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id="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6 21st century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Opinions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opinions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6.1 Opinions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opinions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6.2 Studies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Premature_deindustrialization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Premature_deindustrialization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6.3 Premature deindustrialization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Premature_deindustrialization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Artificial_intelligence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Artificial_intelligence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6.4 Artificial intelligence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Artificial_intelligence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Issues_within_the_debates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Issues_within_the_debates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Issues within the debates </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Issues_within_the_debates-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Issues within the debates subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Issues_within_the_debates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Long-term_effects_on_employment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Long-term_effects_on_employment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Long-term effects on employment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Long-term_effects_on_employment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compensation_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compensation_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Compensation effects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compensation_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Luddite_fallacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Luddite_fallacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Luddite fallacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Luddite_fallacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Skill_levels_and_technological_unemployment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Skill_levels_and_technological_unemployment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Skill levels and technological unemployment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Skill_levels_and_technological_unemployment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Empirical_findings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Empirical_findings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Empirical findings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Empirical_findings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Measures_of_technological_innovation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Measures_of_technological_innovation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Measures of technological innovation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Measures_of_technological_innovation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Solutions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Solutions </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Solutions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Solutions subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Solutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Preventing_net_job_losses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preventing_net_job_losses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Preventing net job losses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preventing_net_job_losses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Banning/refusing_innovation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Banning/refusing_innovation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Banning/refusing innovation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Banning/refusing_innovation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shorter_working_hours" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shorter_working_hours"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.2 Shorter working hours </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shorter_working_hours-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.3 Public works </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.4 Education </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Living_with_technological_unemployment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Living_with_technological_unemployment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Living with technological unemployment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Living_with_technological_unemployment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Welfare_payments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Welfare_payments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Welfare payments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Welfare_payments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Basic_income" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Basic_income"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Basic income </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Basic_income-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Broadening_the_ownership_of_technological_assets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Broadening_the_ownership_of_technological_assets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.3 Broadening the ownership of technological assets </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Broadening_the_ownership_of_technological_assets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structural_changes_towards_a_post-scarcity_economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structural_changes_towards_a_post-scarcity_economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.4 Structural changes towards a post-scarcity economy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structural_changes_towards_a_post-scarcity_economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_approaches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_approaches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Other approaches </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_approaches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" 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Available in 24 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-24" aria-hidden="true" > 24 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A9_%D8%AA%D9%82%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="بطالة تقنية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بطالة تقنية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desocupaci%C3%B3_tecnol%C3%B2gica" title="Desocupació tecnològica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Desocupació tecnològica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technologick%C3%A1_nezam%C4%9Bstnanost" title="Technologická nezaměstnanost – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Technologická nezaměstnanost" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technologische_Arbeitslosigkeit" title="Technologische Arbeitslosigkeit – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Technologische Arbeitslosigkeit" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tehnoloogiline_t%C3%B6%C3%B6puudus" title="Tehnoloogiline tööpuudus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Tehnoloogiline tööpuudus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desempleo_tecnol%C3%B3gico" title="Desempleo tecnológico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Desempleo tecnológico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D9%81%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87" title="بیکاری فناورانه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بیکاری فناورانه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%B4mage_technologique" title="Chômage technologique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Chômage technologique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B8%B0%EC%88%A0%EC%A0%81_%EC%8B%A4%EC%97%85" title="기술적 실업 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="기술적 실업" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pengangguran_teknologi" title="Pengangguran teknologi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pengangguran teknologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Framfaraatvinnuleysi" title="Framfaraatvinnuleysi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Framfaraatvinnuleysi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disoccupazione_tecnologica" title="Disoccupazione tecnologica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Disoccupazione tecnologica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%91%D7%98%D7%9C%D7%94_%D7%98%D7%9B%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%AA" title="אבטלה טכנולוגית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אבטלה טכנולוגית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B3%D2%AF%D0%B9%D0%B4%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Технологийн ажилгүйдэл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Технологийн ажилгүйдэл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8A%80%E8%A1%93%E7%9A%84%E5%A4%B1%E6%A5%AD" title="技術的失業 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="技術的失業" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bezrobocie_technologiczne" title="Bezrobocie technologiczne – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Bezrobocie technologiczne" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desemprego_tecnol%C3%B3gico" title="Desemprego tecnológico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Desemprego tecnológico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B7%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0" title="Технологическая безработица – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Технологическая безработица" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tehnolo%C5%A1ka_brezposelnost" title="Tehnološka brezposelnost – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Tehnološka brezposelnost" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tehnolo%C5%A1ka_nezaposlenost" title="Tehnološka nezaposlenost – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Tehnološka nezaposlenost" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teknologinen_ty%C3%B6tt%C3%B6myys" title="Teknologinen työttömyys – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Teknologinen työttömyys" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teknologisk_arbetsl%C3%B6shet" title="Teknologisk arbetslöshet – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Teknologisk arbetslöshet" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B7%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%96%D1%82%D1%82%D1%8F" title="Технологічне безробіття – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Технологічне безробіття" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Unemployment caused by technological change</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pyxis_Pharmacy_Robot_by_Nurse_Station.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Pyxis_Pharmacy_Robot_by_Nurse_Station.JPG/220px-Pyxis_Pharmacy_Robot_by_Nurse_Station.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Pyxis_Pharmacy_Robot_by_Nurse_Station.JPG/330px-Pyxis_Pharmacy_Robot_by_Nurse_Station.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Pyxis_Pharmacy_Robot_by_Nurse_Station.JPG/440px-Pyxis_Pharmacy_Robot_by_Nurse_Station.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1194" data-file-height="1194" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Pharmacy_automation" title="Pharmacy automation">pharmacy robot</a> delivering to a <a href="/wiki/Nurses_station" title="Nurses station">nurses station</a> at <a href="/wiki/San_Jose,_California" title="San Jose, California">San Jose</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Good_Samaritan_Hospital_(San_Jose)" title="Good Samaritan Hospital (San Jose)">Good Samaritan Hospital</a>, in the United States, in 2008. In the 21st century, robots are beginning to perform roles not just in manufacturing but also in the service sector – in healthcare, for example.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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Automation Conference">ASP-DAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design_Automation_Conference" title="Design Automation Conference">DAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design_Automation_and_Test_in_Europe" title="Design Automation and Test in Europe">DATE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IEEE_Robotics_and_Automation_Award" title="IEEE Robotics and Automation Award">IEEE Robotics and Automation Award</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Conference_on_Computer-Aided_Design" title="International Conference on Computer-Aided Design">ICCAD</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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href="/wiki/Template:Automation" title="Template:Automation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Automation" title="Template talk:Automation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Automation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Automation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Technological unemployment is the loss of jobs caused by <a href="/wiki/Technological_change" title="Technological change">technological change</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> It is a key type of <a href="/wiki/Structural_unemployment" title="Structural unemployment">structural unemployment</a>. Technological change typically includes the introduction of labour-saving "mechanical-muscle" machines or more efficient "mechanical-mind" processes (<a href="/wiki/Automation" title="Automation">automation</a>), and humans' role in these processes are minimized.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Just as horses were gradually made obsolete as transport by the automobile and as labourer by the tractor, humans' jobs have also been affected throughout <a href="/wiki/Modern_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern history">modern history</a>. Historical examples include <a href="/wiki/Textile_manufacture_during_the_Industrial_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution">artisan weavers</a> reduced to poverty after the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Power_loom" title="Power loom">mechanized looms</a>. Thousands of man-years of work was performed in a matter of hours by the <a href="/wiki/Bombe" title="Bombe">bombe</a> codebreaking machine during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. A contemporary example of technological unemployment is the displacement of retail cashiers by <a href="/wiki/Self-checkout" title="Self-checkout">self-service tills</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cashierless_store" title="Cashierless store">cashierless stores</a>. That technological change can cause short-term job losses is widely accepted. The view that it can lead to lasting increases in unemployment has long been controversial. Participants in the technological unemployment debates can be broadly divided into optimists and pessimists. Optimists agree that innovation may be disruptive to jobs in the short term, yet hold that various compensation effects ensure there is never a long-term negative impact on jobs, whereas pessimists contend that at least in some circumstances, new technologies can lead to a lasting decline in the total number of workers in employment. The phrase "technological unemployment" was popularised by <a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a> in the 1930s, who said it was "only a temporary phase of maladjustment".<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> The issue of machines displacing human labour has been discussed since at least <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s time.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Prior to the 18th century, both the elite and <a href="/wiki/Common_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Common people">common people</a> would generally take the pessimistic view on technological unemployment, at least in cases where the issue arose. Due to generally low unemployment in much of pre-modern history, the topic was rarely a prominent concern.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In the 18th century fears over the impact of machinery on jobs intensified with the growth of mass unemployment, especially in Great Britain which was then at the forefront of the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>. Yet some economic thinkers[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] began to argue against these fears, claiming that overall innovation would not have negative effects on jobs. These arguments were formalised in the early 19th century by the <a href="/wiki/Classical_economists" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical economists">classical economists</a>. During the second half of the 19th century, it stayed apparent that technological progress was benefiting all sections of society, including the working class. Concerns over the negative impact of innovation diminished. The term "<a href="/wiki/Luddite" title="Luddite">Luddite</a> fallacy" was coined to describe the thinking that innovation would have lasting harmful effects on employment. The view that technology is unlikely to lead to long-term unemployment has been repeatedly challenged by a minority of economists.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] In the early 1800s these included <a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">David Ricardo</a>. There were dozens of economists[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] warning about technological unemployment during brief intensifications of the debate that spiked in the 1930s and 1960s. Especially in Europe, there were further warnings in the closing two decades of the twentieth century, as commentators[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] noted an enduring rise in unemployment suffered by many industrialised nations since the 1970s. Yet a clear majority of both professional economists and the interested general public held the optimistic view through most of the 20th century. In the second decade of the 21st century, a number of studies have been released suggesting that technological unemployment may increase worldwide. <a href="/wiki/Carl_Benedikt_Frey" title="Carl Benedikt Frey">Carl Benedikt Frey</a> and Michael Osborne at the University of Oxford have estimated that 47 percent of U.S. jobs are at risk of automation.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> However, their methodology has been challenged as lacking evidential foundation and criticised for implying that technology (rather than social policy) creates unemployment rather than redundancies.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> On the PBS NewsHours the authors defended their findings and clarified they do necessarily imply future technological unemployment.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> While many economists[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] and commentators[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] still argue such fears are unfounded, as was widely accepted for most of the previous two centuries, concern over technological unemployment is growing once again.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Thompson2015-13">[13]</a> A report in <a href="/wiki/Wired_(magazine)" title="Wired (magazine)">Wired</a> in 2017 quotes knowledgeable people such as economist <a href="/wiki/Gene_Sperling" title="Gene Sperling">Gene Sperling</a> and management professor <a href="/wiki/Andrew_McAfee" title="Andrew McAfee">Andrew McAfee</a> on the idea that handling existing and impending job loss to automation is a "significant issue".[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">why?</a>]<a href="#cite_note-Dreyfuss_2017-03-24-14">[14]</a> Recent technological innovations have the potential to displace humans in the professional, white-collar, low-skilled, creative fields, and other "mental jobs".<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Thompson2015-13">[13]</a> The <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a>'s <a href="/wiki/World_Development_Report" title="World Development Report">World Development Report</a> 2019 argues that while automation displaces workers,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">quantify</a>] technological innovation creates more[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">quantify</a>] new industries and jobs on balance.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_era">Classical era</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Classical era">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vespasianus03_pushkin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Vespasianus03_pushkin.jpg/220px-Vespasianus03_pushkin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Vespasianus03_pushkin.jpg/330px-Vespasianus03_pushkin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Vespasianus03_pushkin.jpg/440px-Vespasianus03_pushkin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="1014" /></a><figcaption>Roman Emperor <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a>, who refused a low-cost method of transport of heavy goods that would put laborers out of work</figcaption></figure> According to author Gregory Woirol, the phenomenon of technological unemployment is likely to have existed since at least the invention of the wheel.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Ancient societies had various methods for relieving the poverty of those unable to support themselves with their own labour. <a href="/wiki/Ancient_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient China">Ancient China</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a> may have had various centrally run relief programmes in response to technological unemployment dating back to at least the second millennium BC.<a href="#cite_note-reflief-18">[18]</a> <a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">Ancient Hebrews</a> and adherents of the <a href="/wiki/Hindus" title="Hindus">ancient Vedic religion</a> had decentralised responses where aiding the poor was encouraged by their faiths.<a href="#cite_note-reflief-18">[18]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a>, large numbers of free labourers[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">quantify</a>] could find themselves unemployed due to both the effects of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_technology" title="Ancient Greek technology">ancient labour saving technology</a> and to competition from slaves ("machines of flesh and blood"<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a>). Sometimes, these unemployed workers would starve to death or were forced into slavery themselves although in other cases they were supported by handouts. <a href="/wiki/Pericles" title="Pericles">Pericles</a> responded to perceived technological unemployment by launching <a href="/wiki/Public_works" title="Public works">public works</a> programmes to provide paid work to the jobless. Some people[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] criticized Pericle's programmes as wasting public money but were defeated.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Perhaps the earliest example of a scholar discussing the phenomenon of technological unemployment occurs with <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, who speculated in Book One of <a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a> that if machines could become sufficiently advanced, there would be no more need for human labour.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Similar to the Greeks, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Romans</a> responded to the problem of technological unemployment by relieving poverty with handouts (such as the <a href="/wiki/Cura_Annonae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cura Annonae">Cura Annonae</a>). Several hundred thousand families were sometimes supported like this at once.<a href="#cite_note-reflief-18">[18]</a> Less often, jobs were directly created with <a href="/wiki/Public_works" title="Public works">public works</a> programmes, such as those launched by the <a href="/wiki/Gracchi" class="mw-redirect" title="Gracchi">Gracchi</a>. Various emperors even went as far as to refuse or ban labour saving innovations.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> In one instance, the introduction of a labor-saving invention was blocked, when Emperor <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a> refused to allow a new method of low-cost transportation of heavy goods, saying "You must allow my poor hauliers to earn their bread."<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Labour shortages began to develop in the Roman empire towards the end of the second century AD, and from this point mass unemployment in Europe appears to have largely receded for over a millennium.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-classical_era">Post-classical era</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Post-classical era">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">medieval</a> and early <a href="/wiki/The_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="The Renaissance">renaissance period</a> saw the widespread adoption of newly invented technologies, as well as older ones which had been conceived yet barely used in the Classical era.