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(PDF) Equal Employment Opportunity: What We Believe, What We Know, What Research Can Show
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window.loswp.work = {"work":{"id":73426956,"created_at":"2022-03-09T13:51:35.887-08:00","from_world_paper_id":198109867,"updated_at":"2024-11-27T07:38:19.336-08:00","_data":{"ai_title_tag":"Understanding Equal Employment Opportunity and Affirmative Action","grobid_abstract":"ED 223 893 reverse discrimination understandable. Four basic types of reasons, for the intensity of concern over equal employment opportunities and affirmative action exist, those related to: distributive justice, impact on employee income, governmental,and business power and legitimacy, and social perceptions of labor-force processes. Many \\ social scientists at universities also believe that affirmative \\ action is having an impact and that reverse discrimination is common. ' Their personal experiences seem to contradict results of systematic studies of equal employment.opportunities and affirmative action, and their social positions in universities are likely to affect their perceptions. Gaps in knowledge about equal employment opportunities and affirmative action have implications for research in social stratification, other areas of sociology, and public policy. (YLB)","publication_date":"1982,9,1","grobid_abstract_attachment_id":"81952876"},"document_type":"paper","pre_hit_view_count_baseline":null,"quality":"high","language":"en","title":"Equal Employment Opportunity: What We Believe, What We Know, What Research Can Show","broadcastable":true,"draft":null,"has_indexable_attachment":true,"indexable":true}}["work"]; window.loswp.workCoauthors = [3264578]; window.loswp.locale = "en"; window.loswp.countryCode = "SG"; window.loswp.cwvAbTestBucket = ""; window.loswp.designVariant = "ds_vanilla"; window.loswp.fullPageMobileSutdModalVariant = "control"; window.loswp.useOptimizedScribd4genScript = false; window.loginModal = {}; window.loginModal.appleClientId = 'edu.academia.applesignon'; window.userInChina = "false";</script><script defer="" src="https://accounts.google.com/gsi/client"></script><div class="ds-loswp-container"><div class="ds-work-card--grid-container"><div class="ds-work-card--container js-loswp-work-card"><div class="ds-work-card--cover"><div class="ds-work-cover--wrapper"><div class="ds-work-cover--container"><button class="ds-work-cover--clickable js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"swp-splash-paper-cover","attachmentId":81952876,"attachmentType":"pdf"}"><img alt="First page of “Equal Employment Opportunity: What We Believe, What We Know, What Research Can Show”" class="ds-work-cover--cover-thumbnail" src="https://0.academia-photos.com/attachment_thumbnails/81952876/mini_magick20220309-23770-55terc.png?1646862802" /><img alt="PDF Icon" class="ds-work-cover--file-icon" src="//a.academia-assets.com/images/single_work_splash/adobe_icon.svg" /><div class="ds-work-cover--hover-container"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">download</span><p>Download Free PDF</p></div><div class="ds-work-cover--ribbon-container">Download Free PDF</div><div class="ds-work-cover--ribbon-triangle"></div></button></div></div></div><div class="ds-work-card--work-information"><h1 class="ds-work-card--work-title">Equal Employment Opportunity: What We Believe, What We Know, What Research Can Show</h1><div class="ds-work-card--work-authors ds-work-card--detail"><a class="ds-work-card--author js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="3264578" href="https://independent.academia.edu/PBurstein"><img alt="Profile image of Paul Burstein" class="ds-work-card--author-avatar" src="https://0.academia-photos.com/3264578/1080334/1347616/s65_paul.burstein.jpg" />Paul Burstein</a></div><div class="ds-work-card--detail"><p class="ds-work-card--detail ds2-5-body-sm">1982</p><div class="ds-work-card--work-metadata"><div class="ds-work-card--work-metadata__stat"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">visibility</span><p class="ds2-5-body-sm" id="work-metadata-view-count">…</p></div><div class="ds-work-card--work-metadata__stat"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">description</span><p class="ds2-5-body-sm">28 pages</p></div><div class="ds-work-card--work-metadata__stat"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">link</span><p class="ds2-5-body-sm">1 file</p></div></div><script>(async () => { const workId = 73426956; 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if (!viewCountBody) { throw new Error('Failed to find work views element'); } viewCountBody.textContent = `${commaizedViewCount} views`; } catch (error) { // Remove the whole views element if there was some issue parsing. document.getElementById('work-metadata-view-count')?.parentNode?.remove(); throw new Error(`Failed to parse view count: ${viewCount}`, error); } }; // If the DOM is still loading, wait for it to be ready before updating the view count. if (document.readyState === "loading") { document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', () => { updateViewCount(viewCount); }); // Otherwise, just update it immediately. } else { updateViewCount(viewCount); } })();</script></div><p class="ds-work-card--work-abstract ds-work-card--detail ds2-5-body-md">ED 223 893 reverse discrimination understandable. Four basic