they apply to metal ions – are subsets of coordination chemistry in the sense that the metals are surrounded by ligands. In many cases these ligands are oxides or sulfides, but the metals are coordinated nonetheless, and the principles and guidelines discussed below apply. In <a href="/wiki/Water_of_crystallization" title="Water of crystallization">hydrates</a>, at least some of the ligands are water molecules. It is true that the focus of mineralogy, materials science, and solid state chemistry differs from the usual focus of coordination or inorganic chemistry. The former are concerned primarily with polymeric structures, properties arising from a collective effects of many highly interconnected metals. In contrast, coordination chemistry focuses on reactivity and properties of complexes containing individual metal atoms or small ensembles of metal atoms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nomenclature_of_coordination_complexes">Nomenclature of coordination complexes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coordination_complex&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Nomenclature of coordination complexes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The basic procedure for naming a complex is: </p> <ol><li>When naming a complex ion, the ligands are named before the metal ion.</li> <li>The ligands' names are given in alphabetical order. Numerical prefixes do not affect the order. <ul><li>Multiple occurring monodentate ligands receive a prefix according to the number of occurrences: <i>di-</i>, <i>tri-</i>, <i>tetra-</i>, <i>penta-</i>, or <i>hexa-</i>.</li> <li>Multiple occurring polydentate ligands (e.g., ethylenediamine, oxalate) receive <i>bis-</i>, <i>tris-</i>, <i>tetrakis-</i>, etc.</li> <li>Anions end in <i>o</i>. This replaces the final 'e' when the anion ends with '-ide', '-ate' or '-ite', e.g. <i>chloride</i> becomes <i>chlorido</i> and <i>sulfate</i> becomes <i>sulfato</i>. Formerly, '-ide' was changed to '-o' (e.g. <i>chloro</i> and <i>cyano</i>), but this rule has been modified in the 2005 IUPAC recommendations and the correct forms for these ligands are now <i>chlorido</i> and <i>cyanido</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-iupac_org_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iupac_org-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Neutral ligands are given their usual name, with some exceptions: NH<sub>3</sub> becomes <i><a href="/wiki/Ammine" class="mw-redirect" title="Ammine">ammine</a></i>; H<sub>2</sub>O becomes <i>aqua</i> or <i>aquo</i>; CO becomes <i>carbonyl</i>; NO becomes <i>nitrosyl</i>.</li></ul></li> <li>Write the name of the central atom/ion. If the complex is an anion, the central atom's name will end in <i>-ate</i>, and its Latin name will be used if available (except for mercury).</li> <li>The oxidation state of the central atom is to be specified (when it is one of several possible, or zero), and should be written as a Roman numeral (or 0) enclosed in parentheses.</li> <li>Name of the cation should be preceded by the name of anion. (if applicable, as in last example)</li></ol> <p>Examples: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>metal </th> <th>changed to </th></tr> <tr> <td>cobalt </td> <td>cobaltate </td></tr> <tr> <td>aluminium </td> <td>aluminate </td></tr> <tr> <td>chromium </td> <td>chromate </td></tr> <tr> <td>vanadium </td> <td>vanadate </td></tr> <tr> <td>copper </td> <td>cuprate </td></tr> <tr> <td>iron </td> <td>ferrate </td></tr></tbody></table> <dl><dd>[Cd(CN)<sub>2</sub>(en)<sub>2</sub>] → dicyanidobis(ethylenediamine)cadmium(II)</dd> <dd>[CoCl(NH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>5</sub>]SO<sub>4</sub> → pentaamminechloridocobalt(III) sulfate</dd> <dd>[Cu(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>6</sub>] <sup>2+</sup> → hexaaquacopper(II) ion</dd> <dd>[CuCl<sub>5</sub>NH<sub>3</sub>]<sup>3−</sup> → amminepentachloridocuprate(II) ion</dd> <dd>K<sub>4</sub>[Fe(CN)<sub>6</sub>] → potassium hexacyanidoferrate(II)</dd> <dd>[NiCl<sub>4</sub>]<sup>2−</sup> → tetrachloridonickelate(II) ion (The use of chloro- was removed from IUPAC naming convention)<sup id="cite_ref-iupac_org_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iupac_org-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>The coordination number of ligands attached to more than one metal (bridging ligands) is indicated by a subscript to the Greek symbol <a href="/wiki/Mu_(letter)" title="Mu (letter)">μ</a> placed before the ligand name. Thus the <a href="/wiki/Dimer_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dimer (chemistry)">dimer</a> of <a href="/wiki/Aluminium_trichloride" class="mw-redirect" title="Aluminium trichloride">aluminium trichloride</a> is described by Al<sub>2</sub>Cl<sub>4</sub>(μ<sub>2</sub>-Cl)<sub>2</sub>. </p><p>Any anionic group can be electronically stabilized by any cation. An anionic complex can be stabilised by a hydrogen cation, becoming an acidic complex which can dissociate to release the cationic hydrogen. This kind of complex compound has a name with "ic" added after the central metal. For example, H<sub>2</sub>[Pt(CN)<sub>4</sub>] has the name tetracyanoplatinic (II) acid. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Stability_constant">Stability constant</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coordination_complex&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Stability constant"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Stability_constants_of_complexes" title="Stability constants of complexes">Stability constants of complexes</a></div> <p>The affinity of metal ions for ligands is described by a stability constant, also called the formation constant, and is represented by the symbol K<sub>f</sub>. It is the <a href="/wiki/Equilibrium_constant" title="Equilibrium constant">equilibrium constant</a> for its assembly from the constituent metal and ligands, and can be calculated accordingly, as in the following example for a simple case: </p> <dl><dd>xM <sub>(aq)</sub> + yL <sub>(aq) </sub> ⇌ zZ <sub>(aq)</sub></dd></dl> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle K_{f}={\frac {[{\text{Z}}]^{z}}{[{\text{M}}]^{x}[{\text{L}}]^{y}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>K</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>f</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>Z</mtext> </mrow> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>z</mi> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>M</mtext> </mrow> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>x</mi> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>L</mtext> </mrow> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>y</mi> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle K_{f}={\frac {[{\text{Z}}]^{z}}{[{\text{M}}]^{x}[{\text{L}}]^{y}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/868b5effa35af1d28b2bac1f0badf0e007fcf290" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:15.437ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle K_{f}={\frac {[{\text{Z}}]^{z}}{[{\text{M}}]^{x}[{\text{L}}]^{y}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where : x, y, and z are the <a href="/wiki/Stoichiometric" class="mw-redirect" title="Stoichiometric">stoichiometric</a> coefficients of each species. M stands for metal / metal ion , the L for Lewis bases , and finally Z for complex ions. Formation constants vary widely. Large values indicate that the metal has high affinity for the ligand, provided the system is at equilibrium.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sometimes the stability constant will be in a different form known as the constant of destability. This constant is expressed as the inverse of the constant of formation and is denoted as K<sub>d</sub> = 1/K<sub>f</sub> .