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> Some were invented in Europe while others were invented in more Eastern countries like China, India, Arabia and Persia. The <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> left fewer workers across Europe. Mass unemployment began to reappear in Europe, especially in Western, Central and Southern Europe in the 15th century, partly as a result of population growth, and partly due to changes in the availability of land for subsistence farming caused by <a href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">early enclosures</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Schumpeter_1987_loc=_Chpt_6-27">[27]</a> As a result of the threat of unemployment, there was less tolerance for disruptive new technologies. European authorities would often side with groups representing subsections of the working population, such as <a href="/wiki/Guilds" class="mw-redirect" title="Guilds">Guilds</a>, banning new technologies and sometimes even executing those who tried to promote or trade in them.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="16th_to_18th_century">16th to 18th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 16th to 18th century">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Elizabeth_I_Rainbow_Portrait3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Elizabeth_I_Rainbow_Portrait3.jpg/220px-Elizabeth_I_Rainbow_Portrait3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Elizabeth_I_Rainbow_Portrait3.jpg/330px-Elizabeth_I_Rainbow_Portrait3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Elizabeth_I_Rainbow_Portrait3.jpg/440px-Elizabeth_I_Rainbow_Portrait3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1988" data-file-height="2520" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I" title="Elizabeth I">Elizabeth I</a>, who refused to patent a knitting machine invented by <a href="/wiki/William_Lee_(inventor)" title="William Lee (inventor)">William Lee</a>, saying "Consider thou what the invention could do to my poor subjects. It would assuredly bring them to ruin by depriving them of employment, thus making them beggars."</figcaption></figure> In Great Britain, the ruling elite began to take a less restrictive approach to innovation somewhat earlier than in much of continental Europe, which has been cited as a possible reason for Britain's early lead in driving the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Yet concern over the impact of innovation on employment remained strong through the 16th and early 17th century. A famous example of new technology being refused occurred when the inventor <a href="/wiki/William_Lee_(inventor)" title="William Lee (inventor)">William Lee</a> invited Queen <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I" title="Elizabeth I">Elizabeth I</a> to view a labour saving knitting machine. The Queen declined to issue a patent on the grounds that the technology might cause unemployment among textile workers. After moving to France and also failing to achieve success in promoting his invention, Lee returned to England but was again refused by Elizabeth's successor <a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James I</a> for the same reason.<a href="#cite_note-Martin-30">[30]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a>, authorities became less sympathetic to workers concerns about losing their jobs due to innovation. An increasingly influential strand of <a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilist</a> thought held that introducing labour saving technology would actually reduce unemployment, as it would allow British firms to increase their market share against foreign competition. From the early 18th century workers could no longer rely on support from the authorities against the perceived threat of technological unemployment. They would sometimes take <a href="/wiki/Direct_action" title="Direct action">direct action</a>, such as machine breaking, in attempts to protect themselves from disruptive innovation. <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Joseph Schumpeter</a> notes that as the 18th century progressed, thinkers would raise the alarm about technological unemployment with increasing frequency, with <a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Gottlob_von_Justi" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Heinrich Gottlob von Justi">von Justi</a> being a prominent example.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Yet Schumpeter also notes that the prevailing view among the elite solidified on the position that technological unemployment would not be a long-term problem.<a href="#cite_note-Martin-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schumpeter_1987_loc=_Chpt_6-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th_century">19th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 19th century">edit</a>]</div> It was only in the 19th century that debates over technological unemployment became intense, especially in Great Britain where many economic thinkers of the time were concentrated. Building on the work of <a href="/wiki/Josiah_Tucker" title="Josiah Tucker">Dean Tucker</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">political economists</a> began to create what would become the modern discipline of <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-32">[note 1]</a> While rejecting much of mercantilism, members of the new discipline largely agreed that technological unemployment would not be an enduring problem. In the first few decades of the 19th century, several prominent political economists did, however, argue against the optimistic view, claiming that innovation could cause long-term unemployment. These included <a href="/wiki/Jean_Charles_L%C3%A9onard_de_Sismondi" title="Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi">Sismondi</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Sowell_2006-33">[32]</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus" title="Thomas Robert Malthus">Malthus</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">J S Mill</a>, and from 1821, <a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">David Ricardo</a> himself.<a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a> As arguably the most respected political economist of his age, Ricardo's view was challenging to others in the discipline. The first major economist to respond was <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Jean-Baptiste Say</a>, who argued that no one would introduce machinery if they were going to reduce the amount of product,<a href="#cite_note-35">[note 2]</a> and that as <a href="/wiki/Say%27s_law" title="Say's law">Say's law</a> states that supply creates its own demand, any displaced workers would automatically find work elsewhere once the market had had time to adjust.<a href="#cite_note-36">[34]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Ramsay_McCulloch" title="John Ramsay McCulloch">Ramsey McCulloch</a> expanded and formalised Say's optimistic views on technological unemployment, and was supported by others such as <a href="/wiki/Charles_Babbage" title="Charles Babbage">Charles Babbage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nassau_Senior" class="mw-redirect" title="Nassau Senior">Nassau Senior</a> and many other lesser known political economists. Towards the middle of the 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> joined the debates. Building on the work of Ricardo and Mill, Marx went much further, presenting a deeply pessimistic view of technological unemployment; his views attracted many followers and founded an enduring school of thought but mainstream economics was not dramatically changed. By the 1870s, at least in Great Britain, technological unemployment faded both as a popular concern and as an issue for academic debate. It had become increasingly apparent that innovation was increasing prosperity for all sections of British society, including the working class. As the classical school of thought gave way to <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">neoclassical economics</a>, mainstream thinking was tightened to take into account and refute the pessimistic arguments of Mill and Ricardo.<a href="#cite_note-37">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th_century">20th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 20th century">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1980s_computer_worker,_Centers_for_Disease_Control.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/1980s_computer_worker%2C_Centers_for_Disease_Control.jpg/220px-1980s_computer_worker%2C_Centers_for_Disease_Control.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/1980s_computer_worker%2C_Centers_for_Disease_Control.jpg/330px-1980s_computer_worker%2C_Centers_for_Disease_Control.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/1980s_computer_worker%2C_Centers_for_Disease_Control.jpg/440px-1980s_computer_worker%2C_Centers_for_Disease_Control.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="565" /></a><figcaption>Critics of the view that innovation causes lasting unemployment argue that technology is used by workers and does not replace them on a large scale.</figcaption></figure> For the first two decades of the 20th century, mass unemployment was not the major problem it had been in the first half of the 19th. While the <a href="/wiki/Marxian_economics" title="Marxian economics">Marxist school</a> and a few other thinkers continued to challenge the optimistic view, technological unemployment was not a significant concern for mainstream economic thinking until the mid to late 1920s. In the 1920s mass unemployment re-emerged as a pressing issue within Europe. At this time the U.S. was generally more prosperous, but even there urban unemployment had begun to increase from 1927. <a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States#1920s" title="History of agriculture in the United States">Rural American workers had been suffering job losses</a> from the start of the 1920s; many had been displaced by improved agricultural technology, such as the <a href="/wiki/Tractor" title="Tractor">tractor</a>. The centre of gravity for economic debates had by this time moved from Great Britain to the United States, and it was here that the 20th century's two great periods of debate over technological unemployment largely occurred.<a href="#cite_note-38">[36]</a> The peak periods for the two debates were in the 1930s and the 1960s. According to economic historian Gregory R Woirol, the two episodes share several similarities.<a href="#cite_note-Woirol_1996_loc=_pp._8_-_12-39">[37]</a> In both cases academic debates were preceded by an outbreak of popular concern, sparked by recent rises in unemployment. In both cases the debates were not conclusively settled, but faded away as unemployment was reduced by an outbreak of war – <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> for the debate of the 1930s, and the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> for the 1960s episodes. In both cases, the debates were conducted within the prevailing paradigm at the time, with little reference to earlier thought. In the 1930s, optimists based their arguments largely on neo-classical beliefs in the self-correcting power of markets to reduce any short-term unemployment via compensation effects. In the 1960s, belief in compensation effects was less strong, but the mainstream <a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economists" class="mw-redirect" title="Keynesian economists">Keynesian economists</a> of the time largely believed government intervention would be able to counter any persistent technological unemployment that was not cleared by market forces. Another similarity was the publication of a major Federal study towards the end of each episode, which broadly found that long-term technological unemployment was not occurring (though the studies did agree innovation was a major factor in the short term displacement of workers, and advised government action to provide assistance).<a href="#cite_note-40">[note 3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Woirol_1996_loc=_pp._8_-_12-39">[37]</a> As the <a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden age of capitalism">golden age of capitalism</a> came to a close in the 1970s, unemployment once again rose, and this time generally remained relatively high for the rest of the century, across most advanced economies. Several economists once again argued that this may be due to innovation, with perhaps the most prominent being <a href="/wiki/Paul_Samuelson" title="Paul Samuelson">Paul Samuelson</a>.<a href="#cite_note-41">[38]</a> Overall, the closing decades of the 20th century saw most concern expressed over technological unemployment in Europe, though there were several examples in the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-42">[39]</a> A number of popular works warning of technological unemployment were also published. These included <a href="/wiki/James_S._Albus" title="James S. Albus">James S. Albus</a>'s 1976 book titled Peoples' Capitalism: The Economics of the Robot Revolution;<a href="#cite_note-peoplescapbook-43">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-peoplescap-44">[41]</a> <a href="/wiki/David_F._Noble" title="David F. Noble">David F. Noble</a> with works published in 1984<a href="#cite_note-Noble1984-45">[42]</a> and 1993;<a href="#cite_note-Noble1993-46">[43]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Rifkin" title="Jeremy Rifkin">Jeremy Rifkin</a> and his 1995 book <a href="/wiki/The_End_of_Work" title="The End of Work">The End of Work</a>;<a href="#cite_note-Rifkin1995-47">[44]</a> and the 1996 book <a href="/wiki/The_Global_Trap" title="The Global Trap">The Global Trap</a>.<a href="#cite_note-48">[45]</a> Yet for the most part, other than during the periods of intense debate in the 1930s and 60s, the consensus in the 20th century among both professional economists and the general public remained that technology does not cause long-term joblessness.<a href="#cite_note-49">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="21st_century">21st century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 21st century">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Opinions">Opinions</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Opinions">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:30%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> There is a prevailing opinion that we are in an era of technological unemployment – that technology is increasingly making skilled workers obsolete. </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">Prof. Mark MacCarthy (2014)<a href="#cite_note-MacCarthy-50">[47]</a></cite></div> </div> The general consensus that innovation does not cause long-term unemployment held strong for the first decade of the 21st century although it continued to be challenged by a number of academic works,<a href="#cite_note-Vivarelli2012-51">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-Vivarelli2007-52">[49]</a> and by popular works such as <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Brain" title="Marshall Brain">Marshall Brain</a>'s Robotic Nation<a href="#cite_note-Brain2003-53">[50]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Martin_Ford_(author)" title="Martin Ford (author)">Martin Ford</a>'s The Lights in the Tunnel: Automation, Accelerating Technology and the Economy of the Future.<a href="#cite_note-Ford2009-54">[51]</a> Since the publication of their 2011 book <a href="/wiki/Race_Against_the_Machine" title="Race Against the Machine">Race Against the Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/MIT" class="mw-redirect" title="MIT">MIT</a> professors <a href="/wiki/Andrew_McAfee" title="Andrew McAfee">Andrew McAfee</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erik_Brynjolfsson" title="Erik Brynjolfsson">Erik Brynjolfsson</a> have been prominent among those raising concern about technological unemployment. The two professors remain relatively optimistic, however, stating "the key to winning the race is not to compete against machines but to compete with machines".<a href="#cite_note-NYTimesReview-55">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-TechCrunch-56">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-BusinessInsider-57">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-Salon-Timberg-2011-58">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-Salon-Leonard-2014-59">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[58]</a> Concern about technological unemployment grew in 2013 due in part to a number of studies predicting substantially increased technological unemployment in forthcoming decades and empirical evidence that, in certain sectors, employment is falling worldwide despite rising output, thus discounting globalization and offshoring as the only causes of increasing unemployment.<a href="#cite_note-replicants-62">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-Martin-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[60]</a> In 2013, professor Nick Bloom of <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a> stated there had recently been a major change of heart concerning technological unemployment among his fellow economists.<a href="#cite_note-64">[61]</a> In 2014 the <a href="/wiki/Financial_Times" title="Financial Times">Financial Times</a> reported that the impact of innovation on jobs has been a dominant theme in recent economic discussion.<a href="#cite_note-control-65">[62]</a> According to the academic and former politician <a href="/wiki/Michael_Ignatieff" title="Michael Ignatieff">Michael Ignatieff</a> writing in 2014, questions concerning the effects of technological change have been "haunting democratic politics everywhere".<a href="#cite_note-66">[63]</a> Concerns have included evidence showing worldwide falls in employment across sectors such as manufacturing; falls in pay for low and medium skilled workers stretching back several decades even as productivity continues to rise; the increase in often precarious <a href="/wiki/Uberisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Uberisation">platform mediated</a> employment; and the occurrence of "jobless recoveries" after recent recessions. The 21st century has seen a variety of skilled tasks partially taken over by machines, including translation, legal research and even low level journalism. Care work, entertainment, and other tasks requiring empathy, previously thought safe from automation, have also begun to be performed by robots.<a href="#cite_note-replicants-62">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-Martin-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[67]</a> Former U.S. Treasury Secretary and Professor of Economics at Harvard University <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Summers" title="Lawrence Summers">Lawrence Summers</a> stated in 2014 that he no longer believed automation would always create new jobs and that "This isn't some hypothetical future possibility. This is something that's emerging before us right now." Summers noted that already, more labor sectors were losing jobs than creating new ones.<a href="#cite_note-71">[note 4]</a><a href="#cite_note-summers-72">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-2014-12-15-73">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-inequalityPuzzle-74">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[71]</a> While himself doubtful about technological unemployment, professor Mark MacCarthy stated in the fall of 2014 that it is now the "prevailing opinion" that the era of technological unemployment has arrived.<a href="#cite_note-MacCarthy-50">[47]</a> At the 2014 <a href="/wiki/World_Economic_Forum" title="World Economic Forum">Davos</a> meeting, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Friedman" title="Thomas Friedman">Thomas Friedman</a> reported that the link between technology and unemployment seemed to have been the dominant theme of that year's discussions. A survey at Davos 2014 found that 80% of 147 respondents agreed that technology was driving jobless growth.<a href="#cite_note-76">[72]</a> At the 2015 Davos, <a href="/wiki/Gillian_Tett" title="Gillian Tett">Gillian Tett</a> found that almost all delegates attending a discussion on inequality and technology expected an increase in inequality over the next five years, and gives the reason for this as the technological displacement of jobs.<a href="#cite_note-77">[73]</a> 2015 saw <a href="/wiki/Martin_Ford_(author)" title="Martin Ford (author)">Martin Ford</a> win the <a href="/wiki/Financial_Times_and_McKinsey_Business_Book_of_the_Year_Award" class="mw-redirect" title="Financial Times and McKinsey Business Book of the Year Award">Financial Times and McKinsey Business Book of the Year Award</a> for his Rise of the Robots: Technology and the Threat of a Jobless Future, and saw the first world summit on technological unemployment, held in New York. In late 2015, further warnings of potential worsening for technological unemployment came from <a href="/wiki/Andy_Haldane" title="Andy Haldane">Andy Haldane</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bank_of_England" title="Bank of England">Bank of England</a>'s chief economist, and from <a href="/wiki/Ignazio_Visco" title="Ignazio Visco">Ignazio Visco</a>, the governor of the <a href="/wiki/Banca_d%27Italia" class="mw-redirect" title="Banca d'Italia">Bank of Italy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Haldane2015-78">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-Visco2015-79">[75]</a> In an October 2016 interview, US President <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> said that due to the growth of artificial intelligence, society would be debating "unconditional free money for everyone" within 10 to 20 years.<a href="#cite_note-80">[76]</a> In 2019, computer scientist and artificial intelligence expert <a href="/wiki/Stuart_J._Russell" title="Stuart J. Russell">Stuart J. Russell</a> stated that "in the long run nearly all current jobs will go away, so we need fairly radical policy changes to prepare for a very different future economy." In a book he authored, Russell claims that "One rapidly emerging picture is that of an economy where far fewer people work because work is unnecessary." However, he predicted that employment in healthcare, home care, and construction would increase.<a href="#cite_note-81">[77]</a> Other economists[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] have argued that long-term technological unemployment is unlikely. In 2014, Pew Research canvassed 1,896 technology professionals and economists and found a split of opinion: 48% of respondents believed that new technologies would displace more jobs than they would create by the year 2025, while 52% maintained that they would not.<a href="#cite_note-82">[78]</a> Economics professor Bruce Chapman from <a href="/wiki/Australian_National_University" title="Australian National University">Australian National University</a> has advised that studies such as Frey and Osborne's tend to overstate the probability of future job losses, as they don't account for new employment likely to be created, due to technology, in what are currently unknown areas.<a href="#cite_note-83">[79]</a> Looking deeper into this, small and mid-sized businesses have created a large amount of new jobs around the world, which allows for entrepreneurs and investors to have the freedom to create and grow businesses, which is extremely vital with new technologies emerging everyday.<a href="#cite_note-84">[80]</a> With all of these new buinesses there will be a large number of workers that will be required to work for these companies, which would improve the world's employment situation, replacing jobs that were previously lost. General public surveys have often found an expectation that automation would impact jobs widely, but not the jobs held by those particular people surveyed.<a href="#cite_note-85">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Studies">Studies</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Studies">edit</a>]</div> A number of studies have predicted that automation will take a large proportion of jobs in the future, but estimates of the level of unemployment this will cause vary. Research by <a href="/wiki/Carl_Benedikt_Frey" title="Carl Benedikt Frey">Carl Benedikt Frey</a> and Michael Osborne of the <a href="/wiki/Oxford_Martin_School" title="Oxford Martin School">Oxford Martin School</a> showed that employees engaged in "tasks following well-defined procedures that can easily be performed by sophisticated algorithms" are at risk of displacement. The study, published in 2013, shows that automation can affect both skilled and unskilled work and both high and low-paying occupations; however, low-paid physical occupations are most at risk. It estimated that 47% of US jobs were at high risk of automation.<a href="#cite_note-Martin-30">[30]</a> In 2014, the economic think tank <a href="/wiki/Bruegel_(institution)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bruegel (institution)">Bruegel</a> released a study, based on the Frey and Osborne approach, claiming that across the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>'s 28 member states, 54% of jobs were at risk of automation. The countries where jobs were least vulnerable to automation were <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>, with 46.69% of jobs vulnerable, the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">UK</a> at 47.17%, the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> at 49.50%, and <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> and <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>, both at 49.54%. The countries where jobs were found to be most vulnerable were <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a> at 61.93%, <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> at 58.94%, <a href="/wiki/Croatia" title="Croatia">Croatia</a> at 57.9%, and <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a> at 56.56%.<a href="#cite_note-86">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[83]</a> A 2015 report by the Taub Center found that 41% of jobs in <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> were at risk of being automated within the next two decades.<a href="#cite_note-88">[84]</a> In January 2016, a joint study by the <a href="/wiki/Oxford_Martin_School" title="Oxford Martin School">Oxford Martin School</a> and <a href="/wiki/Citibank" title="Citibank">Citibank</a>, based on previous studies on automation and data from the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a>, found that the risk of automation in developing countries was much higher than in developed countries. It found that 77% of jobs in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, 69% of jobs in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, 85% of jobs in <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, and 55% of jobs in <a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a> were at risk of automation.