types of reasons, for the intensity of concern over equal employment opportunities and affirmative action exist, those related to: distributive justice, impact on employee income, governmental,and business power and legitimacy, and social perceptions of labor-force processes. Many \ social scientists at universities also believe that affirmative \ action is having an impact and that reverse discrimination is common. ' Their personal experiences seem to contradict results of systematic studies of equal employment.opportunities and affirmative action, and their social positions in universities are likely to affect their perceptions. Gaps in knowledge about equal employment opportunities and affirmative action have implications for research in social stratification, other areas of sociology, and public policy. (YLB)</p><div class="ds-work-card--button-container"><button class="ds2-5-button js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"continue-reading-button--work-card","attachmentId":81952876,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":"https://www.academia.edu/73426956/Equal_Employment_Opportunity_What_We_Believe_What_We_Know_What_Research_Can_Show"}">See full PDF</button><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--secondary js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"download-pdf-button--work-card","attachmentId":81952876,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":"https://www.academia.edu/73426956/Equal_Employment_Opportunity_What_We_Believe_What_We_Know_What_Research_Can_Show"}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">download</span>Download PDF</button></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-trigger-container"><div class="ds-signup-banner-trigger ds-signup-banner-trigger-control"></div></div><div class="ds-signup-banner ds-signup-banner-control"><div id="ds-signup-banner-close-button"><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--secondary ds2-5-button--inverse"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">close</span></button></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-ctas"><img src="//a.academia-assets.com/images/academia-logo-capital-white.svg" /><h4 class="ds2-5-heading-serif-sm">Sign up for access to the world's latest research</h4><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--inverse ds2-5-button--full-width js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"signup-banner"}">Sign up for free<span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">arrow_forward</span></button></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-divider"></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-reasons"><div class="ds-signup-banner-reasons-item"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 24px" translate="no">check</span><span>Get notified about relevant papers</span></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-reasons-item"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 24px" translate="no">check</span><span>Save papers to use in your research</span></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-reasons-item"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 24px" translate="no">check</span><span>Join the discussion with peers</span></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-reasons-item"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 24px" translate="no">check</span><span>Track your impact</span></div></div></div><script>(() => { // Set up signup banner show/hide behavior: // 1. 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All federal government workers, including military personnel, are directly affected by the laws of affirmative action. So are thousands of companies, employing between 20 and 25 percent of the nation's labor force. Affirmative action policies also affect the nearly 16 million students attending U.S. institutions of higher education. Affirmative action policies command attention because they tap into basic debates about fairness. As a nation, we say we are committed to fairness, but our history of achieving fairness for all individuals, regardless of race, ethnicity or gender, has been far from perfect. Any policy that reminds us of the disparity between our values and our behaviors is bound to spark debate. This is confirmed by the fact that on any given day the media distributes numerous articles covering affirmative action. On the internet, Amazon.com lists 385 books on or related to affirmative action and the Google Search Engine alone identifies three-quarters of a million mentions of affirmative action on various web sites. Looking back over the past few decades, it seems that the opponents and proponents of affirmative action have been talking past each other. Clearly, affirmative action means different things to different people. Opinion polls reveal that many citizens are uninformed about its basic principles let alone the technical mechanics of affirmative action. A random sample of Chicago citizens, for example, showed that 40 percent of those sampled thought affirmative action was a quota system, while 48 percent defined affirmative action as a monitoring system. The former group disliked affirmative action and the latter endorsed the policy. These differences in endorsement persisted even after the researchers statistically controlled for political allegiances, gender, race and age.1 Given the sheer number of Americans who are affected by affirmative action, it is interesting to note the absence of explanations about the policy in high school and college textbooks and in the media. Several years ago, when former President Clinton was publicly reviewing and revising affirmative action, scholars conducted a count of articles on the topic in USA Today, The Washington Post and The New York Times. They found 176 articles on affirmative action published during the months of June, July and August, 1995. Of these, less than a dozen offered anything that could be coded as a definition. 