<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This constant represents the reverse reaction for the decomposition of a complex ion into its individual metal and ligand components. When comparing the values for K<sub>d</sub>, the larger the value, the more unstable the complex ion is. </p><p>As a result of these complex ions forming in solutions they also can play a key role in solubility of other compounds. When a complex ion is formed it can alter the concentrations of its components in the solution. For example: </p> <dl><dd>Ag<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.2em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">(aq)</sub></span></span> + 2<span class="nowrap"> </span>NH<sub>3</sub> ⇌ Ag(NH<sub>3</sub>)<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.2em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></dd></dl> <dl><dd>AgCl<sub>(s)</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>(l)</sub> ⇌ Ag<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.2em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">(aq)</sub></span></span> + Cl<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.2em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">(aq)</sub></span></span></dd></dl> <p>If these reactions both occurred in the same reaction vessel, the solubility of the silver chloride would be increased by the presence of NH<sub>4</sub>OH because formation of the Diammine argentum(I) complex consumes a significant portion of the free silver ions from the solution. By <a href="/wiki/Le_Chatelier%27s_principle" title="Le Chatelier's principle">Le Chatelier's principle</a>, this causes the equilibrium reaction for the dissolving of the silver chloride, which has silver ion as a product, to shift to the right. </p><p>This new solubility can be calculated given the values of K<sub>f</sub> and K<sub>sp</sub> for the original reactions. The solubility is found essentially by combining the two separate equilibria into one combined equilibrium reaction and this combined reaction is the one that determines the new solubility. So K<sub>c</sub>, the new solubility constant, is denoted by: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle K_{c}=K_{sp}K_{f}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>K</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>K</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>K</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>f</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle K_{c}=K_{sp}K_{f}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1d44428d86071e2977c215ab90a085834e3ab30f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:12.928ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle K_{c}=K_{sp}K_{f}}"></span></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Application_of_coordination_compounds">Application of coordination compounds</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coordination_complex&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Application of coordination compounds"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As metals only exist in solution as coordination complexes, it follows then that this class of compounds is useful in a wide variety of ways. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bioinorganic_chemistry">Bioinorganic chemistry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coordination_complex&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Bioinorganic chemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Bioinorganic_chemistry" title="Bioinorganic chemistry">bioinorganic chemistry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bioorganometallic_chemistry" title="Bioorganometallic chemistry">bioorganometallic chemistry</a>, coordination complexes serve either structural or catalytic functions. An estimated 30% of proteins contain metal ions. Examples include the intensely colored <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_B12" title="Vitamin B12">vitamin B<sub>12</sub></a>, the <a href="/wiki/Heme" title="Heme">heme group</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hemoglobin" title="Hemoglobin">hemoglobin</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Cytochrome" title="Cytochrome">cytochromes</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Chlorin" title="Chlorin">chlorin group</a> in <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">chlorophyll</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carboxypeptidase" title="Carboxypeptidase">carboxypeptidase</a>, a hydrolytic enzyme important in digestion. Another complex ion enzyme is <a href="/wiki/Catalase" title="Catalase">catalase</a>, which decomposes the cell's waste <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_peroxide" title="Hydrogen peroxide">hydrogen peroxide</a>. Synthetic coordination compounds are also used to bind to proteins and especially nucleic acids (e.g. anticancer drug <a href="/wiki/Cisplatin" title="Cisplatin">cisplatin</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industry">Industry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coordination_complex&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Industry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Homogeneous_catalysis" title="Homogeneous catalysis">Homogeneous catalysis</a> is a major application of coordination compounds for the production of organic substances. Processes include <a href="/wiki/Hydrogenation" title="Hydrogenation">hydrogenation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydroformylation" title="Hydroformylation">hydroformylation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation">oxidation</a>. In one example, a combination of titanium trichloride and triethylaluminium gives rise to <a href="/wiki/Ziegler%E2%80%93Natta_catalyst" title="Ziegler–Natta catalyst">Ziegler–Natta catalysts</a>, used for the <a href="/wiki/Polymerization" title="Polymerization">polymerization</a> of ethylene and propylene to give polymers of great commercial importance as fibers, films, and plastics. </p><p>Nickel, cobalt, and copper can be extracted using <a href="/wiki/Hydrometallurgy" title="Hydrometallurgy">hydrometallurgical processes</a> involving complex ions. They are extracted from their ores as <a href="/wiki/Metal_ammine_complex" title="Metal ammine complex">ammine</a> complexes. Metals can also be separated using the selective precipitation and solubility of complex ions. Cyanide is used chiefly for extraction of gold and silver from their ores. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Phthalocyanine" title="Phthalocyanine">Phthalocyanine</a> complexes are an important class of pigments. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Analysis">Analysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coordination_complex&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At one time, coordination compounds were used to identify the presence of metals in a sample. <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_inorganic_analysis" title="Qualitative inorganic analysis">Qualitative inorganic analysis</a> has largely been superseded by instrumental methods of analysis such as <a href="/wiki/Atomic_absorption_spectroscopy" title="Atomic absorption spectroscopy">atomic absorption spectroscopy</a> (AAS), <a href="/wiki/Inductively_coupled_plasma_atomic_emission_spectroscopy" title="Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy">inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy</a> (ICP-AES) and <a href="/wiki/Inductively_coupled_plasma_mass_spectrometry" title="Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry">inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry</a> (ICP-MS). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coordination_complex&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox 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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Coordination_compounds" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Coordination compounds">Coordination compounds</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Activated_complex" title="Activated complex">Activated complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IUPAC_nomenclature_of_inorganic_chemistry" title="IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry">IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coordination_cage" title="Coordination cage">Coordination cage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coordination_geometry" title="Coordination geometry">Coordination geometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coordination_isomerism" title="Coordination isomerism">Coordination isomerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coordination_polymers" class="mw-redirect" title="Coordination polymers">Coordination polymers</a>, in which coordination complexes are the repeating units.