<a href="#cite_note-89">[85]</a> The World Bank similarly employed the methodology of <a href="/wiki/Carl_Benedikt_Frey" title="Carl Benedikt Frey">Frey</a> and Osborne. A 2016 study by the <a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization</a> found 74% of salaried electrical & electronics industry positions in <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, 75% of salaried electrical & electronics industry positions in <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, 63% of salaried electrical & electronics industry positions in <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, and 81% of salaried electrical & electronics industry positions in the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> were at high risk of automation.<a href="#cite_note-90">[86]</a> A 2016 <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> report stated that 75% of jobs in the developing world were at risk of automation, and predicted that more jobs might be lost when corporations stop <a href="/wiki/Outsourcing" title="Outsourcing">outsourcing</a> to developing countries after automation in industrialized countries makes it less lucrative to outsource to countries with lower labor costs.<a href="#cite_note-91">[87]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Economic_Advisers" title="Council of Economic Advisers">Council of Economic Advisers</a>, a US government agency tasked with providing economic research for the White House, in the 2016 <a href="/wiki/Economic_Report_of_the_President" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic Report of the President">Economic Report of the President</a>, used the data from the Frey and Osborne study to estimate that 83% of jobs with an hourly wage below $20, 31% of jobs with an hourly wage between $20 and $40, and 4% of jobs with an hourly wage above $40 were at risk of automation.<a href="#cite_note-92">[88]</a> A 2016 study by <a href="/wiki/Toronto_Metropolitan_University" title="Toronto Metropolitan University">Ryerson University (now Toronto Metropolitan University)</a> found that 42% of jobs in <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> were at risk of automation, dividing them into two categories - "high risk" jobs and "low risk" jobs. High risk jobs were mainly lower-income jobs that required lower education levels than average. Low risk jobs were on average more skilled positions. The report found a 70% chance that high risk jobs and a 30% chance that low risk jobs would be affected by automation in the next 10–20 years.<a href="#cite_note-93">[89]</a> A 2017 study by <a href="/wiki/PricewaterhouseCoopers" class="mw-redirect" title="PricewaterhouseCoopers">PricewaterhouseCoopers</a> found that up to 38% of jobs in the US, 35% of jobs in <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, 30% of jobs in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">UK</a>, and 21% of jobs in <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> were at high risk of being automated by the early 2030s.<a href="#cite_note-94">[90]</a> A 2017 study by <a href="/wiki/Ball_State_University" title="Ball State University">Ball State University</a> found about half of American jobs were at risk of automation, many of them low-income jobs.<a href="#cite_note-95">[91]</a> A September 2017 report by <a href="/wiki/McKinsey_%26_Company" title="McKinsey & Company">McKinsey & Company</a> found that as of 2015, 478 billion out of 749 billion working hours per year dedicated to manufacturing, or $2.7 trillion out of $5.1 trillion in labor, were already automatable. In low-skill areas, 82% of labor in apparel goods, 80% of agriculture processing, 76% of food manufacturing, and 60% of beverage manufacturing were subject to automation. In mid-skill areas, 72% of basic materials production and 70% of furniture manufacturing was automatable. In high-skill areas, 52% of aerospace and defense labor and 50% of advanced electronics labor could be automated.<a href="#cite_note-96">[92]</a> In October 2017, a survey of <a href="/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">information technology</a> decision makers in the US and UK found that a majority believed that most business processes could be automated by 2022. On average, they said that 59% of business processes were subject to automation.<a href="#cite_note-97">[93]</a> A November 2017 report by the McKinsey Global Institute that analyzed around 800 occupations in 46 countries estimated that between 400 million and 800 million jobs could be lost due to robotic automation by 2030. It estimated that jobs were more at risk in developed countries than developing countries due to a greater availability of capital to invest in automation.<a href="#cite_note-98">[94]</a> Job losses and downward mobility blamed on automation has been cited as one of many factors in the resurgence of <a href="/wiki/New_nationalism_(21st_century)" class="mw-redirect" title="New nationalism (21st century)">nationalist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protectionism" title="Protectionism">protectionist</a> politics in the US, UK and France, among other countries.<a href="#cite_note-99">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[99]</a> However, not all recent empirical studies have found evidence to support the idea that automation will cause widespread unemployment. A study released in 2015, examining the impact of industrial robots in 17 countries between 1993 and 2007, found no overall reduction in employment was caused by the robots, and that there was a slight increase in overall wages.<a href="#cite_note-GGG-104">[100]</a> According to a study published in <a href="/wiki/McKinsey_Quarterly" title="McKinsey Quarterly">McKinsey Quarterly</a><a href="#cite_note-MKQ1115-105">[101]</a> in 2015 the impact of computerization in most cases is not replacement of employees but automation of portions of the tasks they perform.<a href="#cite_note-NYT11615-106">[102]</a> A 2016 <a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a> study found that among the 21 OECD countries surveyed, on average only 9% of jobs were in foreseeable danger of automation, but this varied greatly among countries: for example in <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a> the figure of at-risk jobs was 6% while in <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a> it was 12%.<a href="#cite_note-107">[103]</a> In contrast to other studies, the OECD study does not primarily base its assessment on the tasks that a job entails, but also includes demographic variables, including sex, education and age. It is not clear however why a job should be more or less automatise just because it is performed by a woman. In 2017, <a href="/wiki/Forrester_Research" title="Forrester Research">Forrester</a> estimated that automation would result in a net loss of about 7% of jobs in the US by 2027, replacing 17% of jobs while creating new jobs equivalent to 10% of the workforce.<a href="#cite_note-108">[104]</a> Another study argued that the risk of US jobs to automation had been overestimated due to factors such as the heterogeneity of tasks within occupations and the adaptability of jobs being neglected. The study found that once this was taken into account, the number of occupations at risk to automation in the US drops, ceteris paribus, from 38% to 9%.<a href="#cite_note-109">[105]</a> A 2017 study on the effect of automation on Germany found no evidence that automation caused total job losses but that they do effect the jobs people are employed in; losses in the industrial sector due to automation were offset by gains in the service sector. Manufacturing workers were also not at risk from automation and were in fact more likely to remain employed, though not necessarily doing the same tasks. However, automation did result in a decrease in labour's income share as it raised productivity but not wages.<a href="#cite_note-110">[106]</a> A 2018 <a href="/wiki/Brookings_Institution" title="Brookings Institution">Brookings Institution</a> study that analyzed 28 industries in 18 OECD countries from 1970 to 2018 found that automation was responsible for holding down wages. Although it concluded that automation did not reduce the overall number of jobs available and even increased them, it found that from the 1970s to the 2010s, it had reduced the share of human labor in the value added to the work, and thus had helped to slow wage growth.<a href="#cite_note-111">[107]</a> In April 2018, <a href="/wiki/Adair_Turner,_Baron_Turner_of_Ecchinswell" title="Adair Turner, Baron Turner of Ecchinswell">Adair Turner</a>, former Chairman of the <a href="/wiki/Financial_Services_Authority" title="Financial Services Authority">Financial Services Authority</a> and head of the <a href="/wiki/Institute_for_New_Economic_Thinking" title="Institute for New Economic Thinking">Institute for New Economic Thinking</a>, stated that it would already be possible to automate 50% of jobs with current technology, and that it will be possible to automate all jobs by 2060.<a href="#cite_note-112">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Premature_deindustrialization">Premature deindustrialization</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Premature deindustrialization">edit</a>]</div> Premature deindustrialization occurs when developing nations <a href="/wiki/Deindustrialization" title="Deindustrialization">deindustrialize</a> without first becoming rich, as happened with the advanced economies. The concept was popularized by <a href="/wiki/Dani_Rodrik" title="Dani Rodrik">Dani Rodrik</a> in 2013, who went on to publish several papers showing the growing empirical evidence for the phenomena. Premature deindustrialization adds to concern over technological unemployment for developing countries – as traditional compensation effects that advanced economy workers enjoyed, such being able to get well paid work in the service sector after losing their factory jobs – may not be available.<a href="#cite_note-113">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[110]</a> Some commentators, such as Carl Benedikt Frey, argue that with the right responses, the negative effects of further automation on workers in developing economies can still be avoided.<a href="#cite_note-115">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Artificial_intelligence">Artificial intelligence</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Artificial intelligence">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/AI_takeover" title="AI takeover">AI takeover</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Poll_on_AI_effect_on_jobs_-_2024_AI_index.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Poll_on_AI_effect_on_jobs_-_2024_AI_index.jpg/290px-Poll_on_AI_effect_on_jobs_-_2024_AI_index.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Poll_on_AI_effect_on_jobs_-_2024_AI_index.jpg/435px-Poll_on_AI_effect_on_jobs_-_2024_AI_index.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Poll_on_AI_effect_on_jobs_-_2024_AI_index.jpg/580px-Poll_on_AI_effect_on_jobs_-_2024_AI_index.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2667" data-file-height="1778" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> Since about 2017, a new wave of concern over technological unemployment had become prominent, this time over the effects of artificial intelligence (AI).<a href="#cite_note-116">[112]</a> Commentators including <a href="/wiki/Calum_Chace" title="Calum Chace">Calum Chace</a> and <a href="/wiki/Daniel_J._Hulme" title="Daniel J. Hulme">Daniel Hulme</a> have warned that if unchecked, AI threatens to cause an "<a href="/wiki/Calum_Chace#Economic_Singularity" title="Calum Chace">economic singularity</a>", with job churn too rapid for humans to adapt to, leading to widespread technological unemployment. However, they also advise that with the right responses by business leaders, policy makers and society, the impact of AI could be a net positive for workers.<a href="#cite_note-117">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[114]</a> Morgan R. Frank et al. cautions that there are several barriers preventing researchers from making accurate predictions of the effects AI will have on future job markets.<a href="#cite_note-119">[115]</a> Marian Krakovsky has argued that the jobs most likely to be completely replaced by AI are in middle-class areas, such as professional services. Often, the practical solution is to find another job, but workers may not have the qualifications for high-level jobs and so must drop to lower level jobs. However, Krakovsky (2018) predicts that AI will largely take the route of "complementing people," rather than "replicating people." Suggesting that the goal of people implementing AI is to improve the life of workers, not replace them.<a href="#cite_note-120">[116]</a> Studies have also shown that rather than solely destroying jobs AI can also create work: albeit low-skill jobs to train AI in low-income countries.<a href="#cite_note-121">[117]</a> Following Russian president <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a>'s 2017 statement that whichever country first achieves mastery in AI "will become the ruler of the world", various national and <a href="/wiki/Supranational_union" title="Supranational union">supranational</a> governments have announced AI strategies. Concerns on not falling behind in the <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_arms_race" title="Artificial intelligence arms race">AI arms race</a> have been more prominent than worries over AI's potential to cause unemployment. Several strategies suggest that achieving a leading role in AI should help their citizens get more rewarding jobs. Finland has aimed to help the citizens of other <a href="/wiki/EU" class="mw-redirect" title="EU">EU</a> nations acquire the skills they need to compete in the post-AI jobs market, making a free course on "The Elements of AI" available in multiple European languages.<a href="#cite_note-122">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[120]</a> Oracle CEO <a href="/wiki/Mark_Hurd" title="Mark Hurd">Mark Hurd</a> predicted that AI "will actually create more jobs, not less jobs" as humans will be needed to manage AI systems.<a href="#cite_note-125">[121]</a> <a href="/wiki/Martin_Ford_(author)" title="Martin Ford (author)">Martin Ford</a> argues that many jobs are routine, repetitive and (to an AI) predictable; Ford warns that these jobs may be automated in the next couple of decades, and that many of the new jobs may not be "accessible to people with average capability", even with retraining.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFordColvin2015-126">[122]</a> Certain digital technologies are predicted to result in more job losses than others. For example, in recent years, the adoption of modern robotics has led to net employment growth. However, many businesses anticipate that automation, or employing robots would result in job losses in the future. This is especially true for companies in Central and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:34-127">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-Genz-129">[125]</a> Other digital technologies, such as <a href="/wiki/Computing_platform" title="Computing platform">platforms</a> or <a href="/wiki/Big_data" title="Big data">big data</a>, are projected to have a more neutral impact on employment.<a href="#cite_note-:34-127">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-Genz-129">[125]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Issues_within_the_debates">Issues within the debates</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Issues within the debates">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Long-term_effects_on_employment">Long-term effects on employment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Long-term effects on employment">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:30%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> There are more sectors losing jobs than creating jobs. And the general-purpose aspect of software technology means that even the industries and jobs that it creates are not forever. </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">Lawrence Summers<a href="#cite_note-summers-72">[68]</a></cite></div> </div> Participants in the technological employment debates agree that temporary job losses can result from technological innovation. Similarly, there is no dispute that innovation sometimes has positive effects on workers. Disagreement focuses on whether it is possible for innovation to have a lasting negative impact on overall employment. Levels of persistent unemployment can be quantified empirically, but the causes are subject to debate. Optimists accept short term unemployment may be caused by innovation, yet claim that after a while, compensation effects will always create at least as many jobs as were originally destroyed. While this optimistic view has been continually challenged, it was dominant among mainstream economists for most of the 19th and 20th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-Woirol_1996_loc=_pp._77_-_90-130">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-sympathy-131">[127]</a> For example, labor economists <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Mincer" title="Jacob Mincer">Jacob Mincer</a> and Stephan Danninger developed an empirical study using data from the <a href="/wiki/Panel_Study_of_Income_Dynamics" title="Panel Study of Income Dynamics">Panel Study of Income Dynamics</a>, and find that although in the short run, technological progress seems to have unclear effects on aggregate unemployment, it reduces unemployment in the long run. When they include a 5-year lag, however, the evidence supporting a short-run employment effect of technology seems to disappear as well, suggesting that technological unemployment "appears to be a myth".<a href="#cite_note-132">[128]</a> Other studies, on the other hand, suggest that the labour-market effects of technologies such as industrial robots strongly depend on domestic institutional context.<a href="#cite_note-133">[129]</a> The concept of <a href="/wiki/Structural_unemployment" title="Structural unemployment">structural unemployment</a>, a lasting level of joblessness that does not disappear even at the high point of the <a href="/wiki/Business_cycle" title="Business cycle">business cycle</a>, became popular in the 1960s. For pessimists, technological unemployment is one of the factors driving the wider phenomena of structural unemployment. Since the 1980s, even optimistic economists have increasingly accepted that structural unemployment has indeed risen in advanced economies, but they have tended to attribute this on <a href="/wiki/Globalisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Globalisation">globalisation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Offshoring" title="Offshoring">offshoring</a> rather than technological change.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Others claim a chief cause of the lasting increase in unemployment has been the reluctance of governments to pursue <a href="/wiki/Expansionary_Fiscal_Policy" class="mw-redirect" title="Expansionary Fiscal Policy">expansionary policies</a> since the <a href="/wiki/Post-war_displacement_of_Keynesianism" title="Post-war displacement of Keynesianism">displacement of Keynesianism</a> that occurred in the 1970s and early 80s.<a href="#cite_note-Woirol_1996_loc=_pp._77_-_90-130">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-Effective_Demand-134">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-Vivarelli2012-51">[48]</a> In the 21st century, and especially since 2013, pessimists have been arguing with increasing frequency that lasting worldwide technological unemployment is a growing threat.<a href="#cite_note-sympathy-131">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-replicants-62">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-Martin-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Compensation_effects">Compensation effects</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Compensation effects">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BrownManchesterMuralJohnKay.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/BrownManchesterMuralJohnKay.jpg/220px-BrownManchesterMuralJohnKay.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/BrownManchesterMuralJohnKay.jpg/330px-BrownManchesterMuralJohnKay.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/BrownManchesterMuralJohnKay.jpg/440px-BrownManchesterMuralJohnKay.jpg 2x" data-file-width="992" data-file-height="566" /></a><figcaption>John Kay inventor of the <a href="/wiki/Flying_shuttle" title="Flying shuttle">Fly Shuttle</a> AD 1753, by <a href="/wiki/Ford_Madox_Brown" title="Ford Madox Brown">Ford Madox Brown</a>, depicting the inventor <a href="/wiki/John_Kay_(flying_shuttle)" title="John Kay (flying shuttle)">John Kay</a> kissing his wife goodbye as men carry him away from his home to escape a mob angry about his labour-saving mechanical loom. Compensation effects were not widely understood at this time. </figcaption></figure> Compensation effects are labour-friendly consequences of innovation which "compensate" workers for job losses initially caused by new technology. In the 1820s, several compensation effects were described by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Jean-Baptiste Say</a> in response to Ricardo's statement that long-term technological unemployment could occur. Soon after, a whole system of effects was developed by <a href="/wiki/John_Ramsay_McCulloch" title="John Ramsay McCulloch">Ramsey McCulloch</a>. The system was labelled "compensation theory" by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>, who criticized its ideas, arguing that none of the effects were guaranteed to operate. Disagreement over the effectiveness of compensation effects has remained a central part of academic debates on technological unemployment ever since.<a href="#cite_note-Vivarelli2012-51">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-Blaug_1997_loc=_p182-136">[132]</a> Compensation effects include: <ol><li>By new machines. (The labour needed to build the new equipment that applied innovation requires.)</li> <li>By new investments. (Enabled by the cost savings and therefore increased profits from the new technology.)</li> <li>By changes in wages. (In cases where unemployment does occur, this can cause a lowering of wages, thus allowing more workers to be re-employed at the now lower cost. On the other hand, sometimes workers will enjoy wage increases as their profitability rises. This leads to increased income and therefore increased spending, which in turn encourages job creation.)</li> <li>By lower prices. (Which then lead to more demand, and therefore more employment.) Lower prices can also help offset wage cuts, as cheaper goods will increase workers' buying power.</li> <li>By new products. (Where innovation directly creates new jobs.)</li></ol> The "by new machines" effect is now rarely discussed by economists; it is often accepted that Marx successfully refuted it.<a href="#cite_note-Vivarelli2012-51">[48]</a> Even pessimists often concede that product innovation associated with the "by new products" effect can sometimes have a positive effect on employment. An important distinction can be drawn between 'process' and 'product' innovations.<a href="#cite_note-137">[note 5]</a> Evidence from Latin America seems to suggest that <a href="/wiki/Product_innovation" title="Product innovation">product innovation</a> significantly contributes to the employment growth at the firm level, more so than process innovation.<a href="#cite_note-138">[133]</a> The extent to which the other effects are successful in compensating the workforce for job losses has been extensively debated throughout the history of modern economics; the issue is still not resolved.<a href="#cite_note-Vivarelli2012-51">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-Vivarelli2007-52">[49]</a> One such effect that potentially complements the compensation effect is job <a href="/wiki/Multiplier_(economics)" title="Multiplier (economics)">multiplier</a>. According to research developed by <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Moretti" title="Enrico Moretti">Enrico Moretti</a>, with each additional skilled job created in high tech industries in a given city, more than two jobs are created in the <a href="/wiki/Non-tradable_sector" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-tradable sector">non-tradable sector</a>. His findings suggest that technological growth and the resulting job-creation in high-tech industries might have a more significant <a href="/wiki/Spillover_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Spillover effect">spillover effect</a> than anticipated.<a href="#cite_note-139">[134]</a> Evidence from Europe also supports such a job multiplier effect, showing local high-tech jobs could create five additional low-tech jobs.<a href="#cite_note-140">[135]</a> Many economists pessimistic about technological unemployment accept that compensation effects did largely operate as the optimists claimed through most of the 19th and 20th century. Yet they hold that the advent of computerisation means that compensation effects have become less effective. An early example of this argument was made by <a href="/wiki/Wassily_Leontief" title="Wassily Leontief">Wassily Leontief</a> in 1983. He conceded that after some disruption, the advance of <a href="/wiki/Mechanization" title="Mechanization">mechanization</a> during the Industrial Revolution increased the demand for labour as well as increasing pay due to effects that flow from increased <a href="/wiki/Productivity" title="Productivity">productivity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Advance-141">[136]</a> While early machines lowered the demand for muscle power, they were unintelligent and needed large numbers of human operators to remain productive. Yet since the introduction of computers into the workplace, there is now less need not just for muscle power but also for human brain power. Hence even as productivity continues to rise, the lower demand for human labour may mean less pay and employment.<a href="#cite_note-Vivarelli2012-51">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-Martin-30">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Luddite_fallacy">Luddite fallacy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Luddite fallacy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:30%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> If the Luddite fallacy were true we would all be out of work because productivity has been increasing for two centuries. </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="left-aligned" style=""><a href="/wiki/Alex_Tabarrok" title="Alex Tabarrok">Alex Tabarrok</a><a href="#cite_note-Tabarrok-142">[137]</a></cite></div> </div> The term "Luddite fallacy" is sometimes used to express the view that those concerned about long-term technological unemployment are committing a fallacy, as they fail to account for compensation effects. People who use the term typically expect that technological progress will have no long-term impact on employment levels, and eventually will raise wages for all workers, because progress helps to increase the overall wealth of society. The term is originating on from the <a href="/wiki/Luddite" title="Luddite">Luddites</a>, members of an early 19th century English anti-textile-machinery organisation. During the 20th century and the first decade of the 21st century, the dominant view among economists has been that belief in long-term technological unemployment was indeed a <a href="/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">fallacy</a>. More recently, there has been increased support for the view that the benefits of automation are not equally distributed.