2 Affirmative Action Defined Affirmative action operates in two realms -employment and education. In both realms the underlying principle is the same: affirmative action exists when an organization deploys resources to make sure that people in designated categories receive fair treatment. In their efforts to enhance workplace well being, the non-partisan American Psychological Association undertook a study of affirmative action. Their definition, similar to the official definitions appearing on government publications, captures the meaning of the policy: "affirmative action occurs when an organization expends energy to make sure there is no discrimination in employment or education and, instead, equal opportunity exists."3 In employment, the general definition of affirmative action takes specitic torm, based on Executive Order 11246, signed into law by Lyndon Johnson in 1965. This order, as amended by subsequent presidents, requires all federal contractors above a certain size to be affirmative action employers. All organizations who conduct more than $50,000 worth of business with the federal government and who employ more than 50 people are required to develop and deploy an affirmative action plan.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Affirmative action in employment","attachmentId":120825045,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/127032314/Affirmative_action_in_employment","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/127032314/Affirmative_action_in_employment"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="1" data-entity-id="48948386" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/48948386/Social_Science_Evidence_and_Affirmative_Action_Policies_A_Reply_to_the_Commentators">Social Science Evidence and Affirmative Action Policies: A Reply to the Commentators</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="1773405" href="https://independent.academia.edu/JomillsBraddock">Jomills Braddock</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Journal of Social Issues, 1987</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Are there better policy alternatives than affirmative action to improve mi-How can social science play a useful role for public policy in employment? These two general questions run through most of the comments on our paper. And because the two questions concern future directions of research and public policy, they are very important in their own right. So we will use them as a way of reviewing and responding to major points raised about our work. nority employment opportunities? Alternatives to Affirmative Action Affirmative action is a controversial policy for many reasons. Arguments against affirmative action on legal, constitutional, or philosophical bases (e.g., Glazer, 1975) generally maintain that nothing justifies using race or sex factors in employment decisions; thus only individual cases of intentional discrimination deserve being remedied. This is not the position taken in major court decisions (Bureau of National Affairs, 1986) and none of the commentators on our paper raise these considerations. Other arguments maintain that affirmative action may deliver jobs to minority candidates that would have otherwise gone to someone else who may be more qualified ("reverse discrimination"). This concern also is not raised in the comments and there is no evidence that the problem is widespread, despite a few well-publicized anecdotes (Burstein, 1985). A related argument suggests that affirmative action hiring of ' 'less-qualified" minorities and women leads to lower productivity. Again, this specific concern is not raised by the present commentators, but a direct test of this hypothesis in the manufacturing industry finds it is not supported by the evidence (Leonard, 1984). Still other arguments against affirmative action maintain that the social psychological processes created by affirmative action hiring are detrimental to all minority 133 0022-453718710300-0133505.001 I Q 1987 The Socicty for the Psychological Study of Social Issues</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Social Science Evidence and Affirmative Action Policies: A Reply to the Commentators","attachmentId":67346178,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/48948386/Social_Science_Evidence_and_Affirmative_Action_Policies_A_Reply_to_the_Commentators","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/48948386/Social_Science_Evidence_and_Affirmative_Action_Policies_A_Reply_to_the_Commentators"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="2" data-entity-id="19920517" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/19920517/Reactions_to_Affirmative_Action_Substance_and_Semantics">Reactions to Affirmative Action: Substance and