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inclusion_compound" class="mw-redirect" title="Inclusion compound">Inclusion compounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organometallic_chemistry" title="Organometallic chemistry">Organometallic chemistry</a> deals with a special class of coordination compounds where organic fragments are bonded to a metal at least through one C atom.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coordination_complex&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLawrance2010" class="citation book cs1">Lawrance, Geoffrey A. (2010). <i>Introduction to Coordination Chemistry</i>. Wiley. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9780470687123">10.1002/9780470687123</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780470687123" title="Special:BookSources/9780470687123"><bdi>9780470687123</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Coordination+Chemistry&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9780470687123&rft.isbn=9780470687123&rft.aulast=Lawrance&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoordination+complex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry" title="International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry">IUPAC</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/IUPAC_books#Gold_Book" class="mw-redirect" title="IUPAC books">Compendium of Chemical Terminology</a></i>, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://goldbook.iupac.org/terms/view/C01203.html">complex</a>". <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1351%2Fgoldbook.C01203">10.1351/goldbook.C01203</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry" title="International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry">IUPAC</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/IUPAC_books#Gold_Book" class="mw-redirect" title="IUPAC books">Compendium of Chemical Terminology</a></i>, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://goldbook.iupac.org/terms/view/C01330.html">coordination entity</a>". <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1351%2Fgoldbook.C01330">10.1351/goldbook.C01330</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenwoodEarnshaw1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Greenwood" title="Norman Greenwood">Greenwood, Norman N.</a>; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). <i>Chemistry of the Elements</i> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Butterworth-Heinemann" title="Butterworth-Heinemann">Butterworth-Heinemann</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-037941-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-037941-8"><bdi>978-0-08-037941-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chemistry+of+the+Elements&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Butterworth-Heinemann&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-08-037941-8&rft.aulast=Greenwood&rft.aufirst=Norman+N.&rft.au=Earnshaw%2C+Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoordination+complex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chemistry-dictionary.com/definition/coordination+sphere.php">"Definition of coordination sphere"</a>. <i>chemistry-dictionary.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=chemistry-dictionary.com&rft.atitle=Definition+of+coordination+sphere&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chemistry-dictionary.com%2Fdefinition%2Fcoordination%2Bsphere.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoordination+complex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/cchem/whatis.html">"What Is A Coordination Compound?"</a>. Purdue University Department of Chemistry.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+Is+A+Coordination+Compound%3F&rft.pub=Purdue+University+Department+of+Chemistry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chem.purdue.edu%2Fgchelp%2Fcchem%2Fwhatis.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoordination+complex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCottonGeoffrey_WilkinsonCarlos_A._Murillo1999" class="citation book cs1">Cotton, Frank Albert; Geoffrey Wilkinson; Carlos A. Murillo (1999). <i>Advanced Inorganic Chemistry</i>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 1355. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-19957-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-19957-1"><bdi>978-0-471-19957-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Advanced+Inorganic+Chemistry&rft.pages=1355&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-471-19957-1&rft.aulast=Cotton&rft.aufirst=Frank+Albert&rft.au=Geoffrey+Wilkinson&rft.au=Carlos+A.+Murillo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoordination+complex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiesslerDonald_Arthur_Tarr1999" class="citation book cs1">Miessler, Gary L.; Donald Arthur Tarr (1999). <i>Inorganic Chemistry</i>. Prentice Hall. p. 642. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-841891-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-841891-5"><bdi>978-0-13-841891-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inorganic+Chemistry&rft.pages=642&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-13-841891-5&rft.aulast=Miessler&rft.aufirst=Gary+L.&rft.au=Donald+Arthur+Tarr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoordination+complex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/coordination-compound">"Coordination compound - History of coordination compounds"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-07-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Coordination+compound+-+History+of+coordination+compounds&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fscience%2Fcoordination-compound&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoordination+complex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/136410/coordination-compound">"Coordination Compound"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Coordination+Compound&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F136410%2Fcoordination-compound&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoordination+complex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWerner1911" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Werner, A. (May 1911). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/cber.19110440297">"Zur Kenntnis des asymmetrischen Kobaltatoms. I"</a>. <i>Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft</i> (in German). <b>44</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">1887–</span>1898. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fcber.19110440297">10.1002/cber.19110440297</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Berichte+der+Deutschen+Chemischen+Gesellschaft&rft.atitle=Zur+Kenntnis+des+asymmetrischen+Kobaltatoms.+I&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1887-%3C%2Fspan%3E1898&rft.date=1911-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fcber.19110440297&rft.aulast=Werner&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdoi.wiley.com%2F10.1002%2Fcber.19110440297&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoordination+complex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wells A.F. (1984) <i>Structural Inorganic Chemistry</i> 5th edition Oxford Science Publications <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-855370-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-855370-6">0-19-855370-6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAngelo_R._RossiRoald._Hoffmann1975" class="citation journal cs1">Angelo R. Rossi; Roald. Hoffmann (1975). "Transition metal pentacoordination". <i><a href="/wiki/Inorganic_Chemistry_(journal)" title="Inorganic Chemistry (journal)">Inorganic Chemistry</a></i>. <b>14</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">365–</span>374. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fic50144a032">10.1021/ic50144a032</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Inorganic+Chemistry&rft.atitle=Transition+metal+pentacoordination&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E365-%3C%2Fspan%3E374&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fic50144a032&rft.au=Angelo+R.+Rossi&rft.au=Roald.+Hoffmann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoordination+complex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoald._HoffmannBarbara_F._BeierEarl_L._MuettertiesAngelo_R._Rossi1977" class="citation journal cs1">Roald. Hoffmann; Barbara F. Beier; Earl L. Muetterties; Angelo R. Rossi (1977). "Seven-coordination. A molecular orbital exploration of structure, stereochemistry, and reaction dynamics". <i><a href="/wiki/Inorganic_Chemistry_(journal)" title="Inorganic Chemistry (journal)">Inorganic Chemistry</a></i>. <b>16</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">511–</span>522. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fic50169a002">10.1021/ic50169a002</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Inorganic+Chemistry&rft.atitle=Seven-coordination.+A+molecular+orbital+exploration+of+structure%2C+stereochemistry%2C+and+reaction+dynamics&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E511-%3C%2Fspan%3E522&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fic50169a002&rft.au=Roald.+Hoffmann&rft.au=Barbara+F.+Beier&rft.au=Earl+L.+Muetterties&rft.au=Angelo+R.+Rossi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoordination+complex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeremy_K._BurdettRoald_HoffmannRobert_C._Fay1978" class="citation journal cs1">Jeremy K. 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W.; Rao, N. T.; Reedijk, J.; van Rijn, J.; Verschoor, G. C. (1984). "Synthesis, structure, and spectroscopic properties of copper(II) compounds containing nitrogen–sulphur donor ligands; the crystal and molecular structure of aqua[1,7-bis(<i>N</i>-methylbenzimidazol-2′-yl)-2,6-dithiaheptane]copper(II) perchlorate". <i>J. Chem. 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R.; Houser, R. P. (2007). "Structural variation in copper(I) complexes with pyridylmethylamide ligands: structural analysis with a new four-coordinate geometry index, <span class="texhtml"><i>τ</i><sub>4</sub></span>". <i>Dalton Trans.</i> (9): <span class="nowrap">955–</span>64. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1039%2Fb617136b">10.1039/b617136b</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17308676">17308676</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dalton+Trans.&rft.atitle=Structural+variation+in+copper%28I%29+complexes+with+pyridylmethylamide+ligands%3A+structural+analysis+with+a+new+four-coordinate+geometry+index%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22texhtml+%22+%3E%CF%84%3Csub%3E4%3C%2Fsub%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E955-%3C%2Fspan%3E64&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1039%2Fb617136b&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17308676&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=L.&rft.au=Powell%2C+D.+R.&rft.au=Houser%2C+R.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoordination+complex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOkuniewskiRosiakChojnackiBecker2015" class="citation journal cs1">Okuniewski, A.; Rosiak, D.; Chojnacki, J.; Becker, B. (2015). "Coordination polymers and molecular structures among complexes of mercury(II) halides with selected 1-benzoylthioureas". <i>Polyhedron</i>. <b>90</b>: <span class="nowrap">47–</span>57. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.poly.2015.01.035">10.1016/j.poly.2015.01.035</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Polyhedron&rft.atitle=Coordination+polymers+and+molecular+structures+among+complexes+of+mercury%28II%29+halides+with+selected+1-benzoylthioureas&rft.volume=90&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E47-%3C%2Fspan%3E57&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.poly.2015.01.035&rft.aulast=Okuniewski&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Rosiak%2C+D.&rft.au=Chojnacki%2C+J.&rft.au=Becker%2C+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoordination+complex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaupp2001" class="citation journal cs1">Kaupp, Martin (2001). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Non-VSEPR" Structures and Bonding in d<sup>0</sup> Systems". <i><a href="/wiki/Angewandte_Chemie" title="Angewandte Chemie">Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl.</a></i> <b>40</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">3534–</span>3565. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F1521-3773%2820011001%2940%3A19%3C3534%3A%3AAID-ANIE3534%3E3.0.CO%3B2-%23">10.1002/1521-3773(20011001)40:19<3534::AID-ANIE3534>3.0.CO;2-#</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11592184">11592184</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Angew.+Chem.+Int.+Ed.+Engl.&rft.atitle=%22Non-VSEPR%22+Structures+and+Bonding+in+d%3Csup%3E0%3C%2Fsup%3E+Systems&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3534-%3C%2Fspan%3E3565&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F1521-3773%2820011001%2940%3A19%3C3534%3A%3AAID-ANIE3534%3E3.0.CO%3B2-%23&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11592184&rft.aulast=Kaupp&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoordination+complex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">von Zelewsky, A. "Stereochemistry of Coordination Compounds" John Wiley: Chichester, 1995. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-95599-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-95599-X">0-471-95599-X</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiesslerDonald_Arthur_Tarr1999" class="citation book cs1">Miessler, Gary L.; Donald Arthur Tarr (1999). "9". <i>Inorganic Chemistry</i>. Prentice Hall. pp. 315, 316. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-841891-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-841891-5"><bdi>978-0-13-841891-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=9&rft.btitle=Inorganic+Chemistry&rft.pages=315%2C+316&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-13-841891-5&rft.aulast=Miessler&rft.aufirst=Gary+L.&rft.au=Donald+Arthur+Tarr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoordination+complex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Huheey-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Huheey_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Huheey_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Huheey_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Huheey, James E., <i>Inorganic Chemistry</i> (3rd ed., Harper & Row 1983), p.524–5 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-042987-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-042987-9">0-06-042987-9</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jolly-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jolly_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jolly_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJolly1984" class="citation book cs1">Jolly, William L. (1984). <i>Modern Inorganic Chemistry</i>. McGraw-Hill. pp. <span class="nowrap">357–</span>9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-032760-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-032760-2"><bdi>0-07-032760-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Inorganic+Chemistry&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E357-%3C%2Fspan%3E9&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0-07-032760-2&rft.aulast=Jolly&rft.aufirst=William+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoordination+complex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Huheey, James E., <i>Inorganic Chemistry</i> (3rd ed., Harper & Row 1983), p.513–24 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-042987-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-042987-9">0-06-042987-9</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrisBertolucci1989" class="citation book cs1">Harris, D.; Bertolucci, M. (1989). <i>Symmetry and Spectroscopy</i>. Dover Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780486661445" title="Special:BookSources/9780486661445"><bdi>9780486661445</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Symmetry+and+Spectroscopy&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9780486661445&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=D.