<a href="#cite_note-sympathy-131">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-Death-144">[139]</a> There are two different theories for why long-term difficulty could develop. <ol><li>Traditionally ascribed to the Luddites (accurately or not), that there is a finite amount of work available and if machines do it, there can be none left for humans. Economists may call this the <a href="/wiki/Lump_of_labour_fallacy" title="Lump of labour fallacy">lump of labour fallacy</a>, arguing that in reality no such limitation exists.</li> <li>A long-term difficulty can arise that has nothing to do with any lump of labour. In this view, the amount of work that can exist is infinite, but</li></ol> <dl><dd><dl><dd><ul><li>machines can do most of the "easy" work that requires less skill, talent, knowledge, or insight</li> <li>the definition of what is "easy" expands as information technology progresses, and</li> <li>the work that lies beyond "easy" may require greater brainpower than most people have.</li></ul></dd></dl></dd></dl> This second view is supported by many modern advocates of the possibility of long-term, systemic technological unemployment. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Skill_levels_and_technological_unemployment">Skill levels and technological unemployment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Skill levels and technological unemployment">edit</a>]</div> A frequent view among those discussing the effect of innovation on the labour market has been that it mainly hurts those with low skills, while often benefiting skilled workers. According to scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_F._Katz" title="Lawrence F. Katz">Lawrence F. Katz</a>, this may have been true for much of the twentieth century, yet in the 19th century, innovations in the workplace largely displaced costly skilled artisans, and generally benefited the low skilled. While 21st century innovation has been replacing some unskilled work, other low skilled occupations remain resistant to automation, while white collar work requiring intermediate skills is increasingly being performed by autonomous computer programs.<a href="#cite_note-relative-145">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-polarization-146">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-Reversal-147">[142]</a> Some recent studies however, such as a 2015 paper by Georg Graetz and Guy Michaels, found that at least in the area they studied – the impact of industrial robots – innovation is boosting pay for highly skilled workers while having a more negative impact on those with low to medium skills.<a href="#cite_note-GGG-104">[100]</a> A 2015 report by <a href="/wiki/Carl_Benedikt_Frey" title="Carl Benedikt Frey">Carl Benedikt Frey</a>, Michael Osborne and <a href="/wiki/Citi_Investment_Research_%26_Analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Citi Investment Research & Analysis">Citi Research</a> agreed that innovation had been disruptive mostly to middle-skilled jobs, yet predicted that in the next ten years the impact of automation would fall most heavily on those with low skills.<a href="#cite_note-OM2015-148">[143]</a> <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Colvin" title="Geoffrey Colvin">Geoffrey Colvin</a> at <a href="/wiki/Forbes" title="Forbes">Forbes</a> argued that predictions on the kind of work a computer will never be able to do have proven inaccurate. A better approach to anticipate the skills on which humans will provide value would be to find out activities where we will insist that humans remain accountable for important decisions, such as with judges, <a href="/wiki/Chief_executive_officer" title="Chief executive officer">CEOs</a>, bus drivers and government leaders, or where human nature can only be satisfied by deep interpersonal connections, even if those tasks could be automated.<a href="#cite_note-149">[144]</a> In contrast, others see even skilled human laborers being obsolete. Oxford academics Carl Benedikt Frey and Michael A Osborne have predicted computerization could make nearly half of jobs redundant;<a href="#cite_note-150">[145]</a> of the 702 professions assessed, they found a strong correlation between education and income with ability to be automated, with office jobs and service work being some of the more at risk.<a href="#cite_note-151">[146]</a> In 2012 co-founder of <a href="/wiki/Sun_Microsystems" title="Sun Microsystems">Sun Microsystems</a> <a href="/wiki/Vinod_Khosla" title="Vinod Khosla">Vinod Khosla</a> predicted that 80% of medical doctors' jobs would be lost in the next two decades to automated machine learning <a href="/wiki/Medical_diagnostic_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical diagnostic software">medical diagnostic software</a>.<a href="#cite_note-152">[147]</a> The issue of redundant job places is elaborated by the 2019 paper by Natalya Kozlova, according to which over 50% of workers in <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> perform work that requires low levels of education and can be replaced by applying digital technologies. Only 13% of those people possess education that exceeds the level of intellectual computer systems present today and expected within the following decade.<a href="#cite_note-153">[148]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Empirical_findings">Empirical findings</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Empirical findings">edit</a>]</div> There has been a significant amount of empirical research that attempts to quantify the impact of technological unemployment, mainly at the microeconomic level. Most existing firm-level research has found a labor-friendly nature of technological innovations. For example, German economists Stefan Lachenmaier and Horst Rottmann find that both product and process innovation have a positive effect on employment. They also find that process innovation has a more significant job creation effect than product innovation.<a href="#cite_note-154">[149]</a> This result is supported by evidence in the United States as well, which shows that manufacturing firm innovations have a positive effect on the total number of jobs, not just limited to firm-specific behavior.<a href="#cite_note-155">[150]</a> At the industry level, however, researchers have found mixed results with regard to the employment effect of technological changes. A 2017 study on manufacturing and service sectors in 11 European countries suggests that positive employment effects of technological innovations only exist in the medium- and high-tech sectors. There also seems to be a negative correlation between employment and <a href="/wiki/Capital_formation" title="Capital formation">capital formation</a>, which suggests that technological progress could potentially be labor-saving given that process innovation is often incorporated in investment.<a href="#cite_note-156">[151]</a> Limited macroeconomic analysis has been done to study the relationship between technological shocks and unemployment. The small amount of existing research, however, suggests mixed results. Italian economist <a href="/wiki/Marco_Vivarelli" title="Marco Vivarelli">Marco Vivarelli</a> finds that the labor-saving effect of process innovation appears to have affected the Italian economy more negatively than the United States. On the other hand, the job creating effect of product innovation could only be observed in the United States, not Italy.<a href="#cite_note-157">[152]</a> Another study in 2013 finds a more transitory, rather than permanent, unemployment effect of technological change.<a href="#cite_note-158">[153]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Measures_of_technological_innovation">Measures of technological innovation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Measures of technological innovation">edit</a>]</div> There have been four main approaches that attempt to capture and document technological innovation quantitatively.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The first one, proposed by <a href="/wiki/Jordi_Gal%C3%AD" title="Jordi Galí">Jordi Gali</a> in 1999 and further developed by Neville Francis and Valerie A. Ramey in 2005, is to use long-run restrictions in a <a href="/wiki/Vector_autoregression" title="Vector autoregression">vector autoregression</a> (VAR) to identify <a href="/wiki/Technology_shock" title="Technology shock">technological shocks</a>, assuming that only technology affects long-run productivity.<a href="#cite_note-159">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[155]</a> The second approach is from Susanto Basu, John Fernald and <a href="/wiki/Miles_Kimball" title="Miles Kimball">Miles Kimball</a>.<a href="#cite_note-161">[156]</a> They create a measure of aggregate technology change with augmented <a href="/wiki/Solow_residual" title="Solow residual">Solow residuals</a>, controlling for aggregate, non-technological effects such as non-constant returns and imperfect competition. The third method, initially developed by John Shea in 1999, takes a more direct approach and employs observable indicators such as research and development (R&D) spending, and number of patent applications.<a href="#cite_note-162">[157]</a> This measure of technological innovation is widely used in empirical research, since it does not rely on the assumption that only technology affects long-run productivity, and fairly accurately captures output variation based on input variation. However, there are limitations with direct measures such as R&D. For example, since R&D only measures the input in innovation, the output is unlikely to be perfectly correlated with the input. In addition, R&D fails to capture the indeterminate lag between developing a new product or service, and bringing it to market.<a href="#cite_note-163">[158]</a> The fourth approach, constructed by Michelle Alexopoulos, looks at the number of new titles published in the fields of technology and computer science to reflect technological progress, which he found to be consistent with R&D expenditure data.<a href="#cite_note-164">[159]</a> Compared with R&D, this indicator captures the lag between changes in technology. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Solutions">Solutions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Solutions">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Preventing_net_job_losses">Preventing net job losses</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Preventing net job losses">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Banning/refusing_innovation">Banning/refusing innovation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Banning/refusing innovation">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gandhi_spinning.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Gandhi_spinning.jpg/220px-Gandhi_spinning.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Gandhi_spinning.jpg/330px-Gandhi_spinning.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Gandhi_spinning.jpg/440px-Gandhi_spinning.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3104" data-file-height="2312" /></a><figcaption>"What I object to, is the craze for machinery, not machinery as such. The craze is for what they call labour-saving machinery. Men go on 'saving labour', till thousands are without work and thrown on the open streets to die of starvation." — <a href="/wiki/Gandhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Gandhi">Gandhi</a>, 1924<a href="#cite_note-165">[160]</a></figcaption></figure> Historically, innovations were sometimes banned due to concerns about their impact on employment. Since the development of modern economics, however, this option has generally not even been considered as a solution, at least not for the advanced economies. Even commentators who are pessimistic about long-term technological unemployment invariably consider innovation to be an overall benefit to society, with <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">J. S. Mill</a> being perhaps the only prominent western political economist to have suggested prohibiting the use of technology as a possible solution to unemployment.<a href="#cite_note-Blaug_1997_loc=_p182-136">[132]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gandhian_economics" title="Gandhian economics">Gandhian economics</a> called for a delay in the uptake of labour saving machines until unemployment was alleviated, however this advice was largely rejected by <a href="/wiki/Nehru" class="mw-redirect" title="Nehru">Nehru</a> who was to become prime minister once India achieved its independence. The policy of slowing the introduction of innovation so as to avoid technological unemployment was, however, implemented in the 20th century within China under <a href="/wiki/Mao" class="mw-redirect" title="Mao">Mao</a>'s administration.<a href="#cite_note-166">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-167">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-168">[163]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Shorter_working_hours">Shorter working hours</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Shorter working hours">edit</a>]</div> In 1870, the average American worker clocked up about 75 hours per week. Just prior to World War II working hours had fallen to about 42 per week, and the fall was similar in other advanced economies. According to <a href="/wiki/Wassily_Leontief" title="Wassily Leontief">Wassily Leontief</a>, this was a voluntary increase in technological unemployment. The reduction in working hours helped share out available work, and was favoured by workers who were happy to reduce hours to gain extra leisure, as innovation was at the time generally helping to increase their rates of pay.<a href="#cite_note-Advance-141">[136]</a> Further reductions in working hours have been proposed as a possible solution to unemployment by economists including <a href="/wiki/John_R._Commons" title="John R. Commons">John R. Commons</a>, Lord Keynes and <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Pasinetti" title="Luigi Pasinetti">Luigi Pasinetti</a>. Yet once working hours have reached about 40 hours per week, workers have been less enthusiastic about further reductions, both to prevent loss of income and as many value <a href="/wiki/Workmanship" title="Workmanship">engaging in work for its own sake</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Generally, 20th-century economists had argued against further reductions as a solution to unemployment, saying it reflects a <a href="/wiki/Lump_of_labour_fallacy" title="Lump of labour fallacy">lump of labour fallacy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-169">[164]</a> In 2014, Google's co-founder, <a href="/wiki/Larry_Page" title="Larry Page">Larry Page</a>, suggested a <a href="/wiki/Four-day_workweek" title="Four-day workweek">four-day workweek</a>, so as technology continues to displace jobs, more people can find employment.<a href="#cite_note-NYT-2014-12-15-73">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-171">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Public_works">Public works</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Public works">edit</a>]</div> Programmes of <a href="/wiki/Public_works" title="Public works">public works</a> have traditionally been used as way for governments to directly boost employment, though this has often been opposed by some, but not all, conservatives. <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Jean-Baptiste Say</a>, although generally associated with free market economics, advised that public works could be a solution to technological unemployment.<a href="#cite_note-172">[167]</a> Some commentators, such as professor Mathew Forstater, have advised that public works and guaranteed jobs in the public sector may be the ideal solution to technological unemployment, as unlike welfare or guaranteed income schemes they provide people with the social recognition and meaningful engagement that comes with work.<a href="#cite_note-unemployment_history-173">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-better_world-174">[169]</a> For <a href="/wiki/Less_developed_country" class="mw-redirect" title="Less developed country">less developed economies</a>, public works may be an easier to administrate solution compared to universal welfare programmes.<a href="#cite_note-Advance-141">[136]</a> A partial exception is for spending on infrastructure, which has been recommended as a solution to technological unemployment even by economists previously associated with a neoliberal agenda, such as <a href="/wiki/Larry_Summers" class="mw-redirect" title="Larry Summers">Larry Summers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Inclusive-175">[170]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Education">Education</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Education">edit</a>]</div> Improved availability to quality education, including skills training for adults, is a solution that in principle at least is not opposed by any side of the political spectrum, and welcomed even by those who are optimistic about long-term technological employment. Improved education paid for by government tends to be especially popular with industry. However, several academics have argued that improved education alone will not be sufficient to solve technological unemployment, pointing to recent declines in the demand for many intermediate skills, and suggesting that not everyone is capable in becoming proficient in the most advanced skills.<a href="#cite_note-relative-145">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-polarization-146">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-Reversal-147">[142]</a> <a href="/wiki/K._A._Taipale" title="K. A. Taipale">Kim Taipale</a> has said that "The era of bell curve distributions that supported a bulging social middle class is over... Education per se is not going to make up the difference."<a href="#cite_note-Power-curve-176">[171]</a> while back in 2011 <a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Paul Krugman</a> argued that better education would be an insufficient solution to technological unemployment.<a href="#cite_note-Degrees-177">[172]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Living_with_technological_unemployment">Living with technological unemployment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Living with technological unemployment">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Welfare_payments">Welfare payments</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Welfare payments">edit</a>]</div> The use of various forms of subsidies has often been accepted as a solution to technological unemployment even by conservatives and by those who are optimistic about the long-term effect on jobs. Welfare programmes have historically tended to be more durable once established, compared with other solutions to unemployment such as directly creating jobs with public works. Despite being the first person to create a formal system describing compensation effects, Ramsey McCulloch and most other classical economists advocated government aid for those suffering from technological unemployment, as they understood that market adjustment to new technology was not instantaneous and that those displaced by labour-saving technology would not always be able to immediately obtain alternative employment through their own efforts.<a href="#cite_note-Blaug_1997_loc=_p182-136">[132]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Basic_income">Basic income</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Basic income">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Basic_income" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic income">Basic income</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guaranteed_minimum_income" title="Guaranteed minimum income">Guaranteed minimum income</a></div> <a href="/wiki/List_of_advocates_of_basic_income" class="mw-redirect" title="List of advocates of basic income">Several commentators</a> have argued that traditional forms of welfare payment may be inadequate as a response to the future challenges posed by technological unemployment, and have suggested a basic income as an alternative.<a href="#cite_note-178">[173]</a> People advocating some form of basic income as a solution to technological unemployment include Martin Ford, <a href="#cite_note-179">[174]</a> <a href="/wiki/Erik_Brynjolfsson" title="Erik Brynjolfsson">Erik Brynjolfsson</a>,<a href="#cite_note-control-65">[62]</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Reich" title="Robert Reich">Robert Reich</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Yang" title="Andrew Yang">Andrew Yang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elon_Musk" title="Elon Musk">Elon Musk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zoltan_Istvan" title="Zoltan Istvan">Zoltan Istvan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Guy_Standing_(economist)" title="Guy Standing (economist)">Guy Standing</a>. Reich has gone as far as to say the introduction of a basic income, perhaps implemented as a <a href="/wiki/Negative_income_tax" title="Negative income tax">negative income tax</a> is "almost inevitable",<a href="#cite_note-180">[175]</a> while Standing has said he considers that a basic income is becoming "politically essential".<a href="#cite_note-paypressure-181">[176]</a> Since late 2015, new basic income pilots have been announced in Finland, the Netherlands, and Canada. Further recent advocacy for basic income has arisen from a number of technology entrepreneurs, the most prominent being <a href="/wiki/Sam_Altman" title="Sam Altman">Sam Altman</a>, president of <a href="/wiki/Y_Combinator_(company)" class="mw-redirect" title="Y Combinator (company)">Y Combinator</a>.<a href="#cite_note-182">[177]</a> Skepticism about basic income includes both <a href="/wiki/Left%E2%80%93right_politics" class="mw-redirect" title="Left–right politics">right and left</a> elements, and proposals for different forms of it have come from all segments of the spectrum. For example, while the best-known proposed forms (with taxation and distribution) are usually thought of as left-leaning ideas that right-leaning people try to defend against, other forms have been proposed even by <a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">libertarians</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">von Hayek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Friedman</a>. In the United States, President <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Family_Assistance_Plan" title="Family Assistance Plan">Family Assistance Plan</a> (FAP) of 1969, which had much in common with basic income, passed in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House</a> but was defeated in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Nixon1978-183">[178]</a> One objection to basic income is that it could be a <a href="/wiki/Incentivisation" title="Incentivisation">disincentive to work</a>, but evidence from older <a href="/wiki/Basic_income_pilots" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic income pilots">pilots</a> in India, Africa, and Canada indicates that this does not happen and that a basic income encourages low-level <a href="/wiki/Entrepreneurship" title="Entrepreneurship">entrepreneurship</a> and more productive, collaborative work. Another objection is that funding it sustainably is a huge challenge. While new revenue-raising ideas have been proposed such as Martin Ford's wage recapture tax, how to fund a generous basic income remains a debated question, and skeptics have dismissed it as utopian. Even from a progressive viewpoint, there are concerns that a basic income set too low may not help the economically vulnerable, especially if financed largely from cuts to other forms of welfare.<a href="#cite_note-paypressure-181">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-184">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-MITRotman-185">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-186">[181]</a> To better address both the funding concerns and concerns about government control, one alternative model is that the cost and control would be distributed across the private sector instead of the public sector. Companies across the economy would be required to employ humans, but the job descriptions would be left to private innovation, and individuals would have to compete to be hired and retained. This would be a for-profit sector analog of basic income, that is, a market-based form of basic income. It differs from a <a href="/wiki/Job_guarantee" title="Job guarantee">job guarantee</a> in that the government is not the employer (rather, companies are) and there is no aspect of having employees who "cannot be fired", a problem that interferes with economic dynamism. The economic salvation in this model is not that every individual is guaranteed a job, but rather just that enough jobs exist that massive unemployment is avoided and employment is no longer solely the privilege of only the very smartest or highly trained 20% of the population. Another option for a market-based form of basic income has been proposed by the <a href="/wiki/Center_for_Economic_and_Social_Justice" title="Center for Economic and Social Justice">Center for Economic and Social Justice</a> (CESJ) as part of "a Just Third Way" (a <a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a> with greater justice) through widely distributed power and liberty. Called the Capital Homestead Act,<a href="#cite_note-Capital_Homestead_Act-187">[182]</a> it is reminiscent of <a href="/wiki/James_S._Albus" title="James S. Albus">James S. Albus</a>'s Peoples' Capitalism<a href="#cite_note-peoplescapbook-43">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-peoplescap-44">[41]</a> in that <a href="/wiki/Money_creation" title="Money creation">money creation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Security_(finance)" title="Security (finance)">securities ownership</a> are widely and directly distributed to individuals rather than flowing through, or being concentrated in, centralized or elite mechanisms. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Broadening_the_ownership_of_technological_assets">Broadening the ownership of technological assets</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Broadening the ownership of technological assets">edit</a>]</div> Several solutions have been proposed which do not fall easily into the traditional <a href="/wiki/Left%E2%80%93right_politics" class="mw-redirect" title="Left–right politics">left-right political spectrum</a>. This includes broadening the ownership of robots and other productive capital assets. Enlarging the ownership of technologies has been advocated by people including <a href="/wiki/James_S._Albus" title="James S. Albus">James S. Albus</a><a href="#cite_note-peoplescapbook-43">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-188">[183]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Lanchester" title="John Lanchester">John Lanchester</a>,<a href="#cite_note-189">[184]</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_B._Freeman" title="Richard B. Freeman">Richard B. Freeman</a>,<a href="#cite_note-MITRotman-185">[180]</a> and Noah Smith.<a href="#cite_note-190">[185]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jaron_Lanier" title="Jaron Lanier">Jaron Lanier</a> has proposed a somewhat similar solution: a mechanism where ordinary people receive "<a href="/wiki/Micropayment" title="Micropayment">nano payments</a>" for the <a href="/wiki/Big_data" title="Big data">big data</a> they generate by their regular surfing and other aspects of their online presence.<a href="#cite_note-191">[186]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Structural_changes_towards_a_post-scarcity_economy">Structural changes towards a post-scarcity economy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Structural changes towards a post-scarcity economy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Post-work_society" title="Post-work society">Post-work society</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Post-scarcity_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-scarcity economy">Post-scarcity economy</a></div> <a href="/wiki/The_Zeitgeist_Movement" title="The Zeitgeist Movement">The Zeitgeist Movement</a> (TZM), <a href="/wiki/The_Venus_Project" title="The Venus Project">The Venus Project</a> (TVP) as well as various individuals and organizations propose <a href="/wiki/Structural_change" title="Structural change">structural changes</a> towards a form of a <a href="/wiki/Post-scarcity_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-scarcity economy">post-scarcity economy</a> in which people are 'freed' from their automatable, monotonous jobs, instead of 'losing' their jobs. In the system proposed by TZM all jobs are either automated, abolished for bringing no true value for society (such as ordinary <a href="/wiki/Advertising" title="Advertising">advertising</a>), rationalized by more <a href="/wiki/Efficiency" title="Efficiency">efficient</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sustainable" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable">sustainable</a> and <a href="/wiki/Openness" title="Openness">open</a> processes and collaboration or carried out based on <a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">altruism</a> and social relevance, opposed to compulsion or monetary gain.<a href="#cite_note-tzm1-192">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-193">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-194">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-195">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-196">[191]</a> The movement also speculates that the free time made available to people will permit a renaissance of creativity, invention, community and social capital as well as reducing stress.<a href="#cite_note-tzm1-192">[187]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_approaches">Other approaches</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Other approaches">edit</a>]</div> The threat of technological unemployment has occasionally been used by free market economists as a justification for supply side reforms, to make it easier for employers to hire and fire workers. Conversely, it has also been used as a reason to justify an increase in employee protection.<a href="#cite_note-Effective_Demand-134">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-The-Economist-2013-11-05-197">[192]</a> Economists including <a href="/wiki/Larry_Summers" class="mw-redirect" title="Larry Summers">Larry Summers</a> have advised a package of measures may be needed. He advised vigorous cooperative efforts to address the "myriad devices" – such as tax havens, bank secrecy, money laundering, and regulatory arbitrage – which enable the holders of great wealth to avoid paying taxes, and to make it more difficult to accumulate great fortunes without requiring "great social contributions" in return. Summers suggested more vigorous enforcement of anti-monopoly laws; reductions in "excessive" protection for intellectual property; greater encouragement of profit-sharing schemes that may benefit workers and give them a stake in wealth accumulation; strengthening of collective bargaining arrangements; improvements in corporate governance; strengthening of financial regulation to eliminate subsidies to financial activity; easing of land-use restrictions that may cause estates to keep rising in value; better training for young people and retraining for displaced workers; and increased public and private investment in infrastructure development, such as energy production and transportation.<a href="#cite_note-summers-72">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-2014-12-15-73">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-inequalityPuzzle-74">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-198">[193]</a> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Spence" title="Michael Spence">Michael Spence</a> has advised that responding to the future impact of technology will require a detailed understanding of the global forces and flows technology has set in motion. Adapting to them "will require shifts in mindsets, policies, investments (especially in <a href="/wiki/Human_capital" title="Human capital">human capital</a>), and quite possibly models of employment and distribution".<a href="#cite_note-199">[note 6]</a><a href="#cite_note-200">[194]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_car" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous car">Autonomous car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disruptive_innovation" title="Disruptive innovation">Disruptive innovation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emerging_technologies" title="Emerging technologies">Emerging technologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Industrial_Revolution" title="Fourth Industrial Revolution">Fourth Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Futures_studies" title="Futures studies">Futures studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fully_Automated_Luxury_Communism" title="Fully Automated Luxury Communism">Fully Automated Luxury Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">Historical materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humans_Need_Not_Apply" title="Humans Need Not Apply">Humans Need Not Apply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_society" title="Industrial society">Industrial society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucas_Plan" title="Lucas Plan">Lucas Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luddite_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Luddite fallacy">Luddite fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lump_of_labor_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Lump of labor fallacy">Lump of labor fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parable_of_the_broken_window" title="Parable of the broken window">Parable of the broken window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Player_Piano_(novel)" title="Player Piano (novel)">Player Piano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-work_society" title="Post-work society">Post-work society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robot_tax" title="Robot tax">Robot tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salary_inversion" title="Salary inversion">Salary inversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_revolution" title="Technological revolution">Technological revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_singularity" title="Technological singularity">Technological singularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_transitions" title="Technological transitions">Technological transitions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technophobia" title="Technophobia">Technophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_Work" title="The End of Work">The End of Work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Future_of_Work_and_Death" title="The Future of Work and Death">The Future of Work and Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Triple_Revolution" title="The Triple Revolution">The Triple Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_time" title="Working time">Working time</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Smith did not directly address the problem of technological unemployment, but the Dean had, saying in 1757 that in the long term, the introduction of machinery would allow more employment than would have been possible without them. </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> Typically the introduction of machinery would both increase output and lower cost per unit. </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> In the 1930s, this study was Unemployment and technological change(Report no. G-70, 1940) by Corrington Calhoun Gill of the 'National Research Project on Reemployment Opportunities and Recent changes in Industrial Techniques'. Some earlier Federal reports took a pessimistic view of technological unemployment, e.g. Memorandum on Technological Unemployment (1933) by Ewan Clague Bureau of Labor Statistics. Some authorities – e.g. Udo Sautter in Chpt 5 of Three Cheers for the Unemployed: Government and Unemployment Before the New Deal (Cambridge University Press, 1991) – say that in the early 1930s there was near consensus among US experts that technological unemployment was a major problem. Other's though like <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Bartlett" title="Bruce Bartlett">Bruce Bartlett</a> in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/3465367/Is_Industrial_Innovation_Destroying_Jobs">Is Industrial Innovation Destroying Jobs (Cato Journal 1984)</a> argue that most economists remained optimistic even during the 1930s. In the 1960s episode, the major Federal study that bookmarked the end of the period of intense debate was Technology and the American economy (1966) by the 'National Commission on Technology, Automation, and Economic Progress' <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=26449">established by president Lyndon Johnson in 1964</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304210749/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=26449">Archived</a> 4 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> Other recent statements by Summers include warnings on the "devastating consequences" for those who perform routine tasks arising from robots, 3-D printing, artificial intelligence, and similar technologies. In his view, "already there are more American men on disability insurance than doing production work in manufacturing. And the trends are all in the wrong direction, particularly for the less skilled, as the capacity of capital embodying artificial intelligence to replace white-collar as well as blue-collar work will increase rapidly in the years ahead." Summers has also said that "[T]here are many reasons to think the software revolution will be even more profound than the agricultural revolution. This time around, change will come faster and affect a much larger share of the economy. [...] [T]here are more sectors losing jobs than creating jobs. And the general-purpose aspect of software technology means that even the industries and jobs that it creates are not forever. [...] If current trends continue, it could well be that a generation from now a quarter of middle-aged men will be out of work at any given moment." </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> Labour-displacing technologies can be classified under the headings of <a href="/wiki/Mechanization" title="Mechanization">mechanization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Automation" title="Automation">automation</a>, and process improvement. The first two fundamentally involve transferring tasks from humans to machines. The third often involves the elimination of tasks altogether. The common theme of all three is that tasks are removed from the workforce, decreasing employment. In practice, the categories often overlap: a process improvement can include an automating or mechanizing achievement. The line between mechanization and automation is also subjective, as sometimes mechanization can involve sufficient <a href="/wiki/Control_theory" title="Control theory">control</a> to be viewed as part of automation. </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> Spence also wrote that "Now comes a ... powerful, wave of digital technology that is replacing labor in increasingly complex tasks. This process of labor substitution and <a href="/wiki/Disintermediation" title="Disintermediation">disintermediation</a> has been underway for some time in service sectors – think of ATMs, online banking, enterprise resource planning, customer relationship management, mobile payment systems, and much more. This revolution is spreading to the production of goods, where robots and 3D printing are displacing labor." In his view, the vast majority of the cost of digital technologies comes at the start, in the design of hardware (e.g. sensors) and, more important, in creating the software that enables machines to carry out various tasks. "Once this is achieved, the marginal cost of the hardware is relatively low (and declines as scale rises), and the marginal cost of replicating the software is essentially zero. With a huge potential global market to amortize the upfront fixed costs of design and testing, the incentives to invest [in digital technologies] are compelling." Spence believes that, unlike prior digital technologies, which drove firms to deploy underutilized pools of valuable labor around the world, the motivating force in the current wave of digital technologies "is cost reduction via the replacement of labor." For example, as the cost of 3D printing technology declines, it is "easy to imagine" that production may become "extremely" local and customized. Moreover, production may occur in response to actual demand, not anticipated or forecast demand. "Meanwhile, the impact of robotics ... is not confined to production. Though self-driving cars and drones are the most attention-getting examples, the impact on logistics is no less transformative. Computers and robotic cranes that schedule and move containers around and load ships now control the Port of Singapore, one of the most efficient in the world." Spence believes that labor, no matter how inexpensive, will become a less important asset for growth and employment expansion, with labor-intensive, process-oriented manufacturing becoming less effective, and that re-localization will appear globally. In his view, production will not disappear, but it will be less labor-intensive, and all countries will eventually need to rebuild their growth models around digital technologies and the human capital supporting their deployment and expansion. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPeters2020" class="citation journal cs1">Peters, Michael A. 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International Journal of Industrial Organization. 29 (2): 210–220. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.522.7577">10.1.1.522.7577</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijindorg.2010.05.004">10.1016/j.ijindorg.2010.05.004</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:56406443">56406443</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Industrial+Organization&rft.atitle=May+2010&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E210-%3C%2Fspan%3E220&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.522.7577%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A56406443%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ijindorg.2010.05.004&rft.aulast=Lachenmaier&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rft.au=Rottmann%2C+Horst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoadRao2011" class="citation journal cs1">Coad, Alex; Rao, Rekha (May 2011). 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American Economic Review. 96 (5): 1418–48. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.202.121">10.1.1.202.121</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2Faer.96.5.1418">10.1257/aer.96.5.1418</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55596760">55596760</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Economic+Review&rft.atitle=Are+Technology+Improvements+Contractionary%3F&rft.volume=96&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1418-%3C%2Fspan%3E48&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.202.121%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A55596760%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1257%2Faer.96.5.1418&rft.aulast=Basu&rft.aufirst=Susanto&rft.au=Fernald%2C+John&rft.au=Kimball%2C+Miles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShea1998" class="citation journal cs1">Shea, John (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nber.org/chapters/c11249.pdf">"What Do Technology Shocks Do?"</a> (PDF). NBER Macroeconomics Annual. 13: 275–322. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2Fma.13.4623748">10.1086/ma.13.4623748</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:152644849">152644849</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NBER+Macroeconomics+Annual&rft.atitle=What+Do+Technology+Shocks+Do%3F&rft.volume=13&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E275-%3C%2Fspan%3E322&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2Fma.13.4623748&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A152644849%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Shea&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nber.org%2Fchapters%2Fc11249.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlexopoulosCohen2011" class="citation journal cs1">Alexopoulos, Michelle; Cohen, Jon (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economics.utoronto.ca/public/workingPapers/tecipa-392.pdf">"Volumes of evidence: examining technical change in the last century through a new lens"</a> (PDF). Canadian Journal of Economics. 44 (2): 413–450. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1540-5982.2011.01639.x">10.1111/j.1540-5982.2011.01639.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153779555">153779555</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Journal+of+Economics&rft.atitle=Volumes+of+evidence%3A+examining+technical+change+in+the+last+century+through+a+new+lens.&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E413-%3C%2Fspan%3E450&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1540-5982.2011.01639.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153779555%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Alexopoulos&rft.aufirst=Michelle&rft.au=Cohen%2C+Jon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economics.utoronto.ca%2Fpublic%2FworkingPapers%2Ftecipa-392.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlexopoulos2011" class="citation journal cs1">Alexopoulos, Michelle (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economics.utoronto.ca/public/workingPapers/tecipa-391.pdf">"Read All about It!! What Happens Following a Technology Shock?"</a> (PDF). American Economic Review. 101 (4): 1144–1179. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2Faer.101.4.1144">10.1257/aer.101.4.1144</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154653527">154653527</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Economic+Review&rft.atitle=Read+All+about+It%21%21+What+Happens+Following+a+Technology+Shock%3F&rft.volume=101&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1144-%3C%2Fspan%3E1179&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1257%2Faer.101.4.1144&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154653527%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Alexopoulos&rft.aufirst=Michelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economics.utoronto.ca%2Fpublic%2FworkingPapers%2Ftecipa-391.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> For a small collection of quotes by Gandhi relating to his view that innovation should be slowed while unemployment exists see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mkgandhi.org/voiceoftruth/machinery.htm">The place of machines</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFB._N._Ghosh2007" class="citation book cs1">B. N. Ghosh (2007). Gandhian political economy: principles, practice and policy. Ashgate. pp. 14, 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0754646815" title="Special:BookSources/978-0754646815"><bdi>978-0754646815</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gandhian+political+economy%3A+principles%2C+practice+and+policy&rft.pages=14%2C+15&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0754646815&rft.au=B.+N.+Ghosh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanghvi2006" class="citation book cs1">Sanghvi, Vijay (2006). Congress Resurgence Under Sonia Gandhi. Kalpaz. pp. 33–35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8178353401" title="Special:BookSources/978-8178353401"><bdi>978-8178353401</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Congress+Resurgence+Under+Sonia+Gandhi&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E33-%3C%2Fspan%3E35&rft.pub=Kalpaz&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-8178353401&rft.aulast=Sanghvi&rft.aufirst=Vijay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRam_K._Vepa2003" class="citation book cs1">Ram K. Vepa (2003). Mao's China: A Nation in Transition. Abhinav Publications. pp. 180–183. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8170171119" title="Special:BookSources/978-8170171119"><bdi>978-8170171119</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mao%27s+China%3A+A+Nation+in+Transition&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E180-%3C%2Fspan%3E183&rft.pub=Abhinav+Publications&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-8170171119&rft.au=Ram+K.+Vepa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalker2007" class="citation journal cs1">Walker, Tom (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://econpapers.repec.org/article/tafrsocec/v_3a65_3ay_3a2007_3ai_3a3_3ap_3a279-291.htm">"Why economists dislike a lump of labor"</a>. Review of Social Economy. 65 (3): 279–291. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00346760701635809">10.1080/00346760701635809</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145673544">145673544</a>. Retrieved 14 July 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Review+of+Social+Economy&rft.atitle=Why+economists+dislike+a+lump+of+labor&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E279-%3C%2Fspan%3E291&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00346760701635809&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145673544%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feconpapers.repec.org%2Farticle%2Ftafrsocec%2Fv_3a65_3ay_3a2007_3ai_3a3_3ap_3a279-291.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> Larry Page <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wdnp_7atZ0M">discusses his views on the socioeconomic effects of advanced intelligent systems</a> and how advanced digital technologies can be used to create abundance (as described in <a href="/wiki/Abundance:_The_Future_Is_Better_Than_You_Think" title="Abundance: The Future Is Better Than You Think">Peter Diamandis' book</a>), provide for people's needs, shorten the workweek, and mitigate any potential detrimental effects of technological unemployment. 2014-07-03. Discussion with <a href="/wiki/Sergey_Brin" title="Sergey Brin">Sergey Brin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vinod_Khosla" title="Vinod Khosla">Vinod Khosla</a>. Starting at about 13:00 into the video. The audience is composed of the CEOs of the portfolio companies of <a href="/wiki/Khosla_Ventures" title="Khosla Ventures">Khosla Ventures</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaters2014" class="citation web cs1">Waters, Richard (31 October 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ft.com/content/3173f19e-5fbc-11e4-8c27-00144feabdc0">"FT interview with Google co-founder and CEO Larry Page"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Financial_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="The Financial Times">The Financial Times</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Financial+Times&rft.atitle=FT+interview+with+Google+co-founder+and+CEO+Larry+Page&rft.date=2014-10-31&rft.aulast=Waters&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcontent%2F3173f19e-5fbc-11e4-8c27-00144feabdc0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaumol2000" class="citation journal cs1">Baumol, William J. (2000). "Leontief's Great Leap Forward: Beyond Quesnay, Marx and von Bortkiewicz". Economic Systems Research. 12 (2): 141–152. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09535310050005662">10.1080/09535310050005662</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154391578">154391578</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Economic+Systems+Research&rft.atitle=Leontief%27s+Great+Leap+Forward%3A+Beyond+Quesnay%2C+Marx+and+von+Bortkiewicz&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E141-%3C%2Fspan%3E152&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09535310050005662&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154391578%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Baumol&rft.aufirst=William+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-unemployment_history-173"><a href="#cite_ref-unemployment_history_173-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForstater2001" class="citation web cs1">Forstater, Mathew (August 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cas.umkc.edu/econ/economics/faculty/Forstater/papers/CEFPS/Working%20Papers/WP16-Forstater.pdf">"Unemployment in Capitalist Economies - A History of Thought for Thinking About Policy"</a> (PDF). Center for Full Employment and Price Stability, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Missouri%E2%80%93Kansas_City" title="University of Missouri–Kansas City">University of Missouri–Kansas City</a>. Retrieved 14 July 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Unemployment+in+Capitalist+Economies+-+A+History+of+Thought+for+Thinking+About+Policy&rft.pub=Center+for+Full+Employment+and+Price+Stability%2C+University+of+Missouri%E2%80%93Kansas+City&rft.date=2001-08&rft.aulast=Forstater&rft.aufirst=Mathew&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcas.umkc.edu%2Fecon%2Feconomics%2Ffaculty%2FForstater%2Fpapers%2FCEFPS%2FWorking%2520Papers%2FWP16-Forstater.