Semantics</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="40772851" href="https://independent.academia.edu/FayeCrosby">Faye Crosby</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 2001</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Reactions to Affirmative Action: Substance and Semantics","attachmentId":40916859,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/19920517/Reactions_to_Affirmative_Action_Substance_and_Semantics","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/19920517/Reactions_to_Affirmative_Action_Substance_and_Semantics"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="3" data-entity-id="21511986" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/21511986/Equal_employment_opportunities_A_conceptual_puzzle">Equal employment opportunities: A conceptual puzzle</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="1195935" href="https://unisouthafr.academia.edu/JacobusWessels">Jacobus S Wessels</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Various concepts are used in official and academic discourses on affirmative action in general and the transformation of the South African public service in particular. If what is meant by the different words is not clear, people will not be able to understand each other clearly and assess the progress being made with the various interventions.The purpose of this article, therefore, is to produce a conceptual framework that will untangle the major transfor-mation-related concepts in the public service. It is shown in this article that equality and fundamental equal employment opportunities seem to be the end of all the transformation-related interventions. Four criteria, prerequi-sites or standards (i.e., equity, justice, merit and representativeness) have been identified to assess all human resource-related interventions. Affirma-tive action has been shown to be a means to achieve equality and equal employment in the public service. Affirmative action seems to aim, legally, at the ...</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Equal employment opportunities: A conceptual puzzle","attachmentId":41958399,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/21511986/Equal_employment_opportunities_A_conceptual_puzzle","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/21511986/Equal_employment_opportunities_A_conceptual_puzzle"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="4" data-entity-id="15126895" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/15126895/Support_for_affirmative_action_justice_perceptions_and_work_attitudes_A_study_of_gender_and_racial_ethnic_group_differences">Support for affirmative action, justice perceptions, and work attitudes: A study of gender and racial-ethnic group differences</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="34256205" href="https://niu.academia.edu/CParker">C. Parker</a><span>, </span><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="34163842" href="https://wayne.academia.edu/BorisBaltes">Boris Baltes</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Journal of Applied Psychology, 1997</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Do gender and race-ethnicity moderate people's reactions to perceptions that their organization supports affirmative action/equal opportunity (AA/EO)? This study compared relationships between perceptions of support for AA/EO, distributive and procedural justice, career development opportunities, and work attitudes in 4 groups of federal employees: White men (n = 4,919), White women (« = 1,622), Blacks/Hispanics (n -492), and Asians (n = 195). Surprisingly, White men did not associate support for AA/EO with a loss in career development opportunities, organizational injustice, or negative work attitudes. For women and racial-ethnic minorities, support for AA/EO was positively linked to perceptions of organizational justice and increased career development opportunities. As predicted, Blacks/Hispanics had more positive reactions than other employee groups. We conclude that support for AA/EO is generally viewed as fair and has positive attitudinal consequences.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Support for affirmative action, justice perceptions, and work attitudes: A study of gender and racial-ethnic group differences","attachmentId":43561352,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/15126895/Support_for_affirmative_action_justice_perceptions_and_work_attitudes_A_study_of_gender_and_racial_ethnic_group_differences","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/15126895/Support_for_affirmative_action_justice_perceptions_and_work_attitudes_A_study_of_gender_and_racial_ethnic_group_differences"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="5" data-entity-id="11944128" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/11944128/DISPARATE_IMPACT_AND_THE_QUOTA_DEBATES_Law_Labor_Market_Sociology_and_Equal_Employment_Policies">DISPARATE IMPACT AND THE QUOTA DEBATES: Law, Labor Market Sociology, and Equal Employment Policies</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="7530429" href="https://independent.academia.edu/RobinStryker">Robin Stryker</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">The Sociological Quarterly, 2000</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"DISPARATE IMPACT AND THE QUOTA DEBATES: Law, Labor Market Sociology, and Equal