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<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Toyota_Robot_at_Toyota_Kaikan.jpg/330px-Toyota_Robot_at_Toyota_Kaikan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Toyota_Robot_at_Toyota_Kaikan.jpg/440px-Toyota_Robot_at_Toyota_Kaikan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="891" data-file-height="1245" /></a><figcaption>A trumpet-playing <a href="/wiki/Toyota_Partner_Robot" title="Toyota Partner Robot">Toyota robot</a></figcaption></figure> The history of robots has its origins in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient world">ancient world</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, humans developed the <a href="/wiki/Structural_engineering" title="Structural engineering">structural engineering</a> capability to control <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a> so that machines could be powered with small <a href="/wiki/Motor" class="mw-redirect" title="Motor">motors</a>. In the early 20th century, the notion of a <a href="/wiki/Humanoid" title="Humanoid">humanoid</a> machine was developed. The first uses of modern robots were in <a href="/wiki/Factories" class="mw-redirect" title="Factories">factories</a> as <a href="/wiki/Industrial_robot" title="Industrial robot">industrial robots</a>. These industrial robots were fixed machines capable of <a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">manufacturing</a> tasks which allowed <a href="/wiki/Production_(economics)" title="Production (economics)">production</a> with less human <a href="/wiki/Work_(human_activity)" title="Work (human activity)">work</a>. Digitally <a href="/wiki/Computer_program" title="Computer program">programmed</a> industrial robots with <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a> have been built since the 2000s. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_legends">Early legends</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_robots&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early legends">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_de_la_Rose_f._130r_(Pygmalion%27s_story,_working_on_his_sculpture).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Roman_de_la_Rose_f._130r_%28Pygmalion%27s_story%2C_working_on_his_sculpture%29.jpg/200px-Roman_de_la_Rose_f._130r_%28Pygmalion%27s_story%2C_working_on_his_sculpture%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Roman_de_la_Rose_f._130r_%28Pygmalion%27s_story%2C_working_on_his_sculpture%29.jpg/300px-Roman_de_la_Rose_f._130r_%28Pygmalion%27s_story%2C_working_on_his_sculpture%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Roman_de_la_Rose_f._130r_%28Pygmalion%27s_story%2C_working_on_his_sculpture%29.jpg/400px-Roman_de_la_Rose_f._130r_%28Pygmalion%27s_story%2C_working_on_his_sculpture%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1559" /></a><figcaption>Miniature from a 14th-century manuscript of Pygmalion working on his sculpture</figcaption></figure> Concepts of artificial servants and companions date at least as far back as the ancient legends of <a href="/wiki/Cadmus" title="Cadmus">Cadmus</a>, who is said to have sown dragon teeth that turned into soldiers and <a href="/wiki/Pygmalion_(mythology)" title="Pygmalion (mythology)">Pygmalion</a> whose statue of <a href="/wiki/Galatea_(mythology)" title="Galatea (mythology)">Galatea</a> came to life. Many ancient mythologies included artificial people, such as the talking mechanical handmaidens (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a>: Κουραι Χρυσεαι (Kourai Khryseai); "Golden Maidens"<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a>) built by the Greek god <a href="/wiki/Hephaestus" title="Hephaestus">Hephaestus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vulcan_(mythology)" title="Vulcan (mythology)">Vulcan</a> to the Romans) out of gold.<a href="#cite_note-Gera-2">[2]</a> The Buddhist scholar <a href="/wiki/Daoxuan" title="Daoxuan">Daoxuan</a> (596-667 AD) described humanoid automata crafted from metals that recite sacred texts in a cloister which housed a fabulous clock. The "precious metal-people" weeped when <a href="/wiki/Buddha_Shakyamuni" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha Shakyamuni">Buddha Shakyamuni</a> died.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Humanoid automations also feature in the <a href="/wiki/Epic_of_King_Gesar" title="Epic of King Gesar">Epic of King Gesar</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Central_Asian" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Asian">Central Asian</a> cultural hero.<a href="#cite_note-SUNY_Press-4">[4]</a> Early Chinese lore on the legendary carpenter <a href="/wiki/Lu_Ban" title="Lu Ban">Lu Ban</a> and the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a> described mechanical imitations of animals and demons.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> The implications of humanoid automatons were discussed in <a href="/wiki/Liezi" title="Liezi">Liezi</a> (4th century CE), a compilation of <a href="/wiki/Daoist" class="mw-redirect" title="Daoist">Daoist</a> texts which went on to become a classic. In chapter 5 <a href="/wiki/King_Mu_of_Zhou" title="King Mu of Zhou">King Mu of Zhou</a> is on tour of the West and upon asking the craftsman Master Yan Shi "What can you do?" the royal court is presented with an artificial man. The automation was indistinguishable from a human and performed various tricks for the king and his entourage. But the king flew into a rage when apparently the automation started to flirt with the ladies in attendance and threatened the automation with execution. So the craftsman cut the automation open and revealed the inner workings of the artificial man. The king is fascinated and experiments with the functional interdependence of the automation by removing different organlike components. The king marveled "is it then possible for human skill to achieve as much as the Creator?" and confiscated the automation.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> A similar tale can be found in the near contemporary Indian Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Jataka_tales" title="Jataka tales">Jataka tales</a>, but here the intricacy of the automation does not match that of Master Yan.<a href="#cite_note-SUNY_Press-4">[4]</a> Prior to the introduction of Buddhism in the <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">Common Era</a>, Chinese philosophers did not seriously consider the distinction between appearance and reality. The Liezi rebuts Buddhist philosophies and likens human creative powers to that of the Creator.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Friar_Bacon%27s_Brazen_Head.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Friar_Bacon%27s_Brazen_Head.png/200px-Friar_Bacon%27s_Brazen_Head.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Friar_Bacon%27s_Brazen_Head.png/300px-Friar_Bacon%27s_Brazen_Head.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Friar_Bacon%27s_Brazen_Head.png/400px-Friar_Bacon%27s_Brazen_Head.png 2x" data-file-width="1810" data-file-height="1174" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabethan">Elizabethan</a> woodcut of a <a href="/wiki/Brazen_Head" class="mw-redirect" title="Brazen Head">Brazen Head</a> speaking: "Time is. Time was. Time is past."</figcaption></figure> The Indian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lokapannatti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lokapannatti (page does not exist)">Lokapannatti</a>, a collection of cycles and lores produced in the 11th or 12th century AD,<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> tells the story of how an army of automated soldiers (bhuta vahana yanta or "Spirit movement machines") were crafted to protect the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Relics_of_Buddha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Relics of Buddha (page does not exist)">relics of Buddha</a> in a secret stupa. The plans for making such humanoid automatons were stolen from the kingdom of Rome, a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rome-India_relations&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rome-India relations (page does not exist)">generic term for the Greco-Roman-Byzantine culture</a>. According to the Lokapannatti, the <a href="/wiki/Yavana" class="mw-redirect" title="Yavana">Yavanas</a> ("Greek-speakers") used the automatons to carry out trade and farming, but also captured and executed criminals. Roman automation makers who left the kingdom were pursued and killed by the automatons. According to the Lokapannatti, the emperor <a href="/wiki/Asoka" class="mw-redirect" title="Asoka">Asoka</a> hears the story of the secret stupa and sets out to find it. Following a battle between the fierce warrior automatons, Asoka finds the long-lived engineer who had constructed the automatons and is shown how to dismantle and control them. Thus emperor Asoka manages to command a large army of automated warriors. This Indian tale reflects the fear of losing control of artificial beings, which has also been expressed in Greek myths about the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dragon-teeth_army&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dragon-teeth army (page does not exist)">dragon-teeth army</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Inspired by European <a href="/wiki/Christian_legend" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian legend">Christian legend</a>, medieval Europeans devised <a href="/wiki/Brazen_head" title="Brazen head">brazen heads</a> that could answer questions posed to them. <a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albertus Magnus</a> was supposed to have constructed an entire android which could perform some domestic tasks, but it was destroyed by Albert's student <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> for disturbing his thought.<a href="#cite_note-William_Godwin_1876-10">[10]</a> The most famous legend concerned a bronze head devised by <a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a> which was destroyed or scrapped after he missed its moment of operation.<a href="#cite_note-William_Godwin_1876-10">[10]</a> Automata resembling humans or animals were popular in the imaginary worlds of medieval literature.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Automata">Automata</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_robots&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Automata">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Automaton" title="Automaton">Automaton</a></div> In the 4th century BC the mathematician <a href="/wiki/Archytas" title="Archytas">Archytas</a> of Tarentum postulated a mechanical bird he called "The Pigeon", which was propelled by <a href="/wiki/Steam" title="Steam">steam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-RoboticHistory1-13">[13]</a> Taking up the earlier reference in <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a>'s Iliad, <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> speculated in his Politics (ca. 322 BC, book 1, part 4) that automata could someday bring about human equality by making possible the <a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Abolition of slavery">abolition of slavery</a>: <blockquote>There is only one condition in which we can imagine managers not needing subordinates, and masters not needing slaves. This condition would be that each instrument could do its own work, at the word of command or by intelligent anticipation, like the statues of Daedalus or the tripods made by Hephaestus, of which Homer relates that "Of their own motion they entered the conclave of Gods on Olympus", as if a shuttle should weave of itself, and a plectrum should do its own harp playing. </blockquote> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Al-Jazari_-_A_Musical_Toy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Al-Jazari_-_A_Musical_Toy.jpg/200px-Al-Jazari_-_A_Musical_Toy.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Al-Jazari_-_A_Musical_Toy.jpg/300px-Al-Jazari_-_A_Musical_Toy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Al-Jazari_-_A_Musical_Toy.jpg/400px-Al-Jazari_-_A_Musical_Toy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3601" data-file-height="2575" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ismail_al-Jazari" title="Ismail al-Jazari">Ismail al-Jazari</a>'s musical robots</figcaption></figure> When the Greeks controlled Egypt, a succession of engineers who could construct automata established themselves in <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>. Starting with the polymath <a href="/wiki/Ctesibius" title="Ctesibius">Ctesibius</a> (285-222 BC), Alexandrian engineers left behind texts detailing workable automata powered by <a href="/wiki/Hydraulics" title="Hydraulics">hydraulics</a> or <a href="/wiki/Steam" title="Steam">steam</a>. Ctesibius built human-like automata, often these were used in religious ceremonies and the worship of deities. One of the last great Alexandrian engineers, <a href="/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria" title="Hero of Alexandria">Hero of Alexandria</a> (10-70 CE) constructed an automata puppet theater, where the figurines and the stage sets moved by mechanical means. He described the construction of such automata in his treatise on <a href="/wiki/Pneumatics" title="Pneumatics">pneumatics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Alexandrian engineers constructed automata as reverence for humans' apparent command over nature and as tools for priests, but also started a tradition where automata were constructed for anyone who was wealthy enough and primarily for the entertainment of the rich.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> The manufacturing tradition of automata continued in the Greek world well into the Middle Ages. On his visit to <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> in 949 ambassador <a href="/wiki/Liutprand_of_Cremona" title="Liutprand of Cremona">Liutprand of Cremona</a> described automata in the emperor <a href="/wiki/Theophilos_(emperor)" title="Theophilos (emperor)">Theophilos</a>' palace, including <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">"lions, made either of bronze or wood covered with gold, which struck the ground with their tails and roared with open mouth and quivering tongue," "a tree of gilded bronze, its branches filled with birds, likewise made of bronze gilded over, and these emitted cries appropriate to their species" and "the emperor's throne" itself, which "was made in such a cunning manner that at one moment it was down on the ground, while at another it rose higher and was to be seen up in the air."