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-better_world-174"><a href="#cite_ref-better_world_174-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForstater2015" class="citation journal cs1">Forstater, Mathew (2015). "Working for a better world Cataloging arguments for the right to employment". <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_%26_Social_Criticism" title="Philosophy & Social Criticism">Philosophy & Social Criticism</a>. 41 (1): 61–67. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0191453714553500">10.1177/0191453714553500</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145119895">145119895</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+%26+Social+Criticism&rft.atitle=Working+for+a+better+world+Cataloging+arguments+for+the+right+to+employment&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E61-%3C%2Fspan%3E67&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0191453714553500&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145119895%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Forstater&rft.aufirst=Mathew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Inclusive-175"><a href="#cite_ref-Inclusive_175-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBallsLawrence_Summers_(co-chairs)2015" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ed_Balls" title="Ed Balls">Balls, Ed</a>; <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Summers" title="Lawrence Summers">Lawrence Summers</a> (co-chairs) (January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/IPC-PDF-full.pdf">"Report of the Commission on Inclusive Prosperity"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Center_for_American_Progress" title="Center for American Progress">Center for American Progress</a>. Retrieved 14 July 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Report+of+the+Commission+on+Inclusive+Prosperity&rft.pub=Center+for+American+Progress&rft.date=2015-01&rft.aulast=Balls&rft.aufirst=Ed&rft.au=Lawrence+Summers+%28co-chairs%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcdn.americanprogress.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2015%2F01%2FIPC-PDF-full.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Power-curve-176"><a href="#cite_ref-Power-curve_176-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Bollier2013" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Bollier" title="David Bollier">David Bollier</a> (January 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aspeninstitute.org/policy-work/communications-society/power-curve-society-future-innovation-opportunity-social-equity">"POWER-CURVE SOCIETY: The Future of Innovation, Opportunity and Social Equity in the Emerging Networked Economy"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Aspen_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="The Aspen Institute">The Aspen Institute</a>. Retrieved 14 July 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=POWER-CURVE+SOCIETY%3A+The+Future+of+Innovation%2C+Opportunity+and+Social+Equity+in+the+Emerging+Networked+Economy&rft.pub=The+Aspen+Institute&rft.date=2013-01&rft.au=David+Bollier&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aspeninstitute.org%2Fpolicy-work%2Fcommunications-society%2Fpower-curve-society-future-innovation-opportunity-social-equity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Degrees-177"><a href="#cite_ref-Degrees_177-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_Krugman2011" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Paul Krugman</a> (March 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/07/opinion/07krugman.html?_r=0">"Degrees and Dollars"</a>. The New York Times. Retrieved 14 July 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Degrees+and+Dollars&rft.date=2011-03&rft.au=Paul+Krugman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2011%2F03%2F07%2Fopinion%2F07krugman.html%3F_r%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaplanHaenlein2019" class="citation journal cs1">Kaplan, Andreas; Haenlein, Michael (2019). "Siri, Siri, in my hand: Who's the fairest in the land? On the interpretations, illustrations, and implications of artificial intelligence". Business Horizons. 62: 15–25. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.bushor.2018.08.004">10.1016/j.bushor.2018.08.004</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158433736">158433736</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Business+Horizons&rft.atitle=Siri%2C+Siri%2C+in+my+hand%3A+Who%27s+the+fairest+in+the+land%3F+On+the+interpretations%2C+illustrations%2C+and+implications+of+artificial+intelligence&rft.volume=62&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E15-%3C%2Fspan%3E25&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.bushor.2018.08.004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A158433736%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Kaplan&rft.aufirst=Andreas&rft.au=Haenlein%2C+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFord2009">Ford 2009</a>, passim, see esp. pp. 158–168 </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGleninCA2014" class="citation web cs1">GleninCA (26 March 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dailykos.com/story/2014/03/26/1287365/-Robert-Reich-Universal-Basic-Income-In-The-US-Almost-Inevitable">"Robert Reich: Universal Basic Income in the US 'Almost Inevitable'"</a>. Daily Kos. Retrieved 14 July 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Daily+Kos&rft.atitle=Robert+Reich%3A+Universal+Basic+Income+in+the+US+%27Almost+Inevitable%27&rft.date=2014-03-26&rft.au=GleninCA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dailykos.com%2Fstory%2F2014%2F03%2F26%2F1287365%2F-Robert-Reich-Universal-Basic-Income-In-The-US-Almost-Inevitable&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-paypressure-181">^ <a href="#cite_ref-paypressure_181-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-paypressure_181-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChris_Giles_Sept,_Sarah_O’Connor,_Claire_Jones_and_Ben_McLannahan2014" class="citation news cs1">Chris Giles Sept, Sarah O’Connor, Claire Jones and Ben McLannahan (18 September 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/ec422956-3f22-11e4-a861-00144feabdc0.html">"Pay pressure"</a> ((<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Access_to_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">registration required</a>)). <a href="/wiki/The_Financial_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="The Financial Times">The Financial Times</a>. Retrieved 14 July 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Financial+Times&rft.atitle=Pay+pressure&rft.date=2014-09-18&rft.au=Chris+Giles+Sept%2C+Sarah+O%E2%80%99Connor%2C+Claire+Jones+and+Ben+McLannahan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcms%2Fs%2F2%2Fec422956-3f22-11e4-a861-00144feabdc0.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_news" title="Template:Cite news">cite news</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTarnoff2016" class="citation news cs1">Tarnoff, Ben (16 May 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2010/sep/28/world-in-international-currency-war-warns-brazil">"Tech billionaires got rich off us. 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForbes1932" class="citation cs2">Forbes, John Douglas (1932), Some evidences of technological unemployment in ancient Athens and Rome, <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/654841233">654841233</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Some+evidences+of+technological+unemployment+in+ancient+Athens+and+Rome&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1932&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F654841233&rft.aulast=Forbes&rft.aufirst=John+Douglas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+and+British+Technology+in+the+Nineteenth+Century%3A+The+Search+for+Labour+Saving+Inventions&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=978-0521094474&rft.aulast=Habakkuk&rft.aufirst=H.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchumpeter1987" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Schumpeter, Joseph</a> (1987), History of Economic Analysis (new edititon), Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415108881" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415108881"><bdi>978-0415108881</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Economic+Analysis+%28new+edititon%29&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0415108881&rft.aulast=Schumpeter&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForbes1993" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Jacobus_Forbes" title="Robert Jacobus Forbes">Forbes, Robert</a> (1993), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/studiesinancient0000forb">Studies in Ancient Technology Vol 2</a>, Brill, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004006225" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004006225"><bdi>978-9004006225</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Ancient+Technology+Vol+2&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-9004006225&rft.aulast=Forbes&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstudiesinancient0000forb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoble1984" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/David_F._Noble" title="David F. Noble">Noble, David F.</a> (1984), Forces of Production: A Social History of Industrial Automation, New York, New York, US: Knopf, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-51262-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-394-51262-4"><bdi>978-0-394-51262-4</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/83048867">83048867</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forces+of+Production%3A+A+Social+History+of+Industrial+Automation&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York%2C+US&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F83048867&rft.isbn=978-0-394-51262-4&rft.aulast=Noble&rft.aufirst=David+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoble1993" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/David_F._Noble" title="David F. Noble">Noble, David F.</a> (1993), Progress Without People: In Defence of Luddism, Chicago, Illinois, US: Charles H. Kerr, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88286-218-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88286-218-7"><bdi>978-0-88286-218-7</bdi></a>. Republished in 1995 as Progress Without People: New Technology, Unemployment, and the Message of Resistance, Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Between the Lines Press,</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Progress+Without+People%3A+In+Defence+of+Luddism&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois%2C+US&rft.pub=Charles+H.+Kerr&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-88286-218-7&rft.aulast=Noble&rft.aufirst=David+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: postscript (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_postscript" title="Category:CS1 maint: postscript">link</a>) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-896357-01-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-896357-01-0">978-1-896357-01-0</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRifkin1995" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Rifkin" title="Jeremy Rifkin">Rifkin, Jeremy</a> (1995), <a href="/wiki/The_End_of_Work" title="The End of Work">The End of Work: The Decline of the Global Labor Force and the Dawn of the Post-Market Era</a>, New York, New York, US: Tarcher–G.P. Putnam's Sons, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87477-779-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87477-779-6"><bdi>978-0-87477-779-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+End+of+Work%3A+The+Decline+of+the+Global+Labor+Force+and+the+Dawn+of+the+Post-Market+Era&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York%2C+US&rft.pub=Tarcher%E2%80%93G.P.+Putnam%27s+Sons&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-87477-779-6&rft.aulast=Rifkin&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoirol1996" class="citation cs2">Woirol, Gregory R. (1996), The Technological Unemployment and Structural Unemployment Debates, Praeger, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313298929" title="Special:BookSources/978-0313298929"><bdi>978-0313298929</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Technological+Unemployment+and+Structural+Unemployment+Debates&rft.pub=Praeger&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0313298929&rft.aulast=Woirol&rft.aufirst=Gregory+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlaug1997" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Blaug" title="Mark Blaug">Blaug, Mark</a> (1997), Economic Theory in Retrospects, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521577014" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521577014"><bdi>978-0521577014</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economic+Theory+in+Retrospects&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0521577014&rft.aulast=Blaug&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrain2003" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Brain" title="Marshall Brain">Brain, Marshall</a> (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://marshallbrain.com/robotic-nation.htm">Robotic Nation</a>, Raleigh, North Carolina, US: Marshall Brain. (e-book available free online.)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Robotic+Nation&rft.place=Raleigh%2C+North+Carolina%2C+US&rft.pub=Marshall+Brain&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Brain&rft.aufirst=Marshall&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmarshallbrain.com%2Frobotic-nation.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: postscript (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_postscript" title="Category:CS1 maint: postscript">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFord2009" class="citation cs2">Ford, Martin R. (2009), The Lights in the Tunnel: Automation, Accelerating Technology and the Economy of the Future, Acculant Publishing, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1448659814" title="Special:BookSources/978-1448659814"><bdi>978-1448659814</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lights+in+the+Tunnel%3A+Automation%2C+Accelerating+Technology+and+the+Economy+of+the+Future&rft.pub=Acculant+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1448659814&rft.aulast=Ford&rft.aufirst=Martin+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Technological unemployment at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/automation" class="extiw" title="wikt:automation">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Automation" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Automation">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Technological_unemployment" class="extiw" title="q:Technological unemployment">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Technological_unemployment" class="extiw" title="v:Special:Search/Technological unemployment">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li></ul></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Category:Works_about_automation" title="Category:Works about automation">Category:Works about automation</a></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAyres2014" class="citation book cs1">Ayres, Robert (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RAsiAwAAQBAJ">Turning Point: End of the Growth Paradigm</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-17978-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-17978-7"><bdi>978-1-134-17978-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Turning+Point%3A+End+of+the+Growth+Paradigm&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-134-17978-7&rft.aulast=Ayres&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRAsiAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFord2015" class="citation cs2">Ford, Martin (2015), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZwCCBgAAQBAJ">Rise of the Robots: Technology and the Threat of a Jobless Future</a>, Basic Books, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-04067-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-04067-4"><bdi>978-0-465-04067-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rise+of+the+Robots%3A+Technology+and+the+Threat+of+a+Jobless+Future&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-465-04067-4&rft.aulast=Ford&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZwCCBgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/economics/keynes/1930/our-grandchildren.htm">The Economic Possibilities of our Grandchildren</a> (1930)</li> <li>E McGaughey, 'Will Robots Automate Your Job Away? Full Employment, Basic Income, and Economic Democracy' (2018) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3044448">ssrn.com, part 2(2)</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamtin1991" class="citation cs2">Ramtin, Ramin (1991), Capitalism and Automation: Revolution in Technology and Capitalist Breakdown, London, UK and Concord, Massachusetts, US: Pluto Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7453-0370-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7453-0370-3"><bdi>978-0-7453-0370-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Capitalism+and+Automation%3A+Revolution+in+Technology+and+Capitalist+Breakdown&rft.place=London%2C+UK+and+Concord%2C+Massachusetts%2C+US&rft.pub=Pluto+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-7453-0370-3&rft.aulast=Ramtin&rft.aufirst=Ramin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alec_Ross_(government_official)" class="mw-redirect" title="Alec Ross (government official)">Ross, Alec</a> (2016), <a href="/wiki/The_Industries_of_the_Future_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Industries of the Future (book)">The Industries of the Future</a>, USA: Simon & Schuster.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScottBolzUniversity_of_GeorgiaReliance_Electric_Company1969" class="citation cs2">Scott, Ellis L.; Bolz, Roger W.; University of Georgia; Reliance Electric Company (1969), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Sw0kAAAAMAAJ">"Automation and Society"</a>, Nature, 179 (4570): 1094, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1957Natur.179.1094C">1957Natur.179.1094C</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F1791094a0">10.1038/1791094a0</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4246367">4246367</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Automation+and+Society&rft.volume=179&rft.issue=4570&rft.pages=1094&rft.date=1969&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4246367%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F1791094a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1957Natur.179.1094C&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=Ellis+L.&rft.au=Bolz%2C+Roger+W.&rft.au=University+of+Georgia&rft.au=Reliance+Electric+Company&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSw0kAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation episode cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/documentary/in-the-age-of-ai/">"In the Age of AI"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Frontline_(American_TV_program)" title="Frontline (American TV program)">FRONTLINE</a>. Season 38. Episode 6. 5 November 2019. <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a>. <a href="/wiki/WGBH-TV" title="WGBH-TV">WGBH</a>. Retrieved 4 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=FRONTLINE&rft.series=Season+38.+Episode+6&rft.date=2019-11-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Ffrontline%2Fdocumentary%2Fin-the-age-of-ai%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+unemployment" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output 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title="Vocational university">Vocational university</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mentorship" title="Mentorship">Mentorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_Outlook_Handbook" title="Occupational Outlook Handbook">Occupational Outlook Handbook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practice_firm" title="Practice firm">Practice firm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Profession" title="Profession">Profession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operator_(profession)" title="Operator (profession)">Operator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional" title="Professional">Professional</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradesman" class="mw-redirect" title="Tradesman">Tradesman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vocation" title="Vocation">Vocation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Attendance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Break_(work)" title="Break (work)">Break</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Break_room" title="Break room">Break room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Career_break" title="Career break">Career break</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Furlough" title="Furlough">Furlough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gap_year" title="Gap year">Gap year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leave_of_absence" title="Leave of absence">Leave of absence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_service_leave" title="Long service leave">Long service leave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_call,_no_show" title="No call, no show">No call, no show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabbatical" title="Sabbatical">Sabbatical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sick_leave" title="Sick leave">Sick leave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_clock" title="Time clock">Time clock</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Schedule_(workplace)" title="Schedule (workplace)">Schedules</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/35-hour_workweek" title="35-hour workweek">35-hour workweek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four-day_week" class="mw-redirect" title="Four-day week">Four-day week</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight-hour_day" class="mw-redirect" title="Eight-hour day">Eight-hour day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/996_working_hour_system" title="996 working hour system">996 working hour system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flextime" title="Flextime">Flextime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On-call" class="mw-redirect" title="On-call">On-call</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overtime" title="Overtime">Overtime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_work" title="Remote work">Remote work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-hour_day" title="Six-hour day">Six-hour day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shift_work" title="Shift work">Shift work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_time" title="Working time">Working time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workweek_and_weekend" title="Workweek and weekend">Workweek and weekend</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wage" title="Wage">Wages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Salary" title="Salary">salaries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Income_bracket" title="Income bracket">Income bracket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_tax" title="Income tax">Income tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Living_wage" title="Living wage">Living wage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_wage" title="Maximum wage">Maximum wage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_average_salary" title="National average salary">National average salary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_average_wage" title="List of countries by average wage">World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_countries_by_average_wage" title="List of European countries by average wage">Europe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_wage" title="Minimum wage">Minimum wage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_wage_in_Canada" title="Minimum wage in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_Wage_Ordinance" title="Minimum Wage Ordinance">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_countries_by_minimum_wage" title="List of European countries by minimum wage">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_wage_in_the_United_States" title="Minimum wage in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_wage" title="Progressive wage">Progressive wage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_wage" title="Progressive wage">Singapore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overtime_rate" title="Overtime rate">Overtime rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paid_time_off" title="Paid time off">Paid time off</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance-related_pay" title="Performance-related pay">Performance-related pay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salary_cap" title="Salary cap">Salary cap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_compression" title="Wage compression">Wage compression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_poor" title="Working poor">Working poor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Employee_benefits" title="Employee benefits">Benefits</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annual_leave" title="Annual leave">Annual leave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casual_Friday" title="Casual Friday">Casual Friday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_care" title="Child care">Child