Employment Policies","attachmentId":46427400,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/11944128/DISPARATE_IMPACT_AND_THE_QUOTA_DEBATES_Law_Labor_Market_Sociology_and_Equal_Employment_Policies","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/11944128/DISPARATE_IMPACT_AND_THE_QUOTA_DEBATES_Law_Labor_Market_Sociology_and_Equal_Employment_Policies"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="6" data-entity-id="64499775" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/64499775/Social_Policy_Affirmative_Action">Social Policy: Affirmative Action</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="4732298" href="https://independent.academia.edu/MarcBendick">Marc Bendick</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">2000</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Empirical research, summarized here, clearly establishes that racial and ethnic minorities continue to experience substantial discrimination in employment. However, this discrimination is often subtle and unconscious. Because discriminatory practices are so intertwined with apparenth-neutral employment practices, affirmative action remains an important means of combating them. Properly designed, affirmative action can benefit employers and non-protected employees as well as the minorities directly covered. ********** Acknowledgment An earlier version of this paper was presented as testimony before the Committee on the Judiciary, California State Assembly, on May 4, 1995. It is based on research supported by the Rockefeller Ford, John D. and Catherine D. MacArthur, Nor-man, Russell Sage, and Public Welfare foundations. However, all findings and conclusions are those of the author. This paper reviews research on racial/ethnic discrimination in employment conducted by my colleagues and...</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Social Policy: Affirmative Action","attachmentId":76507406,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/64499775/Social_Policy_Affirmative_Action","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/64499775/Social_Policy_Affirmative_Action"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="7" data-entity-id="53521411" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/53521411/Decreasing_overt_discrimination_increases_covert_discrimination_Adverse_effects_of_equal_opportunities_policies">Decreasing overt discrimination increases covert discrimination: Adverse effects of equal opportunities policies</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="147059" href="https://ou-nl.academia.edu/KarinProost">Karin Proost</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">International Journal of Selection and Assessment</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Decreasing overt discrimination increases covert discrimination: Adverse effects of equal opportunities policies","attachmentId":70326762,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/53521411/Decreasing_overt_discrimination_increases_covert_discrimination_Adverse_effects_of_equal_opportunities_policies","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/53521411/Decreasing_overt_discrimination_increases_covert_discrimination_Adverse_effects_of_equal_opportunities_policies"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="8" data-entity-id="28479251" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/28479251/Righting_Past_Wrongs_When_Affirmative_Action_May_Be_Reverse_Discrimination">Righting Past Wrongs: When Affirmative Action May Be Reverse Discrimination</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="53267969" href="https://independent.academia.edu/NealDevins">Neal Devins</a></div><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Righting Past Wrongs: When Affirmative Action May Be Reverse Discrimination","attachmentId":48828161,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/28479251/Righting_Past_Wrongs_When_Affirmative_Action_May_Be_Reverse_Discrimination","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/28479251/Righting_Past_Wrongs_When_Affirmative_Action_May_Be_Reverse_Discrimination"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="9" data-entity-id="91541675" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/91541675/11_Affirmative_Action_as_Equalizing_Opportunity_Challenging_the_Myth_of_Preferential_Treatment_">11. Affirmative Action as Equalizing Opportunity: Challenging the Myth of “Preferential Treatment”</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="58424164" href="https://independent.academia.edu/UmaNarayan1">Uma Narayan</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">2013</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Affirmative action is an issue about which there has been considerable public debate. We think, however, that it is a policy that has often been misunderstood and mischaracterized, not only by those opposed to it, but even by its defenders.&#39; In this essay, we intend to describe these misconceptions, explain why we consider them to be misconceptions, and put forward a much stronger defense of affirmative action policies than that which is usually offered. In the first section, we examine and challenge prevalent misrepresentations of the scope of affirmative action policies -both misconceptions about the groups of people these policies are designed to benefit and about the benefits they are intended to achieve. In the second section, we address misunderstandings about the rationales for affirmative action policies and take issue with those who regard affirmative action as bestowing &quot;preferential treatment&quot; on its beneficiaries. We argue that affirmative action policies s...