<a href="#cite_note-Safran1998-16">[16]</a></blockquote> Similar automata in the throne room (singing birds, roaring and moving lions) were described by Luitprand's contemporary, the Byzantine emperor <a href="/wiki/Constantine_Porphyrogenitus" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine Porphyrogenitus">Constantine Porphyrogenitus</a>, in his book <a href="/wiki/De_Ceremoniis" title="De Ceremoniis">Περὶ τῆς Βασιλείου Τάξεως</a>. <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clock_Tower_from_Su_Song%27s_Book_desmear.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Clock_Tower_from_Su_Song%27s_Book_desmear.JPG/200px-Clock_Tower_from_Su_Song%27s_Book_desmear.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="301" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Clock_Tower_from_Su_Song%27s_Book_desmear.JPG/300px-Clock_Tower_from_Su_Song%27s_Book_desmear.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Clock_Tower_from_Su_Song%27s_Book_desmear.JPG/400px-Clock_Tower_from_Su_Song%27s_Book_desmear.JPG 2x" data-file-width="908" data-file-height="1366" /></a><figcaption>A diagram of <a href="/wiki/Su_Song" title="Su Song">Su Song</a>'s book of 1092 CE showing the inner workings of his <a href="/wiki/Clocktower" class="mw-redirect" title="Clocktower">clocktower</a></figcaption></figure> In China the Cosmic Engine, a 10-metre (33 ft) clock tower built by <a href="/wiki/Su_Song" title="Su Song">Su Song</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kaifeng,_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaifeng, China">Kaifeng, China</a>, in 1088 CE, featured mechanical <a href="/wiki/Mannequin" title="Mannequin">mannequins</a> that chimed the hours, ringing gongs or bells among other devices.<a href="#cite_note-suso1-17">[17]</a> Feats of automation continued into the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Daifeng_Ma&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Daifeng Ma (page does not exist)">Daifeng Ma</a> built an automated dresser servant for the queen.<a href="#cite_note-Robotics_in_Genitourinary_Surgery-18">[18]</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ying_Wenliang&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ying Wenliang (page does not exist)">Ying Wenliang</a> built an automata man that proposed <a href="/wiki/Toast_(honor)" title="Toast (honor)">toasts</a> at <a href="/wiki/Banquets" class="mw-redirect" title="Banquets">banquets</a> and a wooden woman automata that played the <a href="/wiki/Sheng_(instrument)" title="Sheng (instrument)">sheng</a>. Among the best documented automata of ancient China are that of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Han_Zhile&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Han Zhile (page does not exist)">Han Zhile</a>, a Japanese who moved to China in the early 9th century CE.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-19">[19]</a> Post-classical societies such as the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greeks" title="Byzantine Greeks">Byzantines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> continued the construction of automata. The Byzantines inherited the knowledge on automata from the Alexandrians and developed it further to build <a href="/wiki/Water_clock" title="Water clock">water clocks</a> with gear mechanisms, such as for example described by <a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a> about 510. It was in the medieval Arab world where more significant advances in the construction of automata would take place. <a href="/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid" title="Harun al-Rashid">Harun al-Rashid</a> built water clocks with complicated <a href="/wiki/Jack_(device)" title="Jack (device)">hydraulic jacks</a> and moving human figures. One such clock was gifted to <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>, King of the Franks, in 807.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Arab engineers such as <a href="/wiki/Banu_Musa" class="mw-redirect" title="Banu Musa">Banu Musa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al-Jazari" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Jazari">Al-Jazari</a> published treatise on hydraulics and further advanced the art of water clocks. Al-Jazari built automated moving peacocks driven by hydropower.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> He invented a <a href="/wiki/Water_wheel" title="Water wheel">water wheels</a> with <a href="/wiki/Cam_(mechanism)" title="Cam (mechanism)">cams</a> on their <a href="/wiki/Axle" title="Axle">axle</a> used to operate automata.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> One of al-Jazari's <a href="/wiki/Humanoid_robot" title="Humanoid robot">humanoid automata</a> was a waitress that could serve water, tea or drinks. The drink was stored in a tank with a reservoir from where the drink drips into a bucket and, after seven minutes, into a cup, after which the waitress appears out of an automatic door serving the drink.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> Al-Jazari invented a hand washing <a href="/wiki/Automaton" title="Automaton">automaton</a> incorporating a flush mechanism now used in modern <a href="/wiki/Flush_toilet" title="Flush toilet">flush toilets</a>. It features a female <a href="/wiki/Humanoid_robot" title="Humanoid robot">humanoid automaton</a> standing by a basin filled with water. When the user pulls the lever, the water drains and the female automaton refills the basin.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Furthermore, he created a robotic musical band.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> According to Mark Rosheim, unlike Greek designs <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> automata worked with dramatic illusion and manipulated the human <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a> for practical application.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Gears" class="mw-redirect" title="Gears">segmental gears</a> described in The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices, published by Al-Jazari shortly before his death in 1206, appeared 100 years later in the most advanced European <a href="/wiki/Clock" title="Clock">clocks</a>. Al-Jazari also published instructions on the construction of humanoid automata.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> The first water clocks modeled on Arabic designs were constructed in Europe about 1000 CE, possibly on the basis of the information that was transmitted during Muslim-Christian contact in Sicily and Spain. Among the first recorded European water clocks is that of <a href="/wiki/Gerbert_of_Aurillac" class="mw-redirect" title="Gerbert of Aurillac">Gerbert of Aurillac</a>, built in 985 CE.<a href="#cite_note-Kevin_LaGrandeur_2013_33-28">[28]</a> Hero's works on automata were translated into Latin amid the <a href="/wiki/12th_century_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="12th century Renaissance">12th century Renaissance</a>. The early 13th-century artist-engineer <a href="/wiki/Villard_de_Honnecourt" title="Villard de Honnecourt">Villard de Honnecourt</a> sketched plans for several automata. At the end of the 13th century, <a href="/wiki/Robert_II,_Count_of_Artois" title="Robert II, Count of Artois">Robert II, Count of Artois</a>, built a pleasure garden at his castle at <a href="/wiki/Hesdin" title="Hesdin">Hesdin</a> that incorporated a number of robots, humanoid and animal.<a href="#cite_note-The_Garden_of_Earthly_Delights:_Mahaut_of_Artois_and_the_Automata_at_Hesdin,_Elly_R._Truitt-29">[29]</a> Automated bellstrikers, called <a href="/wiki/Jacquemart_(bellstriker)" title="Jacquemart (bellstriker)">jacquemart</a>, became popular in Europe in the 14th century alongside mechanical clocks.<a href="#cite_note-Kevin_LaGrandeur_2013_33-28">[28]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leonardo-Robot3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Leonardo-Robot3.jpg/200px-Leonardo-Robot3.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Leonardo-Robot3.jpg/300px-Leonardo-Robot3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Leonardo-Robot3.jpg/400px-Leonardo-Robot3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1370" data-file-height="1370" /></a><figcaption>Model of <a href="/wiki/Leonardo%27s_robot" title="Leonardo's robot">Leonardo's robot</a> with inner workings. Possibly constructed by <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a> around the year 1495.<a href="#cite_note-nih-30">[30]</a></figcaption></figure> Among the first verifiable automation is a <a href="/wiki/Humanoid" title="Humanoid">humanoid</a> drawn by <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a> (1452–1519) in around 1495. Leonardo's notebooks, rediscovered in the 1950s, contain detailed drawings of a mechanical <a href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">knight</a> in armor which was able to sit up, wave its arms and move its head and jaw.<a href="#cite_note-nih-30">[30]</a> In the mid-1400s, <a href="/wiki/Johannes_M%C3%BCller_von_K%C3%B6nigsberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Johannes Müller von Königsberg">Johannes Müller von Königsberg</a> created an automaton eagle and fly made of iron; both could fly. <a href="/wiki/John_Dee" title="John Dee">John Dee</a> is also known for creating a wooden beetle, capable of flying.<a href="#cite_note-BBC-31">[31]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Racknitz_-_The_Turk_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Racknitz_-_The_Turk_3.jpg/200px-Racknitz_-_The_Turk_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Racknitz_-_The_Turk_3.jpg/300px-Racknitz_-_The_Turk_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Racknitz_-_The_Turk_3.jpg/400px-Racknitz_-_The_Turk_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2678" data-file-height="2439" /></a><figcaption>The secret interior of <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_Turk" title="Mechanical Turk">The Turk</a></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KarakuriBritishMuseum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/KarakuriBritishMuseum.jpg/200px-KarakuriBritishMuseum.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/KarakuriBritishMuseum.jpg/300px-KarakuriBritishMuseum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/KarakuriBritishMuseum.jpg/400px-KarakuriBritishMuseum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1264" data-file-height="1720" /></a><figcaption>Tea-serving <a href="/wiki/Karakuri_ningy%C5%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="Karakuri ningyō">karakuri</a>, with mechanism, 19th century. <a href="/wiki/Tokyo_National_Science_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Tokyo National Science Museum">Tokyo National Science Museum</a>.</figcaption></figure> The 17th-century thinker <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> believed that animals and humans were biological machines. On his last trip to Norway, he took with him a mechanical doll that looked like his dead daughter Francine.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-32">[32]</a> In the 18th century the master toymaker <a href="/wiki/Jacques_de_Vaucanson" title="Jacques de Vaucanson">Jacques de Vaucanson</a> built for <a href="/wiki/Louis_XV" title="Louis XV">Louis XV</a> an automated duck with hundreds of moving parts, which could eat and drink. Vaucanson subsequently built humanoid automatons, a drummer and fife player were noted for their anatomical similarity to real human beings.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Vaucanson's creation inspired European <a href="/wiki/Watchmaker" title="Watchmaker">watchmakers</a> to manufacture mechanical automata and it became fashionable among the European aristocracy to collect sophisticated mechanical devices for entertainment.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-32">[32]</a> In 1747 <a href="/wiki/Julien_Offray_de_La_Mettrie" title="Julien Offray de La Mettrie">Julien Offray de La Mettrie</a> anonymously published <a href="/wiki/L%27homme_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="L'homme machine">L'homme machine</a> (Man a Machine), in which he called Vaucanson a "new <a href="/wiki/Prometheus" title="Prometheus">Prometheus</a>" and mused "the human body is a watch, a large watch constructed with such skill and ingenuity".<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> In the 1770s the Swiss <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Jaquet-Droz" title="Pierre Jaquet-Droz">Pierre Jaquet-Droz</a> created moving automata that looked like children, which delighted <a href="/wiki/Mary_Shelley" title="Mary Shelley">Mary Shelley</a>, who went on to write the 1818 novel <a href="/wiki/Frankenstein;_or,_The_Modern_Prometheus" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus">Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus</a>. The ultimate attempt at automation was <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_Turk" title="Mechanical Turk">The Turk</a> by <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_von_Kempelen" title="Wolfgang von Kempelen">Wolfgang von Kempelen</a>, a seemingly sophisticated machine that could play <a href="/wiki/Chess" title="Chess">chess</a> against a human opponent and toured Europe. When the machine was brought to the new world, it prompted <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe" title="Edgar Allan Poe">Edgar Allan Poe</a> to pen an essay, in which he concluded that it was impossible for mechanical devices to reason or think.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-32">[32]</a> However, The Mechanical Turk was later revealed to be an elaborate hoax: The machine concealed a human, who operated it from the inside. In the 19th century the Japanese craftsman <a href="/wiki/Hisashige_Tanaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Hisashige Tanaka">Hisashige Tanaka</a>, known as "Japan's Edison", created an array of extremely complex mechanical toys, some of which could serve tea, fire arrows drawn from a quiver, or even paint a Japanese <a href="/wiki/Kanji" title="Kanji">kanji</a> character. The landmark text <a href="/wiki/Karakuri_ningy%C5%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="Karakuri ningyō">Karakuri Zui</a> (Illustrated Machinery) was published in 1796.<a href="#cite_note-Horn-35">[35]</a> In 1898 <a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a> demonstrated his "teleautomaton", a prototype remote-controlled boat at <a href="/wiki/Madison_Square_Garden" title="Madison Square Garden">Madison Square Garden</a> as "an automaton which left to itself, will act as though possessed of reason and without any willful control from the outside." He defended his invention against critical reporters, arguing that it was not a "wireless torpedo", but instead, "the first of a race of robots, mechanical men which will do the laborious work of the human race."