care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_insurance" title="Disability insurance">Disability insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_insurance" title="Health insurance">Health insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_insurance" title="Life insurance">Life insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_leave" title="Marriage leave">Marriage leave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_leave" title="Parental leave">Parental leave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pension" title="Pension">Pension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sick_leave" title="Sick leave">Sick leave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sick_leave_in_the_United_States" title="Sick leave in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Take-home_vehicle" title="Take-home vehicle">Take-home vehicle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Safety and health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crunch_(video_games)" title="Crunch (video games)">Crunch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epilepsy_and_employment" title="Epilepsy and employment">Epilepsy and employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_factors_and_ergonomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Human factors and ergonomics">Human factors and ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karoshi" title="Karoshi">Karoshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_rate_of_fatal_workplace_accidents" title="List of countries by rate of fatal workplace accidents">List of countries by rate of fatal workplace accidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_burnout" title="Occupational burnout">Occupational burnout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_disease" title="Occupational disease">Occupational disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_exposure_limit" title="Occupational exposure limit">Occupational exposure limit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_health_psychology" title="Occupational health psychology">Occupational health psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_injury" title="Occupational injury">Occupational injury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_noise" title="Occupational noise">Occupational noise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_stress" title="Occupational stress">Occupational stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment" title="Personal protective equipment">Personal protective equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repetitive_strain_injury" title="Repetitive strain injury">Repetitive strain injury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_sit" title="Right to sit">Right to sit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_sit_in_the_United_States" title="Right to sit in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sick_building_syndrome" title="Sick building syndrome">Sick building syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_accident" title="Work accident">Work accident</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_fatality" title="Occupational fatality">Occupational fatality</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_compensation" title="Workers' compensation">Workers' compensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_right_to_access_the_toilet" title="Workers' right to access the toilet">Workers' right to access the toilet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_health_promotion" title="Workplace health promotion">Workplace health promotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_phobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Workplace phobia">Workplace phobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_wellness" title="Workplace wellness">Workplace wellness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Equal_opportunity" title="Equal opportunity">Equal opportunity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">Affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_pay_for_equal_work" title="Equal pay for equal work">Equal pay for equal work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_pay_gap" title="Gender pay gap">Gender pay gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_ceiling" title="Glass ceiling">Glass ceiling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Infractions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_corporate_collapses_and_scandals" title="List of corporate collapses and scandals">Corporate collapses and scandals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accounting_scandals" title="Accounting scandals">Accounting scandals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_fraud" title="Control fraud">Control fraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_behaviour" title="Corporate behaviour">Corporate behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_crime" title="Corporate crime">Corporate crime</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_labour" title="Exploitation of labour">Exploitation of labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dress_code" title="Dress code">Dress code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employee_handbook" title="Employee handbook">Employee handbook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employee_monitoring" title="Employee monitoring">Employee monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evaluation_(workplace)" class="mw-redirect" title="Evaluation (workplace)">Evaluation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_law" title="Labour law">Labour law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sleeping_while_on_duty" title="Sleeping while on duty">Sleeping while on duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_theft" title="Wage theft">Wage theft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whistleblower" class="mw-redirect" title="Whistleblower">Whistleblower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_bullying" title="Workplace bullying">Workplace bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_harassment" title="Workplace harassment">Workplace harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_incivility" title="Workplace incivility">Workplace incivility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Willingness</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boreout" title="Boreout">Boreout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Careerism" title="Careerism">Careerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_conscription" title="Civil conscription">Civil conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_work" title="Critique of work">Critique of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead-end_job" title="Dead-end job">Dead-end job</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_satisfaction" title="Job satisfaction">Job satisfaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McJob" title="McJob">McJob</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_commitment" title="Organizational commitment">Organizational commitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refusal_of_work" title="Refusal of work">Refusal of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage" title="Debt bondage">Bonded labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_camp" title="Labor camp">Labour camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labour" title="Penal labour">Penal labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peon" title="Peon">Peonage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truck_wages" title="Truck wages">Truck wages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unfree_labour" class="mw-redirect" title="Unfree labour">Unfree labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_ethic" title="Work ethic">Work ethic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work%E2%80%93life_interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Work–life interface">Work–life interface</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Downshifting_(lifestyle)" title="Downshifting (lifestyle)">Downshifting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slow_living" title="Slow living">Slow living</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workaholic" title="Workaholic">Workaholic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Termination_of_employment" title="Termination of employment">Termination</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/At-will_employment" title="At-will employment">At-will employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dismissal_(employment)" title="Dismissal (employment)">Dismissal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banishment_room" title="Banishment room">Banishment room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_dismissal" title="Constructive dismissal">Constructive dismissal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrongful_dismissal" title="Wrongful dismissal">Wrongful dismissal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employee_offboarding" title="Employee offboarding">Employee offboarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exit_interview" title="Exit interview">Exit interview</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Layoff" title="Layoff">Layoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notice_period" title="Notice period">Notice period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pink_slip_(employment)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pink slip (employment)">Pink slip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resignation" title="Resignation">Resignation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Letter_of_resignation" title="Letter of resignation">Letter of resignation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restructuring" title="Restructuring">Restructuring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retirement" title="Retirement">Retirement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mandatory_retirement" title="Mandatory retirement">Mandatory retirement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retirement_age" title="Retirement age">Retirement age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retirement_planning" title="Retirement planning">Retirement planning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severance_package" title="Severance package">Severance package</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golden_handshake" title="Golden handshake">Golden handshake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_parachute" title="Golden parachute">Golden parachute</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turnover_(employment)" class="mw-redirect" title="Turnover (employment)">Turnover</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">Unemployment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barriers_to_entry" title="Barriers to entry">Barriers to entry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discouraged_worker" title="Discouraged worker">Discouraged worker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_depression" title="Economic depression">Economic depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Depression" title="Long Depression">Long Depression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frictional_unemployment" title="Frictional unemployment">Frictional unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_employment" title="Full employment">Full employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graduate_unemployment" title="Graduate unemployment">Graduate unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_unemployment" title="Involuntary unemployment">Involuntary unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jobless_recovery" title="Jobless recovery">Jobless recovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phillips_curve" title="Phillips curve">Phillips curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession" title="Recession">Recession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession" title="Great Recession">Great Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_losses_caused_by_the_Great_Recession" title="Job losses caused by the Great Recession">Job losses caused by the Great Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_recessions" title="Lists of recessions">Lists of recessions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession-proof_job" title="Recession-proof job">Recession-proof job</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserve_army_of_labour" title="Reserve army of labour">Reserve army of labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_unemployment" title="Structural unemployment">Structural unemployment</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Technological unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Types_of_unemployment" class="mw-redirect" title="Types of unemployment">Types of unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment_benefits" title="Unemployment benefits">Unemployment benefits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment_Convention,_1919" title="Unemployment Convention, 1919">Unemployment Convention, 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment_extension" title="Unemployment extension">Unemployment extension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_unemployment_rate" title="List of countries by unemployment rate">List of countries by unemployment rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment-to-population_ratio" title="Employment-to-population ratio">Employment-to-population ratio</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_by_employment_rate" title="List of sovereign states by employment rate">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_curve" title="Wage curve">Wage curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_unemployment" title="Youth unemployment">Youth unemployment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Public programs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Workfare" title="Workfare">Workfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment_insurance" class="mw-redirect" title="Unemployment insurance">Unemployment insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Make-work_job" title="Make-work job">Make-work job</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_creation_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Job creation program">Job creation program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_creation_index" title="Job creation index">Job creation index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_guarantee" title="Job guarantee">Job guarantee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employer_of_last_resort" title="Employer of last resort">Employer of last resort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guaranteed_minimum_income" title="Guaranteed minimum income">Guaranteed minimum income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_work" title="Right to work">Right to work</a></li> <li>Historical:</li> <li>U.S.A.:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Works_Administration" title="Civil Works Administration">Civil Works Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration" title="Works Progress Administration">Works Progress Administration</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Comprehensive_Employment_and_Training_Act" title="Comprehensive Employment and Training Act">Comprehensive Employment and Training Act</a> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bullshit_job" title="Bullshit job">Bullshit job</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Busy_work" title="Busy work">Busy work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Credentialism_and_educational_inflation" class="mw-redirect" title="Credentialism and educational inflation">Credentialism and educational inflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_labor" title="Emotional labor">Emotional labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evil_corporation" title="Evil corporation">Evil corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Going_postal" title="Going postal">Going postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiss_up_kick_down" title="Kiss up kick down">Kiss up kick down</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_rights" title="Labor rights">Labor rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Make-work_job" title="Make-work job">Make-work job</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcissism_in_the_workplace" title="Narcissism in the workplace">Narcissism in the workplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-work_society" title="Post-work society">Post-work society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presenteeism" title="Presenteeism">Presenteeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychopathy_in_the_workplace" title="Psychopathy in the workplace">Psychopathy in the workplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunday_scaries" title="Sunday scaries">Sunday scaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slow_movement_(culture)" title="Slow movement (culture)">Slow movement (culture)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_leader" title="Toxic leader">Toxic leader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_workplace" title="Toxic workplace">Toxic workplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workhouse" title="Workhouse">Workhouse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/16px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/23px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/31px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> See also templates</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Aspects_of_corporations" title="Template:Aspects of corporations">Aspects of corporations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Aspects_of_jobs" title="Template:Aspects of jobs">Aspects of jobs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Aspects_of_occupations" title="Template:Aspects of occupations">Aspects of occupations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Aspects_of_organizations" title="Template:Aspects of organizations">Aspects of organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Aspects_of_workplaces" title="Template:Aspects of workplaces">Aspects of workplaces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Corporate_titles" title="Template:Corporate titles">Corporate titles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Critique_of_work" title="Template:Critique of work">Critique of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Organized_labor" title="Template:Organized labor">Organized labor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Universal_basic_income_topics163" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Universal_basic_income" title="Template:Universal basic income"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Universal_basic_income" title="Template talk:Universal basic income"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Universal_basic_income" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Universal basic income"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Universal_basic_income_topics163" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Universal_basic_income" title="Universal basic income">Universal basic income</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_basic_income_models" title="List of basic income models">Basic income models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizen%27s_dividend" title="Citizen's dividend">Citizen's dividend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_dividend" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom dividend">Freedom dividend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guaranteed_minimum_income" title="Guaranteed minimum income">Guaranteed minimum income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jobless_recovery" title="Jobless recovery">Jobless recovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mincome" title="Mincome">Mincome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_income_tax" title="Negative income tax">Negative income tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_freedom" title="Real freedom">Real freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_an_adequate_standard_of_living" title="Right to an adequate standard of living">Right to an adequate standard of living</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Technological unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_basic_income_pilots" title="Universal basic income pilots">Universal basic income pilots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_inheritance" title="Universal inheritance">Universal inheritance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basic_Income_Alliance" title="Basic Income Alliance">Basic Income Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_Income_Earth_Network" title="Basic Income Earth Network">Basic Income Earth Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_Income_Party" title="Basic Income Party">Basic Income Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakthrough_Party" title="Breakthrough Party">Breakthrough Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_(Swedish_political_party)" title="Unity (Swedish political party)">Enhet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Star_Movement" title="Five Star Movement">Five Star Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forward_Party_(United_States)" title="Forward Party (United States)">Forward Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusion_Party_(Australia)" title="Fusion Party (Australia)">Fusion Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9n%C3%A9ration.s" title="Génération.s">Génération.s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_party" title="Green party">Green Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left_Alliance_(Finland)" title="Left Alliance (Finland)">Left Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LIVRE" title="LIVRE">LIVRE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mein_Grundeinkommen" title="Mein Grundeinkommen">Mein Grundeinkommen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MERA25" title="MERA25">MERA25</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_of_Humanists" title="Party of Humanists">Party of Humanists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_Animals_Nature" title="People Animals Nature">People Animals Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirate_Party" title="Pirate Party">Pirate Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Podemos_(Spanish_political_party)" title="Podemos (Spanish political party)">Podemos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_Party_for_Basic_Income" title="Political Party for Basic Income">Political Party for Basic Income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ReCivitas" title="ReCivitas">ReCivitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Australia_Party" title="Sustainable Australia Party">Sustainable Australia Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivant" title="Vivant">Vivant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volt_Europa" title="Volt Europa">Volt Europa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_advocates_of_basic_income" class="mw-redirect" title="List of advocates of basic income">Advocates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Atkinson" title="Tony Atkinson">Tony Atkinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._H._Douglas" title="C. H. Douglas">C. H. Douglas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ailsa_McKay" title="Ailsa McKay">Ailsa McKay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Meade" title="James Meade">James Meade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Thomas Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juliet_Rhys-Williams" title="Juliet Rhys-Williams">Juliet Rhys-Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Barber" title="Anthony Barber">Anthony Barber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rutger_Bregman" title="Rutger Bregman">Rutger Bregman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Chouard" title="Étienne Chouard">Étienne Chouard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_F._Dahms" title="Harry F. Dahms">Harry F. Dahms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uffe_Elb%C3%A6k" title="Uffe Elbæk">Uffe Elbæk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Gorz" title="André Gorz">André Gorz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sepp_Kusstatscher" title="Sepp Kusstatscher">Sepp Kusstatscher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Standing_(economist)" title="Guy Standing (economist)">Guy Standing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduardo_Suplicy" title="Eduardo Suplicy">Eduardo Suplicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe_Van_Parijs" title="Philippe Van Parijs">Philippe Van Parijs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carole_Pateman" title="Carole Pateman">Carole Pateman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_A._Pissarides" title="Christopher A. Pissarides">Christopher Pissarides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claus_Offe" title="Claus Offe">Claus Offe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katja_Kipping" title="Katja Kipping">Katja Kipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6tz_Werner" title="Götz Werner">Götz Werner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_David_Precht" title="Richard David Precht">Richard David Precht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valter_Mutt" title="Valter Mutt">Valter Mutt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annika_Lillemets" title="Annika Lillemets">Annika Lillemets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osmo_Soininvaara" title="Osmo Soininvaara">Osmo Soininvaara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Andersson" title="Li Andersson">Li Andersson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susanne_Wiest" title="Susanne Wiest">Susanne Wiest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birger_Schlaug" title="Birger Schlaug">Birger Schlaug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Engstr%C3%B6m" title="Christian Engström">Christian Engström</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beno%C3%AEt_Hamon" title="Benoît Hamon">Benoît Hamon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bj%C3%B6rn_Wahlroos" title="Björn Wahlroos">Björn