&rft.au=Bertolucci%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoordination+complex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-C&W6th-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-C&W6th_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCottonWilkinsonMurilloBochmann1999" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/F._Albert_Cotton" title="F. Albert Cotton">Cotton, F. Albert</a>; <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Wilkinson" title="Geoffrey Wilkinson">Wilkinson, Geoffrey</a>; Murillo, Carlos A.; Bochmann, Manfred (1999), <i>Advanced Inorganic Chemistry</i> (6th ed.), New York: Wiley-Interscience, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-19957-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-19957-5"><bdi>0-471-19957-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Advanced+Inorganic+Chemistry&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Wiley-Interscience&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-471-19957-5&rft.aulast=Cotton&rft.aufirst=F.+Albert&rft.au=Wilkinson%2C+Geoffrey&rft.au=Murillo%2C+Carlos+A.&rft.au=Bochmann%2C+Manfred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoordination+complex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CottonSA2006-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CottonSA2006_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCotton2006" class="citation book cs1">Cotton, Simon (2006). <i>Lanthanide and Actinide Chemistry</i>. John Wiley & Sons Ltd.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lanthanide+and+Actinide+Chemistry&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons+Ltd&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Cotton&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoordination+complex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. G. Wilkins Kinetics and Mechanism of Reactions of Transition Metal Complexes, 2nd Edition, VCH, Weinheim, 1991. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56081-125-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-56081-125-0">1-56081-125-0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Exception: metal vapors, <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasmas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloys</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-iupac_org-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-iupac_org_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iupac_org_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141222172055/http://www.iupac.org/fileadmin/user_upload/databases/Red_Book_2005.pdf">"Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry IUPAC Recommendations 2005"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/IUPAC" class="mw-redirect" title="IUPAC">IUPAC</a>. section 1.6.4 (p. 10–11). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iupac.org/fileadmin/user_upload/databases/Red_Book_2005.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2014-12-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-03-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nomenclature+of+Inorganic+Chemistry+IUPAC+Recommendations+2005&rft.pages=section+1.6.4+%28p.+10-11%29&rft.pub=IUPAC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iupac.org%2Ffileadmin%2Fuser_upload%2Fdatabases%2FRed_Book_2005.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoordination+complex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150308110908/http://www2.ucdsb.on.ca/tiss/stretton/CHEM2/solubil8.htm">"Complex Ion Equilibria"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.ucdsb.on.ca/tiss/stretton/CHEM2/solubil8.htm">the original</a> on 2015-03-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-04-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Complex+Ion+Equilibria&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww2.ucdsb.on.ca%2Ftiss%2Fstretton%2FCHEM2%2Fsolubil8.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoordination+complex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStretton" class="citation web cs1">Stretton, Tom. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180920175811/http://www2.bakersfieldcollege.edu/wcooper/Chem%20B1B%20Notes%20Fall_09/Chap_17_Solubility_Equilibrium_Notes.pdf">"Solubility and Complex-ion Equilibria"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.bakersfieldcollege.edu/wcooper/Chem%20B1B%20Notes%20Fall_09/Chap_17_Solubility_Equilibrium_Notes.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2018-09-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-04-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Solubility+and+Complex-ion+Equilibria&rft.aulast=Stretton&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww2.bakersfieldcollege.edu%2Fwcooper%2FChem%2520B1B%2520Notes%2520Fall_09%2FChap_17_Solubility_Equilibrium_Notes.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoordination+complex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coordination_complex&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>De Vito, D.; Weber, J. ; Merbach, A. E. “Calculated Volume and Energy Profiles for Water Exchange on t<sub>2g</sub> <sup>6</sup> Rhodium(III) and Iridium(III) Hexaaquaions: Conclusive Evidence for an I<sub>a</sub> Mechanism” Inorganic Chemistry, 2004, Volume 43, pages 858–863. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fic035096n">10.1021/ic035096n</a></li> <li>Zumdahl, Steven S. Chemical Principles, Fifth Edition. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2005. 943–946, 957. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/77760970">77760970</a></li> <li>Harris, D., Bertolucci, M., <i>Symmetry and Spectroscopy</i>. 1989 New York, Dover Publications</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coordination_complex&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">The Wikibook <i><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/A-level_Chemistry/OCR_(Salters)" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)">A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)</a></i> has a page on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/A-level_Chemistry/OCR_(Salters)/Complexes" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/Complexes">Complexes</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chemistry.wustl.edu/~edudev/LabTutorials/naming_coord_comp.html">Naming Coordination Compounds</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wou.edu/las/physci/ch462/tmcolors.htm">Transition Metal Complex Colors</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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href="/wiki/Template:Coordination_complexes" title="Template:Coordination complexes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Coordination_complexes" title="Template talk:Coordination complexes"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Coordination_complexes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Coordination complexes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Coordination_complexes113" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Coordination complexes</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">H donors:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_hydride" title="Transition metal hydride">H<sup>−</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dihydrogen_complex" title="Dihydrogen