<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_history">Modern history</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_robots&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Modern history">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Wonderful_Wizard_of_Oz,_006.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/The_Wonderful_Wizard_of_Oz%2C_006.png/200px-The_Wonderful_Wizard_of_Oz%2C_006.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/The_Wonderful_Wizard_of_Oz%2C_006.png/300px-The_Wonderful_Wizard_of_Oz%2C_006.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/The_Wonderful_Wizard_of_Oz%2C_006.png/400px-The_Wonderful_Wizard_of_Oz%2C_006.png 2x" data-file-width="2300" data-file-height="3100" /></a><figcaption>The interior title page of a 1900 <a href="/wiki/The_Wonderful_Wizard_of_Oz" title="The Wonderful Wizard of Oz">The Wonderful Wizard of Oz</a> edition</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gonzalo_showing_El_Ajedrecista_to_Norbert_Wiener.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Gonzalo_showing_El_Ajedrecista_to_Norbert_Wiener.jpg/250px-Gonzalo_showing_El_Ajedrecista_to_Norbert_Wiener.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Gonzalo_showing_El_Ajedrecista_to_Norbert_Wiener.jpg/375px-Gonzalo_showing_El_Ajedrecista_to_Norbert_Wiener.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Gonzalo_showing_El_Ajedrecista_to_Norbert_Wiener.jpg/500px-Gonzalo_showing_El_Ajedrecista_to_Norbert_Wiener.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1232" data-file-height="1015" /></a><figcaption>Gonzalo, Torres Quevedo's son, showing El Ajedrecista to <a href="/wiki/Norbert_Wiener" title="Norbert Wiener">Norbert Wiener</a> at the 1951 Paris Cybernetic Conference<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Science_Museum_-_Robots_-_Metropolis_(33268065925).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Science_Museum_-_Robots_-_Metropolis_%2833268065925%29.jpg/200px-Science_Museum_-_Robots_-_Metropolis_%2833268065925%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Science_Museum_-_Robots_-_Metropolis_%2833268065925%29.jpg/300px-Science_Museum_-_Robots_-_Metropolis_%2833268065925%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Science_Museum_-_Robots_-_Metropolis_%2833268065925%29.jpg/400px-Science_Museum_-_Robots_-_Metropolis_%2833268065925%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3176" data-file-height="4764" /></a><figcaption>The robot Maria from <a href="/wiki/Metropolis_(1927_film)" title="Metropolis (1927 film)">Metropolis</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1900s">1900s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_robots&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 1900s">edit</a>]</div> Starting in 1900, <a href="/wiki/L._Frank_Baum" title="L. Frank Baum">L. Frank Baum</a> introduced contemporary technology into <a href="/wiki/Children%27s_books" class="mw-redirect" title="Children's books">children's books</a> in the Oz series. In <a href="/wiki/The_Wonderful_Wizard_of_Oz" title="The Wonderful Wizard of Oz">The Wonderful Wizard of Oz</a> (1900) Baum told the story of the <a href="/wiki/Cyborg" title="Cyborg">cyborg</a> <a href="/wiki/Tin_Woodman" title="Tin Woodman">Tin Woodman</a>, a human woodcutter who had his limbs, head and body replaced by a tinsmith after his wicked axe had severed them. In <a href="/wiki/Ozma_of_Oz" title="Ozma of Oz">Ozma of Oz</a> (1907) Baum describes the copper clockwork man <a href="/wiki/Tik-Tok_(Oz)" title="Tik-Tok (Oz)">Tik-Tok</a>, who needs to be continuously wound up and runs down at inopportune moments.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> In 1903, the Spanish engineer <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Torres_Quevedo" title="Leonardo Torres Quevedo">Leonardo Torres Quevedo</a> introduced a radio based control system called the "Telekino" at the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Academy_of_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris Academy of Science">Paris Academy of Science</a>.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> It was intended as a way of testing a <a href="/wiki/Astra-Torres_airship" title="Astra-Torres airship">dirigible of his own design</a> without risking human lives. Unlike other methods, which carried out 'on/off' actions, Torres established a system for controlling any mechanical or electrical device with different states of operation.<a href="#cite_note-Yuste2008-40">[40]</a> The transmitter was capable of sending a family of different codewords by means of a binary telegraph signal, and the receiver was able to set up a different state of operation in the device being used, depending on the codeword. The Telekino could execute 19 different commands. In 1905, Torres chose to conduct initial Telekino testing in an electrical three-wheeled land vehicle.<a href="#cite_note-R._Everett_2015,_pages_91-95-41">[41]</a> In 1906, in the presence of an audience which included the King of Spain, Torres demonstrated the invention in the <a href="/wiki/Port_of_Bilbao" title="Port of Bilbao">Port of Bilbao</a>, guiding a boat from the shore with people on board, which was controlled at a distance over 2 km.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1910s">1910s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_robots&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 1910s">edit</a>]</div> In 1912, <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Torres_Quevedo" title="Leonardo Torres Quevedo">Leonardo Torres Quevedo</a> built the first truly autonomous machine capable of playing chess. As opposed to the human-operated <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_Turk" title="Mechanical Turk">The Turk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ajeeb" title="Ajeeb">Ajeeb</a>, <a href="/wiki/El_Ajedrecista" title="El Ajedrecista">El Ajedrecista</a> (The Chessplayer) had a true integrated automation built to play chess without human guidance. It only played an <a href="/wiki/Chess_endgame" title="Chess endgame">endgame</a> with three <a href="/wiki/Chess_piece" title="Chess piece">chess pieces</a>, automatically moving a white <a href="/wiki/King_(chess)" title="King (chess)">king</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Rook_(chess)" title="Rook (chess)">rook</a> to <a href="/wiki/Checkmate" title="Checkmate">checkmate</a> the black king moved by a human opponent.<a href="#cite_note-Williams-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> In 1951 El Ajedrecista defeats <a href="/wiki/Savielly_Tartakower" title="Savielly Tartakower">Savielly Tartakower</a> at the Paris Cybernetic Conference, being the first <a href="/wiki/Grandmaster_(chess)" title="Grandmaster (chess)">Grandmaster</a> to be defeated by a machine.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> In his 1914 paper Essays on Automatics, Torres proposed a machine that makes "judgments" using sensors that capture information from the outside, parts that manipulate the outside world like arms, power sources such as batteries and air pressure, and most importantly, captured information and past information. It was defined as an organism that can control reactions in response to external information and adapt to changes in the environment to change its behavior.<a href="#cite_note-LTQ1914es-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-LTQ1915fr-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-Randell1982p89-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1920s">1920s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_robots&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 1920s">edit</a>]</div> The term "robot" was first used in a play published by the Czech <a href="/wiki/Karel_%C4%8Capek" title="Karel Čapek">Karel Čapek</a> in 1920. R.U.R. (<a href="/wiki/Rossum%27s_Universal_Robots" class="mw-redirect" title="Rossum's Universal Robots">Rossum's Universal Robots</a>) was a satire, robots were manufactured biological beings that performed all unpleasant manual labor.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> According to Čapek, the word was created by his brother <a href="/wiki/Josef_Capek" class="mw-redirect" title="Josef Capek">Josef</a> from the Czech word robota '<a href="/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" title="Corvée">corvée</a>', or in Slovak 'work' or 'labor'.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> (Karel Čapek was working on his play during his stay in <a href="/wiki/Tren%C4%8Dianske_Teplice" title="Trenčianske Teplice">Trenčianske Teplice</a> in <a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a> where his father worked as a medical doctor.) The play R.U.R, replaced the popular use of the word "automaton".<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> <a href="/wiki/Westinghouse_Electric_Corporation" title="Westinghouse Electric Corporation">Westinghouse Electric Corporation</a> built Televox in 1926; it was a cardboard cutout connected to various devices which users could turn on and off.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> In 1927, <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Lang" title="Fritz Lang">Fritz Lang</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Metropolis_(1927_film)" title="Metropolis (1927 film)">Metropolis</a> was released; the <a href="/wiki/Maschinenmensch" title="Maschinenmensch">Maschinenmensch</a> ("machine-human"), a <a href="/wiki/Gynoid" title="Gynoid">gynoid</a> humanoid robot, also called "Parody", "Futura", "Robotrix", or the "Maria impersonator" (played by German actress <a href="/wiki/Brigitte_Helm" title="Brigitte Helm">Brigitte Helm</a>), was the first robot ever to be depicted on film.<a href="#cite_note-MG-54">[54]</a> The most famous Japanese robotic automaton was presented to the public in 1927. The <a href="/wiki/Gakutensoku" title="Gakutensoku">Gakutensoku</a> was supposed to have a diplomatic role. Actuated by compressed air, it could write fluidly and raise its <a href="/wiki/Eyelids" class="mw-redirect" title="Eyelids">eyelids</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-19">[19]</a> Many robots were constructed before the dawn of computer-controlled servomechanisms, for the public relations purposes of major firms. These were essentially machines that could perform a few stunts, like the automata of the 18th century. In 1928, one of the first humanoid robots was exhibited at the annual exhibition of the Model Engineers Society in London. Invented by W. H. Richards, the robot - named <a href="/wiki/Eric_(robot)" title="Eric (robot)">Eric</a> - consisted of an <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a> <a href="/wiki/Body_armour" class="mw-redirect" title="Body armour">suit of armour</a> with eleven <a href="/wiki/Electromagnet" title="Electromagnet">electromagnets</a> and one motor powered by a 12-volt power source. The robot could move its hands and head and could be controlled by remote control or voice control.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1930s">1930s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_robots&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 1930s">edit</a>]</div> The earliest designs of <a href="/wiki/Industrial_robots" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial robots">industrial robots</a> were put into production in the United States. These manipulators had <a href="/wiki/Joints" class="mw-redirect" title="Joints">joints</a> modelled on human <a href="/wiki/Shoulder" title="Shoulder">shoulder</a>-arm-<a href="/wiki/Wrist" title="Wrist">wrist</a> <a href="/wiki/Kinetics_(physics)" title="Kinetics (physics)">kinetics</a> to replicate human motions like pulling, pushing, pressing and lifting. Motions could be controlled through <a href="/wiki/Cam_(mechanism)" title="Cam (mechanism)">cam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Switch" title="Switch">switch</a> programming. In 1938 <a href="/w/index.php?title=Willard_V._Pollard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Willard V. Pollard (page does not exist)">Willard V. Pollard</a> filed the first patent application for such an arm, the "Position Controlling Apparatus" with electronic controllers, <a href="/wiki/Pneumatic_cylinder" title="Pneumatic cylinder">pneumatic cylinder</a> and motors that powered six axes of motion. But the large <a href="/wiki/Drum_memory" title="Drum memory">drum memory</a> made programming time-consuming and difficult.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> In 1939, the humanoid robot known as <a href="/wiki/Elektro" title="Elektro">Elektro</a> appeared at the <a href="/wiki/World%27s_Fair" class="mw-redirect" title="World's Fair">World's Fair</a>.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Seven feet tall (2.1 m) and weighing 265 pounds (120 kg), it could walk by voice command, speak about 700 words (using a 78-rpm <a href="/wiki/Record_player" class="mw-redirect" title="Record player">record player</a>), smoke cigarettes, blow up balloons, and move its head and arms. The body consisted of a steel gear cam and motor skeleton covered by an aluminium skin.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> In 1939 <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Zuse" title="Konrad Zuse">Konrad Zuse</a> constructed the first <a href="/wiki/Computer_program" title="Computer program">programmable</a> electromechanical <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computer</a>, laying the foundation for the construction of a humanoid machine that is now deemed a robot.<a href="#cite_note-Armin_Krishnan_2016_15-60">[60]</a> The practical application of <a href="/wiki/Boolean_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Boolean logic">binary logic</a> to electric switches had been demonstrated by <a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a>, but his <a href="/wiki/Calculator" title="Calculator">calculator</a> was not programmable.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1940s">1940s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_robots&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: 1940s">edit</a>]</div> In 1941 and 1942, <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Asimov" title="Isaac Asimov">Isaac Asimov</a> formulated the <a href="/wiki/Three_Laws_of_Robotics" title="Three Laws of Robotics">Three Laws of Robotics</a>, and in the process coined the word "robotics".[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In 1945 <a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a> published <a href="/wiki/As_We_May_Think" title="As We May Think">As We May Think</a>, an essay that investigated the potential of <a href="/wiki/Electronic_data_processing" title="Electronic data processing">electronic data processing</a>. He predicted the rise of computers, digital word processors, <a href="/wiki/Speech_recognition" title="Speech recognition">voice recognition</a> and <a href="/wiki/Machine_translation" title="Machine translation">machine translation</a>. He was later credited by <a href="/wiki/Ted_Nelson" title="Ted Nelson">Ted Nelson</a>, the inventor of <a href="/wiki/Hypertext" title="Hypertext">hypertext</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Robotics_in_Genitourinary_Surgery-18">[18]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Julian_Bigelow.