Wahlroos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Yang" title="Andrew Yang">Andrew Yang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related programs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Permanent_Fund" title="Alaska Permanent Fund">Alaska Permanent Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_allocation_per_child" title="Universal allocation per child">Asignación Universal por Hijo</a></li> <li>Brazil (<a href="/wiki/Bolsa_Fam%C3%ADlia" title="Bolsa Família">Bolsa Família</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aux%C3%ADlio_Brasil" title="Auxílio Brasil">Auxílio Brasil</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_subsidy_reform_plan" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian subsidy reform plan">Iranian subsidy reform plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omitara" title="Omitara">Omitara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quatinga_Velho" title="Quatinga Velho">Quatinga Velho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_dividend" title="Social dividend">Social dividend</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Basic_income_around_the_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic income around the world">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Universal_basic_income_in_Brazil" title="Universal basic income in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_basic_income_in_Canada" title="Universal basic income in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_basic_income_in_Germany" title="Universal basic income in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_basic_income_in_India" title="Universal basic income in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_basic_income_in_Japan" title="Universal basic income in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_basic_income_in_the_Netherlands" title="Universal basic income in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_basic_income_in_the_Nordic_countries" title="Universal basic income in the Nordic countries">Nordic countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_basic_income_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Universal basic income in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_basic_income_in_the_United_States" title="Universal basic income in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_basic_income" title="Global basic income">Global</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarian_Justice" title="Agrarian Justice">Agrarian Justice</a> (pamphlet)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullshit_Jobs" title="Bullshit Jobs">Bullshit Jobs</a> (book)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inventing_the_Future:_Postcapitalism_and_a_World_Without_Work" title="Inventing the Future: Postcapitalism and a World Without Work">Inventing the Future: Postcapitalism and a World Without Work</a> (monograph)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_War_on_Normal_People" title="The War on Normal People">The War on Normal People</a> (book)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia_for_Realists" title="Utopia for Realists">Utopia for Realists</a> (book)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Robotics434" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Robotics" title="Template:Robotics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Robotics" title="Template talk:Robotics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Robotics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Robotics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Robotics434" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Robotics" title="Robotics">Robotics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_robotics" title="Outline of robotics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_robotics" title="Glossary of robotics">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_robotics_articles" title="Index of robotics articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_robots" title="History of robots">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_robotics" title="Geography of robotics">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robot_Hall_of_Fame" title="Robot Hall of Fame">Hall of Fame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robot_ethics" title="Robot ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laws_of_robotics" title="Laws of robotics">Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robot_competition" title="Robot competition">Competitions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competitions_and_prizes_in_artificial_intelligence" title="Competitions and prizes in artificial intelligence">AI competitions</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Shadow_Hand_Bulb_large.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Shadow_Hand_Bulb_large.jpg/100px-Shadow_Hand_Bulb_large.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Shadow_Hand_Bulb_large.jpg/150px-Shadow_Hand_Bulb_large.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Shadow_Hand_Bulb_large.jpg/200px-Shadow_Hand_Bulb_large.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="3840" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Robot" title="Robot">Types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerobot" title="Aerobot">Aerobot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropomorphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropomorphic">Anthropomorphic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Humanoid_robot" title="Humanoid robot">Humanoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Android_(robot)" title="Android (robot)">Android</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyborg" title="Cyborg">Cyborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynoid" title="Gynoid">Gynoid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claytronics" class="mw-redirect" title="Claytronics">Claytronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Companion_robot" title="Companion robot">Companion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automaton" title="Automaton">Automaton</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animatronics" title="Animatronics">Animatronic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audio-Animatronics" title="Audio-Animatronics">Audio-Animatronics</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_robot" title="Industrial robot">Industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articulated_robot" title="Articulated robot">Articulated</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robotic_arm" title="Robotic arm">arm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_robot" title="Domestic robot">Domestic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_robotics" title="Educational robotics">Educational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment_robot" title="Entertainment robot">Entertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juggling_robot" title="Juggling robot">Juggling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_robot" title="Military robot">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_robot" title="Medical robot">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_robot" title="Service robot">Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_robot" class="mw-redirect" title="Disability robot">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_robot" title="Agricultural robot">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automated_restaurant" title="Automated restaurant">Food service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automated_retail" title="Automated retail">Retail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BEAM_robotics" title="BEAM robotics">BEAM robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soft_robotics" title="Soft robotics">Soft robotics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Classifications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biorobotics" title="Biorobotics">Biorobotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_robotics" title="Cloud robotics">Cloud robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuum_robot" title="Continuum robot">Continuum robot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmanned_vehicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Unmanned vehicle">Unmanned vehicle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle" title="Unmanned aerial vehicle">aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmanned_ground_vehicle" title="Unmanned ground vehicle">ground</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_robot" title="Mobile robot">Mobile robot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbotics" title="Microbotics">Microbotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanorobotics" title="Nanorobotics">Nanorobotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necrobotics" title="Necrobotics">Necrobotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robotic_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Robotic spacecraft">Robotic spacecraft</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_probe" class="mw-redirect" title="Space probe">Space probe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarm_robotics" title="Swarm robotics">Swarm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telerobotics" title="Telerobotics">Telerobotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_underwater_vehicle" title="Autonomous underwater vehicle">Underwater</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remotely_operated_underwater_vehicle" title="Remotely operated underwater vehicle">remotely-operated</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robotic_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Robotic fish">Robotic fish</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Robot_locomotion" title="Robot locomotion">Locomotion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Continuous_track" title="Continuous track">Tracks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legged_robot" title="Legged robot">Walking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hexapod_(robotics)" title="Hexapod (robotics)">Hexapod</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climber_(BEAM)" class="mw-redirect" title="Climber (BEAM)">Climbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_unicycle" title="Electric unicycle">Electric unicycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robotic_fin" class="mw-redirect" title="Robotic fin">Robotic fins</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Robotic_navigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Robotic navigation">Navigation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robotic_mapping" title="Robotic mapping">mapping</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Motion_planning" title="Motion planning">Motion planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simultaneous_localization_and_mapping" title="Simultaneous localization and mapping">Simultaneous localization and mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_odometry" title="Visual odometry">Visual odometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vision-guided_robot_systems" title="Vision-guided robot systems">Vision-guided robot systems</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_robotics" title="Evolutionary robotics">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robot_kit" title="Robot kit">Kits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robotics_simulator" title="Robotics simulator">Simulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robotics_suite" title="Robotics suite">Suite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-source_robotics" title="Open-source robotics">Open-source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robot_software" title="Robot software">Software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptable_robotics" title="Adaptable robotics">Adaptable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_robotics" title="Developmental robotics">Developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93robot_interaction" title="Human–robot interaction">Human–robot interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robotic_paradigm" title="Robotic paradigm">Paradigms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perceptual_robotics" title="Perceptual robotics">Perceptual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situated_robotics" title="Situated robotics">Situated</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubiquitous_robot" title="Ubiquitous robot">Ubiquitous</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_robotics_companies" title="List of robotics companies">Companies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ABB" title="ABB">ABB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amazon_Robotics" title="Amazon Robotics">Amazon Robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anybots" title="Anybots">Anybots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrett_Technology" title="Barrett Technology">Barrett Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Dynamics" title="Boston Dynamics">Boston Dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doosan_Robotics" title="Doosan Robotics">Doosan Robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energid_Technologies" title="Energid Technologies">Energid Technologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FarmWise" title="FarmWise">FarmWise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FANUC" title="FANUC">FANUC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figure_AI" title="Figure AI">Figure AI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster-Miller" title="Foster-Miller">Foster-Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvest_Automation" title="Harvest Automation">Harvest Automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HD_Hyundai_Robotics" title="HD Hyundai Robotics">HD Hyundai Robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honeybee_Robotics" title="Honeybee Robotics">Honeybee Robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intuitive_Surgical" title="Intuitive Surgical">Intuitive Surgical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IRobot" title="IRobot">IRobot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KUKA" title="KUKA">KUKA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rainbow_Robotics" title="Rainbow Robotics">Rainbow Robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starship_Technologies" title="Starship Technologies">Starship Technologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbotic" title="Symbotic">Symbotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Robotics" title="Universal Robotics">Universal Robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf_Robotics" title="Wolf Robotics">Wolf Robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaskawa_Electric_Corporation" title="Yaskawa Electric Corporation">Yaskawa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_work" title="Critique of work">Critique of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powered_exoskeleton" title="Powered exoskeleton">Powered exoskeleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_robotics_safety" title="Workplace robotics safety">Workplace robotics safety</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robotic_tech_vest" title="Robotic tech vest">Robotic tech vest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Technological unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrainability" title="Terrainability">Terrainability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fictional_robots_and_androids" title="List of fictional robots and androids">Fictional robots</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Robotics" title="Category:Robotics">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_robotics" title="Outline of robotics">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&oldid=1277262095">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Technological_unemployment&oldid=1277262095</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Impact_of_automation" 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[\"CITEREFBowles2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrain2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBria2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFByrne2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCalum_Chace,_Daniel_Hulme2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCalum_Chace2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCampa2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCardiff_Garcia,_Erik_Brynjolfsson_and_Mariana_Mazzucato2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarl_Benedikt_Frey,_Ebrahim_Rahbari2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarl_Benedikt_Frey,_Michael_Osborne_and_Citi_Research2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarl_Benedikt_FreyMichael_A._Osborne2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCensky\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCesarattoStiratiSerrano2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChris_Giles_Sept,_Sarah_O’Connor,_Claire_Jones_and_Ben_McLannahan2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChuangGraham2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoadRao2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFColvin2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrespiTacsir2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDashevsky2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDauthFindeisenSuedekumWoessner2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavid_Bollier2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavid_H._AutorDorn2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDevecka2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDonovan2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDreyfuss2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEkelund2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeldmann2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeuer2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFForbes1932\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFForbes1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFord2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFForstater2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFForstater2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrancisRamey2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrankAutorBessenBrynjolfsson2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreyOsborne2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreyOsborne2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGali1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGenz2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGillian_Tett2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGleninCA2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldstein2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoosKoningsVandeweyer2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraetzMichaels2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreber2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGregory_C._Allen2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHabakkuk1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaldane2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarris2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIgnatieff2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoshua_Greenstein2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaplanHaenlein2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKatzMargo2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKhosla2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKook2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrakovsky2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrasny2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrugman2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLachenmaierRottmann2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLanier2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLawrence_H._Summers2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeonard2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeontief1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLimaBarbosados_Santosde_Souza2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLohr2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLohr2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLord_Skidelsky2013\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMacCarthy2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMadhala-Brik\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatthew_Yglesias2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeltzer2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichael_Chui,_James_Manyika,_and_Mehdi_Miremadi2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiller2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMincerDanninger2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoretti2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNelson2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNixon1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNoble1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlli_Koski,_Kai_Husso2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParschauHauge2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaul_Krugman2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeters2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeters2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPivaVivarelli2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPorteManjoo2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRam_K._Vepa2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRamtin1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRifkin1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoberto_Sabatino_Lopez1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRotman2015\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSamuelson1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanghvi2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchneider2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchumpeter1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScottBolzUniversity_of_GeorgiaReliance_Electric_Company1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShea1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimon2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmithAnderson2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSowell2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpecial_Report2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSrnicek2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTabarrok2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTarnoff2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompson2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompson2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTim_Dutton2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTimberg2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTorrance2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurk2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Overbeke2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVincent2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVisco2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVivarelli1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVivarelli2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVivarelli2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalker2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaters2014\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFWells2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWest2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinick2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoirol1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZachary_B._Wolf2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFКозлова2019\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Automation\"] = 1,\n [\"Basic income\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 15,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite SSRN\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 14,\n [\"Cite episode\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 41,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 23,\n [\"Cite video\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 68,\n [\"Cmn\"] = 1,\n [\"Employment\"] = 1,\n [\"Ford 2009 The lights in the tunnel\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 23,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 2,\n [\"Noble1984\"] = 1,\n [\"NoteFoot\"] = 1,\n [\"Quantify\"] = 3,\n [\"Quote box\"] = 3,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Registration required\"] = 6,\n [\"Robotics\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 3,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn whitelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 2,\n [\"Who\"] = 5,\n [\"Who?\"] = 3,\n [\"Why\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFFord2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNoble1984\"] = 1,\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\nno target: CITEREFFordColvin2015\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","180","14.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","180","14.1"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","140","10.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","120","9.4"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","80","6.2"],["\u003Cmw.title.lua:50\u003E","60","4.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","60","4.7"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","60","4.7"],["(for generator)","40","3.1"],["match","40","3.1"],["[others]","320","25.0"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-ext.codfw.main-7d44b9cd95-d6694","timestamp":"20250223170214","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Technological unemployment","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technological_unemployment","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q7692538","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q7692538","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2011-06-10T13:39:32Z","dateModified":"2025-02-23T17:02:11Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/0\/04\/Pyxis_Pharmacy_Robot_by_Nurse_Station.JPG","headline":"unemployment primarily caused by technological change"}</script> </body> </html>