complex">H<sub>2</sub></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">B donors:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_boryl_complex" title="Transition metal boryl complex">BR<sub>2</sub><sup>−</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallaborane" title="Metallaborane">B<sub>m</sub>H<sub>n</sub></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">C donors:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_alkyl_complexes" title="Transition metal alkyl complexes">R<sup>−</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_acyl_complexes" title="Transition metal acyl complexes">RC(O)<sup>−</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_formyl_complex" title="Transition metal formyl complex">HC(O)<sup>−</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition-metal_allyl_complex" title="Transition-metal allyl complex">CH<sub>2</sub>＝CH-CH<sub>2</sub><sup>−</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimethylenemethane_complexes" title="Trimethylenemethane complexes">C(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_alkene_complex" title="Transition metal alkene complex">CH<sub>2</sub>＝CH<sub>2</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_alkyne_complex" title="Transition metal alkyne complex">RC<sub>2</sub>R</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_benzyne_complex" title="Transition metal benzyne complex">C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>4</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanometalate" title="Cyanometalate">CN<sup>−</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal_carbonyl" title="Metal carbonyl">CO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal_carbon_dioxide_complex" title="Metal carbon dioxide complex">CO<sub>2</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_carbide" class="mw-redirect" title="Transition metal carbide">C<sup>4-</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_arene_complex" title="Transition metal arene complex">C<sub>6</sub>R<sub>6</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_fullerene_complex" title="Transition metal fullerene complex">C<sub>60</sub> & C<sub>70</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_isocyanide_complexes" title="Transition metal isocyanide complexes">RNC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_carbene_complex" title="Transition metal carbene complex">=CR<sub>2</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_carbyne_complex" title="Transition metal carbyne complex">≡CR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallocene" title="Metallocene">C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>5</sub><sup>−</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_indenyl_complex" title="Transition metal indenyl complex">C<sub>9</sub>H<sub>7</sub><sup>−</sup></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Si donors:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_silane_complexes" class="mw-redirect" title="Transition metal silane complexes">H<sub>n</sub>SiR<sub>4−n</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_silyl_complexes" title="Transition metal silyl complexes">R<sub>3</sub>Si<sup>−</sup></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">N donors:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metal_ammine_complex" title="Metal ammine complex">NH<sub>3</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_azide_complex" title="Transition metal azide complex">N<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_imidazole_complex" title="Transition metal imidazole complex">imidazole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal_nitrosyl_complex" title="Metal nitrosyl complex">NO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_nitroso_complexes" title="Transition metal nitroso complexes">RNO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_nitrite_complex#Bonding_modes" title="Transition metal nitrite complex">NO<sub>2</sub><sup>−</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_pyridine_complexes" title="Transition metal pyridine complexes">py</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_amino_acid_complexes" title="Transition metal amino acid complexes">amino acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal_nitrido_complex" title="Metal nitrido complex">N<sup>3-</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_imido_complex" title="Transition metal imido complex">RN<sup>2-</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_nitrile_complexes" title="Transition metal nitrile complexes">RCN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_complexes_of_2,2%27-bipyridine" title="Transition metal complexes of 2,2'-bipyridine">bipy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_complexes_of_1,10-phenanthroline" title="Transition metal complexes of 1,10-phenanthroline">phen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_porphyrin_complexes" title="Transition metal porphyrin complexes">porphyrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal_bis(trimethylsilyl)amides" title="Metal bis(trimethylsilyl)amides">(Me<sub>3</sub>Si)<sub>2</sub>N<sup>−</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_dinitrogen_complex" title="Transition metal dinitrogen complex">N<sub>2</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_complexes_of_thiocyanate" title="Transition metal complexes of thiocyanate"><i>N</i>CS<sup>−</sup></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">P donors:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metal_phosphine_complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal phosphine complex">PR<sub>3</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_phosphido_complexes" title="Transition metal phosphido complexes">PR<sub>2</sub><sup>−</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_complexes_of_phosphine_oxides#Secondary_phosphine_oxides_as_ligands" title="Transition metal complexes of phosphine oxides">PR<sub>2</sub>OH</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">O donors:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metal_aquo_complex" title="Metal aquo complex">H<sub>2</sub>O</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_hydroxide_complexes" title="Transition metal hydroxide complexes">OH<sup>−</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_ether_complex" title="Transition metal ether complex">R<sub>2</sub>O</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal_alkoxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal alkoxide">RO<sup>−</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_oxo_complex" title="Transition metal oxo complex">O<sup>2-</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_dioxygen_complex" title="Transition metal dioxygen complex">O<sub>2</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_carbonate_and_bicarbonate_complexes" title="Transition metal carbonate and bicarbonate complexes">CO<sub>3</sub><sup>2-</sup>/HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_oxalate_complex" title="Transition metal oxalate complex">C<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub><sup>2-</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_carboxylate_complex" title="Transition metal carboxylate complex">RCO<sub>2</sub><sup>−</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal_acetylacetonates" title="Metal acetylacetonates">acac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_complexes_of_aldehydes_and_ketones" title="Transition metal complexes of aldehydes and ketones">R<sub>2</sub>CO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_nitrite_complex" title="Transition metal nitrite complex">ONO<sup>−</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_nitrate_complex" title="Transition metal nitrate complex">NO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_perchlorate_complexes" title="Transition metal perchlorate complexes">ClO<sub>4</sub><sup>−</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_complexes_of_pyridine-N-oxides" title="Transition metal complexes of