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Julian_Bigelow.jpg/220px-Julian_Bigelow.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Julian_Bigelow.jpg/330px-Julian_Bigelow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Julian_Bigelow.jpg/440px-Julian_Bigelow.jpg 2x" data-file-width="593" data-file-height="444" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bigelow" title="Julian Bigelow">Julian Bigelow</a> at The Princeton Institute for Advanced Study (left to right: Bigelow, <a href="/wiki/Herman_Goldstine" title="Herman Goldstine">Herman Goldstine</a>, <a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">J. Robert Oppenheimer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a>)</figcaption></figure> In 1943 <a href="/wiki/Arturo_Rosenblueth" title="Arturo Rosenblueth">Arturo Rosenblueth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norbert_Wiener" title="Norbert Wiener">Norbert Wiener</a> and <a href="/wiki/Julian_Bigelow" title="Julian Bigelow">Julian Bigelow</a> adopted the human <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a> as control paradigm for <a href="/wiki/Lethal_autonomous_weapon" title="Lethal autonomous weapon">automatic weapons systems</a>. In doing so they pioneered <a href="/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">cybernetics</a> (Greek for steersman) and modelled <a href="/wiki/Data_processing" title="Data processing">data processing</a> on the assumption that an animal continually communicates its sensorial experience to its central nervous system as automatic and involuntary feedback, thus being able to regulate processes such as <a href="/wiki/Respiration_(physiology)" title="Respiration (physiology)">respiration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">circulation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Digestion" title="Digestion">digestion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Following the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>, at a 1946 conference on cybernetics, <a href="/wiki/Warren_McCulloch" class="mw-redirect" title="Warren McCulloch">Warren McCulloch</a> gathered a team of mathematicians, computer engineers, <a href="/wiki/Physiologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiologists">physiologists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psychologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychologists">psychologists</a> to work on machine operation using biological systems as starting point. Following the publication of his book in 1948, Wiener's idea that inanimate systems could simulate biological and social systems through the use of sensors led to the adaption of cybernetic theories into industrial machines. But <a href="/wiki/Servo_control" title="Servo control">servo controllers</a> proved inadequate in achieving the desired level of automation.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> The first electronic autonomous robots with complex behavior were created by <a href="/wiki/William_Grey_Walter" title="William Grey Walter">William Grey Walter</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Burden_Neurological_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Burden Neurological Institute">Burden Neurological Institute</a> at Bristol, England in 1948 and 1949. He wanted to prove that rich connections between a small number of <a href="/wiki/Neurons" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurons">brain cells</a> could give rise to very complex <a href="/wiki/Behavior" title="Behavior">behaviors</a> - essentially that the secret of how the brain worked lay in how it was wired up. His first robots, named <a href="/wiki/Elmer_and_Elsie_(robots)" title="Elmer and Elsie (robots)">Elmer and Elsie</a>, were constructed between 1948 and 1949 and were often described as "tortoises" due to their shape and slow rate of movement. The three-wheeled tortoise robots were capable of <a href="/wiki/Phototaxis" title="Phototaxis">phototaxis</a>, by which they could find their way to a recharging station when they ran low on battery power.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Walter stressed the importance of using purely <a href="/wiki/Analogue_electronics" title="Analogue electronics">analogue electronics</a> to <a href="/wiki/Simulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Simulate">simulate</a> brain processes at a time when his contemporaries such as <a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a> were all turning towards a view of mental processes in terms of <a href="/wiki/Digital_data" title="Digital data">digital</a> <a href="/wiki/Computation" title="Computation">computation</a>. Walter's work inspired subsequent generations of robotics researchers such as <a href="/wiki/Rodney_Brooks" title="Rodney Brooks">Rodney Brooks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hans_Moravec" title="Hans Moravec">Hans Moravec</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mark_Tilden" title="Mark Tilden">Mark Tilden</a>. Modern incarnations of Walter's "turtles" may be found in the form of <a href="/wiki/BEAM_robotics" title="BEAM robotics">BEAM robotics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-gwonline-64">[64]</a> In 1949 <a href="/wiki/Tony_Sale" title="Tony Sale">Tony Sale</a> built a simple 6-foot (1.8 m) <a href="/wiki/Humanoid_robot" title="Humanoid robot">humanoid robot</a> he named <a href="/wiki/George_(robot)" title="George (robot)">George</a>, created from scrap metal from a grounded <a href="/wiki/Vickers_Wellington" title="Vickers Wellington">Wellington</a> bomber. After being stored away in its inventor's shed, the robot was restored in 2010 and shown in an episode of <a href="/wiki/Wallace_%26_Gromit%27s_World_of_Invention" title="Wallace & Gromit's World of Invention">Wallace & Gromit's World of Invention</a>. After the reactivation, Tony Sale donated George to the <a href="/wiki/The_National_Museum_of_Computing" title="The National Museum of Computing">National Museum of Computing</a>, where it remains on display to the public. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1950s">1950s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_robots&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: 1950s">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Computer_Integrated_Manufacturing_Systems(CMS)Unimate_Pumo_500_%26_Pumo_560_Robots_1986(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Computer_Integrated_Manufacturing_Systems%28CMS%29Unimate_Pumo_500_%26_Pumo_560_Robots_1986%282%29.jpg/200px-Computer_Integrated_Manufacturing_Systems%28CMS%29Unimate_Pumo_500_%26_Pumo_560_Robots_1986%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Computer_Integrated_Manufacturing_Systems%28CMS%29Unimate_Pumo_500_%26_Pumo_560_Robots_1986%282%29.jpg/300px-Computer_Integrated_Manufacturing_Systems%28CMS%29Unimate_Pumo_500_%26_Pumo_560_Robots_1986%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Computer_Integrated_Manufacturing_Systems%28CMS%29Unimate_Pumo_500_%26_Pumo_560_Robots_1986%282%29.jpg/400px-Computer_Integrated_Manufacturing_Systems%28CMS%29Unimate_Pumo_500_%26_Pumo_560_Robots_1986%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2956" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>The Unimate Puma 500 and Puma 560 <a href="/wiki/Industrial_robots" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial robots">industrial robots</a> in 1986</figcaption></figure> In 1951 Walter published the paper A Machine that learns, documenting how his more advanced mechanical robots acted as <a href="/wiki/Intelligent_agent" title="Intelligent agent">intelligent agent</a> by demonstrating conditioned reflex learning.<a href="#cite_note-Robotics_in_Genitourinary_Surgery-18">[18]</a> <a href="/wiki/Unimate" title="Unimate">Unimate</a>, the first digitally operated and programmable robot, was invented by <a href="/wiki/George_Devol" title="George Devol">George Devol</a> in 1950 and "represents the foundation of the modern robotics industry."<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> In Japan, robots became popular comic book characters. Robots became cultural icons and the Japanese government was spurred into funding research into <a href="/wiki/Robotics" title="Robotics">robotics</a>. Among the most iconic characters was the <a href="/wiki/Astro_Boy" title="Astro Boy">Astro Boy</a>, who is taught human feelings such as love, courage and self-doubt. Culturally, robots in Japan became regarded as helpmates to their human counterparts.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> The introduction of <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistors</a> into <a href="/wiki/Computers" class="mw-redirect" title="Computers">computers</a> in the mid-1950s reduced their size and increased performance. Therefore, computing and programming could be incorporated into a range of applications, including automation.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> In 1959 researchers of the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) demonstrated computer-assisted manufacturing.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1960s">1960s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_robots&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: 1960s">edit</a>]</div> Devol sold the first Unimate to <a href="/wiki/General_Motors" title="General Motors">General Motors</a> in 1960, and it was installed in 1961 in a plant in <a href="/wiki/Ewing_Township,_New_Jersey" title="Ewing Township, New Jersey">Ewing Township, New Jersey</a>, to lift hot pieces of metal from a <a href="/wiki/Die_casting" title="Die casting">die casting</a> machine and place them in cooling liquid.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> "Without any fanfare, the world's first working robot joined the assembly line at the General Motors plant in Ewing Township in the spring of 1961... It was an automated die-casting mold that dropped red-hot door handles and other such car parts into pools of cooling liquid on a line that moved them along to workers for trimming and buffing." Devol's patent for the first digitally operated programmable robotic arm represents the foundation of the modern robotics industry.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Victor_Scheinman_at_MIT_Museum.agr.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Victor_Scheinman_at_MIT_Museum.agr.jpg/220px-Victor_Scheinman_at_MIT_Museum.agr.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Victor_Scheinman_at_MIT_Museum.agr.jpg/330px-Victor_Scheinman_at_MIT_Museum.agr.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Victor_Scheinman_at_MIT_Museum.agr.jpg/440px-Victor_Scheinman_at_MIT_Museum.agr.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2121" data-file-height="2831" /></a><figcaption>Victor Scheinman at the <a href="/wiki/MIT_Museum" title="MIT Museum">MIT Museum</a> with a PUMA robot in 2014</figcaption></figure> The Rancho Arm was developed as a robotic arm to help handicapped patients at the <a href="/wiki/Rancho_Los_Amigos_Hospital" class="mw-redirect" title="Rancho Los Amigos Hospital">Rancho Los Amigos Hospital</a> in <a href="/wiki/Downey,_California" title="Downey, California">Downey, California</a>; this computer-controlled arm was bought by Stanford University in 1963.<a href="#cite_note-CH-73">[73]</a> In 1967 the first <a href="/wiki/Industrial_robot" title="Industrial robot">industrial robot</a> was put to productive use in Japan. The Versatran robot had been developed by <a href="/wiki/American_Machine_and_Foundry" title="American Machine and Foundry">American Machine and Foundry</a>. A year later a hydraulic robot design by <a href="/wiki/Unimation" title="Unimation">Unimation</a> was put into production by <a href="/wiki/Kawasaki_Heavy_Industries" title="Kawasaki Heavy Industries">Kawasaki Heavy Industries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> <a href="/wiki/Marvin_Minsky" title="Marvin Minsky">Marvin Minsky</a> created the Tentacle Arm in 1968; the arm was computer-controlled and its 12 joints were powered by hydraulics.<a href="#cite_note-CH-73">[73]</a> In 1969 <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_Engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical Engineering">Mechanical Engineering</a> student <a href="/wiki/Victor_Scheinman" title="Victor Scheinman">Victor Scheinman</a> created the Stanford Arm, recognized as the first electronic computer-controlled robotic arm because the Unimate's instructions were stored on a <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_drum" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic drum">magnetic drum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-CH-73">[73]</a> In the late-1960s the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> became the testing ground for automated command technology and sensor networks.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> In 1966 the <a href="/wiki/McNamara_Line" title="McNamara Line">McNamara Line</a> was proposed with the aim of requiring virtually no ground forces. This sensor network of seismic and acoustic sensors, photoreconnaissance and sensor-triggered <a href="/wiki/Land_mines" class="mw-redirect" title="Land mines">land mines</a> was only partially implemented due to high cost.<a href="#cite_note-Armin_Krishnan_2016_20-76">[76]</a> The first mobile robot capable of reasoning about its surroundings, <a href="/wiki/Shakey_the_Robot" class="mw-redirect" title="Shakey the Robot">Shakey</a>, was built in 1970 by the Stanford Research Institute (now <a href="/wiki/SRI_International" title="SRI International">SRI International</a>). Shakey combined multiple sensor inputs, including TV cameras, <a href="/wiki/Laser_rangefinder" title="Laser rangefinder">laser rangefinders</a>, and "bump sensors" to navigate.<a href="#cite_note-CH-73">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1970s">1970s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_robots&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: 1970s">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GBU-10_shortly_before_it_impacts_a_small_boat_during_a_training_exercise.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/GBU-10_shortly_before_it_impacts_a_small_boat_during_a_training_exercise.jpg/220px-GBU-10_shortly_before_it_impacts_a_small_boat_during_a_training_exercise.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/GBU-10_shortly_before_it_impacts_a_small_boat_during_a_training_exercise.jpg/330px-GBU-10_shortly_before_it_impacts_a_small_boat_during_a_training_exercise.