</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"11. 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You can download the paper by clicking the button above.</p></div></div></div></div><div class="ds-sidebar--container js-work-sidebar"><div class="ds-related-content--container"><h2 class="ds-related-content--heading">Related papers</h2><div class="ds-related-work--container js-related-work-sidebar-card" data-collection-position="0" data-entity-id="48948387" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-related-work-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/48948387/How_Minorities_Continue_to_Be_Excluded_from_Equal_Employment_Opportunities_Research_on_Labor_Market_and_Institutional_Barriers">How Minorities Continue to Be Excluded from Equal Employment Opportunities: Research on Labor Market and Institutional Barriers</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-related-work-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="1773405" href="https://independent.academia.edu/JomillsBraddock">Jomills Braddock</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Journal of Social Issues, 1987</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"How Minorities Continue to Be Excluded from Equal Employment Opportunities: Research on Labor Market and Institutional Barriers","attachmentId":67346199,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/48948387/How_Minorities_Continue_to_Be_Excluded_from_Equal_Employment_Opportunities_Research_on_Labor_Market_and_Institutional_Barriers","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-related-work-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/48948387/How_Minorities_Continue_to_Be_Excluded_from_Equal_Employment_Opportunities_Research_on_Labor_Market_and_Institutional_Barriers"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-related-work-sidebar-card" data-collection-position="1" data-entity-id="52474820" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-related-work-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/52474820/Affirmative_Action_Reconsidered_Was_It_Necessary_in_Academia_Evaluation_Studies_27">Affirmative Action Reconsidered. 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Eatman</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Compelling Interest, 2003</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Chapter Two JUSTICE, EQUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY, AND AFFIRMATIVE ACTION IN HIGHER EDUCATION","attachmentId":104216599,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/104505042/Chapter_Two_JUSTICE_EQUALITY_OF_EDUCATIONAL_OPPORTUNITY_AND_AFFIRMATIVE_ACTION_IN_HIGHER_EDUCATION","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-related-work-grid-card-view-pdf" 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class="ds-related-work--container js-related-work-sidebar-card" data-collection-position="11" data-entity-id="27193190" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-related-work-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/27193190/Affirmative_Actions_Contradictory_Consequences">Affirmative Action's Contradictory Consequences</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-related-work-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="32462029" href="https://independent.academia.edu/HeilmanMadeline">Madeline Heilman</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Journal of Social Issues, 1996</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Affirmative Action's Contradictory 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href="https://www.academia.edu/14099050/The_Law_of_Equal_Opportunities_in_Employment_Between_Equality_and_Polarization">The Law of Equal Opportunities in Employment: Between Equality and Polarization </a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-related-work-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="2697787" href="https://telaviv.academia.edu/GuyMundlak">Guy Mundlak</a></div><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"The Law of Equal Opportunities in Employment: Between Equality and Polarization ","attachmentId":38203416,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/14099050/The_Law_of_Equal_Opportunities_in_Employment_Between_Equality_and_Polarization","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span 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href="https://independent.academia.edu/RobertTollison">Robert Tollison</a><span>, </span><a class="js-related-work-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="43731946" href="https://usu.academia.edu/WilliamShughart">William F Shughart</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">European Journal of Political Economy, 1988</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Affirmative action and unemployment","attachmentId":42955666,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/22315930/Affirmative_action_and_unemployment","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline 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