pyridine-N-oxides">C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>5</sub>NO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_sulfoxide_complex" title="Transition metal sulfoxide complex">OSR<sub>2</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_sulfate_complex" title="Transition metal sulfate complex">SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2-</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_phosphate_complex" title="Transition metal phosphate complex">PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3-</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_complexes_of_phosphine_oxides" title="Transition metal complexes of phosphine oxides">OPR<sub>3</sub></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">S donors:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_dithiocarbamate_complexes" title="Transition metal dithiocarbamate complexes">R<sub>2</sub>NCS<sub>2</sub><sup>−</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_thiolate_complex" title="Transition metal thiolate complex">RS<sup>−</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_thioether_complex" title="Transition metal thioether complex">R<sub>2</sub>S</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal_dithiolene_complex" title="Metal dithiolene complex">R<sub>2</sub>C<sub>2</sub>S<sub>2</sub><sup>2-</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal_sulfur_dioxide_complex" title="Metal sulfur dioxide complex">SO<sub>2</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_sulfito_complex" title="Transition metal sulfito complex">SO<sub>3</sub><sup>2-</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_thiosulfate_complex" title="Transition metal thiosulfate complex">S<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub><sup>2-</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_sulfoxide_complex" title="Transition metal sulfoxide complex">SR<sub>2</sub>O</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_complexes_of_thiocyanate" title="Transition metal complexes of thiocyanate">NC<i>S</i><sup>−</sup></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Halide donors:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fluoro_complex&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fluoro complex (page does not exist)">F<sup>−</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Difluorine_complex" title="Difluorine complex">F<sub>2</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal_chloride_complex" title="Transition metal chloride complex">Cl<sup>−</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bromo_complex&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bromo complex (page does not exist)">Br<sup>−</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Iodo_complex&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Iodo complex (page does not exist)">I<sup>−</sup></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Branches_of_chemistry854" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Branches_of_chemistry" title="Template:Branches of chemistry"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Branches_of_chemistry" title="Template talk:Branches of chemistry"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Branches_of_chemistry" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Branches of chemistry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Branches_of_chemistry854" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Branches of <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_chemical_formulae" title="Glossary of chemical formulae">Glossary of chemical formulae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biomolecules" title="List of biomolecules">List of biomolecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds" title="List of inorganic compounds">List of inorganic compounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">Periodic table</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Analytical_chemistry" title="Analytical chemistry">Analytical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_chemistry" title="Instrumental chemistry">Instrumental chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electroanalytical_methods" title="Electroanalytical methods">Electroanalytical methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopy" title="Infrared spectroscopy">IR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raman_spectroscopy" title="Raman spectroscopy">Raman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible_spectroscopy" title="Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy">UV-Vis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy">NMR</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">Mass spectrometry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron_ionization" title="Electron ionization">EI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductively_coupled_plasma_mass_spectrometry" title="Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry">ICP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrix-assisted_laser_desorption/ionization" title="Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization">MALDI</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_process" title="Separation process">Separation process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_chromatography" title="Gas chromatography">GC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-performance_liquid_chromatography" title="High-performance liquid chromatography">HPLC</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Characterization_(materials_science)" title="Characterization (materials science)">Characterization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titration" title="Titration">Titration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_chemistry" title="Wet chemistry">Wet chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calorimetry" title="Calorimetry">Calorimetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elemental_analysis" title="Elemental analysis">Elemental analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_chemistry" title="Theoretical chemistry">Theoretical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_chemistry" title="Quantum chemistry">Quantum chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_chemistry" title="Computational chemistry">Computational chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_chemistry" title="Mathematical chemistry">Mathematical chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_modelling" title="Molecular modelling">Molecular modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_mechanics" title="Molecular mechanics">Molecular mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_dynamics" title="Molecular dynamics">Molecular dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_geometry" title="Molecular geometry">Molecular geometry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/VSEPR_theory" title="VSEPR theory">VSEPR theory</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">Physical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemistry" title="Electrochemistry">Electrochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spectroelectrochemistry" title="Spectroelectrochemistry">Spectroelectrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoelectrochemistry" title="Photoelectrochemistry">Photoelectrochemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermochemistry" title="Thermochemistry">Thermochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_thermodynamics" title="Chemical thermodynamics">Chemical thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_science" title="Surface science">Surface science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interface_and_colloid_science" title="Interface and colloid 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<li><a href="/wiki/Microwave_chemistry" title="Microwave chemistry">Microwave chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equilibrium_chemistry" title="Equilibrium chemistry">Equilibrium chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanochemistry" title="Mechanochemistry">Mechanochemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inorganic_chemistry" title="Inorganic