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/GBU-10_shortly_before_it_impacts_a_small_boat_during_a_training_exercise.jpg/440px-GBU-10_shortly_before_it_impacts_a_small_boat_during_a_training_exercise.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3500" data-file-height="2500" /></a><figcaption> A <a href="/wiki/GBU-10_Paveway_II" title="GBU-10 Paveway II">GBU-10 Paveway II</a>, an American <a href="/wiki/Laser-guided_bomb" title="Laser-guided bomb">laser-guided bomb</a>, based on the <a href="/wiki/Mk_84" class="mw-redirect" title="Mk 84">Mk 84</a> <a href="/wiki/General-purpose_bomb" title="General-purpose bomb">general-purpose bomb</a>, but with laser seeker and wings for guidance. Introduced into service <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1976.</figcaption></figure> In the early 1970s precision munitions and smart weapons were developed. Weapons became robotic by implementing <a href="/wiki/Terminal_guidance" title="Terminal guidance">terminal guidance</a>. At the end of the Vietnam War the first laser-guided bombs were deployed, which could find their target by following a laser beam that was pointed at the target. During the 1972 <a href="/wiki/Operation_Linebacker" title="Operation Linebacker">Operation Linebacker</a> laser-guided bombs proved effective, but still depended heavily on human operators. <a href="/wiki/Fire-and-forget" title="Fire-and-forget">Fire-and-forget</a> weapons were also first deployed in the closing Vietnam War, once launched no further attention or action was required from the operator.<a href="#cite_note-Armin_Krishnan_2016_20-76">[76]</a> The development of humanoid robots was advanced considerably by <a href="/wiki/Japanese_robotics" title="Japanese robotics">Japanese robotics</a> scientists in the 1970s.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> <a href="/wiki/Waseda_University" title="Waseda University">Waseda University</a> initiated the WABOT project in 1967, and in 1972 completed the WABOT-1, the world's first full-scale humanoid intelligent robot.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Its limb control system allowed it to walk with the lower limbs, and to grip and transport objects with hands, using tactile sensors. Its vision system allowed it to measure distances and directions to objects using external receptors, artificial eyes and ears. And its conversation system allowed it to communicate with a person in Japanese, with an artificial mouth. This made it the first <a href="/wiki/Android_(robot)" title="Android (robot)">android</a>.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> <a href="/wiki/Freddy_II" title="Freddy II">Freddy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Freddy_II" title="Freddy II">Freddy II</a> were robots built at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh_School_of_Informatics" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Edinburgh School of Informatics">University of Edinburgh School of Informatics</a> by <a href="/wiki/Pat_Ambler" class="mw-redirect" title="Pat Ambler">Pat Ambler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robin_Popplestone" title="Robin Popplestone">Robin Popplestone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austin_Tate" title="Austin Tate">Austin Tate</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Donald_Mitchie" class="mw-redirect" title="Donald Mitchie">Donald Mitchie</a>, and were capable of assembling wooden blocks in a period of several hours.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> German based company <a href="/wiki/KUKA" title="KUKA">KUKA</a> built the world's first industrial robot with six electromechanically driven axes, known as FAMULUS.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> In 1974, <a href="/wiki/Michael_J._Freeman" title="Michael J. Freeman">Michael J. Freeman</a> created Leachim, a robot teacher who was programmed with the class curricular, as well as certain biographical information on the 40 students whom Leachim was programmed to teach.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Leachim had the ability to synthesize <a href="/wiki/Human_speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Human speech">human speech</a>.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Leachim was tested in a fourth grade classroom in the <a href="/wiki/Bronx" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronx">Bronx</a> borough of <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> In 1974, David Silver designed The Silver Arm, which was capable of fine movements replicating human hands. Feedback was provided by <a href="/wiki/Touch_sensor" class="mw-redirect" title="Touch sensor">touch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pressure_sensor" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressure sensor">pressure</a> <a href="/wiki/Sensors" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensors">sensors</a> and analyzed by a computer.<a href="#cite_note-CH-73">[73]</a> The <a href="/wiki/SCARA" title="SCARA">SCARA</a>, Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm, was created in 1978 as an efficient, 4-axis robotic arm. Best used for picking up parts and placing them in another location, the SCARA was introduced to assembly lines in 1981.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> The Stanford Cart successfully crossed a room full of chairs in 1979. It relied primarily on <a href="/wiki/Stereo_vision" class="mw-redirect" title="Stereo vision">stereo vision</a> to navigate and determine distances.<a href="#cite_note-CH-73">[73]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Robotics_Institute" title="Robotics Institute">Robotics Institute</a> at <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Mellon_University" title="Carnegie Mellon University">Carnegie Mellon University</a> was founded in 1979 by <a href="/wiki/Raj_Reddy" title="Raj Reddy">Raj Reddy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1980s">1980s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_robots&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: 1980s">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KUKA_Industrial_Robots_IR.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/KUKA_Industrial_Robots_IR.jpg/200px-KUKA_Industrial_Robots_IR.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/KUKA_Industrial_Robots_IR.jpg/300px-KUKA_Industrial_Robots_IR.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/KUKA_Industrial_Robots_IR.jpg/400px-KUKA_Industrial_Robots_IR.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1492" data-file-height="992" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/KUKA" title="KUKA">KUKA</a> IR 160/60 Robots from 1983</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Db_tuda_jes2899_a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Db_tuda_jes2899_a.jpg/200px-Db_tuda_jes2899_a.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Db_tuda_jes2899_a.jpg/300px-Db_tuda_jes2899_a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Db_tuda_jes2899_a.jpg/400px-Db_tuda_jes2899_a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4256" data-file-height="2832" /></a><figcaption>Sensors allow collaborative robots (<a href="/wiki/Cobots" class="mw-redirect" title="Cobots">cobots</a>) to interact directly with humans in a shared <a href="/wiki/Workspace" title="Workspace">workspace</a>.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Takeo_Kanade" title="Takeo Kanade">Takeo Kanade</a> created the first "direct-drive arm" in 1981. The first of its kind, the arm's motors were contained within the robot itself, eliminating long transmissions.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> In 1984 Wabot-2 was revealed; capable of playing the organ, Wabot-2 had 10 fingers and two feet. Wabot-2 was able to read a score of music and accompany a person.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> In 1986, <a href="/wiki/Honda" title="Honda">Honda</a> began its humanoid research and development program to create robots capable of interacting successfully with humans.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Hexapod_(robotics)" title="Hexapod (robotics)">hexapodal</a> robot named Genghis was revealed by MIT in 1989. Genghis was famous for being made quickly and cheaply due to construction methods; Genghis used 4 microprocessors, 22 sensors, and 12 <a href="/wiki/Servo_motors" class="mw-redirect" title="Servo motors">servo motors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> Rodney Brooks and Anita M. Flynn published "Fast, Cheap, and Out of Control: A Robot Invasion of The Solar System". The paper advocated creating smaller cheaper robots in greater numbers to increase production time and decrease the difficulty of launching robots into space.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1990s">1990s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_robots&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: 1990s">edit</a>]</div> In 1994 one of the most successful <a href="/wiki/Robot-assisted_surgery" title="Robot-assisted surgery">robot-assisted surgery</a> appliances was cleared by the <a href="/wiki/FDA" class="mw-redirect" title="FDA">FDA</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Cyberknife_(device)" title="Cyberknife (device)">Cyberknife</a> had been invented by <a href="/wiki/John_R._Adler" title="John R. Adler">John R. Adler</a> and the first system was installed at Stanford University in 1991. This <a href="/wiki/Radiosurgery" title="Radiosurgery">radiosurgery</a> system integrated <a href="/wiki/Image-guided_surgery" title="Image-guided surgery">image-guided surgery</a> with robotic positioning. The Cyberknife is now deployed to treat patients with brain or spine <a href="/wiki/Tumors" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumors">tumors</a>. An <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">x-ray</a> camera tracks displacement and compensates for motion caused by breathing.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Biomimetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomimetic">biomimetic</a> robot <a href="/wiki/RoboTuna" title="RoboTuna">RoboTuna</a> was built by doctoral student David Barrett at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1996 to study how fish swim in water. RoboTuna is designed to swim and to resemble a <a href="/wiki/Bluefin_tuna" title="Bluefin tuna">bluefin tuna</a>.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Deep_Blue.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Deep_Blue.jpg/200px-Deep_Blue.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="301" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Deep_Blue.jpg/300px-Deep_Blue.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Deep_Blue.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="601" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Deep_Blue_(chess_computer)" title="Deep Blue (chess computer)">Deep Blue computer</a> defeated world chess champion <a href="/wiki/Garry_Kasparov" title="Garry Kasparov">Garry Kasparov</a> in 1997.</figcaption></figure> Honda's <a href="/wiki/Honda_P2" class="mw-redirect" title="Honda P2">P2</a> humanoid robot was first shown in 1996. Standing for "Prototype Model 2", P2 was an integral part of Honda's humanoid development project; over 6 feet (1.8 m) tall, P2 was smaller than its predecessors and appeared to be more human-like in its motions.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Expected to operate for only seven days, the <a href="/wiki/Sojourner_(rover)" title="Sojourner (rover)">Sojourner</a> rover finally shuts down after 83 days of operation in 1997. This small robot (only 23 lbs or 10.5 kg) performed semi-autonomous operations on the surface of <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a> as part of the <a href="/wiki/Mars_Pathfinder" title="Mars Pathfinder">Mars Pathfinder</a> mission; equipped with an obstacle avoidance program, Sojourner was capable of planning and navigating routes to study the surface of the planet. Sojourner's ability to navigate with little data about its environment and nearby surroundings allowed it to react to unplanned events and objects.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Honda_P3" class="mw-redirect" title="Honda P3">P3</a> humanoid robot was revealed by Honda in 1998 as a part of the company's continuing humanoid project.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> In 1999, Sony introduced the <a href="/wiki/AIBO" title="AIBO">AIBO</a>, a robotic dog capable of interacting with humans; the first models released in Japan sold out in 20 minutes.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> Honda revealed the most advanced result of their humanoid project in 2000, named <a href="/wiki/ASIMO" title="ASIMO">ASIMO</a>. ASIMO can run, walk, communicate with humans, recognise faces, environment, voices and posture, and interact with its environment.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> Sony also revealed its <a href="/wiki/QRIO" title="QRIO">Sony Dream Robots</a>, small humanoid robots in development for entertainment.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> In October 2000, the United Nations estimated that there were 742,500 industrial robots in the world, with more than half of them being used in Japan.<a href="#cite_note-BBC-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2000s">2000s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_robots&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: 2000s">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roomba3g.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Roomba3g.jpg/200px-Roomba3g.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Roomba3g.jpg/300px-Roomba3g.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Roomba3g.jpg/400px-Roomba3g.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2022" data-file-height="1348" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Roomba" title="Roomba">Roomba</a> <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_cleaner" title="Vacuum cleaner">vacuum cleaner</a> docked in base station</figcaption></figure> In April 2001, the <a href="/wiki/Canadarm2" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadarm2">Canadarm2</a> was launched into orbit and attached to the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a>. The Canadarm2 is a larger, more capable version of the arm used by the <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a>, and is hailed as "smarter".<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Also in April, the <a href="/wiki/Unmanned_Aerial_Vehicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Unmanned Aerial Vehicle">Unmanned Aerial Vehicle</a> <a href="/wiki/Global_Hawk" class="mw-redirect" title="Global Hawk">Global Hawk</a> made the first autonomous non-stop flight over the Pacific Ocean from <a href="/wiki/Edwards_Air_Force_Base" title="Edwards Air Force Base">Edwards Air Force Base</a> in California to <a href="/wiki/RAAF_Base_Edinburgh" title="RAAF Base Edinburgh">RAAF Base Edinburgh</a> in Southern Australia. The flight was made in 22 hours.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> The popular <a href="/wiki/Roomba" title="Roomba">Roomba</a>, a robotic vacuum cleaner, was first released in 2002 by the company <a href="/wiki/IRobot" title="IRobot">iRobot</a>.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> In 2002, in her book Designing Sociable Robots, <a href="/wiki/Cynthia_Breazeal" title="Cynthia Breazeal">Cynthia Breazeal</a> was one of the first to explore the idea of robots imitating humans, and published research on how, in the future, teaching humanoid robots to perform new tasks might be as simple as just showing them.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> Throughout the early 2000s Breazeal was experimenting with expressive social exchange between humans and humanoid robots. Whilst completing her PhD at <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">MIT</a>, she worked on humanoid robots Kismet, Leonard, Aida, Autom and Huggable.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> Doing this, Breazeal found that the issue was that robots too often only interacted with objects and not people and suggested that robots can be used to better relationships between humans. In 2005, <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a> revealed a robotic system of block-modules capable of attaching and detaching, described as the first robot capable of self-replication, because it was capable of assembling copies of itself if it was placed near more of the blocks which composed it.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Launched in 2003, on 3 and 24 January, the Mars rovers <a href="/wiki/Spirit_(rover)" title="Spirit (rover)">Spirit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Opportunity_(rover)" title="Opportunity (rover)">Opportunity</a> landed on the surface of Mars. Both robots drove many times the distance originally expected, and Opportunity was still operating as late as mid-2018, before communications were lost due to a major dust storm.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> <a href="/wiki/Self-driving_cars" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-driving cars">Self-driving cars</a> had made their appearance by around 2005, but there was room for improvement. None of the 15 devices competing in the <a href="/wiki/DARPA_Grand_Challenge" title="DARPA Grand Challenge">DARPA Grand Challenge</a> (2004) successfully completed the course; in fact no robot successfully navigated more than 5% of the 150-mile (240 km) off-road course, leaving the $1 million prize unclaimed.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> In 2005, Honda revealed a new version of its ASIMO robot, updated with new behaviors and capabilities.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> In 2006, Cornell University revealed its "Starfish" robot, a four-legged robot capable of self modeling[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] and learning to walk after having been damaged.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> In 2007, <a href="/wiki/TOMY" class="mw-redirect" title="TOMY">TOMY</a> launched the entertainment robot, i-sobot, a humanoid bipedal robot that can walk like a human and performs kicks and punches and also some entertaining tricks and special actions under "Special Action Mode". <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ICub_-_Festival_Economia_2018_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/ICub_-_Festival_Economia_2018_1.jpg/220px-ICub_-_Festival_Economia_2018_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/ICub_-_Festival_Economia_2018_1.jpg/330px-ICub_-_Festival_Economia_2018_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/ICub_-_Festival_Economia_2018_1.jpg/440px-ICub_-_Festival_Economia_2018_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2496" data-file-height="3119" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/ICub" title="ICub">iCub</a>, humanoid robot built by the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Institute_of_Technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Institute of Technology">Italian Institute of Technology</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2010s">2010s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_robots&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: 2010s">edit</a>]</div> The 2010s were defined by large-scale improvements in the availability, power and versatility of commonly available robotic components, as well as the mass proliferation of robots into everyday life, which caused both optimistic speculation and new societal concerns. Development of humanoid robots continued to advance; <a href="/wiki/Robonaut_2" class="mw-redirect" title="Robonaut 2">Robonaut 2</a> was launched to the International Space Station aboard <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Discovery" title="Space Shuttle Discovery">Space Shuttle Discovery</a> on the <a href="/wiki/STS-133" title="STS-133">STS-133</a> mission in 2011 as the first <a href="/wiki/Humanoid_robot" title="Humanoid robot">humanoid robot</a> in space. While its initial purpose was to teach engineers how dextrous robots behave in space, the hope is that through upgrades and advancements, it could one day venture outside the station to help spacewalkers make repairs or additions to the station or perform scientific work.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> By the end of the decade, humanoid and animal-like robots were capable of clearing difficult obstacle courses, maintaining balance, and even performing <a href="/wiki/Gymnastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Gymnastic">gymnastic</a> feats.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> However, the vast majority of robotic developments in the 2010s instead saw smaller, more specialized non-humanoid robots become cheaper, more capable, and more ubiquitous. <a href="/wiki/Moore%27s_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Moore's Law">Moore's Law</a> and the increasing integration of digital electronic components into lightweight and powerful <a href="/wiki/System_on_a_chip" title="System on a chip">systems on a chip</a> allowed for the heavy computation necessary for the operation of a robotic system to be performed by smaller and smaller devices. Many of these advances in chip and sensor technology were driven by the growth and spread of <a href="/wiki/Smartphones" class="mw-redirect" title="Smartphones">smartphones</a>, which demanded these new components to meet the increasing demands of everyday use. The cost and weight reductions of these components have resulted in a proliferation of new kinds of special-purpose robots. <a href="/wiki/Quadcopter" title="Quadcopter">Quadcopters</a>, a novelty at the beginning of the decade, became a ubiquitous platform for robotic systems, featuring autonomous navigation and stabilization and carrying increasingly powerful sensors, including stabilized high definition cameras, radar, and surveying equipment. By the end of the decade, the cost of a robotic quadcopter with <a href="/wiki/4K_resolution" title="4K resolution">4K</a> cameras and autonomous navigation had dropped to within range of hobbyist budgets,<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> and companies like <a href="/wiki/Amazon_(company)" title="Amazon (company)">Amazon</a> were exploring the use of quadcopters to autonomously deliver freight, though deployment of this systems did not happen on a large scale in the decade.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> The decade also saw a boom in the capabilities of <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a>. Over the course of the 2010s, the capacity of onboard computers used within robots increased to the point that robots could perform increasingly complex actions without human guidance, as well as independently process data in more complex ways. The growth of <a href="/wiki/Mobile_data" class="mw-redirect" title="Mobile data">mobile data</a> networks and increasing power of <a href="/wiki/Graphics_cards" class="mw-redirect" title="Graphics cards">graphics cards</a> for artificial intelligence applications also allowed robots to communicate with distant <a href="/wiki/Computer_cluster" title="Computer cluster">clusters</a> in real time, effectively boosting the capability of even very simple robots to include cutting-edge artificial intelligence techniques. The 2010s also saw the growth of new software paradigms, which allowed robots and their AI systems to take advantage of this increased computing power. <a href="/wiki/Neural_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural networks">Neural networks</a> became increasingly well developed in the 2010s, with companies like Google offering free and open access to products like <a href="/wiki/TensorFlow" title="TensorFlow">TensorFlow</a>, which allowed robot manufacturers to quickly integrate neural nets that allowed for abilities like <a href="/wiki/Facial_recognition_system" title="Facial recognition system">facial recognition</a> and object identification in even the smallest, cheapest robots.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> The growth of robots in the 2010s also coincided with the increasing power of the <a href="/wiki/Open_source_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Open source software">open source software</a> movement, with many companies offering free access to their artificial intelligence software. Open source hardware, such as the <a href="/wiki/Raspberry_Pi" title="Raspberry Pi">Raspberry Pi</a> line of compact <a href="/wiki/Single-board_computer" title="Single-board computer">single board computers</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Arduino" title="Arduino">Arduino</a> line of <a href="/wiki/Microcontroller" title="Microcontroller">microcontrollers</a>, as well as a growing array of electronic components like <a href="/wiki/Sensors" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensors">sensors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Motors" class="mw-redirect" title="Motors">motors</a> dramatically increased in power and decreased in price over the 2010s. Combined with the drop in cost of manufacturing techniques like <a href="/wiki/3D_printing" title="3D printing">3D printing</a>, these components allowed hobbyists, researchers and manufacturers alike to quickly and cheaply build special-purpose robots that exhibited high degrees of artificial intelligence, as well as to share their designs with others around the world. <a href="/wiki/Self-driving_cars" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-driving cars">Self-driving cars</a> transitioned from speculative to emergent during the decade. By the end of the decade, most new cars were manufactured with robotic subsystems capable of warning the car's human driver about dangers such as nearby vehicles or potential lane departures.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> In 2014, new <a href="/wiki/Tesla,_Inc." title="Tesla, Inc.">Tesla</a> vehicles were fitted with the computer hardware necessary to eventually support a full autopilot software system, with increasingly autonomous software systems arriving as updates over later years.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> By the end of the decade, autonomous driving was possible on large highways, but still required human supervision.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> The growth of robotic capabilities during the decade happened in tandem with the centralization of economic power into the hands of <a href="/wiki/Big_Tech" title="Big Tech">large multinational tech companies</a>, which has prompted concerns that the capabilities of these robots could be abused by the companies that make them available to consumers. The acquisition of <a href="/wiki/Roomba" title="Roomba">Roomba</a> by <a href="/wiki/Amazon_(company)" title="Amazon (company)">Amazon</a> led to concerns from data privacy advocates that data about the interiors of users' homes collected by the robots' sensors and cameras could be stored, shared and analyzed without those users' informed consent.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> Likewise, the ubiquity of small flying quadcopters, <a href="/wiki/Home_automation" title="Home automation">home automation</a>, and facial recognition capabilities by robots has caused serious concerns regarding <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a> abuses, including allegations of repression of ethnic minorities in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> and concerns about violations of privacy rights by law enforcement in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> As robotic systems showed the ability to perform more and more tasks once limited to human operators, many <a href="/wiki/Ethicists" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethicists">ethicists</a> raised concerns that robots operating complex systems may not have the moral or ethical safeguards necessary to ensure public safety.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> Throughout the 2010s, humans continued to examine the nature of their relationships with robots, with trends indicating a general belief that robots were or would become conscious beings deserving of rights, and potential allies or rivals to humans. On 25 October 2017 at the Future Investment Summit in <a href="/wiki/Riyadh" title="Riyadh">Riyadh</a>, a robot called <a href="/wiki/Sophia_(robot)" title="Sophia (robot)">Sophia</a> and referred to with female pronouns was granted <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabian</a> citizenship, becoming the first robot ever to have a nationality.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-tc-125">[125]</a> This has attracted controversy, as it is not obvious whether this implies that Sophia can vote or marry, or whether a deliberate system shutdown can be considered murder; as well, it is controversial considering how few rights are given to Saudi human women.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> Popular works of art in the 2010s, such as HBO's revival of <a href="/wiki/Westworld" title="Westworld">Westworld</a>, encouraged empathy for robots, and explored questions of humanity and consciousness.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> By the end of the decade, commercial and industrial robots were in widespread use, performing jobs more cheaply or with greater accuracy and reliability than humans, and were widely used in manufacturing, assembly and packing, transport, Earth and space exploration, surgery, weaponry, laboratory research, and mass production of consumer and industrial goods.