chemistry">Inorganic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Coordination chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetochemistry" title="Magnetochemistry">Magnetochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organometallic_chemistry" title="Organometallic chemistry">Organometallic chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organolanthanide_chemistry" title="Organolanthanide chemistry">Organolanthanide chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atom_cluster" class="mw-redirect" title="Atom cluster">Cluster chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry" title="Solid-state chemistry">Solid-state chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceramic chemistry">Ceramic chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">Organic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereochemistry" title="Stereochemistry">Stereochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkane_stereochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkane stereochemistry">Alkane stereochemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_organic_chemistry" title="Physical organic chemistry">Physical organic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_reactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic reactions">Organic reactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_synthesis" title="Organic synthesis">Organic synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrosynthetic_analysis" title="Retrosynthetic analysis">Retrosynthetic analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enantioselective_synthesis" title="Enantioselective synthesis">Enantioselective synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_synthesis" title="Total synthesis">Total synthesis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semisynthesis" title="Semisynthesis">Semisynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fullerene_chemistry" title="Fullerene chemistry">Fullerene chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_chemistry" title="Polymer chemistry">Polymer chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrochemistry">Petrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_covalent_chemistry" title="Dynamic covalent chemistry">Dynamic covalent chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioorthogonal_chemistry" title="Bioorthogonal chemistry">Bioorthogonal chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicinal_chemistry" title="Medicinal chemistry">Medicinal chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurochemistry" title="Neurochemistry">Neurochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioorganic_chemistry" title="Bioorganic chemistry">Bioorganic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioorganometallic_chemistry" title="Bioorganometallic chemistry">Bioorganometallic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinorganic_chemistry" title="Bioinorganic chemistry">Bioinorganic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysical_chemistry" title="Biophysical chemistry">Biophysical chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinarity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry" title="Nuclear chemistry">Nuclear chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiochemistry" title="Radiochemistry">Radiochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_chemistry" title="Radiation chemistry">Radiation chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinide_chemistry" title="Actinide chemistry">Actinide chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmochemistry" title="Cosmochemistry">Cosmochemistry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">Astrochemistry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Stellar_chemistry" title="Stellar chemistry">Stellar chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemistry" title="Biogeochemistry">Biogeochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photogeochemistry" title="Photogeochemistry">Photogeochemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_chemistry" title="Environmental chemistry">Environmental chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_chemistry" title="Atmospheric chemistry">Atmospheric chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean chemistry">Ocean chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clay_chemistry" title="Clay chemistry">Clay chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbochemistry" title="Carbochemistry">Carbochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chemistry" title="Food chemistry">Food chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbohydrate chemistry">Carbohydrate chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_physical_chemistry" title="Food physical chemistry">Food physical chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_chemistry" title="Agricultural chemistry">Agricultural chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_chemistry" title="Soil chemistry">Soil chemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemistry_education" title="Chemistry education">Chemistry education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amateur_chemistry" title="Amateur chemistry">Amateur chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_chemistry" title="General chemistry">General chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry" title="Clandestine chemistry">Clandestine chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_chemistry" title="Forensic chemistry">Forensic chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_toxicology" title="Forensic toxicology">Forensic toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-mortem_chemistry" title="Post-mortem chemistry">Post-mortem chemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanochemistry" title="Nanochemistry">Nanochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supramolecular_chemistry" title="Supramolecular chemistry">Supramolecular chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_synthesis" title="Chemical synthesis">Chemical synthesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Green_chemistry" title="Green chemistry">Green chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Click_chemistry" title="Click chemistry">Click chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combinatorial_chemistry" title="Combinatorial chemistry">Combinatorial chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosynthesis" title="Biosynthesis">Biosynthesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical engineering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stoichiometry" title="Stoichiometry">Stoichiometry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_engineering" title="Ceramic engineering">Ceramic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_science" title="Polymer science">Polymer science</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_chemistry" title="History of chemistry">History of chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_chemistry" title="Timeline of chemistry">Timeline of chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_chemical_elements" title="Discovery of chemical elements">of element discoveries</a></li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_central_science" title="The central science">The central science</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">Chemical reaction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">Catalysis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">Chemical element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">Chemical compound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">Ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">Chemical substance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">Chemical bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Chemistry" title="Category:Chemistry">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span 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