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> The growth of the use robots across industry, as well as in the <a href="/wiki/Service_sector" class="mw-redirect" title="Service sector">service sector</a> and in creative or highly skilled jobs formerly limited to humans, led to fears in the latter part of the decade of mass <a href="/wiki/Technological_unemployment" title="Technological unemployment">technological unemployment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> By the very end of the decade, robotics had started to make advancements on the nanotechnology scale. In 2019, engineers at the University of Pennsylvania created millions of nanobots in just a few weeks using technology borrowed from the mature semiconductor industry. These microscopic robots, small enough to be injected into the human body and controlled wirelessly, could one day deliver medications and perform surgeries, revolutionizing medicine and health.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_robots&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="image" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/25px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg" decoding="async" width="25" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/37px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/50px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1140" data-file-height="1276" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:History_of_science" title="Portal:History of science">History of science portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_artificial_intelligence" title="History of artificial intelligence">History of artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware" title="History of computing hardware">History of computing hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_production#History" title="Mass production">History of mass production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerical_control" title="Numerical control">Numerical control</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_robots&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theoi.com/Ther/AutomotonesKourai.html">"Kourai Khryseai"</a>. Theoi Project. Retrieved 5 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Theoi+Project&rft.atitle=Kourai+Khryseai&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theoi.com%2FTher%2FAutomotonesKourai.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+robots" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gera-2"><a href="#cite_ref-Gera_2-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeborah_Levine_Gera2003" class="citation book cs1">Deborah Levine Gera (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h5tKJvApybsC&q=hephaestus+handmaidens&pg=PA114">Ancient Greek Ideas on Speech, Language, and Civilization</a>. 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Riding the Wind with Liezi: New Perspectives on the Daoist Classic. SUNY Press. p. 195. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-3455-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-3455-1"><bdi>978-1-4384-3455-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Riding+the+Wind+with+Liezi%3A+New+Perspectives+on+the+Daoist+Classic&rft.pages=195&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4384-3455-1&rft.au=Ronnie+Littlejohn&rft.au=Jeffrey+Dippmann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+robots" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRonnie_LittlejohnJeffrey_Dippmann2011" class="citation book cs1">Ronnie Littlejohn; Jeffrey Dippmann (2011). Riding the Wind with Liezi: New Perspectives on the Daoist Classic. SUNY Press. pp. 194–195. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-3455-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-3455-1"><bdi>978-1-4384-3455-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Riding+the+Wind+with+Liezi%3A+New+Perspectives+on+the+Daoist+Classic&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E194-%3C%2Fspan%3E195&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4384-3455-1&rft.au=Ronnie+Littlejohn&rft.au=Jeffrey+Dippmann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+robots" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRonnie_LittlejohnJeffrey_Dippmann2011" class="citation book cs1">Ronnie Littlejohn; Jeffrey Dippmann (2011). Riding the Wind with Liezi: New Perspectives on the Daoist Classic. SUNY Press. p. 197. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-3455-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-3455-1"><bdi>978-1-4384-3455-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Riding+the+Wind+with+Liezi%3A+New+Perspectives+on+the+Daoist+Classic&rft.pages=197&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4384-3455-1&rft.au=Ronnie+Littlejohn&rft.au=Jeffrey+Dippmann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+robots" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrong2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_S._Strong" title="John S. Strong">Strong, J.S.</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_KLAxmR8PZAC">Relics of the Buddha</a>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. pp. 133–134. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11764-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11764-5"><bdi>978-0-691-11764-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Relics+of+the+Buddha&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E133-%3C%2Fspan%3E134&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-691-11764-5&rft.aulast=Strong&rft.aufirst=J.S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_KLAxmR8PZAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+robots" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdrienne_Mayor2018" class="citation book cs1">Adrienne Mayor (2018). Gods and Robots: Myths, Machines, and Ancient Dreams of Technology. Princeton University Press. pp. 205–206. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-18544-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-18544-6"><bdi>978-0-691-18544-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gods+and+Robots%3A+Myths%2C+Machines%2C+and+Ancient+Dreams+of+Technology&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E205-%3C%2Fspan%3E206&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-691-18544-6&rft.au=Adrienne+Mayor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+robots" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-William_Godwin_1876-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-William_Godwin_1876_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-William_Godwin_1876_10-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_Godwin1876" class="citation web cs1">William Godwin (1876). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/livesnecromance04godwgoog">"Lives of the Necromancers"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lives+of+the+Necromancers&rft.date=1876&rft.au=William+Godwin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flivesnecromance04godwgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+robots" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Haug, "Walewein as a postclassical literary experiment", pp. 23–4; Roman van Walewein, ed. G.A. van Es, De Jeeste van Walewein en het Schaakbord van Penninc en Pieter Vostaert (Zwolle, 1957): 877 ff and 3526 ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> See also P. Sullivan, "Medieval Automata: The 'Chambre de beautés' in <a href="/wiki/Beno%C3%AEt_de_Sainte-Maure" title="Benoît de Sainte-Maure">Benoît</a>'s Roman de Troie." Romance Studies 6 (1985): 1–20. </li> <li id="cite_note-RoboticHistory1-13"><a href="#cite_ref-RoboticHistory1_13-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurrie1999" class="citation web cs1">Currie, Adam (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060718024255/http://www.faculty.ucr.edu/~currie/roboadam.htm">"The History of Robotics"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.faculty.ucr.edu/~currie/roboadam.htm">the original</a> on 18 July 2006. Retrieved 10 September 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Robotics&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Currie&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.faculty.ucr.edu%2F~currie%2Froboadam.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+robots" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKevin_LaGrandeur2013" class="citation book cs1">Kevin LaGrandeur (2013). Androids and Intelligent Networks in Early Modern Literature and Culture: Artificial Slaves. Routledge. p. 24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-63121-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-63121-1"><bdi>978-0-415-63121-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Androids+and+Intelligent+Networks+in+Early+Modern+Literature+and+Culture%3A+Artificial+Slaves&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-415-63121-1&rft.au=Kevin+LaGrandeur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+robots" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKevin_LaGrandeur2013" class="citation book cs1">Kevin LaGrandeur (2013). Androids and Intelligent Networks in Early Modern Literature and Culture: Artificial Slaves. Routledge. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-63121-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-63121-1"><bdi>978-0-415-63121-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Androids+and+Intelligent+Networks+in+Early+Modern+Literature+and+Culture%3A+Artificial+Slaves&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-415-63121-1&rft.au=Kevin+LaGrandeur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+robots" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Safran1998-16"><a href="#cite_ref-Safran1998_16-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSafran1998" class="citation book cs1">Safran, Linda (1998). Heaven on Earth: Art and the Church in Byzantium. Pittsburgh: Penn State Press. p. 30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-271-01670-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-271-01670-1"><bdi>0-271-01670-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heaven+on+Earth%3A+Art+and+the+Church+in+Byzantium&rft.place=Pittsburgh&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Penn+State+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-271-01670-1&rft.aulast=Safran&rft.aufirst=Linda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+robots" class="Z3988"> Records Liutprand's description. </li> <li id="cite_note-suso1-17"><a href="#cite_ref-suso1_17-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thenagain.info/WebChron/China/SongClock.html">"Su Song's Clock: 1088"</a>. Retrieved 26 August 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Su+Song%27s+Clock%3A+1088&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thenagain.info%2FWebChron%2FChina%2FSongClock.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+robots" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Robotics_in_Genitourinary_Surgery-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Robotics_in_Genitourinary_Surgery_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robotics_in_Genitourinary_Surgery_18-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robotics_in_Genitourinary_Surgery_18-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHemalMenon2018" class="citation book cs1">Hemal, Ashok K.; Menon, Mani (2018). Robotics in Genitourinary Surgery. Springer. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-20645-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-20645-5"><bdi>978-3-319-20645-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Robotics+in+Genitourinary+Surgery&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-3-319-20645-5&rft.aulast=Hemal&rft.aufirst=Ashok+K.&rft.au=Menon%2C+Mani&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+robots" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_19-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHemalMenon2018" class="citation book cs1">Hemal, Ashok K.; Menon, Mani (2018). Robotics in Genitourinary Surgery. Springer. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-20645-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-20645-5"><bdi>978-3-319-20645-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Robotics+in+Genitourinary+Surgery&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-3-319-20645-5&rft.aulast=Hemal&rft.aufirst=Ashok+K.&rft.au=Menon%2C+Mani&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+robots" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKevin_LaGrandeur2013" class="citation book cs1">Kevin LaGrandeur (2013). Androids and Intelligent Networks in Early Modern Literature and Culture: Artificial Slaves. Routledge. p. 30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-63121-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-63121-1"><bdi>978-0-415-63121-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Androids+and+Intelligent+Networks+in+Early+Modern+Literature+and+Culture%3A+Artificial+Slaves&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-415-63121-1&rft.au=Kevin+LaGrandeur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+robots" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-301961/al-Jazari">al-Jazari (Islamic artist)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Donald_Hill" title="Donald Hill">Donald Hill</a> (1996), A History of Engineering in Classical and Medieval Times, <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>, p. 224 </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v2HcjanNWFM">Ancient Discoveries, Episode 12: Machines of the East</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_(U.S._TV_channel)" class="mw-redirect" title="History (U.S. TV channel)">History</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/v2HcjanNWFM">archived</a> from the original on 12 December 2021, retrieved 6 September 2008</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Discoveries%2C+Episode+12%3A+Machines+of+the+East&rft.pub=History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3Dv2HcjanNWFM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+robots" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosheim1994" class="citation cs2">Rosheim, Mark E. (1994), Robot Evolution: The Development of Anthrobotics, John Wiley & Sons, p. 9, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-02622-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-02622-8"><bdi>978-0-471-02622-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Robot+Evolution%3A+The+Development+of+Anthrobotics&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-471-02622-8&rft.aulast=Rosheim&rft.aufirst=Mark+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+robots" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070629182810/http://www.shef.ac.uk/marcoms/eview/articles58/robot.html">"articles58"</a>. 29 June 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.shef.ac.uk/marcoms/eview/articles58/robot.html">the original</a> on 29 June 2007. Retrieved 18 June 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=articles58&rft.date=2007-06-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.shef.ac.uk%2Fmarcoms%2Feview%2Farticles58%2Frobot.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+robots" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosheim1994" class="citation cs2">Rosheim, Mark E. (1994), Robot Evolution: The Development of Anthrobotics, John Wiley & Sons, p. 9, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-02622-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-02622-8"><bdi>978-0-471-02622-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Robot+Evolution%3A+The+Development+of+Anthrobotics&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-471-02622-8&rft.aulast=Rosheim&rft.aufirst=Mark+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+robots" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKevin_LaGrandeur2013" class="citation book cs1">Kevin LaGrandeur (2013). Androids and Intelligent Networks in Early Modern Literature and Culture: Artificial Slaves. 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"Le temps des automates." In Le Nombre du temps, en hommage à <a href="/wiki/Paul_Zumthor" title="Paul Zumthor">Paul Zumthor</a>. Paris: Champion, 1988. pp. 15–21.</li> <li>Brett, G. "The Automata in the Byzantine 'Throne of Solomon'." Speculum 29 (1954): 477–87.</li> <li>Glaser, Horst Albert and Rossbach, Sabine: The Artificial Human, Frankfurt/M., Bern, New York 2011 "The Artificial Human. A Tragical History", ebook "The Artificial Humans. A Real History of Robots, Androids, Replicants, Cyborgs, Clones and all the rest"</li> <li>Sullivan, P. "Medieval Automata: The 'Chambre de beautés' in <a href="/wiki/Beno%C3%AEt_de_Sainte-Maure" title="Benoît de Sainte-Maure">Benoît</a>'s Roman de Troie." Romance Studies 6 (1985). pp. 1–20.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.roboticsbusinessreview.com/rbr/watch_the_history_of_robots_in_10_minutes/">History of Robots in 10 Minutes.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221020220051/https://www.roboticsbusinessreview.com/rbr/watch_the_history_of_robots_in_10_minutes/">Archived</a> 20 October 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Robotics" title="Template:Robotics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Robotics" title="Template talk:Robotics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Robotics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Robotics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Robotics434" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Robotics" title="Robotics">Robotics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_robotics" title="Outline of robotics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_robotics" title="Glossary of robotics">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_robotics_articles" title="Index of robotics articles">Index</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_robotics" title="Geography of robotics">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robot_Hall_of_Fame" title="Robot Hall of Fame">Hall of Fame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robot_ethics" title="Robot ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laws_of_robotics" title="Laws of robotics">Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robot_competition" title="Robot competition">Competitions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competitions_and_prizes_in_artificial_intelligence" title="Competitions and prizes in artificial intelligence">AI competitions</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Shadow_Hand_Bulb_large.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Shadow_Hand_Bulb_large.jpg/100px-Shadow_Hand_Bulb_large.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Shadow_Hand_Bulb_large.jpg/150px-Shadow_Hand_Bulb_large.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Shadow_Hand_Bulb_large.jpg/200px-Shadow_Hand_Bulb_large.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="3840" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Robot" title="Robot">Types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerobot" title="Aerobot">Aerobot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropomorphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropomorphic">Anthropomorphic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Humanoid_robot" title="Humanoid robot">Humanoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Android_(robot)" title="Android (robot)">Android</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyborg" title="Cyborg">Cyborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynoid" title="Gynoid">Gynoid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claytronics" class="mw-redirect" title="Claytronics">Claytronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Companion_robot" title="Companion robot">Companion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automaton" title="Automaton">Automaton</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animatronics" title="Animatronics">Animatronic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audio-Animatronics" title="Audio-Animatronics">Audio-Animatronics</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_robot" title="Industrial robot">Industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articulated_robot" title="Articulated robot">Articulated</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robotic_arm" title="Robotic arm">arm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_robot" title="Domestic robot">Domestic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_robotics" title="Educational robotics">Educational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment_robot" title="Entertainment robot">Entertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juggling_robot" title="Juggling robot">Juggling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_robot" title="Military robot">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_robot" title="Medical robot">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_robot" title="Service robot">Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_robot" class="mw-redirect" title="Disability robot">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_robot" title="Agricultural robot">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automated_restaurant" title="Automated restaurant">Food service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automated_retail" title="Automated retail">Retail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BEAM_robotics" title="BEAM robotics">BEAM robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soft_robotics" title="Soft robotics">Soft robotics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Classifications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biorobotics" title="Biorobotics">Biorobotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_robotics" title="Cloud robotics">Cloud robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuum_robot" title="Continuum robot">Continuum robot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmanned_vehicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Unmanned vehicle">Unmanned vehicle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle" title="Unmanned aerial vehicle">aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmanned_ground_vehicle" title="Unmanned ground vehicle">ground</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_robot" title="Mobile robot">Mobile robot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbotics" title="Microbotics">Microbotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanorobotics" title="Nanorobotics">Nanorobotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necrobotics" title="Necrobotics">Necrobotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robotic_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Robotic spacecraft">Robotic spacecraft</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_probe" class="mw-redirect" title="Space probe">Space probe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarm_robotics" title="Swarm robotics">Swarm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telerobotics" title="Telerobotics">Telerobotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_underwater_vehicle" title="Autonomous underwater vehicle">Underwater</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remotely_operated_underwater_vehicle" title="Remotely operated underwater vehicle">remotely-operated</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robotic_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Robotic fish">Robotic fish</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Robot_locomotion" title="Robot locomotion">Locomotion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Continuous_track" title="Continuous track">Tracks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legged_robot" title="Legged robot">Walking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hexapod_(robotics)" title="Hexapod (robotics)">Hexapod</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climber_(BEAM)" class="mw-redirect" title="Climber (BEAM)">Climbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_unicycle" title="Electric unicycle">Electric unicycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robotic_fin" class="mw-redirect" title="Robotic fin">Robotic fins</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Robotic_navigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Robotic navigation">Navigation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robotic_mapping" title="Robotic mapping">mapping</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Motion_planning" title="Motion planning">Motion planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simultaneous_localization_and_mapping" title="Simultaneous localization and mapping">Simultaneous localization and mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_odometry" title="Visual odometry">Visual odometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vision-guided_robot_systems" title="Vision-guided robot systems">Vision-guided robot systems</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_robotics" title="Evolutionary robotics">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robot_kit" title="Robot kit">Kits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robotics_simulator" title="Robotics simulator">Simulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robotics_suite" title="Robotics suite">Suite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-source_robotics" title="Open-source robotics">Open-source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robot_software" title="Robot software">Software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptable_robotics" title="Adaptable robotics">Adaptable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_robotics" title="Developmental robotics">Developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93robot_interaction" title="Human–robot interaction">Human–robot interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robotic_paradigm" title="Robotic paradigm">Paradigms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perceptual_robotics" title="Perceptual robotics">Perceptual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situated_robotics" title="Situated robotics">Situated</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubiquitous_robot" title="Ubiquitous robot">Ubiquitous</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_robotics_companies" title="List of robotics companies">Companies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ABB" title="ABB">ABB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amazon_Robotics" title="Amazon Robotics">Amazon Robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anybots" title="Anybots">Anybots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrett_Technology" title="Barrett Technology">Barrett Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Dynamics" title="Boston Dynamics">Boston Dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doosan_Robotics" title="Doosan Robotics">Doosan Robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energid_Technologies" title="Energid Technologies">Energid Technologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FarmWise" title="FarmWise">FarmWise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FANUC" title="FANUC">FANUC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figure_AI" title="Figure AI">Figure AI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster-Miller" title="Foster-Miller">Foster-Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvest_Automation" title="Harvest Automation">Harvest Automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HD_Hyundai_Robotics" title="HD Hyundai Robotics">HD Hyundai Robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honeybee_Robotics" title="Honeybee Robotics">Honeybee Robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intuitive_Surgical" title="Intuitive Surgical">Intuitive Surgical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IRobot" title="IRobot">IRobot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KUKA" title="KUKA">KUKA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rainbow_Robotics" title="Rainbow Robotics">Rainbow Robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starship_Technologies" title="Starship Technologies">Starship Technologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbotic" title="Symbotic">Symbotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Robotics" title="Universal Robotics">Universal Robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf_Robotics" title="Wolf Robotics">Wolf Robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaskawa_Electric_Corporation" title="Yaskawa Electric Corporation">Yaskawa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_work" title="Critique of work">Critique of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powered_exoskeleton" title="Powered exoskeleton">Powered exoskeleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_robotics_safety" title="Workplace robotics safety">Workplace robotics safety</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robotic_tech_vest" title="Robotic tech vest">Robotic tech vest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_unemployment" title="Technological unemployment">Technological unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrainability" title="Terrainability">Terrainability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fictional_robots_and_androids" title="List of fictional robots and androids">Fictional robots</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a 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